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Statement
Coulombs law states that between two point charges there is a force of attraction or
repulsion depending
upon the nature of charges.
If the charges are like charges there is a force of repulsion and in the case of unlike
charges there is a force of ` attraction.
The force is a vector quantity which has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of
force between two electrical charges is given by Coulomb Law. Experiments conducted by
Coulomb showed that the following hold for two charged bodies that are very small in size
compared to their separation so that they can be considered as point charge:
The magnitude of the force is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of
the charges.
The magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the charges.
The magnitude of the force depends on the medium.
Thus, if we consider two point charges Q1 (C) and Q2 (C) separated by a distance R (m) in
free space, the force is given mathematically as,
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Force is a vector quantity and acts along the line joining the two charges therefore the
above expression is to be multiplied by a unit vector along the line. Thus, vector form is
Force on Q2 is
(1.1.1)
and on Q1 is (1.1.2)
(1.1.3)
The unit of force is Newton (N). The force given by equations (1.1.1) and (1.1.2) is applicable only for point charges.
Usually in the problems on Coulombs law, position of the point charges is given, charges are given and may be asked to
find force on a particular charge.
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= =-
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Example 1: A point charge Q1 = 2 mC is located in free space at P1 (-3, 7, -4) while Q2 = 5
mC is at P2 (2, 4, -1).
Find .
Solution: Force acting on Q2 due to Q1 is . It is directed from Q1 to Q2. The vector
joining charges 1 and 2 and
pointing towards P2 is
=5 -3 +3 and =
Force on Q2 is,
=
= 319.183 ( )
= 1.596 - 0.958 + 0.958 (kN)
The force on Q1 is obtained from as = -
So = - (1.595 - 0.958 + 0.958 ) = - 1.595 + 0.958 - 0.958
(kN).
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1.4 Principle of Superposition:
In the problem if it is asked to find force on a particular charge due to other charges then
the principle of superposition can be used In which, find the force on that charge due to other
charges separately and the total force is the addition of all forces. Obviously this addition is a
vector addition.
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Example 2: Four 10 nC positive charges are located in the z = 0 plane at the corners of a square
8 cm on a side. A fifth 10 nC positive charge is located at a point 8 cm distant from the order
charges. Calculate the magnitude of the total force on this fifth charge for .
(Dec 2002)
Solution: Let us place the square of side 8 cm (= 0.08 m)
in the Cartesian coordinate system such that
one corner of the square is at origin as shown
in fig. In the fig.,
= = 0.113 m
= 0.0565 m.
Now,
=
= 0.0566
Fig. 3. Illustrating Ex. 2
Coordinates of point M are (0.04, 0.04, 0). Hence, position of Q 5 is (0.04, 0.04, 0.0566).
To find force on Q5 due to Q1:
In the fig.,
= =
Now, the force on Q5 due to Q1 is,
= =
= 1.758 x ( )
Similarly, we can calculate other forces , , and . In the figure above it is clear that
horizontal components of and are getting cancelled, while horizontal components of
is cancelled by . When we add all four forces the resultant should have only z component.
Again Q5 is at equal distances from Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 and all charges . This makes vertical
components of each force to be equal. Thus total force in vertical direction is,
= 1.758 x x (mN)
Ans
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Example 3: Four like charges of 30 each are located at four corners of a square, the
diagonal of which measures 8 mts.
Find the force on a 150 charge located 3 mts above the centre of the square.
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Solution: Given square can be placed in coordinate system as shown in figure. We have
selected this orientation, as this position resemble with the orientation in previous problem.
Refer figure.
Required vectors and unit vectors are:
; ;
; ;
; ;
and ; .
Force on Q5 can be calculated on the similar lines as in the previous problem. The answer is,
= 0.324 x 4 x = (N).
Ans
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Example 4: It is required to hold four equal point charges + Q coulomb each in equilibrium at
the corners of a
square. Calculate the point charge, which will do this, if placed at the centre of the
square.
