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Carbon
Definition: Carbon is an essential element in steel, it is added in specific
amounts to control the hardness and strength of the material. In general,
increased carbon content reduces ductility but increases tensile strength and the
ability of the steel to harden when cooled rapidly from elevated temperatures.
Carbon Steel
Definition: A steel whose properties are determined primarily by the amount of
carbon present. Apart from iron and carbon, manganese up to 1.5% may be
present as well as residual amounts of alloying elements such as nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, etc. It is when one or more alloying elements are added
in sufficient amount that it is classed as an alloy steel.
Manganese
Definition: One of the most important constituents of steel in which it fulfils a
number of functions. It acts as a mild de-oxidising agent. It combines with the
sulphur present to form globular inclusions of Manganese Sulphide which are
beneficial to machining. It increases tensile strength and the hardenability of
steel.
Molybdenum
Definition: Its use as an alloying element in steel increases hardenability and in
low alloy steels reduces the risk of temper brittleness. When added to stainless
steels it increases their resistance to corrosion. It is also used in high speed
steels.
Vanadium
Definition: Steels containing vanadium have a much finer grain structure than
steels of similar composition without vanadium. It raises the temperature at
which grain coarsening sets in and increases hardenability where it is in solution
in the austenite prior to quenching. It also lessens softening on tempering and
confers secondary hardness on high speed steels. Vanadium is used in nitriding,
heat resisting, tool and spring steels in conjunction with other alloying elements.
Nickel
Definition: One of the most widely used alloying elements in steel. In amounts
0.50% to 5.00% its use in alloy steels increases the toughness and tensile
strength without detrimental effect on the ductility. Nickel also increases the
hardenability, thus permitting the steel to be oil- hardened instead of water
quenched. In larger quantities, 8.00% and upwards, nickel is the constituent,
together with chromium, of many corrosion resistant and stainless austenitic
steels.
Alloying Element
Definition: Any metallic element added during the making of steel for the
purpose of increasing corrosion resistance, hardness, or strength. The metals
used most commonly as alloying elements in stainless steel include chromium,
nickel, and molybdenum
Boron Steels
Definition: The addition of boron in the range 0.0005- 0.005% to certain steels
increases the hardenability. A range of boron steels is now listed in the current BS
970 and are widely used for the production of cold headed fastenings.
Cobalt
Definition: An alloying element used in tool, magnet and heat resisting steels.
Together with tungsten and molybdenum, cobalt is used to form the super high
speed steels. It improves the red hardness value of the steel, that is, it enables
the steel to resist softening at a high temperature or in the case of a cutting tool
to hold its edge under severe conditions.
Phosphorus
Definition: An element that forms 0.12% of the earth's crust, chiefly in the form
of phosphates. Its presence in steel is usually regarded as an undesirable
impurity due to its embrittling effect, for this reason its content in most steels is
limited to a maximum of 0.050%.
Steels are among the most commonly used alloys. The complexity of steel
alloys is fairly significant. Not all effects of the varying elements are included.
The following text gives an overview of some of the effects of various alloying
elements. Additional research should be performed prior to making any
design or engineering conclusions.
Niobium (Columbium) increases the yield strength and, to a lesser degree, the
tensile strength of carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of Niobium can
significantly increase the yield strength of steels. Niobium can also have a
moderate precipitation strengthening effect. Its main contributions are to form
precipitates above the transformation temperature, and to retard the
recrystallization of austenite, thus promoting a fine-grain microstructure
having improved strength and toughness.
Titanium is used to retard grain growth and thus improve toughness. Titanium
is also used to achieve improvements in inclusion characteristics. Titanium
causes sulfide inclusions to be globular rather than elongated thus improving
toughness and ductility in transverse bending.
Vanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile strength of carbon
steel. The addition of small amounts of Vanadium can significantly increase
the strength of steels. Vanadium is one of the primary contributors to
precipitation strengthening in microalloyed steels. When thermomechanical
processing is properly controlled the ferrite grain size is refined and there is a
corresponding increase in toughness. The impact transition temperature also
increases when vanadium is added.
