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Chromium

Definition: When used as an alloying element, chromium increases the


hardenability of steel and in association with high carbon gives resistance to wear
and abrasion. Chromium has an important effect on corrosion resistance and is
present in stainless steels in amounts of 12% to 20%. It is also used in heat-
resisting steels and high duty cast irons.

Carbon
Definition: Carbon is an essential element in steel, it is added in specific
amounts to control the hardness and strength of the material. In general,
increased carbon content reduces ductility but increases tensile strength and the
ability of the steel to harden when cooled rapidly from elevated temperatures.

Carbon Steel
Definition: A steel whose properties are determined primarily by the amount of
carbon present. Apart from iron and carbon, manganese up to 1.5% may be
present as well as residual amounts of alloying elements such as nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, etc. It is when one or more alloying elements are added
in sufficient amount that it is classed as an alloy steel.

Manganese
Definition: One of the most important constituents of steel in which it fulfils a
number of functions. It acts as a mild de-oxidising agent. It combines with the
sulphur present to form globular inclusions of Manganese Sulphide which are
beneficial to machining. It increases tensile strength and the hardenability of
steel.

Molybdenum
Definition: Its use as an alloying element in steel increases hardenability and in
low alloy steels reduces the risk of temper brittleness. When added to stainless
steels it increases their resistance to corrosion. It is also used in high speed
steels.

Vanadium
Definition: Steels containing vanadium have a much finer grain structure than
steels of similar composition without vanadium. It raises the temperature at
which grain coarsening sets in and increases hardenability where it is in solution
in the austenite prior to quenching. It also lessens softening on tempering and
confers secondary hardness on high speed steels. Vanadium is used in nitriding,
heat resisting, tool and spring steels in conjunction with other alloying elements.

Nickel
Definition: One of the most widely used alloying elements in steel. In amounts
0.50% to 5.00% its use in alloy steels increases the toughness and tensile
strength without detrimental effect on the ductility. Nickel also increases the
hardenability, thus permitting the steel to be oil- hardened instead of water
quenched. In larger quantities, 8.00% and upwards, nickel is the constituent,
together with chromium, of many corrosion resistant and stainless austenitic
steels.
Alloying Element
Definition: Any metallic element added during the making of steel for the
purpose of increasing corrosion resistance, hardness, or strength. The metals
used most commonly as alloying elements in stainless steel include chromium,
nickel, and molybdenum

Boron Steels
Definition: The addition of boron in the range 0.0005- 0.005% to certain steels
increases the hardenability. A range of boron steels is now listed in the current BS
970 and are widely used for the production of cold headed fastenings.

Cobalt
Definition: An alloying element used in tool, magnet and heat resisting steels.
Together with tungsten and molybdenum, cobalt is used to form the super high
speed steels. It improves the red hardness value of the steel, that is, it enables
the steel to resist softening at a high temperature or in the case of a cutting tool
to hold its edge under severe conditions.

Phosphorus
Definition: An element that forms 0.12% of the earth's crust, chiefly in the form
of phosphates. Its presence in steel is usually regarded as an undesirable
impurity due to its embrittling effect, for this reason its content in most steels is
limited to a maximum of 0.050%.

Effects of Elements on Steel

Steels are among the most commonly used alloys. The complexity of steel
alloys is fairly significant. Not all effects of the varying elements are included.
The following text gives an overview of some of the effects of various alloying
elements. Additional research should be performed prior to making any
design or engineering conclusions.

Carbon has a major effect on steel properties. Carbon is the primary


hardening element in steel. Hardness and tensile strength increases as
carbon content increases up to about 0.85% C as shown in the figure above.
Ductility and weldability decrease with increasing carbon.

Manganese is generally beneficial to surface quality especially in resulfurized


steels. Manganese contributes to strength and hardness, but less than
carbon. The increase in strength is dependent upon the carbon content.
Increasing the manganese content decreases ductility and weldability, but
less than carbon. Manganese has a significant effect on the hardenability of
steel.