Solution: Let us fit the square in the coordinate system such that one corner is at the origin as
shown in figure. Let side of the square be a meters and a charge of Q is placed at the centre.
For equilibrium resultant of forces acting on any one charge, say A, due to all other charges
must be zero. Force acting on charge at A due to remaining charges is obtained as:
=
=
=
=
For equilibrium, the resultant of these forces at A must be zero,
i.e. = + + =0
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i.e. =0
Fig. 5. Illustrating Ex. 4
i.e. =0
i.e. Q+
i.e.
Ans
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Example 5: It is required to hold three equal point charges of +Q each in equilibrium at the
corners of an equilateral
triangle. Calculate the point charge, which will do this, if placed at the centre of a
triangle.
Solution: Let us place the equilateral triangle as shown in figure. Assume side of the triangle
be a, and the charge required for equilibrium be .
We know that AP = BP = CP = a/
y coordinate of P is = a / cos 600 = a /2
Thus, coordinates of different points are:
A(0, 0); B(a, 0); C
For equilibrium total force acting on any charge
must be zero. Force on Q at A due to charge at B is,
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i.e.
i.e. and = 0
Solving any one we get, (C).
Ans
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Example 6: Two point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at (1, 2, 0) and (2, 0, 0) respectively. Find
the relation between
Q1 and Q2 such that the total force on a test charge at the point P (-1, 1, 0) will
have (i) no x-component
(ii) no y-component.
=
(i) For no x-component:
Ans
(ii) For no y-component:
-2
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Ans
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2. Gausss Law :
Stmt: The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed
by that surface.
Let a positive charge Q is enclosed by a closed surface of any shape. At point P consider
an differential element of surface ds and let makes an angle with as shown in Fig. 3.
Here, = ds . The flux crossing is then the product of the normal component of D and
ds.
Therefore, d = flux crossing ds = Dnormal ds = D cos ds
= . .. using definition of dot product
The total flux crossing through the closed surface is,
= = . = .
Here, means integral over a closed surface.
Mathematically Gausss Law can now be expressed as,
Proof: Consider now a positive charge Q situated at the centre of an imaginary sphere of radius
r as shown in fig. 4.
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Example 2: Three point charges are located in air : + 0.008 C at (0, 0) m, + 0.005 C at (3,0)
m and at (0,4) m there is a charge of - 0.009 C. Compute the total flux over a sphere of 5 m
radius with centre at (0, 0).
Solution: The sphere of 5 m radius will enclose all three charges in the system. Thus the total
charge enclosed is,
Qenclosed = (+ 0.008 + 0.005 - 0.009) 10-6 = 4 10-9 (C)
According to Gauss Law,
Flux = charge enclosed = 4 10-9 (C) Ans
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= =D = Ds
Which is product of required D and the surface area over with D is existing. This product is
equal to charge enclosed. Thus, when charge enclosed is known and area of surface (s) is
known, D due to this charge configuration can be determined. Now, its time to specify the
conditions which simplifies the problem of determining D.
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D is everywhere either normal or tangential to the closed surface, so that becomes either D ds
or zero, respectively.
D is essentially constant over that part of the surface where D is normal.
The surface is closed, this is obvious because see the circle on integral sign.
The type of surface or surface elements which satisfies which satisfies these conditions are called as
Special Gaussian Surfaces.
While solving problems of finding due to given charge configuration, you should have
knowledge of the symmetry, with the help of which a proper closed surface can be selected.
Remember,
While dealing with the problems of positive point charge, electric field of it is directed
radially outward from the point charge i.e. in spherical system and
While dealing with the problems of line charge electric field is directed radially outward
from the line charge i.e. in cylindrical system.
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but =
Putting the value of in Gausss Law,
or
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(3.1.1)
which is a Poissons equation.
