Integratingyogaepistemologyandontologyinto

anexpandedintegralapproachtoresearch
ByWilliamBraud

Thisnewpsychologylookstomeverymuchlikechildrenlearningsomesummaryandnot
veryadequatealphabet...andimaginingthattheirfirstbookofobscurebeginnings.
..istheveryheartoftherealknowledge.Theylookfromdownupandexplainthe
higherlightsbythelowerobscurities;butthefoundationofthesethingsisaboveandnot
below..Thesuperconscient,notthesubconscient,isthetruefoundationofthings.The
significanceofthelotusisnottobefoundbyanalysingthesecretsofthemudfrom
whichitgrowshere;itssecretistobefoundintheheavenlyarchetypeofthelotusthat
bloomsforeverintheLightabove....youmustknowthewholebeforeyoucanknow
thepartandthehighestbeforeyoucantrulyunderstandthelowest.Thatisthepromiseof
thegreaterpsychologyawaitingitshour
SriAurobindo(1993,p.97)
ThischapteraddresseswaysinwhichYogic(andrelated)principlesandpracticescanbe
introducedmorefullyintopsychologicalresearch,inordertoallowthatresearchand
psychologyitselftobemoreinclusive,integrated,andrelevanttohumanpsychospiritual
concerns.Muchofthechaptertakestheformofanillustrativecasestudyofhowthisapproach
alreadyisbeingimplementedinthecurriculumofonegraduatepsychologyprogramthatof
theInstituteofTranspersonalPsychologyinPaloAlto,CA.
Forstudentswhoinitiallyencounterresearchcoursesintheirgraduatepsychology
training,researchandempiricalarethoughttobesynonymouswithquantitativeand
experimental.IntheresearchcoursesoftheInstituteofTranspersonalPsychology,however,
____________________
ThisoriginallywaspreparedasaninvitedpaperforaSeminaronYogaasaKnowledgeSystem,organizedby
theIndianPsychologyInstitute,Pondicherry,India,January1417,2007.Itlaterbecamethefollowingbook
chapter:Braud,W.(2010).IntegratingYogaepistemologyandontologyintoanexpandedintegralapproachto
research.InM.Cornelissen,G.Misra,&S.Varma(Eds.),FoundationsofIndianpsychology.NewDelhi:
Pearson.(bookinpreparation).Donotciteorquotewithoutauthorspermission.

1
theysooncometoappreciatethatthereismoretoquantitativeresearchthanexperimentsthat
thisformofresearchalsoincludeslessrestrictivecausalcomparativeandcorrelational
approaches.Moreimportant,theyalsoquicklylearnthatresearchlegitimatelyincludesevenless
restrictivequalitativeapproaches,andthatempiricalcanbeunderstoodinitsoriginalmeaning
ofbeingbasedonexperience.Thisgrowthofstudentsunderstandingofthenatureofresearch
mimicstheongoingextensionandexpansionofresearchanddisciplinedinquiryapproachesin
psychologyatlarge.
Althoughstillenthralledbypositivisticandcognitivebehaviouralassumptionsand
practices,researchersinpsychologynowareemployinganincreasingvarietyofqualitative
methodsandinquiryapproaches.Theseincludeformsofresearchwithnamessuchas
cooperativeinquiry,groundedtheory,hermeneutics,heuristicresearch,multiplecasestudies,
narrativeresearch,participatoryactionresearch,andphenomenologicalresearch(seeBraud&
Anderson,1998).Virtuallyalloftheseacknowledgethecrucialimportanceoftheresearcher
asthechiefinstrumentofknowingandalsoemphasizehumanlivedexperiencesastheir
primarysubjectmatter.
Alongwiththisfelicitousextensionandexpansionofresearchapproaches,therehasbeen
acorrespondinggrowthintherecognitionofalternativeandcomplementarymodesofknowing.
Withinpsychology,someofthesehavebeenidentifiedwithdifferentintelligences(multiple
intelligences,somaticintelligence,emotionalintelligence,spiritualintelligence),feminineways
ofknowing,formsofknowingassociatedwithdifferentstatesofconsciousness,intuition,tacit
knowing,anddifferentformsoflearningandmemory(seeBraud,2006a).
