CHAPTER 1
Goals of environmental science:
Introduction: Environmental Science
Today we hear people from all walks of life using the terms ecology and
environment. Students, homeowners, politicians, planners and union leaders
speak of environment issues and ecological concerns. Often these terms
are interpreted in different ways, so we need to establish some basic
definitions.
Ecology as compared to Environmental Science?
Environment (from the French environner: to encircle or surround) can be
defined as:
(1) The circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or a group of
organisms.
(2) The social and cultural conditions that affect an individual or a community
Ecology can be defined as:
Ecology (from Greek: oikos, household, home or house and logos
knowledge) is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of
life and the interactions between organisms and their environment.
The study of the interactions of organisms among themselves and with the
physical environment.
The word ecology is often used more loosely in such terms as social
ecology and deep ecology and in common parlance as a synonym for the
natural environment or environmentalism.
The term ecology or oekologie was coined by the German biologist Ernst
Haeckel in 1866, when he defined it as the comprehensive science of the
relationship of the organism to the environment.
The first textbook on the subject was written by the Danish botanist,
Eugenius Warming. Warming is often identified as the founder of ecology.
The Principles of Ecology
1. Everything is connected to everything else.
2. Everything must go somewhere.
3. Sun is the source of life.
4. Nature knows best.
5. Ours is a finite planet.
6. All life forms are important.
Environmental science can be defined as:
Environmental science is the systematic study of our environment
and our place in it either globally or locally, and its living and non-living
components. A relatively new field, it is highly interdisciplinary.
Environmental Science
An approach to study environmental systems. It encompasses wide
range of scientific disciplines to better understand and manage the
natural environment and the relationship and interconnectedness
of all the organisms.
Attempts to interpret and study the impact of human actions on
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
Develop programs and strategies in restoring these ecosystems.
Environmental science can be defined as:
Environmental science is the systematic study of our environment
and our place in it either globally or locally, and its living and non-living
components. A relatively new field, it is highly interdisciplinary.
It is inclusive and holistic, mission oriented and implies that we all
have a responsibility to get involved and try to do something about
the problems we have created.
It integrates information from natural sciences which include
biology, chemistry, geography, agriculture and many other fields.
Social sciences which include economics, political science, sociology,
history, philosophy and ethics.
Other sciences such as mathematics, statistics, technology, business
and management, law, religion, morality and aesthetics.
To develop a sustainable world, a world in which the supply of
food, water, building materials, clean air, and other resources can
sustain human populations to continue to exists indefinitely with
high standard of living and health.
To study environmental problems and issues, and priorities
regarding acceptable environmental preservation of natural
species and habitats, freedom of nations to do as they please,
within their own potential boundaries, and issues on the quality of
life, fairness and ethics.
Environmental Education
Environmental education is the process by which people develop
awareness, knowledge, and concern of the environment and its diverse
values and processes, and learn to use this understanding to preserve,
conserve and utilize the environment in a sustainable manner for the
benefit of present and future generations.
The National Environmental Education Action Plan for Sustainable
Development (2005-2014)
The years 2005-2014 have been declared as the United Nations
Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (UNDESD).
Resource management and resource technology are significant
features of environmental science.
Our natural resources are classified as follows:
1. Non-renewable resources that can be retrieved from the
environment once, but are not generated.
2. Renewable resources that can be retrieved, adjusted and
manipulated such as some of our biological resources.
Both renewable and non-renewable resources can be created or
replaced. Replacement costs more than what can be prevent the
depletion of our resources.
Classification of Living Things
Taxonomy (Greek tasso, arrange, and nomos, law) deals with
identification and naming (nomenclature) of organisms; began with
ancient Greeks and Romans.
Nomenclature the orderly application of binomial names to a
particular taxon.
Carl von Linne known as the Father of Taxonomy. Converted his
name to a two-part Latin version, Carolus Linnaeus. He introduced
the use of binomial system of nomenclature for all species.
The seven obligatory hierarchical categories
Kingdom may be composed of several phyla
Phylum (Division in plants) may composed of several classes
Class - may be composed of several orders
Order may be composed of several families
Family may be composed of several genera
Genus may be composed of several species
Species may be composed of several sub-species or varieties
Taxonomic Categories
The group organisms in a particular category is called a taxon.
Each of the category could be subdivided into three additional
categories as in superorder, order, suborder and infraorder.
The fundamental unit of classifying living things is the species.