Phosphorus increases strength and hardness and decreases ductility and


notch impact toughness of steel. The adverse effects on ductility and
toughness are greater in quenched and tempered higher-carbon steels.
Phosphorous levels are normally controlled to low levels. Higher phosphorus
is specified in low-carbon free-machining steels to improve machinability.
Sulfur decreases ductility and notch impact toughness especially in the
transverse direction. Weldability decreases with increasing sulfur content.
Sulfur is found primarily in the form of sulfide inclusions. Sulfur levels are
normally controlled to low levels. The only exception is free-machining steels,
where sulfur is added to improve machinability.

Silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steelmaking. Silicon is less


effective than manganese in increasing as-rolled strength and hardness. In
low-carbon steels, silicon is generally detrimental to surface quality.

Copper in significant amounts is detrimental to hot-working steels. Copper


negatively affects forge welding, but does not seriously affect arc or
oxyacetylene welding. Copper can be detrimental to surface quality. Copper
is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion resistance when present in amounts
exceeding 0.20%. Weathering steels are sold having greater than 0.20%
Copper.

Lead is virtually insoluble in liquid or solid steel. However, lead is sometimes


added to carbon and alloy steels by means of mechanical dispersion during
pouring to improve the machinability.

Boron is added to fully killed steel to improve hardenability. Boron-treated


steels are produced to a range of 0.0005 to 0.003%. Whenever boron is
substituted in part for other alloys, it should be done only with hardenability in
mind because the lowered alloy content may be harmful for some
applications.

Boron is a potent alloying element in steel. A very small amount of boron


(about 0.001%) has a strong effect on hardenability. Boron steels are
generally produced within a range of 0.0005 to 0.003%. Boron is most
effective in lower carbon steels.

Chromium is commonly added to steel to increase corrosion resistance and


oxidation resistance, to increase hardenability, or to improve high-temperature
strength. As a hardening element, Chromium is frequently used with a
toughening element such as nickel to produce superior mechanical properties.
At higher temperatures, chromium contributes increased strength. Chromium
is a strong carbide former. Complex chromium-iron carbides go into solution in
austenite slowly; therefore, sufficient heating time must be allowed for prior to
quenching.

Nickel is a ferrite strengthener. Nickel does not form carbides in steel. It


remains in solution in ferrite, strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase.
Nickel increases the hardenability and impact strength of steels.

Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel. Molybdenum may produce


secondary hardening during the tempering of quenched steels. It enhances
the creep strength of low-alloy steels at elevated temperatures.
Aluminum is widely used as a deoxidizer. Aluminum can control austenite
grain growth in reheated steels and is therefore added to control grain size.
Aluminum is the most effective alloy in controlling grain growth prior to
quenching. Titanium, zirconium, and vanadium are also valuable grain growth
inhibitors, but there carbides are difficult to dissolve into solution in austenite.

Zirconium can be added to killed high-strength low-alloy steels to achieve


improvements in inclusion characteristics. Zirconium causes sulfide
inclusions to be globular rather than elongated thus improving toughness and
ductility in transverse bending.

Niobium (Columbium) increases the yield strength and, to a lesser degree, the
tensile strength of carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of Niobium can
significantly increase the yield strength of steels. Niobium can also have a
moderate precipitation strengthening effect. Its main contributions are to form
precipitates above the transformation temperature, and to retard the
recrystallization of austenite, thus promoting a fine-grain microstructure
having improved strength and toughness.

Titanium is used to retard grain growth and thus improve toughness. Titanium
is also used to achieve improvements in inclusion characteristics. Titanium
causes sulfide inclusions to be globular rather than elongated thus improving
toughness and ductility in transverse bending.

Vanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile strength of carbon
steel. The addition of small amounts of Vanadium can significantly increase
the strength of steels. Vanadium is one of the primary contributors to
precipitation strengthening in microalloyed steels. When thermomechanical
processing is properly controlled the ferrite grain size is refined and there is a
corresponding increase in toughness. The impact transition temperature also
increases when vanadium is added.

All microalloy steels contain small concentrations of one or more strong


carbide and nitride forming elements. Vanadium, niobium, and titanium
combine preferentially with carbon and/or nitrogen to form a fine dispersion of
precipitated particles in the steel matrix.
ASME Pressure Vessel Failures

Pressure vessels and pressure piping


used in refineries, chemical processing
plants, water treatment systems of boilers,
low pressure storage tanks commonly used
in process, pulp and paper and electric
power plants operate over a broad
range of pressures and temperatures
and experience a variety of operating
environments. Shell, head,
attachments, and piping are some of the
components that commonly fail. Some
common types of failures are listed
below:
Cracking
Explosion
Hydrogen embrittlrment
Rupture
Creep and stress rupture
Leakage
Fatigue
Faulty design
Over pressure
Improper fabrication practice
Over temperature
Faulty inspection
Welding problems
Damage during shipment and
Discontinuities
storage
Stress raisers
Damage during field fabrication
Improper heat treatment
and erection
Caustic embrittlement.
Specifying or using improper
Brittle fractures
materials
Corrosion
Erosion
Stress corrosion cracking

Safety Concerns

Safety considerations associated with


rupture or leakage failures
Blast effects Fire
Fragmentation damage Explosion
Suffocation Chemical burns

Poisoning Thermal burns


ASME Pressure Vessel Failure
Analysis

Design errors, fabrication errors,


corrosion, and improper maintenance
are some of the causes of failures.
Brittle fracture, stress corrosion
cracking, fatigue, welding problems,
erosion, creep, stress rupture, and
hydrogen embrittlement are among
some of the common failure modes
found in pressure vessel components.
Failure analysis can identify the root
cause or causes that have contributed
to your pressure vessel failure.

Failures of Pipelines

Gas and oil pipelines have established an


impressive safety record over the years.
However, failures have occurred for an
assortment of reasons. Some of the causes of
failure are identified in this commentary.

Since the 1940s, all of the oil and gas


transmission lines have been built by welding.
In general, American Petroleum Institute (API)
5L specification steels are used in pipelines.
Pipeline wall thicknesses are established on the
pressure in the line and on the allowable hoop
stress levels for the material. The allowable
stress levels for gas pipelines vary based on the
location of the pipeline and are regulated by the
U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT).
Pipelines are pressure tested in addition to nondestructive testing prior to
being put into service. Normally, pipelines are hydrostatically stressed to
levels above their working pressure and near their specified minimum yield
strength. This pressure is held for several hours to ensure that the pipeline
does not have defects that may cause failure in use. This proof test of
pipelines provides an additional level of confidence that is not found in many
other structures.
Pipeline Failure Analysis
Some of the causes of pipeline failures are listed below:
Mechanical damage
Fatigue cracks
Material defects
Weld cracks
Incomplete fusion
Improper repair welds
Incomplete penetration
External or internal corrosion
Hydrogen blistering

Mechanical damage normally consists of gouges and dents. They generally


are created by excavation or handling equipment during construction.

Steel Alloys

Steel Alloys can be divided into five groups

Carbon Steels

High Strength Low Alloy Steels

Quenched and Tempered Steels

Heat Treatable Low Alloy Steels

Chromium-Molybdenum Steels

Steels are readily available in various product forms. The American Iron and
Steel Institute defines carbon steel as follows:
Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified
or required for chromium, cobalt, columbium [niobium], molybdenum, nickel,
titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to be added
to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper
does not exceed 0.40 per cent; or when the maximum content specified for
any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted:
manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60. Carbon steels are normally
classified as shown below.
Low-carbon steels contain up to 0.30 weight percent C. The largest
category of this class of steel is flat-rolled products (sheet or strip)
usually in the cold-rolled and annealed condition. The carbon
content for these high-formability steels is very low, less than 0.10
weight percent C, with up to 0.4 weight percent Mn. For rolled steel
structural plates and sections, the carbon content may be increased
to approximately 0.30 weight percent, with higher manganese up to
1.5 weight percent.