Contemporarypsychologistsnowrecognizeanexpandedrangeofwhatmightbeknown.
Theystudyobservablebehavioursandactionsofindividuals,groups,societies,andcultures,but
theyalsohavedevelopedtechnologiesthatallowthemtoexplorecovertprocessessuchas
physiologicalreactionsandtheconcomitantsofimagery,thinking,memories,andvolition.They
nowinvestigateintangiblessuchasqualia,meanings,imaginings,symbolicandeven
unconsciousprocesses.
Thesedevelopmentshavebeenusefulandfruitful,yettheyremainunnecessarilylimited.
Despitetheseextensionsandexpansions,muchstillhasbeenleftout,andmuchremainsundone.
Thereisaneedforevenmoreinclusiveformsofresearchanddisciplinedinquiryformsthat
2
providegreateropportunitiesforsynergisticinteractionsofknowledgegain,clinicalandother
practicalapplications,andthepersonalandpsychospiritualgrowth,development,andeven
possibletransformationoftheresearcher.Thereisaneedforeffectivebridgingofscienceand
thevariousspiritualandwisdomtraditions.Growthinareasofmorality,scholarship,depthand
subtletyofthought,care,andwisdomseemsnottohavekeptpacewiththegrowthof
knowledge.Althoughwehaveexperiencedgreatadvancesintechnology,todayweappearto
knowmoreandmoreaboutlessandless,andknowlessandlessabouttrulyimportantmatters
mattersofultimateconcern.
Indianpsychologyandyogicepistemologyandontologycancontributemuchtoenrich
researchandhelpsatisfytheneedsmentionedabove.Theaimofthischapteristodescribeways
inwhichYogicprinciples,andprocessescloselyrelatedtothese,alreadyhavebeenusefully
introducedintoresearchpraxis,andtosuggestadditionalwaysinwhichaspectsofYogamight
beintegratedintoresearchinthefutureandhowthismightenlivenandtransformtheresearch
enterprise.Beforetreatingthesecontributions,someadditionalbackgroundwillbeuseful.

Apluralisticepistemology
Above,therewasanallusiontotheincreasingrecognition,inWesternpsychology,of
alternativemodesofknowing.Differentformsofknowinghavereceivedequalorgreater
attentionoutsideofWesternpsychologyinphilosophyandinthegreatspiritualandwisdom
traditions,particularlyintheIndiantradition.
Virtuallyalltraditionshavedistinguishedformsofknowingthatareintellectualandof
theheadfromthosethatareexperientialandoftheheart.Inintellectualknowing,theknower
isremovedfromwhatistobeknown;theknowingismediated,andittendstobeacademic,
abstract,andcognitive.Experientialknowingisfullyanddeeplylived,immediate,and
embodied;ittendstobeparticularandconcrete.
IntheWest,thesemajorcomplementaryformsofknowinghavebeenvariouslydescribed
andnamed.InearlyGreekphilosophy,theyappearasdianoia(thediscursive,conceptualizing,
andlogicalfaculty)andnous(thelargestmanifestationofmind,thedeepestcoreofonesbeing
thatcouldknowtheinneressencesorprinciplesofthingsbymeansofdirectapprehensionor
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perception).Dianoiawasonlypartofnous(seePalmer,Sherrard&Ware,1995,pp.427437).
Nouspossessedqualitiesmorespiritualthanmind,moreintellectualthanspirit(Underhill,
1960,p.121).InthewellknownopeningpassageofEnnead4.8.1,Plotinusmentioned
descendingfromIntellect(nous)todiscursivereasoning(dianoia).
IntheMiddleAges,thedifferentformsofknowingoftenweredescribedasdifferent
eyestheeyeoftheflesh(sensoryknowing),theeyeofreason(mentalknowing),andtheeye
ofcontemplation(spiritualknowing).Thesewaysofknowingwereelaborated,forexample,by
Boethius,byHughofSt.VictorandotherVictorinemystics(RichardofSt.Victor,Thomasof
St.Victor),byBonaventure,andbyThomasAquinas(seeBoethius,524/1980;Bonaventure,
1259/1953;McGinn,1996,1998;ThomasAquinas,12671273/1971).