Kingdom is the broadest of the taxa, all animals in the Kingdom
Animalia and all plants are in the Kingdom Plantae.
Linnaeus based his classification system on the physical appearance
of organisms that he could observe.
A domesticated cat and a lion have the same ancestor and thus are
homologous structures.
Organisms that have similar features but evolved from different
ancestors are called analogous structures.

Classification of Human:
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Primates
Family Hominidae
Genus Homo
Species sapiens
Scales of Ecology
Diagram illustrating the scales of ecology:
atom molecule organelle cell tissue organ
organism population community ecosystem biosphere
Atom smallest unit of an element that still retains the
characteristic properties of that element.
Molecule unit of matter in which two or more atoms of the same
element or different ones, are bonded together.
Organelle specialized part of a cell performing one or more specific
functions.
Cell basic living unit of all plants and animals.
Tissue a group of cells and intercellular substances that function
together in one or more specialized tasks.
Organ part of the body composed of two or more tissue types and
performing one or more specific functions.
Organism any living thing considered as a whole, whether
composed one cell or many.
Population all members of the same species inhabiting a particular
area.
Community all the populations found in a particular area. Consists
of all the population that live and interact in one environment.
Ecosystem community and its physical environment, characterized
by a flow of energy and a cycle of inorganic nutrients.
Biosphere - regions of the earth where organisms exist and the life
supporting region of earth
CHAPTER 2
Fundamentals of Population Ecology
Every second, on average, four or five children are born, somewhere
on the earth. In that same second, two other people die. This difference
between births and deaths means a net gain roughly 2.3 more humans per
second in the worlds population.
Humans are now the most numerous vertebrate species on the
earth. We are also more widely distributed and manifestly have a greater global
environmental impact than any other species. Many people worry that
overpopulation will cause or perhaps already is causing- resource depletion and
environmental degradation that threat the ecological life- support systems on
which we all depend. These fears often leads to the demands for immediate,
worldwide birth control programs to reduce fertility rates and eventually
stabilize or even shrink the total number of humans.
Others believe that human ingenuity; technology and enterprise can
extend the worlds carrying capacity and allow us to overcome any problems
that we encounter.
Whether human populations will continue to grow at present rates
and what that growth would imply for environmental quality and human life
are among the most central and pressing questions in environmental science.
Population
Defined as the number of individuals of a particular species in a
given area. When population in an ecosystem changes, one population of a
certain species can also change. The study of the variables that determine the
abundance and distribution of a population in time and space.
Group of individuals belonging to the same species that inhabit a
specific geographic location at a specific point in time.
Population Ecology
Study of distribution, density, numbers of individuals and structure
(gender, age), rates of natality and mortality, factors that affect growth.
Zebras that live together in a herd are members of the same species
and thus population may change considerably especially when food is plentiful.
The population may decrease in size during severe environmental
conditions such as drought or if the population of predators who feed on zebras
will increase significantly.
Characteristics of Populations
1. Density number of individuals/per unit area (e.g. per acre or hectare) or
unit volume (e.g. in a column of water)
2. Spacing - dispersion
Density and Numbers
Counting individuals to determine density and population size.
Rarely able to count the entire population, instead count all the individuals in
a prescribed area.
1. Simple counts (# seals/islands, # burrows/area, # wildebeest/herd)
2. Mark-recapture technique capture individuals, mark Individuals, and
recapture at a later point in time provide estimate of population size
for a given area.
Calculation = (total number marked) (total number recaptured)/ (number
of recapture that were marked)
Example:
initial capture of 50 individuals
second capture of 100 individuals. 10 of the 100
were marked from the first capture
estimated population size = 50(100)/10 = 500
individuals
3. Census techniques transect methods, walk or drive a line (transect) and
count the number of individuals at specific locations, evenly distributed
along the line.
Demography - study characteristics of a population that affect growth.
Methods: follow a cohort (group of individuals from birth to death) over time
Calculations Rates for Populations
1. Survivorship number of individuals that reach the next year of life
2. Birth number of individuals born/ designated time frame
3. Mortality number of individuals that die each year
Ecologists try to identify the factors that influence various populations of
organisms:
1. Size
2. Density
3. Distribution
4. Growth
Once of these factors are identified, it would be easier to predict how well a
particular population survives and how fast it grows.