Medium-carbon steels are similar to low-carbon steels except that the


carbon ranges from 0.30 to 0.60 weight percent and the manganese
from 0.60 to 1.65 weight percent. Increasing the carbon content to
approximately 0.5 weight percent with an accompanying increase in
manganese allows medium-carbon steels to be used in the
quenched and tempered condition.
High-carbon steels contain from 0.60 to 1.00 weight percent C with
manganese contents ranging from 0.30 to 0.90weight percent.

High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, or microalloyed steels, are


designed to provide better mechanical properties than conventional
carbon steels. They are designed to meet specific mechanical
properties rather than a chemical composition. The chemical
composition of a specific HSLA steel may vary for different product
thickness to meet mechanical property requirements. The HSLA
steels have low carbon contents (0.50 to ~0.25 weight percent C) in
order to produce adequate formability and weldability, and they
have manganese contents up to 2.0 weight percent. Small
quantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, nitrogen,
vanadium, niobium, titanium, and zirconium are used in various
combinations.

Stainless Steels

Stainless Steels are iron-base alloys containing Chromium. Stainless steels


usually contain less than 30% Cr and more than 50% Fe. They attain their
stainless characteristics because of the formation of an invisible and adherent
chromium-rich oxide surface film. This oxide establishes on the surface and
heals itself in the presence of oxygen. Some other alloying elements added
to enhance specific characteristics include nickel, molybdenum, copper,
titanium, aluminum, silicon, niobium, and nitrogen. Carbon is usually present
in amounts ranging from less than 0.03% to over 1.0% in certain martensitic
grades. Corrosion resistance and mechanical properties are commonly the
principal factors in selecting a grade of stainless steel for a given application.

Stainless steels are commonly divided into five groups:

Martensitic stainless steels


Ferritic stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steels
Duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels.

Martensitic stainless steels are essentially alloys of chromium and carbon that
possess a martensitic crystal structure in the hardened condition. They are
ferromagnetic, hardenable by heat treatments, and are usually less resistant
to corrosion than some other grades of stainless steel. Chromium content
usually does not exceed 18%, while carbon content may exceed 1.0 %. The
chromium and carbon contents are adjusted to ensure a martensitic structure
after hardening. Excess carbides may be present to enhance wear resistance
or as in the case of knife blades, to maintain cutting edges.

Ferritic stainless steels are chromium containing alloys with Ferritic, body
centered cubic (bcc) crystal structures. Chromium content is typically less
than 30%. The ferritic stainless steels are ferromagnetic. They may have
good ductility and formability, but high-temperature mechanical properties are
relatively inferior to the austenitic stainless steels. Toughness is limited at low
temperatures and in heavy sections.

Austenitic stainless steels have a austenitic, face centered cubic (fcc) crystal
structure. Austenite is formed through the generous use of austenitizing
elements such as nickel, manganese, and nitrogen. Austenitic stainless
steels are effectively nonmagnetic in the annealed condition and can be
hardened only by cold working. Some ferromagnetism may be noticed due to
cold working or welding. They typically have reasonable cryogenic and high
temperature strength properties. Chromium content typically is in the range of
16 to 26%; nickel content is commonly less than 35%.

Duplex stainless steels are a mixture of bcc ferrite and fcc austenite crystal
structures. The percentage each phase is a dependent on the composition
and heat treatment. Most Duplex stainless steels are intended to contain
around equal amounts of ferrite and austenite phases in the annealed
condition. The primary alloying elements are chromium and nickel. Duplex
stainless steels generally have similar corrosion resistance to austenitic alloys
except they typically have better stress corrosion cracking resistance. Duplex
stainless steels also generally have greater tensile and yield strengths, but
poorer toughness than austenitic stainless steels.