RogerBacon(1268/1928)distinguishedtwomodesofacquiringknowledge:by
reasoning[argument]andbyexperience.ForBacon,nothingcouldbesufficientlyknown
withoutexperience;whenonehashadanactualexperience,onesmindwasmadecertainand
restedinthefulllightoftruth.
WilliamJames,inthePrinciplesofPsychology(1890/1950),distinguishedtwokindsof
knowledge:knowledgeabout(whichmightalsobecalledrepresentativeknowledge,andof
whichthoughts,conceptions,andjudgmentsarethevehicles)andknowledgeof[orby]
acquaintance(ofwhichfeelings,emotions,andsensationsarethevehicles;pp.221222).The
formercanbeimpartedtoothers;thelatter,becauseitisadirectandimmediateexperience,
cannotbesoimpartedthroughconventionalmeansbutmustbepartakenof,directly,by
another,inordertobeappreciated.
SimilardistinctionshavebeenmadeinthevariousstreamsoftheSufismtradition:
Knowledgeisemptyunlessitisconnectedinternallywithwhatisknown.Reasonalways
meansknowledgeatadistance,acrossthemediationoflanguageandconcepts;butwisdom
presupposessomethingliketheintimacyofbecomingwhatoneknows.Whatadifference
thereis,alGhazaliwritesinhisautobiography,betweenknowingthedefinitionofhealth
andsatiety,togetherwiththeircausesandpresuppositions,andbeinghealthyandsatisfied!
(p.55).Onlythemysticscanraiseknowledgetothelevelofgnosis(marifa),inwhichone
experienceswhatoneknowswithalltheintimacyofbeing
....(Bruns,1992,p.127)
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 WithintheNaqshbanditraditionofSufism,inusingexperienceswithfruitasmetaphors
forknowingtheDivine,theformsofknowingareelaboratedfurther:
Threekindsofknowledge...havetobeseparated,andthedifferencehastobefelt:
1. Thedescriptionofsomethingasinthewordsusedtoconveytheideaofafruit;
2. Thefeelingofsomething,aswhenonecansee,feel,andsmellafruit;
3. Theperceptiveconnectionwithsomething,aswhenonetakesandtastes,eatsand
absorbsafruit.
Thesethreedepartmentsofcognitionaredescribedinmoretechnicallanguageas:
1. Certainknowledge(IlmalYaqin),whichcomesfromtheintellect,whichtellsusthat
thereisafruit;
2. Eyeofcertainty(AynalYaqin),whichisfromtheinnereye,andoperateslikethe
sensesbutinrelationtodeeperthings;theassessmentofafruit;
3. Perfecttruth(HaqqalYaqin),whichistheexperienceofunionwithTruth.
(Schneck,1980,pp.3233)
AdditionalformsofknowingthathavebeentreatedintheWestincludeDiltheys
conceptsofErlebnis(intentionalexperience),Verstehen(empatheticunderstanding),and
Nachleben(reexperiencingorreliving;seeHargiss,2001);tacitknowingandpersonal
knowledge(Polanyi,1964);aformofknowingcalledmimesis,inwhichamemberofthe
audienceofaperformancecomestoknowthroughimitation,personalidentification,and
sympatheticresonancewithaperformer(Havelock,1963;Simon,1978);andritualknowing,in
whichparticipationinaritualcanallowonetoknowinamoredirectpersonalmannerand
embodywhatisbeingaddressedintheritualandcanfacilitatetransformativechange
(Deslauriers,1992),especiallyinliminalcontexts(McMahon,1998).Tothesemaybeadded
knowingthroughaffect,compassion,andlove;throughbeingandbecomingwhatistobe
known;throughdirectknowingandintuition;throughsympatheticresonanceandempathy;
throughunknowing;andthroughpureconsciousness(seeBraud&Anderson,1998;Forman,
1997,1999).Thevarietiesofparanormalknowingprocessesidentifiedastelepathy,
clairvoyance,andprecognitionalsocanbeaddedtothislisting(see,forexample,Braud,
2006a;Rammohan,2002).