Population density
Defined as the number of individuals of a certain species per unit
area or volume. It is derived by dividing the number of individuals of a certain
species by the area they occupy. Most of the people live in cities where the
number of people per unit per area is significantly higher than in the provinces.
Natural and human factors that affect population density:
A. Natural Factors
1. Relief (shape and height of land)
High Density: Low land which is flat (e.g. Central Luzon)
Low Density: High land that is mountainous (Mountain Province)
2. Resources
High Density: Areas rich in resources such as coal, oil, wood, fishing etc.
(e.g. Western Europe)
Low Density: Areas with few resources (e.g. The Sahel)
3. Climate
High Density: Areas with temperate climates as there is enough rain and
heat to grows crops (e.g. UK, New Zealand)
Low Density: Areas with extreme climates of hot and cold (e.g. The Sahara
Desert; North and South Pole)
B. Human Factors
1. Political
High Density: Countries with stable government (e.g. Singapore)
Low Density: Unstable countries as people migrate to other countries (e.g.
Afghanistan)
2. Social
High Density: Groups of people want to live to close each other for security
(e.g. USA)
Low Density: Other groups of people prefer to be isolated (e.g.
Scandinavians)
3. Economic
High Density: Good job opportunities encourage high population,
particularly in large around the world.
Low Density: Limited job opportunities cause some areas to be sparsely
populated (e.g. Amazon Rainforest)
Population Distribution
The pattern of dispersal of certain species within the area occupy. It
can be said that places which are sparsely populated contain few people and
tend to be difficult to live. While places which are densely populated contain
many people contains habitable environments.
Distribution Patterns
To give a better picture of population density, distribution within the
area needs to be known.
Community structure refers to patterns of spatial distribution of
individuals and populations within a community, as well as the relation of a
particular community to its surroundings. At the local level, even in a relatively
homogenous environment individuals can be distributed randomly, clumped
together or highly in regular patterns.
There are three patterns of dispersion. These are:
1. Random distribution (patchy distribution of resources) pattern to be
expected when there is no special force acting on the spatial distribution
because members of the species do not frequently interact with
another.
2. Uniform (territorial species) pattern that results when members of the
species are equally spaced apart because of the interactions among
members of the species.
3. Clumped (random distribution of resources) pattern that results from the
restricted availability of suitable habitat or uneven distribution resources.
The clumped pattern may also be linked with the defense behaviour of
the organism as in safety in numbers.
Population Age Structure
The age structure can tell more about population dynamics than
either density or distribution.
1. Functional age classes because of the difference in life spans, the ages of
these groups can be very different from one group animals to another.
a. Pre-reproductive too young to reproduce
b. Reproductive able to reproduce
c. Post reproductive too old to reproduce
2. Population age profile an estimation of the number
of individuals in each age class
Population Size
The number of individuals in a population Genetic relationship is
used to single out a certain organism or individual if it belongs to a population
or not. Changes over time just like population density and distribution.
The factors that contribute to the fluctuation of population size:
1. Natality (rate of birth) the ratio of the number of births in a given time to
the total population.
2. Mortality (rate of death) the ratio of the number of deaths in a given time
to the total population.
3. Immigration is the movement of individuals into an area occupied by an
existing population.
4. Emigration is the movement of individuals out of an area where a
population is located.
Growth pattern
To understand how populations grow, visualize what happens to
population under ideal conditions. Suppose you put a single bacterium in a
nutrient-rich culture dish then incubate the dish under conditions ideal for
bacterium to grow.
There are two general of population growth:
1. Organisms that reproduce only once and cease to grow as adults. They
expand all their energy in one reproduction then die.
2. Organisms that reproduce throughout their lifetime and invest all energy
for future survival.
Population Regulation Two factors affect population growth:
1. Density dependent depend on the number of individuals in the population
(food, mates, increased rates of predation and parasitism, stress and
behavioural problems due to overcrowding, available nesting habitat,
water, oxygen, waste build up)
2. Density independent do not depend on the number of individuals in the
population (weather and climate: drought, typhoon, hurricane,
excessive rain or snow, etc... geological disturbances: earthquake, tidal
wave, volcanic eruption, etc...)
Mathematical Models of Population Growth:
Exponential growth
A population could reach its biotic potential, the maximum growth rate
of which a population is physiologically capable, if these conditions are met:
environmental conditions are ideal
there are no restrictions on reproduction
mortality rate is kept extremely low
Biotic potential
Maximum rate at which a population can increase when resources
are unlimited and environmental conditions are ideal. Varies due to difference
in:
1. Reproductive span
2. Frequency of reproduction
3. Litter size
4. Survival rate
Limiting factors
Environmental influences that restrict the growth of populations.