Precipitation hardening stainless steels are chromium-nickel alloys.


Precipitation-hardening stainless steels may be either austenitic or martensitic
in the annealed condition. In most cases, precipitation hardening stainless
steels attain high strength by precipitation hardening of the martensitic
structure.

Selecting a Stainless Steel

There are a large number of stainless steels produced. Corrosion resistance,


physical properties, and mechanical properties are generally among the
properties considered when selecting stainless steel for an application. A
more detailed list of selection criteria is listed below:

Corrosion resistance Ambient strength


Resistance to oxidation and Ductility
sulfidation Elevated temperature strength
Toughness Suitability for intended
Cryogenic strength cleaning procedures
Resistance to abrasion and Stability of properties in
erosion service
Resistance to galling and Thermal conductivity
seizing Electrical resistivity
Surface finish
Suitability for intended
Magnetic properties fabrication techniques

Retention of cutting edge

Corrosion resistance is commonly the most significant characteristic of a


stainless steel, but can also be the most difficult to assess for a specific
application. General corrosion resistance is comparatively easy to determine,
but real environments are usually more complex. An evaluation of other
pertinent variables such as fluid velocity, stagnation, turbulence, galvanic
couples, welds, crevices, deposits, impurities, variation in temperature, and
variation from planned operating chemistry among others issues need to be
factored in to selecting the proper stainless steel for a specific environment.

AMC can provide engineering services to determine how to optimize the


selection of stainless steel for your application. Our engineering analysis can
reduce overall costs, minimize service problems, and optimize fabrication of
your structure.

Titanium Alloys

The density of Titanium is roughly 55% that of steel. Titanium alloys are
extensively utilized for significantly loaded aerospace components. Titanium
is used in applications requiring somewhat elevated temperatures . The good
corrosion resistance experienced in many environments is based on
titaniums ability to form a stable oxide protective layer. This makes titanium
useful in surgical implants and some chemical plant equipment applications.

Unalloyed (commercially pure) titanium can be found in two crystallographic


forms:

Hexagonal close-packed (hcp) or alpha () phase is found at room


temperature
Body centered cubic (bcc) or beta () phase is found above 883 C
(1621 F)

The control of alpha () and beta () phases through alloying


additions and thermomechanical processing is the basis for the
titanium alloys used by industry today. It is also the primary method
for classifying titanium alloys. Titanium alloys are categorized as
either alpha () alloys, beta () alloys, or alpha+beta (+) alloys.
Some common titanium alloys are listed below according to these
categories.

Alpha and near alpha Alpha + Beta alloys Beta alloys


alloys
Ti-2.5Cu Ti-6Al-4V Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn Ti-8Mo-8V-2Fe-3Al
Ti-8Al-1V-1Mo Ti-6Al-2Sn-2Zr-2Cr-2Mo Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al
Ti-6242 Ti-3Al-2.5V Ti-15-3
Ti-6Al-2Nb-1Ta-0.8 Mo Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V
Ti-5Al-5Sn-2Zr-2Mo

One of the primary effect of alloying elements used in titanium


production is the affect on the alpha to beta transformation
temperature. Some elements raise the alpha to beta transformation
temperature thereby stabilizing the alpha crystal structure. While
other elements lower the alpha to beta transformation temperature
thereby stabilizing the beta crystal structure. The effect of some
elements is shown below:

Element Effect
Aluminum alpha stabilizer
Tin alpha stabilizer
Vanadium Beta stabilizer
Molybdenum Beta stabilizer
Chromium Beta stabilizer
Copper Beta stabilizer

Alpha alloys commonly have creep resistance superior to beta alloys. Alpha
alloys are suitable for somewhat elevated temperature applications. They are
also sometimes used for cryogenic applications. Alpha alloys have adequate
strength, toughness, and weldability for various applications, but are not as
readily forged as many beta alloys. Alpha alloys cannot be strengthened by
heat treatment.