5
 WithintheYogicandIndianpsychologytraditions,themeansofknowinghavebeen
describedwithgreatsubtletyandprecision.Threeaspectsofknowing,inparticular,canbe
highlightedhere:therefinementofknowingwithinthetrainingsystemofthePatajaliYoga
Stras,SriAurobindosviewsofthefourtypesofknowledge,andSriAurobindosviewsofthe
processofintuition.
TheeightlimbsdescribedinthePatajaliYogaStras(see,forexample,Woods,1927)
providewaysofreadyingandpurifyingthebody,emotions,andmindforaformofknowing
throughbeingoridentifyingwithwhatistobeknown,achievedthroughsayama,theintensive
andconjointpracticeofthelastthreelimbsofdhra(concentration),dhyna(contemplation
ormeditation),andsamdhi(absorption).TheseverallimbsofPatajalirjayogayama,
niyama,sana,pryma,pratyhra,dhra,dhyna,samdhiprovidemethodsfor
systematicallyreducingthepossibleenvironmental,social,bodily,sensory,emotional,and
cognitivesourcesofnoiseordistractionthatmightserveasimpedimentsto,ordistortionsof,
accurateandsensitiveknowing.
SriAurobindo(1972,pp.524525)identifiedanddescribedfourformsofknowing:
Oursurfacecognition,ourlimitedandrestrictedmentalwayoflookingatourself,atour
innermovementsandattheworldoutsideusanditsobjectsandhappenings,isso
constitutedthatitderivesindifferentdegreesfromafourfoldorderofknowledge....A
knowledgebyidentity,aknowledgebyintimatedirectcontact,aknowledgeby
separativedirectcontact,awhollyseparativeknowledgebyindirectcontactarethefour
cognitivemethodsofNature.
ThesefourtypesofknowledgehavebeenclearlyelaboratedbyMatthijsCornelissen(2001,
pp.79):
SriAurobindodistinguishesfourdifferenttypesofknowledgethatareroutinelyusedin
theordinarywakingstate.Togethertheyformagradientbetweentheexternalknowledge
thatScienceworkswithandtheinnerknowledgethataccordingtotheVedictraditionis
theessenceofallotherformsofknowledge.Thefourtypesofknowledgearecalledas
follows:
1. Knowledgebyindirectseparativecontact(=scientificknowledgeoftheouterreality)
2. Knowledgebydirectseparativecontact(=objectiveintrospectionofinnerprocesses)
6
3. Knowledgebydirectintimatecontact(=experientialknowledgeofinnerprocesses)
4. Knowledgebyidentity(=Vedicknowledge)

Thefirsttypeofknowledge,knowledgebyindirectseparativecontact,consistsof
explicit,objectiveinformationaboutwhatweseeastheexternalworld.SriAurobindo
describesitasindirectbecauseitismediatedbytheexternalsenseorgans,andas
separativebecauseitgoestogetherwithasenseofclearseparationbetweentheself,who
istheknower,andtheobject,whichistheknown.Thistypeofknowledgehasbeen
developedandexpandedimpressivelybythephysicalsciences...