May include the availability of food, shelter, water, and space. If the predatory
species were not controlled by a particular limiting factor then the prey species
will eventually decrease in number.
Carrying capacity
The number of individuals in a population that the environment can
sustain over a relatively long period of time. if the limiting factor is the supply
of food, if it eventually dwindles, birth rate will slow down and death rate will
speed up. If the carrying capacity of the environment is reached, population will
level off. It means that the birth and death will evenly balanced. Thus,
population will stabilize, carrying capacity
Age distribution
Growing populations have a large percentage of young individuals
while declining populations have a large percentage of elderly individuals.
There are two typical age structure diagrams:
1. Expansive population distribution is typical in developing countries such
as in African and Asian countries. A pyramid shaped diagram is expected
when birth rate is higher than death rate.
2. Stable population distribution is typical in industrialized countries such as
United States of America. A bell shaped diagram results when there is
a balance birth rate and death rate.
There are two characteristics to consider in distinguishing a certain community
from other communities:
1. Composition a recording of the various species in the community
Northern hardwood forest community of central to northern England.
2. Diversity - the number of species (species richness)
and the abundance of each species in a community (species evenness)
Example: Oak trees
Habitat: oak woodland
Ecological Niche
1. Absorb by sunlight through photosynthesis
2. Absorb water and minerals from the soil
3. Provide shelter for many animals and plants
4. Acts as support for creeping plants
5. Cover the ground with their dead leaves during autumn
6. Serve as a source of food for animals.
Habitat factors can be divided into two major groupings:
1. Physical factors terrestrial and aquatic habitats.
2. Biotic factors - all other species that occupy the habitat.
As an example, the following are some of the physical factors in
terrestrial and aquatic habitats:
1. Terrestrial habitats elevation, steepness, slope direction, soil type, and
water availability.
2. Aquatic habitats pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen concentration,
temperature, flow rate of water.
Ecological niche can be categorized into two: fundamental niche
and realized niche. These two categories of niche were first recognized by
George Evelyn Hutchinson. Elements of habitat and niche are considered in
distinguishing geographic ranges.
These concepts can help understanding in effectively planning conservation
programs.
1. Fundamental niche the species potential to use available resources in the
absence of relations with other species or if there were no competition.
2. Realized niche the ability of the species to use available resources in the
presence of interactions with other species.
Community Interactions
Organisms interact in a community in so many ways. Interactions
can be complex and may cause disturbance or fluctuations in other members
in a community.
Major interactions happening in a community:
1. Competition organisms in a community compete with other species for
food, shelter, water, and other survival needs of the species.
The two types of competition are:
a. Intraspecific competition occurs between members of the same species.
This will limit how large a population in a community can be.
b. Interspecific competition occurs between individuals of different species.
As an example, trees in dense forest compete for sunlight. Technically,
taller trees can be absorb more sunlight than shorter trees. Lions and tigers
feed on the same prey, and both species are negatively impacted by the
presence of the other because they will limited supply of food.
2. Predation the consumption of one organism by another where the
consumed organism (prey) was alive when the predator first attacked it.
3. Parasitism a relationship between two species in which the host is harmed,
but not killed immediately, and the species feeding on it (parasite) is
benefited. A parasite is an organism that obtains its organic nutrients
from the hosts body without causing instant death. Examples of parasites
that live inside a hosts body includes tapeworms, liver flukes, and
pinworms.
4. Mutualism a relationship between species that have developed a positive
impact and dependency on each other. Two species interact in a way that
benefits each other. As an example, cows have microorganisms in their
digestive tract. These microorganisms help the cows digest grass, and other
plant materials.
5. Commensalism a relationship between species where one organism
benefits from the association and the other organism is neither helped or
harmed. An example is the relationship of barnacles and whales. Barnacles
attached themselves on the skin of the whale and obtain food by filtering
the water. The whale is neither harmed nor helped in this interaction.
Investigating Our Environment:
1. Define these terms and explain how they are important in the study of human
population and natural resources: fertility rate, sustainable development,
developing and developed countries.
2. What is the relationship between human birth rates and death rates in the
world? How are both rates contributing changes to the human, animal, and
plant population?