Beta alloys have good forging capability. Beta alloy sheet is cold formable
when in the solution treated condition. Beta alloys are prone to a ductile to
brittle transition temperature. Beta alloys can be strengthened by heat
treatment. Typically beta alloys are solutioned followed by aging to form finely
dispersed particles in a beta phase matrix.

Alpha + beta alloys have chemical compositions that result in a mixture of


alpha and beta phases. The beta phase is normally in the range of 10 to 50%
at room temperature. Alloys with beta contents less than 20% are weldable.
The most commonly used titanium alloy is Ti-6Al-4V, an alpha + beta alloy.
While Ti-6Al-4V is fairly difficult to form other alpha + beta alloys normally
have better formability.

Alpha + beta alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment. When


strengthening alpha + beta alloys the components are normally quickly cooled
from a temperature high in the alpha-beta range or even above the beta
transus. Solution treatment is then followed by aging to generate an proper
mixture of alpha and transformed beta. Heat treatment is dependent on the
cooling rate from the solution temperature and can be affected by the size of
the component.
Some of the uses of titanium alloys are listed below:

Surgical Implants
Prosthetic devices
Jet engines
Chemical processing plants
Pulp and paper industry
Marine applications
Sports equipment

Copper Alloys

Copper alloys are commonly used for their electrical and thermal
conductivities, corrosion resistance, ease of fabrication, surface appearance,
strength and fatigue resistance. Copper alloys can be readily soldered and
brazed, and a number of copper alloys can be welded by arc, and resistance
methods. Color of copper alloys is a significant reason for using them for
decorative purposes. For decorative parts, conventional copper alloys having
specific colors are readily available.

Copper is used extensively for cables and wires, electrical contacts, and a
wide variety of other parts that are required to pass electrical current.
Coppers alloys are used for automobile radiators, heat exchangers, and home
heating systems. Because of copper alloys corrosion resistance they are
used for pipes, valves, and fittings in systems carrying potable water, process
water, or other aqueous fluids.

Along with ease of fabrication, some of the principal selection criteria for
copper alloys are:

Corrosion resistance
Electrical conductivity
Thermal conductivity
Color and surface appearance

Corrosion resistance of copper alloys is good in many environments, however


copper alloys may be attacked by some common reagents and
environments. Pure copper resists attack under some corrosive conditions.
Some copper alloys, on the other hand, sometimes have inadequate
performance in certain environments.

Stress corrosion cracking most commonly occurs in brass. Brasses


containing more than 15% Zn are the most susceptible.

Dealloying is another form of corrosion that affects zinc containing copper


alloys. During dezincification of brass, selective removal of zinc results in
gradual replacement of sound brass by weak, porous copper. Unless stopped
the metal is weakened and liquids or gases may be capable of leaking
through the porous structure.
Electrical and thermal conductivity of copper and its alloys are relatively good.
This is why copper is the most commonly used electrical conductor. Alloying
decreases electrical conductivity to a greater extent than thermal conductivity.
This is why copper and high-copper alloys are preferred over other copper
alloys when high electrical or thermal conductivity is required.

Common classification of copper alloys is shown below:

Name Alloying elements


Coppers Cu
Brasses Cu-Zn
Leaded brasses Cu-Zn-Pb
Tin brasses Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb
Phosphor bronzes Cu-Sn-P
Leaded phosphor bronzes Cu-Sn-Pb-P
Copper-phosphorus and copper-silver-
Cu-P-Ag
phosphorus alloys
Aluminum bronzes Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Si-Sn
Silicon bronzes Cu-Si-Sn
Copper-nickels Cu-Ni-Fe
Nickel silvers Cu-Ni-Zn

Aluminum Alloys

Aluminum Alloys can be divided into nine groups.