Thelasttype,knowledgebyidentity,istheverydifferenttypeofknowledgethat
wehaveofourownexistence.Forthistypeofknowledgethesensesarenotrequiredas
itisaknowledgethatarises"frominsideout."Itistheknowledgewehaveofourselves
simplybecauseweare.Thereisnodifferenceherebetweensubjectandobjectand,ina
way,notevenaprocess:knowingandbeingareone.Inourordinarywaking
consciousness,knowledgebyidentityishardlydevelopedandalmostpointlikein
character:itisundifferentiatedandhasnoothercontentthanthebarefactofitsown
existence.ButaccordingtotheVedictradition,itispossible,throughextensivespiritual
practice,todevelopthistypeofknowingfurtherandthenthereisnotheoreticallimitto
itsscope.Itisthroughthistypeofknowledgethattheindividualisconsideredcapableof
realisinghisorheridentitywiththeCosmicortheTranscendentDivine.Itisalsothis
typeofknowledgetheUpaniadspeaksaboutwhenitsays:"WhenThatisknown,allis
known."Thelogicbehindthisamazinglyboldstatementisthatknowledgebyidentityis
inessencetheknowledgeoftheSelf,andasallindividualSelvesareultimatelyone,itis
consideredpossibletohaveanintimateselfknowledgeofotherselves.Thisclaimisin
principleopenforexperimentaltesting,butitmaybeclearthatitrequiresaratherradical
changeinmanyaspectsofonescognitivefunctioningtomakeknowledgebyidentity
operationaltoasubstantialdegree.Itshouldnotbesurprising,however,ifsmaller
manifestationsofthebasicprinciplewouldbefoundtobefairlycommon,forexamplein
occurrencesoftelepathiccommunication.
Inbetweenthesetwoextremestherearetwomoretypesofknowledge,bothusedfor
ourinternalstatesandprocesses.Thefirstisknowledgeaboutinternal,psychological

7
 andphysiologicalstatesandprocessesobtainedbylooking"objectively"atwhatis
happeninginsideoneself....Inthistypeofknowledgethereisasmallgapbetween
theobserverandtheinnerprocessthatisbeingobserved.Thistypeofknowledgeis
thuscalledknowledgebyseparativedirectcontact,separativebecausethereisthis
senseofdistancebetweentheknowerandtheknown,directbecausetheoutersenses
arenotrequired.Thistypeofknowledgewas,underthenameof"introspection,"used
extensivelyinPsychologytilltheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcenturywhenitwas
discardedinfavourofapurelyexternalstudyofbehaviour....
Inthethirdtypeofknowledgeoneidentifieswithsomeinnerpsychologicalstate
orprocess.Oneisconscious,butonedoesnotobservewhatisgoingoninsidebecause
oneisfullyinvolvedinwhatoneisdoing....Thisthirdtypeisthuscalledknowledge
byintimatedirectcontact,intimatebecausetheobserverisunitedwiththeobserved,and
directbecausetherearenointermediarysenseorgansinvolved.Knowledgebyintimate
directcontactishardlyusedinthedevelopmentofsciencebut,underthenameof
"experientialknowledge,"itisanessentialelementofallformsof"learningbydoing"
andthetrainingofskills....Itcanbetrainedtoextraordinarylevelsofintensityand
refinementbyspiritualpracticeanditplaysanimportantroleinmostmysticaltraditions.
SriAurobindo(1972,pp.946947,949)describedaspecialformofknowingthathecalled
intuition.Intuition,ofcourse,hasmeantmanydifferentthingstodifferentpeople.For
Aurobindo,ithasaspecialmeaning,asfollows:
Intuitionisapowerofconsciousnessnearerandmoreintimatetotheoriginalknowledge
byidentity;foritisalwayssomethingthatleapsoutdirectfromaconcealedidentity.Itis
whentheconsciousnessofthesubjectmeetswiththeconsciousnessintheobject,
penetratesitandsees,feelsorvibrateswiththetruthofwhatitcontacts,thattheintuition
leapsoutlikeasparkorlightningflashfromtheshockofthemeeting;orwhenthe
consciousness,evenwithoutanysuchmeeting,looksintoitselfandfeelsdirectlyand
intimatelythetruthorthetruthsthatarethereorsocontactsthehiddenforcesbehind
appearances,thenalsothereistheoutbreakofanintuitivelight;or,again,whenthe
consciousnessmeetstheSupremeRealityorthespiritualrealityofthingsandbeingsand
hasacontactualunionwithit,thenthespark,theflashortheblazeofintimatetruth
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 perceptionislitinitsdepths.Thiscloseperceptionismorethansight,morethan
conception:itistheresultofapenetratingandrevealingtouchwhichcarriesinitsight
andconceptionaspartofitselforasitsnaturalconsequence.Aconcealedorslumbering
identity,notyetrecoveringitself,stillremembersorconveysbytheintuitionitsown
contentsandtheintimacyofitsselffeelingandselfvisionofthings,itslightoftruth,its
overwhelmingandautomaticcertitude....