Safety Concerns
Failures of Pipelines
Steel Alloys
Carbon Steels
Chromium-Molybdenum Steels
Steels are readily available in various product forms. The American Iron and
Steel Institute defines carbon steel as follows:
Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified
or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium [niobium], molybdenum, nickel,
titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to be added
to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper
does not exceed 0.40 per cent; or when the maximum content specified for
any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted:
manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60. Carbon steels are normally
classified as shown below.
Low-carbon steels contain up to 0.30 weight percent C. The largest
category of this class of steel is flat-rolled products (sheet or strip)
usually in the cold-rolled and annealed condition. The carbon
content for these high-formability steels is very low, less than 0.10
weight percent C, with up to 0.4 weight percent Mn. For rolled steel
structural plates and sections, the carbon content may be increased
to approximately 0.30 weight percent, with higher manganese up to
1.5 weight percent.
Stainless Steels
Martensitic stainless steels are essentially alloys of chromium and carbon that
possess a martensitic crystal structure in the hardened condition. They are
ferromagnetic, hardenable by heat treatments, and are usually less resistant
to corrosion than some other grades of stainless steel. Chromium content
usually does not exceed 18%, while carbon content may exceed 1.0 %. The
chromium and carbon contents are adjusted to ensure a martensitic structure
after hardening. Excess carbides may be present to enhance wear resistance
or as in the case of knife blades, to maintain cutting edges.
Ferritic stainless steels are chromium containing alloys with Ferritic, body
centered cubic (bcc) crystal structures. Chromium content is typically less
than 30%. The ferritic stainless steels are ferromagnetic. They may have
good ductility and formability, but high-temperature mechanical properties are
relatively inferior to the austenitic stainless steels. Toughness is limited at low
temperatures and in heavy sections.
Austenitic stainless steels have a austenitic, face centered cubic (fcc) crystal
structure. Austenite is formed through the generous use of austenitizing
elements such as nickel, manganese, and nitrogen. Austenitic stainless
steels are effectively nonmagnetic in the annealed condition and can be
hardened only by cold working. Some ferromagnetism may be noticed due to
cold working or welding. They typically have reasonable cryogenic and high
temperature strength properties. Chromium content typically is in the range of
16 to 26%; nickel content is commonly less than 35%.
Duplex stainless steels are a mixture of bcc ferrite and fcc austenite crystal
structures. The percentage each phase is a dependent on the composition
and heat treatment. Most Duplex stainless steels are intended to contain
around equal amounts of ferrite and austenite phases in the annealed
condition. The primary alloying elements are chromium and nickel. Duplex
stainless steels generally have similar corrosion resistance to austenitic alloys
except they typically have better stress corrosion cracking resistance. Duplex
stainless steels also generally have greater tensile and yield strengths, but
poorer toughness than austenitic stainless steels.
Titanium Alloys
The density of Titanium is roughly 55% that of steel. Titanium alloys are
extensively utilized for significantly loaded aerospace components. Titanium
is used in applications requiring somewhat elevated temperatures . The good
corrosion resistance experienced in many environments is based on
titaniums ability to form a stable oxide protective layer. This makes titanium
useful in surgical implants and some chemical plant equipment applications.
Element Effect
Aluminum alpha stabilizer
Tin alpha stabilizer
Vanadium Beta stabilizer
Molybdenum Beta stabilizer
Chromium Beta stabilizer
Copper Beta stabilizer
Alpha alloys commonly have creep resistance superior to beta alloys. Alpha
alloys are suitable for somewhat elevated temperature applications. They are
also sometimes used for cryogenic applications. Alpha alloys have adequate
strength, toughness, and weldability for various applications, but are not as
readily forged as many beta alloys. Alpha alloys cannot be strengthened by
heat treatment.
Beta alloys have good forging capability. Beta alloy sheet is cold formable
when in the solution treated condition. Beta alloys are prone to a ductile to
brittle transition temperature. Beta alloys can be strengthened by heat
treatment. Typically beta alloys are solutioned followed by aging to form finely
dispersed particles in a beta phase matrix.