If v = 0, indicating zero volume charge density, but allowing point charges, line charge
and surface charge density to exist on the boundaries as sources of field then,
(3.1.2)
which is a Laplaces equation.
Laplace Equations in Three Coordinate Systems:
Equations for Laplace are derived as follows:
In cartesian coordinates: and
knowing
Hence, Laplaces equation is,
(3.1.3)
In cylindrical coordinates:
and
so that Laplaces equation is,
(3.1.4)
In spherical coordinates:
and
Then Laplaces equation is,
(3.1.5)
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Important Formulae
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Example 1: Let V = 2xy2 z3 and = 0. Given point P (1, 3, -1). Find V at point P. Also
find if V satisfies Laplace equation.
Solution:
Given: V = 2xy2 z3
Differentiating given V,
= 2y2 z3 ; = 0
= 4 xy z3 ; = 4 x z3
= 6 xy2z2 ; = 12 x y2 z
Adding double differentiated terms,
+ 4 x z3 + 12 x y2 z
Thus given V does not satisfy Laplace equation.
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Example 2: It is known that V = XY is a solution of Laplace equation where X is a function of
x alone and Y is a function of y alone. Determine whether following functions are solutions of
Laplaces equation:
Va = 100 XY; (b) Vb = 100 XY + 2x;
(c) Vc = X + 3Y (d) Vd = 2 XY + y2 x2 (May 2003)
In Cartesian coordinates,
i.e. ( a function of z)
(A)
(a) Va = 100 XY:
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(c) Vc = X + 3Y:
= ; =
= 3 ; = 3
= + = 0
Hence Vc is not a solution of Laplaces equation.
(d) Vd = 2 XY + y2 x2:
= 2Y - 2x; = 2Y -2
= 2X + 2y; = 2X +2
= + = 2Y - 2 + 2X +2 = 2 = 2 (0)
= 0
Solution: Since V is a function of only x we change partial differentiation into normal thus
we have,
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= 0
In order to find V, integrate the given eqn. twice, we get
and V = Ax + B (i)
Putting boundary conditions in eqn. (i)
i.e. V = 9 at x = 1, gives 9 = A 1 + B
i.e. A + B = 9 (ii)
Putting second boundary condition in eqn. (i) we have
i.e. V = 0 at x = 10, gives 0 = 10 A + B (iii)
Solving Eqns. (ii) and (iii), we get
Fig. 1 Illustrating Ex. 3
A = - 1 and B = + 10.
Putting these values in Eqn. (i), we get the potential as
V = - x + 10 Ans
The variation of V w.r.t. x is a straight line as shown in fig.
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Example 4: Consider a parallel plate capacitor occupying planes x = 0 and x = d and is kept at a
potential V = 0 and
V = respectively. The medium consists of two dielectrics for t < x < d. If d = 4 cm, t = 2
cm, = 2, = 4 and = 100 volts.Using Laplaces equation find the potential and
electric field intensities in the two regions.
Solution :
Two different dielectrics with and forms two different capacitors in
series. Consider top and bottom area of each capacitor is A ( ). Two
capacitances can be obtained as :
= =
= = 100 A (F) Fig. 2
Illustrating Ex. 4
and = = = 200 A (F)
Fig. 2 Illustrating Ex. 4
Using voltage divider we obtain voltage across as:
= = 100 = 66.66 Volts. Fig. 2 Illustrating
Ex. 4
Thus at x = t, voltage V = 66.66 volts.
Now to find potential variation we solve Laplaces equation separately for region 1 and region
2.