Intuitionhasafourfoldpower.Apowerofrevelatorytruthseeing,apowerof
inspirationortruthhearing,apoweroftruthtouchorimmediateseizingofsignificance,
whichisakintotheordinarynatureofitsinterventioninourmentalintelligence,a
poweroftrueandautomaticdiscriminationoftheorderlyandexactrelationoftruthto
truth,thesearethefourfoldpotenciesofIntuition.Intuitioncanthereforeperformall
theactionofreason,includingthefunctionoflogicalintelligence,whichistoworkout
therightrelationofthingsandtherightrelationofideawithidea,butbyitsown
superiorprocessandwithstepsthatdonotfailorfalter.
DonSalmon(2001,pp.3133)hasprovidedausefultreatmentofSriAurobindosviews
onintuition,elaboratingtheconcept,identifyingitwithAurobindosconceptionofthefacultyof
supramentalconsciousness(Aurobindosvijna),distinguishingitfromotherprocesses,
indicatinghowitunderliesallotherformsofknowing,andsuggestingwaysinwhichintuition
mightbedeveloped.Thelatteristreatedlaterinthispaper.
ThesimplestdescriptionofintuitionisthedirectknowledgeofReality,aknowledgein
whichtheknowerisnotseparatefromeithertheprocessofknowingortheobjectwhich
isknown....Itistheconsciousnessofthesubject(thepercipientforwhichthebrain
constructstheimage)meetingupwiththeconsciousnessintheobject(theapparently
separateperceivedobjectachair,tree,rock,etc.)thatisunitedbymeansofanintuition
whichisrootedinthesameSelfcommontoboth....Inusingintuitiononehasto
becomeinvolvedinwhatoneknows,butwithoutgettinglostinit....Intuitionunderlies
virtuallyallformsofknowing,whetherinstinctive,aesthetic,imaginativeorintellectual.
Anadditionalformofknowing,describedincertainIndiantraditions,isthatof
aktipatha,whichinvolvesthedirecttransmissionofexperientialknowledgeorspiritual
9
energyfromonepersontoanother(usuallyfromgurutocel),whichmayinfluenceadramatic
changeinbeingintherecipientofsuchatransmission.
ThevariousWesternandIndianviewspresentedabovesuggestapluralisticepistemology
involvingaspectrumofwaysofknowing.Therangeandvarietiesofwhatmightbeknownin
thesedifferentwaysalsosuggestsapluralisticontologyaspectrumofknowables,witheach
aspectofthatspectrumhavingitsdistinctivereality.

Apluralisticontology
Nearthebeginningofthischapter,thevarietyofobjectsofknowingthatarebeingexploredin
contemporaryWesternpsychologythebigthreebeingaffects,behaviours,andcognitions
wasmentioned.Thiscouldbeexpandedtoincludeawiderangeofphysical,physiological,
somatic,emotional,mental,imaginal,societal,andculturalprocessesandcontents,whichcan
beaddressedbyacombinationoffirstperson,secondperson,andthirdpersonapproachesthat
arebeingappliedtothestudyofconsciousness(e.g.,Varela&Shear,2002)andbymeansofthe
fourmajorperspectivesdescribedbyKenWilber(2000)inhisthepopularallquadrants,all
levels(AQAL)model(whichaddressesobjectsofknowingandcorrespondingwaysof
knowingthatcanfocusoninteriororexterioraspectsofindividualsorcollectives).This
spectrumofwhatmightbeknowncanbefilledoutandextendedbyaddingsensations,
perceptions,feelings,memories,meanings,symbolicappreciations,andotherqualia.
However,theseadditionsarenotsufficientlybold.Tobetruetohumanexperience,we
shouldaddmoresubtlequalitiesofthings,others,andourselvescharacteristicsthatmightbe
perceivednotinmoreconventionalways,butthroughlessfamiliarformsofinnerknowing,
directknowing,intuition,andgnosis.Someofthesewouldincludesubtlefieldsandsubtle
energiesaroundorwithinobjects,plants,animals,andpersons;perceivedpresencesofvarious
sorts;experientialencounterswithotherrealmsorbeings,withtheSelf,withtheDivine,withthe
One.