Major Alloying Element
Designation

Unalloyed (pure) >99% Al


1xxx
Copper is the principal alloying element, though other
2xxx elements (Magnesium) may be specified

Manganese is the principal alloying element


3xxx
4xxx Silicon is the principal alloying element
5xxx Magnesium is the principal alloying element
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon are principal alloying elements
Zinc is the principal alloying element, but other elements such
7xxx as Copper, Magnesium, Chromium, and Zirconium may be
specified
8xxx Other elements (including Tin and some Lithium compositions)
Reserved for future use
9xxx

1xxx Series. These grades of aluminum are characterized by excellent


corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivities, low
mechanical properties, and excellent workability. Moderate increases in
strength may be obtained by strain hardening. Iron and silicon are the major
impurities.

2xxx Series. These alloys require solution heat treatment to obtain optimum properties;
in the solution heat-treated condition, mechanical properties are similar to, and
sometimes exceed, those of low-carbon steel. In some instances, precipitation heat
treatment (aging) is employed to further increase mechanical properties. This treatment
increases yield strength, with attendant loss in elongation; its effect on tensile strength
is not as great.

The alloys in the 2xxx series do not have as good corrosion resistance as most other
aluminum alloys, and under certain conditions they may be subject to intergranular
corrosion. Alloys in the 2xxx series are good for parts requiring good strength at
temperatures up to 150 C (300 F). Except for alloy 2219, these alloys have limited
weldability, but some alloys in this series have superior machinability.
3xxx Series. These alloys generally are non-heat treatable but have about 20% more
strength than 1xxx series alloys. Because only a limited percentage of manganese (up
to about 1.5%) can be effectively added to aluminum, manganese is used as major
element in only a few alloys.

4xxx Series. The major alloying element in 4xxx series alloys is silicon, which can be
added in sufficient quantities (up to 12%) to cause substantial lowering of the melting
range. For this reason, aluminum-silicon alloys are used in welding wire and as brazing
alloys for joining aluminum, where a lower melting range than that of the base metal is
required. The alloys containing appreciable amounts of silicon become dark gray to
charcoal when anodic oxide finishes are applied and hence are in demand for
architectural applications.

5xxx Series. The major alloying element is Magnesium an when it is used as a major
alloying element or with manganese, the result is a moderate-to-high-strength work-
hardenable alloy. Magnesium is considerably more effective than manganese as a
hardener, about 0.8% Mg being equal to 1.25% Mn, and it can be added in considerably
higher quantities. Alloys in this series possess good welding characteristics and
relatively good resistance to corrosion in marine atmospheres. However, limitations
should be placed on the amount of cold work and the operating temperatures (150
degrees F) permissible for the higher-magnesium alloys to avoid susceptibility to stress-
corrosion cracking.

6xxx Series. Alloys in the 6xxx series contain silicon and magnesium approximately in
the proportions required for formation of magnesium silicide (Mg2Si), thus making them
heat treatable. Although not as strong as most 2xxx and 7xxx alloys, 6xxx series alloys
have good formability, weldability, machinability, and relatively good corrosion
resistance, with medium strength. Alloys in this heat-treatable group may be formed in
the T4 temper (solution heat treated but not precipitation heat treated) and strengthened
after forming to full T6 properties by precipitation heat treatment.

7xxx Series. Zinc, in amounts of 1 to 8% is the major alloying element in 7xxx series
alloys, and when coupled with a smaller percentage of magnesium results in heat-
treatable alloys of moderate to very high strength. Usually other elements, such as
copper and chromium, are also added in small quantities. 7xxx series alloys are used in
airframe structures, mobile equipment, and other highly stressed parts. Higher strength
7xxx alloys exhibit reduced resistance to stress corrosion cracking and are often utilized
in a slightly overaged temper to provide better combinations of strength, corrosion
resistance, and fracture toughness.

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