3. What do you think are the factors that influence the growth of human
populations?
CHAPTER 3
Nature of Ecosystems
The system approach of ecology encourages us to think holistically about
interconnections that make the whole systems more than just the sum of their
individual parts.
Definition of Environment
Ecology - branch of biology that studies relationships between organisms and
environment
Environment - factors that affect an organism during its lifetime
Biotic factors - living things that affect an organism
Abiotic factors - non-living things that affect an organism
Organization of Ecological Systems
1. Organism - Smallest living unit
2. Populations - groups of organism of same species
3. Communities - interacting groups of populations of different species
Niche - role in community for each organism
4. Ecosystem - all interacting organisms in an area and their interactions with
their abiotic surroundings
Characteristics of Ecosystems
Ecosystem have structure:
1. Biotic factors - living things that affect an organism
2. Abiotic factors - non-living things that affect an organism
Ecosystem have processes:
1. Cycling of chemical elements
2. Flow of energy
Abiotic components: non-living parts the physical environment: water, air, soil,
temperature, light, inorganic nutrients and weather conditions
Biotic components: living parts composed of a habitat and a niche
1. Autotrophs (producers) chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs plants
base of the food chain
2. Heterotrophs herbivores feed on plants; many are adapted to live on a diet
high in cellulose (graze directly on plants)
Components of a food chain:
1. Carnivores feed on herbivores, omnivores and other carnivores
1st level carnivore feed on herbivores
2nd level carnivore feed on 1st level carnivores
2. Omnivores (feed on both plants and animals)
3. Decomposers (detrivores) consume on dead animals the final consumer of
the group use energy available in dead plants and animals transform
organic material into inorganic material
Different Roles (niche) of the Biotic Components
1. Producers or Autotrophs
The autotrophic organisms capable of producing their own food from simple
inorganic materials in the process called photosynthesis; mainly green plants.
Plants use carbon dioxide, water and minerals to produce carbohydrates and
organic materials with oxygen being given off. Could be chemoautotrophs
(bacteria), obtaining energy by oxidizing inorganic compounds to synthesize
carbohydrates, or a photoautotrophs (plants), and obtaining energy from light
to synthesize carbohydrates
2. Consumers or heterotrophs
Include all animals and other organisms like fungi and bacteria which cannot
make their own foods directly from simple inorganic materials, they take in
food that is already formed, by eating plants or other animals that have eaten
plants. Organisms that obtain their own food by consuming other organisms,
if they consume plants they are called herbivore or primary consumers.
3. Decomposers
The heterotrophic organisms that break down detritus, non-living
organic matter, to inorganic matter, to be used again by the producers.
They use dead plants, animals and excrete as their own food.
Unit of Energy and Concept of Productivity
Energy units units or weights may be used because energy is stored in the
organic compounds, which compose the animals bodies.
One calorie is the amount of heat necessary to heat one gram of water 14.5 to
15.5 degree celsius. One kilocalorie (Kcal) is equivalent to 1,000 calories.
Daily food requirements:
Man K cal/kg of live body weight or about 3,000 and Kcal/day for 70 kg adult
Small Bird and Mammal 1.0 Kcal/gm of live body weight
Insect 0.5 kcal/gm of live body weight
zNature of Ecosystem
Heres a little math to get you started on your calorie watch:
1. Calculate for your basal metabolic rate (BMR) the amount of energy your
body needs to function properly:
BMR = 66 + (6.3 x weight in pounds) + (12.9 x
height in inches) (6.8 x age in years)
2. Calculate for the following, then add the result to your
BMR:
If you are sedentary: BMR x 20%
If you are lightly active: BMR x 30%
If you are moderately active (you exercise regularly): BMR x 40%
If you are very active (you do intense exercise for prolonged periods): BMR
x 50%
If you are extra active (you do hard labor or are in athletic training): BMR x
60%
Amount of Energy Derived from Different Food Stuffs
1 gm of carbohydrates 4.2 kcal
1gm of proteins 4.3 kcal
1gm of fats 9.5 kcal
Kcal Needed by Man of Varying Activities per day
Sedentary or Office Work 2,500 Kcal/day
Construction work or Manual Endeavors 4,000 5,000 Kcal/day
Man at rest or Sleeping 1,500 Kcal/day
Bioenergetics
Molecular work, continuation or nerve impulses and synthesis of
complex food molecules are some of the examples in which energy transfer
involved.