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For region 1:
Voltages are, at x = 0, V = 0 volts
at x = t = 2cm, V = 66.66 volts
The Laplaces equation is
Since V is changing only w.r.t. x, reduces to:
or
Integrating we get,
Integrating once again, V = Ax + B (i)
To find A and B apply known voltages to eqn. (i)
V = 0 at x = 0 gives, 0 = A(0) + B
i.e. B = 0 and
V = 66.66 at x = 2 cm gives, 66.66 = A (2 10-2)
i.e. A = 33.33 10-2
Putting in eqn. (i), V = 33.33 102 x Ans
This is variation of voltage in region 1. To find E we have,
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Uniqueness Theorem:
In the previous sections we have seen that a relatively simple problems can be
solved by direct integration. But in complicated problems some other methods of solution
must be used. One of the method known as method of images is explained in next
section. Let us see now what is uniqueness theorem.
Statement of uniqueness theorem: A solution of Poissons equation (of which
Laplaces equation is a special case) that satisfies the given boundary conditions is a
unique
solution.
Proof: Consider a volume bounded outside
by a surface s0, which may be a surface at infinity,
where V is ordinarily taken to be zero. Inside the closed
surface s0 there are number of charged conducting bodies
(Q1, Q2, Q3 ,. Qn ) with surfaces s1, s2, s3, . sn and
potential V is specified on all their surfaces as shown in
Fig. 6.2.1.
Fig. 5: Surface s0 encloses volume
Suppose there are two solutions to Poissons equation in : with conducting bodies at s1, s2, ...., sn
= (i)
and = (ii)
Also assume that both V1 and V2 satisfy the same boundary conditions on s 1, s2,
. sn and s0. Let us define a new difference potential:
Vd = V 1 V2
From equations (i) and (ii) we can write,
2
(V1 V2) = 0 by Equation
(i) minus Equation (ii)
2
i.e. Vd = 0
(iii)
Since the potentials on the conducting boundaries are specified for any surface, V d = 0.
We know the vector identity
(f ) =
Let f = Vd and ; we have
= +
From equation (iii), then we have
=
Taking the volume integral over the volume gives,
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(iv)
The divergence theorem allows us to replace the volume integral on the left side of
above equation by the closed surface integral over the surface surrounding the volume.
The divergence theorem is:
=
The right hand side of Equation (iv) can now be written in terms of surface integral as,
(v)
Here, d denotes a differential vector area on the surface s 0.
Consider a large surface s0, which encloses the whole system. The surface
integral on the L.H.S. of
Equation (v) can be evaluated by considering s0 as the surface of a very large sphere
with radius R. When R is very large both V 1 and V2 can be thought of as potentials due to point
charges (here conducting surfaces are treated as point charges since size of it will be very small
as compared to R of a very large sphere). These potentials fall off as 1/R (V = Q /4 R).
2 2
Consequently falls off as 1/ R , making the integrand ( ) fall of as 1/ R . Hence, the
surface integral on the left side of equation (v) decreases as 1/ R and approaches zero at infinity.
So the right side of equation (v) is also zero. Thus, we have
Since is always positive (square term is always positive), everywhere above equation is
satisfied only if = 0. If the gradient of Vs i.e. V1 V2 is everywhere zero, then V1 V2
cannot change with any coordinates i.e. it has same value at all points in as it has on the
boundary surfaces s1, s2, ., sn, where Vd = 0. It follows that Vd throughout the volume is zero.
Therefore, V1 = V2 gives two identical solutions. The uniqueness theorem is also valid for
Laplaces equation as Laplaces equation is a special case of Poissons. To prove uniqueness for
Laplaces equation start with and and the proof is identical from this
point.
The implication of the uniqueness theorem is that a solution of an electrostatic problem
satisfying its boundary conditions is the only possible solution, irrespective of the method by
which the solution is obtained.
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dH =
(4.1.1)
The direction of dH is normal to the plane containing the differential element and the line
drawn from the filament to the point P.
Of the two possible normals that normal is chosen which is in the direction of progress of
a right handed screw turned from d through the smaller angle to the line from the
filament to P.