Surgical Implants
Prosthetic devices
Jet engines
Chemical processing plants
Pulp and paper industry
Marine applications
Sports equipment
Copper Alloys
Copper alloys are commonly used for their electrical and thermal
conductivities, corrosion resistance, ease of fabrication, surface appearance,
strength and fatigue resistance. Copper alloys can be readily soldered and
brazed, and a number of copper alloys can be welded by arc, and resistance
methods. Color of copper alloys is a significant reason for using them for
decorative purposes. For decorative parts, conventional copper alloys having
specific colors are readily available.
Copper is used extensively for cables and wires, electrical contacts, and a
wide variety of other parts that are required to pass electrical current.
Coppers alloys are used for automobile radiators, heat exchangers, and home
heating systems. Because of copper alloys corrosion resistance they are
used for pipes, valves, and fittings in systems carrying potable water, process
water, or other aqueous fluids.
Along with ease of fabrication, some of the principal selection criteria for
copper alloys are:
Corrosion resistance
Electrical conductivity
Thermal conductivity
Color and surface appearance
Aluminum Alloys
2xxx Series. These alloys require solution heat treatment to obtain optimum properties;
in the solution heat-treated condition, mechanical properties are similar to, and
sometimes exceed, those of low-carbon steel. In some instances, precipitation heat
treatment (aging) is employed to further increase mechanical properties. This treatment
increases yield strength, with attendant loss in elongation; its effect on tensile strength
is not as great.
The alloys in the 2xxx series do not have as good corrosion resistance as most other
aluminum alloys, and under certain conditions they may be subject to intergranular
corrosion. Alloys in the 2xxx series are good for parts requiring good strength at
temperatures up to 150 C (300 F). Except for alloy 2219, these alloys have limited
weldability, but some alloys in this series have superior machinability.
3xxx Series. These alloys generally are non-heat treatable but have about 20% more
strength than 1xxx series alloys. Because only a limited percentage of manganese (up
to about 1.5%) can be effectively added to aluminum, manganese is used as major
element in only a few alloys.
4xxx Series. The major alloying element in 4xxx series alloys is silicon, which can be
added in sufficient quantities (up to 12%) to cause substantial lowering of the melting
range. For this reason, aluminum-silicon alloys are used in welding wire and as brazing
alloys for joining aluminum, where a lower melting range than that of the base metal is
required. The alloys containing appreciable amounts of silicon become dark gray to
charcoal when anodic oxide finishes are applied and hence are in demand for
architectural applications.
5xxx Series. The major alloying element is Magnesium an when it is used as a major
alloying element or with manganese, the result is a moderate-to-high-strength work-
hardenable alloy. Magnesium is considerably more effective than manganese as a
hardener, about 0.8% Mg being equal to 1.25% Mn, and it can be added in considerably
higher quantities. Alloys in this series possess good welding characteristics and
relatively good resistance to corrosion in marine atmospheres. However, limitations
should be placed on the amount of cold work and the operating temperatures (150
degrees F) permissible for the higher-magnesium alloys to avoid susceptibility to stress-
corrosion cracking.
6xxx Series. Alloys in the 6xxx series contain silicon and magnesium approximately in
the proportions required for formation of magnesium silicide (Mg2Si), thus making them
heat treatable. Although not as strong as most 2xxx and 7xxx alloys, 6xxx series alloys
have good formability, weldability, machinability, and relatively good corrosion
resistance, with medium strength. Alloys in this heat-treatable group may be formed in
the T4 temper (solution heat treated but not precipitation heat treated) and strengthened
after forming to full T6 properties by precipitation heat treatment.
7xxx Series. Zinc, in amounts of 1 to 8% is the major alloying element in 7xxx series
alloys, and when coupled with a smaller percentage of magnesium results in heat-
treatable alloys of moderate to very high strength. Usually other elements, such as
copper and chromium, are also added in small quantities. 7xxx series alloys are used in
airframe structures, mobile equipment, and other highly stressed parts. Higher strength
7xxx alloys exhibit reduced resistance to stress corrosion cracking and are often utilized
in a slightly overaged temper to provide better combinations of strength, corrosion
resistance, and fracture toughness.