First Law of Thermodynamics Energy cannot be created or
destroyed. Living organisms absorb from their environment useful form of
energy under constant temperature and pressure and return to the same
energy of less useful form to the environment. The useful form of energy is
called free energy, which is capable of doing work.
Second Law of Thermodynamics No process of energy
transformation will spontaneously occur unless there is degradation of energy
from concentrated form into a dispersal form.
Living organisms maintain their orderliness at the expense of their environment
and in return increases its entrophy. Living organisms are called open systems
since they exchange both matter and energy with the environment.
Flow of Energy
Energy enters the ecosystem in the form of sunlight, captured by
plants and other photosynthetic organisms. The interconnecting paths of
energy flow are represented by a food chain, food web and trophic levels. The
amount of biomass or biological material produced in a given area during a
period of time. Photosynthesis provides all energy for nearly all ecosystems
Food Chains
The transfer of energy from plants through a series of other
organisms constitutes food chains. e.g. Grass -> cattle -> man
Food Chain - sequence of organisms feeding on one another
Paths of energy flow through an ecosystem sequence of organisms through
which nutrients and energy in the form of food, are transferred from one
trophic level to another.
Components of a food chain:
Carnivores feed on herbivores, omnivores and other carnivores
1st level carnivore feed on herbivores
2nd level carnivore feed on 1st level carnivores
Omnivores (feed on both plants and animals)
Decomposers (detrivores) consume on dead animals the final consumer of the
group use energy available in dead plants and animals transform
organic material into inorganicmaterial
Trophic levels refer to the parts of food chain or nutritive series in a group of
organisms secures food. Form by the populations in an ecosystem, from the
producers who produce the food for the population which ate the consumers
Types of Food Chain
1. Grazing Food Chain starts with green plants base to grazing herbivores and
then on carnivores. The grazing food chain begins with photosynthetic
fixation of light, carbon dioxide, and water by plants (primary producers)
that produce sugars and other organic molecules. The tertiary consumers
and secondary carnivores are animals that receive their organic energy by
consuming primary carnivores.
2. Detrital Food Chain goes from dead organisms or organic matter into
microorganisms then detritus feeding organisms and their predators.
Food Web
Food chains which are interconnected with each other by
interlocking of food chains to form food chains to form food webs, patterns of
energy flow is complicated that it is difficult to disagree all possible
relationships. e.g. food web in a small stream numerous food chains linked
together found in a natural ecosystem: plants herbivorous insects ( spiders,
predaceous insects, toads, insectivorous birds), rabbits, squirrels, mice, seed
eating birds foxes, hawks and owls, snakes
Marine Web large shark tuna mackerel small fish shrimplike creatures
(magnified) one-celled life (magnified)
Ecological Pyramids
Representing biomass, number of organisms, or energy content of
each trophic level in a food web, from producer to the final consumer
populations show trophic levels stacked one on top of the other generally show
that biomass and energy content decrease from one trophic level to the next
there are two types of ecological pyramids, pyramid of biomass and pyramid of
energy
Pyramid of biomass
Shows a decrease in the biomass from the higher trophic levels. The
basic trophic level in the marine environment the basic trophic level in occupied
by the autotrophic plants. e.g. terrestrial and marine environments biomass of
producers is greater than the biomass of herbivores and the biomass of
herbivores than the biomass of carnivores. If the biomass of herbivores is
greater than the biomass of producers ( as in aquatic ecosystem, where algae
and phytoplankton are the only producers), the result is inverted pyramid
Pyramid of Energy
Pertain to the amount of energy being transferred from one trophic
level to another. Follows the 10% rule, the amount of energy from one level to
the next is reduced by a magnitude of 10. If an average of 1,000 kg of plant
materials is consumed by herbivores, only 100 kg is converted to herbivore
tissue, 10 kg to the secondary consumer and only 1 kg to the tertiary consumer.
Indicates reduction in the availability of energy between different trophic
levels. Greater amount of energy by respiration increases progressively from
lower to higher trophic levels.
Pyramid of Numbers
Illustrates population density relationship within and between the
trophic levels. Number of individuals decrease at each trophic level due to
differences in population growth rate and due to predation upon small
organisms by larger ones. e.g. lake and grassland
Energy from the sun about 1% captured by plants (producers) 99% loss of
energy 10% energy of plants (herbivores) 90% heat loss 10% passed on
primary carnivores 90% heat loss 10% energy captured by secondary
carnivores 90% heat loss.