In vector notations,
d = (A/m)
(4.1.2)
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Differential current elements have no separate existence. All elements making up the
complete correct filament contribute to and must be included. The summation leads to
the integral form of Biot-savart law as,
=
(4.1.3)
The above integral is a closed line integral , which is must to ensure that all current
elements are included (the contour may close at )
Alternate forms of the Biot-savart law in terms of distributed sources like and are
obtained using Eqn.,
Id ds = dv
as,
d =
(4.1.4)
and d =
(4.1.5)
(4.1.6)
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Example 1: Given points A (1, 2, 4), B (-2, -1, 3) and C (3, 1, -2) let a differential current
element with l = 6A and = 10- 4 m be located at A. The direction of dL is from A to B.
Find dH at C. Dec 1998
Id = (6)(10-4)
= - 0.413 - 0.413 - (mA.m).
The Biot-savart law is
d =
Now = (3 1 ) + (1 2 ) + (-2 4 ) = 2 - -6
= = =
Putting in Biot-Savart law
d = 10-3
= 10-3
= - 0.303 10-6 { }
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= + 0.71 (A/m).
Ans__________________________________________________________________
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4.2 Amperes Circuital Law or Amperes Work Law:
Statement:
The line integral of around a single closed path is equal to the current enclosed by that
path.
Mathematically,
(4.2.1)
Verifying
amperes circuital law
Now d =
The Amperes circuital law is
L.H.S =
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Consider the conductor shown in Fig.(b) , carries a current I. different paths are shown in
the Fig.(c). Path A and B enclose the conductor, therefore the line integral of around the
closed path A and B is equal to current I but the line integral around path C is less than I, since
the entire current is not enclosed by the path.
Fig.(c) shows that the line integral around closed path equals current in the wire when
path enclose the wire (Fig.(i) and (ii)), but is zero when the paths do not enclose the wire (Fig.
(iii) and (iv)).
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Suppose the field in one media is given and we require to calculate field in
second media. These types of problems are solved by knowing the relation between the
tangential and normal components of the fields in two media. As in electrostatics, the relation
between tangential and normal components is derived separately.
Figure shows a boundary between two isotropic homogenous linear medias
with permeabilities The Gaussian surface and the closed path is constructed at the
boundary between medium 1 and medium 2 as shown.
The closed surface consists of six surfaces. Thus L.H.S. of above equation is obtained by
L.H.S =
To find the relation between normal components at the interface, and must be very close to
the interface which requires,
The effect of it is the contribution of all sides except top and bottom is zero and now LHS
consists of only two integrals.
At the top: ;
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At the bottom: ;
Now the integrals can be solved as follows:
=( ) = RHS = 0
In the figure, the circle with dots indicates that the current is coming out of the page. This
current is the surface current (K) flowing along the interface. Since width of the rectangle is ,
the current enclosed within the path is K .
RHS = K
The rectangular path consists of four sides, thus LHS of eq. (A) can be split as
LHS =
If we want and to be present very close to the interface, let
The effect of it is integrals B to C and D to A gives zero contributions to LHS. Thus LHS
reduces to,
LHS =
For side A to B, and are in same direction, thus
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or
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_____________________
Example 1: Two homogenous, linear and isotropic media have an interface at x = 0. x < 0
describes medium 1 and x > 0 describes medium 2. . The magnetic field in medium 1 is
150 A/m.
Determine:
(i) Magnetic field in medium 2.
(ii) Magnetic flux density in medium 1.
(iii) Magnetic flux density in medium 2.
Solution:
(i) To obtain
since x-axis is normal to the interface, the normal and tangential components of H1 are,
(A/m)
(A/m)
From the boundary condition we have,
=2
= 300 (Wb/m2)
From the boundary condition we have,
(Wb/m2)
we have, .
Thus, the magnetic field in medium 2 is,
.
(ii) To find : we have,
2
= ( Wb/m2)
(iii) To find : we have,
5
= ( Wb/m2)
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Divergence theorem is used to convert closed surface integral into volume integral and using stokes
theorem, closed line integral is converted into surface integral.
Divergence Theorem d dv
Stokes Theorem d d
These relations are frequently required in this chapter. Some of the relations we studied
in previous chapters are called as Maxwells equations for static field. These are
summarized below.
In order to get clear understanding between time varying and static fields, before we start
discussing time varying fields, the equations governing static fields are as follows :
5.1.1 Faradays Law :
Statement :
The emf is included in a loop when the magnetic flux is changing in the vicinity of it.
Since for static field, flux is not changing with respect to time then the emf induced in a
loop is zero. The emf induced in a loop is expressed is expressed in terms of electric field as,
emf d
Thus for static field, Faradays law is expressed mathematically as
d = 0
(5.1.1)
This relation is called as integral form of the Maxwells equation derived from Faradays law
for the static field. This relation stands because the work done in a closed path is equal to zero.
Using Stokes Theorem,
d = d
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d = 0
but d therefore = 0 (5.1.2)
This relation is called as point form of the Maxwells equation derived from Faradays law for
the static field.
The line integral of H around a closed path is equal to the current enclosed by that path.
d =
d
or
(5.1.4)
This is called as point form of Maxwells equation derived from Amperes law for static field.
This relation is called as integral form of the Maxwells equation derived from Gausss law for
the static field.
to relate with v convert surface integral into volume integral using
Divergence theorem as,
d =
) dv = dv
or = v
(5.1.6)
v
This is called as point form of Maxwells equation derived from Gausss law for the static field.
The reason for this is, magnetic flux lines are always closed in nature. Due to which
a closed surface in the presence of these lines will have same number of incoming and outgoing
flux lines. The incoming flux, if considered positive then the outgoing flux is negative, resulting
in total flux crossing closed surface equal to zero.
In case of electric field, the positive and negative charge separately exist and electric flux
originates from positive charge and terminates o negative charge. Thus electric flux line have
start and end points. This is not the case for magnetic lines. The magnetic field lines are always
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closed in nature. There is no starting and end point, this is called as non-existence of monopole
in magnetic field.
Mathematically it is given as,
d = 0 (5.1.7)
This is called as integral form of Maxwells equation derived from Gausss law for magnetic
field for static field.
Using Divergence theorem d =
= 0
i.e. = 0 (5.1.8)
This is called as point form of Maxwells equation derived from Gausss law for Magnetic field
for static field.
Mathematically, d = 0 (5.1.9)
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This is called as integral form of Maxwells equation derived from continuity equation for
static field.
Amperes d = d
Faradays d = 0
Continuity equation d = 0 = 0
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The fundamental property of electrical charge is that it can neither be created nor
destroyed. If a charge disappears from one point it must reappear at another point. This
postulate is called as Conservation of charge.
Consider a volume v located inside a conducting media. The current density is a
vector having the direction of current flow. The current coming out from any volume can be
thought of as a rate of decrease of charge in that volume. Mathematically, current is expressed
as
i = (i)
Also charge is expressed in terms of v
q = v dv
i = = v dv
d = v dv = dv
= dv
d = dv
(5.1.5((i))
=
(5.1.2(ii))
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i.e. = 0
This result is not consistent with the continuity eqn. ( ) i.e. statement of Amperes
Law is inconsistent for time varying fields and some modification is required in it. Suppose
we add an unknown term to (i), then
(ii)
Taking divergence of both sides we have
i.e.
or
but from the continuity eqn.
= ,
we get, = = = + (iii)
We know the point form of Gausss law as, =
Taking differentiation of both sides =
Putting this value in eqn. (iii), we get
=
or = (iv)
Using eqns. (ii) and (iv) we get,
(A)
In the above eqn. and are added means units of both are same, this can be checked as
follows:
As we have expressed current as surface integral of current density (J), it implies that the
current density is having unit of A/m2. Consider now the unit of . As D is nothing but the flux
density its unit is C/m2 and the unit of will be C/s/m2. As the basic unit of ampere (A) is C/s,
therefore is having unit of A/m2. Thus is also a current density and is called as
displacement current density, while J is called as conduction current density. The
displacement current density is denoted by Jd or Jdisp , while conduction current density is
denoted by Jc or Jcond.