Cycles of Nutrients (Biogeochemical Cycles)
Water cycle
The fresh water evaporates from the bodies of water and falls to the
earth. Water from the aerial portion of plants also evaporates through
transpiration. Water that falls on land enters the ground or surface waters and
eventually run-off back to the bodies of water. The circulation of water within
the earths hydrosphere, involving changes in the physical state of water
between liquid, solid, and gas phases.
Water cycle involve four main physical actions:
1. Evaporation is the transfer of water from bodies of surface water into the
atmosphere.
2. Precipitation is the atmospheric moisture that has previously condensed in
form clouds (changed from the gas phases to a liquid or solid phase) falling
to the surface of the earth.
3. Infiltration into the ground is the transition from surface water to
groundwater.
4. Runoff includes the variety of ways by which land surface water moves down
slope to the oceans.
5. Subsurface flow incorporates movement of water within the earth, either
within the vadose zone or aquifiers.
Carbon cycle
Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by green plant
through photosynthesis and is returned by all living things through aerobic
respiration. Plants obtain carbon dioxide from the air and through
photosynthesis, incorporate carbon into their tissues.
Producers and consumers transform part of the carbon in their food back into
the atmosphere.
Decomposers - release the carbon tied up in dead plants and animals into the
atmosphere.
Nature of Ecosystem
Many biological processes in motion by people release carbon dioxide:
1. Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas)
2. Slash and burn agriculture
3. Clearing land for permanent pasture, cropland, or human settlements
4. Accidental and intentional forest burning
5. Unsustainable logging and fuel wood collection
Nitrogen Cycle
Organism cannot exist without amino acids, peptides and proteins,
all of which are organic molecules that contain nitrogen. Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria (in nodules and in the soil) reduce nitrogen gas providing a form of
nitrogen available for the producers and followed by the consumers nitrifying
bacteria convert ammonium to nitrate denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate
back to nitrogen gas.
Nitrogen re-enters the environment in several ways:
1. Death of an organism fungi and bacteria decompose dead organisms
releasing ammonia and ammonium ions.
2. Plants shed on their leaves, needles, flowers, fruits and cones, animals shed
hair, feathers, skin, exoskeleton, pupal cases and silk.
3. Animals produce excrement and urinary wastes that contain nitrogenous
compounds.
Phosphorus cycle
Weathering makes phosphate available to producers followed by
consumers. Death and decay of all organisms makes phosphate available to
decomposers. Most phosphates are found as salts in ocean sediments or in
rocks. Over time, geologic processes can bring ocean sediments to land, and
weathering will carry terrestrial phosphates back to the ocean. Plants absorb
phosphates from the soil. Phosphorus is also found in bones, whose strength is
derived from calcium phosphate, and phospholipids.
Sulfur cycle
Plays an vital role in organisms, especially as minor but essential
components of protein. Sulfur compounds are important determinants of
acidity of rainfall, surface water and soil. Most of the earths sulfur is tied up
underground in rocks and minerals. Weathering, emission from deep seafloor
vents and volcanic eruptions release this inorganic sulfur into the air water.
The Cause of Pollution
1. Human activities are controlling the biogeochemical cycles through modern
technology
2. Human activities alter the transfer rates because they move an element from
one component of an ecosystem to another at a greater rate
3. In carbon cycle, humans increase the transfer rate from fossil fuels to the
atmosphere and into the oceans;
4. In phosphorus cycle, human increase the transfer rate from sediments to the
soil and into bodies of water
5. In nitrogen cycle, humans increase the transfer rate from the atmosphere to
the soil and into bodies of water any change in transfer rate that can lead
directly or indirectly to a degradation of human health or degradation of
the natural condition of the environment is called pollution
Investigating Our Environment:
1. Construct a concept map showing all the components of the biotic
community of an ecosystem and the relationships existing in the
ecosystem. You will be creating food webs from organisms living in the
Philippines tropical rainforest. Review the kinds of plants and animals that
dominate the tropical rainforest.
2. List at least three (3) plant and six (6) animal species that can be found in the
Philippines rainforest. Then research on the following information:
a. nutrients the plants need and what the animals eat
b. are they prey or predator; producers or consumers
c. survival strategies/ how they interact with other species
3. Illustrate the feeding relationships of each species by creating a food web. If
possible, they may connect and combine all the plant and animal species into
one complex food web