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Consider a resistor and capacitor in parallel as shown in fig. 7(a). The voltage V is
applied across the parallel combination. The nature of the current flow through the resistor is
different from that through the capacitor. The constant voltage across a resistor produces a
continuous flow of current of constant value given by,
i1 = V/R (i)
This current is called as conduction current.
The current flows through the capacitor only when voltage across it is changing i.e.
i2 = (ii)
This current is the displacement current. Physically the displacement current is not a current
in the sense that there is no flow of a physical quantity like charges.
Now consider the resistor and capacitor elements, each occupies a volume as shown in
fig. 7(b). Fringing of the field is neglected. Inside each element the electric field E equals, given
by
E = V/d
Then the current density J1 , inside the resistor element is product of the electric field E
and the conductivity of the medium inside the resistor element. It is also equal to i 1 divided by
the cross-sectional area A, or
J1 = = E (iii)
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is C = A/d, where A is the area of the
plates and d is the spacing between them. Substituting this value for C, and V = Ed, into eqn.
(ii) yields,
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i2 = = A (iv)
Dividing eqn. (iv) by the area A gives a current density inside a capacitor. Thus,
J2 = =
We know D = E J2 = (v)
In the expressions (iii) and (v), the term J 1 is called as conduction current density and J 2 is
the displacement current density. Eqns. (iii) and (v) in vector form are
(vi)
(vii)
Now, instead of having two separate elements in parallel, one of which acts like a pure
resistance and the other like a pure capacitance, there is only one element which has both
capacitance and resistance as shown in fig. 7(c), where there is a capacitor filled with a
conducting dielectric so that both conduction and displacement currents are present.
Then the total current density is
Then the total current I is
I =
(5.6.2)
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This is a point form or differential form of Maxwells eqn. derived from Faradays law.
In converting to the differential form from integral form, the line integral of around the
closed path C is replaced by the curl of , the surface integral of over the surface s
bounded by C is replaced by itself as shown:
The line integral of around a closed path is equal to the current enclosed by the path.
Mathematically, (i)
Where, both conduction and displacement currents are present, the current enclosed is the total current.
I = (ii)
(5.8.1)
This is the integral form of Maxwells equation derived from Amperes law.
Differential form:
Using Stokes Theorem we get
Or
Both sides of above equation are surface integrals, comparing we get,
(5.8.1)
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This is the point form or differential form of Maxwells equation derived from Amperes law.
In converting to the differential form from integral form, the line integral of around
the closed path C is replaced
By curl of . And the surface integral of over the surface s bounded by C is replaced by
itself as shown:
Mathematically,
(i)
The charge Q can be written in terms of as:
(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii) we have,
(5.9.1)
This is called as integral form of Maxwells equation derived from Gausss Law.
Applying divergence theorem to convert surface integral on the left hand side to volume
integral
(5.9.2)
This is called as point form of Maxwells equation derived from Gausss law.
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Mathematically,
(5.9.3)
This is called as integral form of Maxwells equation from Gausss law for magnetic field.
This equation results from the fact that the magnetic flux lines are continuous. Using
divergence theorem to convert surface integral to volume integral equation (5.9.3) becomes
(5.9.4)
Equation (5.9.4) is called as point form or differential form of Maxwells equation
derived from Gausss law for magnetic field.
Amperes = = +
law .d
Faradays =
= .
law
d
Gausss law = . . = Pr
dv
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Due to absence of charges there is no conduction through space giving zero conduction
density.
For a good dielectric, the displacement current is greater than conduction current and thus
conduction current ( ) can be neglected
In good conductor the conduction current (J) is greater than displacement current ( )
and can be neglected.
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