Theperceptionsandknowingsofthetypesofsubtlequalitiesjustmentionedcanbetreated
inconventionalscience,psychology,andphenomenologysimplyasexperiences,without
confrontingtheissueoftheontologicalstatusoftheobjectsorelicitorsoftheexperiences.The
10
questionoftherealityoftheseobjects/elicitorsreceivesmuchgreaterattentionin
parapsychologyandpsychicalresearch,transpersonalpsychology,mysticalstudies,andinthe
greatwisdomandspiritualtraditions.Theseobjectsorelicitorsarejustasrealasarethemore
familiarobjectsofourexperience,butthattheypartakeofdifferentformsofrealitythatusually
arenotavailabletoourconventionalsensesinordinaryconditionsofconsciousnessbutcan
becomeavailabletofacultiesthatareunderstoodasunconsciousorsuperconscious,inother
statesofconsciousness.Intheterminologyofthethreeeyesofknowing,theseobjectsand
elicitorsmaynotbeseenbytheeyeofflesh,butmaybeseenbytheeyesofthemind,ofthe
heart,ofthespirit.Anevenboldersuggestionwouldbethateachobjectofknowingpossessesits
ownformofconsciousnesswithwhichtheconsciousnessoftheknowercanconnectandthus
knowdirectly,inaninternalmanner.SuchasuggestionisconsistentwithSriAurobindos
(1970,pp.2,234237)viewthatconsciousnessandinherentintuitionarepresentthroughout
existencebothaboveandbelowthehumanrange,evenininanimatematter,whereitmay
appearnonexistentbutvariableinitsstatus,condition,andoperation.
Mentioningthethreeeyesraisestheissueofmatchingtheappropriateeyetothenatureof
whatistobeseen.KenWilber(1990)haswarnedoftheriskofcategoryerror,whenoneeye
attemptstousurptherolesoftheothertwo(p.7).Therewouldappeartobethreepositions
withrespecttothisissue.First,onecancontendthateacheye(eachmodeofknowing)isadapted
andspecialized(prepared,adequate)foronesetofdata(objects,elicitors);eacheyecansee
onlyinitsownrealm,anditmakesnosensetoexpectoneeyetolookintotherealmofanother
eye.Second,onecanagreethateacheyeisoptimizedforaparticularrealm,butsomeseepageor
crosstalk(generalization,transfer)canoccur;oneeyemay,underspecialconditions,see
imperfectglimpses,orglimpsesofonlycertainaspects,ofwhatusuallyisavailableonlyto
anothereye.Third,perhapstheeyeshavedifferentfieldsofview;someeyesmayseeonlyvery
narrowly(theirownrealms),whereasothersmighthavemuchbroaderanddeepervisionand
mightseeallornearlyallofwhatmightbeseen(inallornearlyallrealms).
Inagreementwiththisfirstposition,onemightimagineaspectrumofmodesof
knowingperfectlyalignedwithaspectrumofknowables,withverynarrowcorrespondences
andlimitationsofwhateachmodeisabletoknow.Thisisperhapsthemostcommonlyaccepted
viewofscienceandofdisciplinedinquiry.Accordingtothesecondposition,categoryerrors
11
couldbedefeatedinthatsomefeaturesofsomeknowablescouldbeavailabletoallmodesof
knowing.Examplesofthispossibilityaretheempiricalfindingswithinthefieldof
parapsychology(psiresearch)thatthethoughtsandintentionsofonepersonmaybeassociated
withtracesthatcaninfluenceotherpersonsorevenphysicalmeasuringdevices;otherexamples
wouldbeobservationsofcertainparapsychologicalresemblancesoranalogsofmysticaland
revelatoryexperiences,orobservationsofbrainactivitypatternsassociatedwithformsof
meditation,contemplation,andprayer.Here,itmightbemoreaccuratetospeakofvarieties,
ratherthanspectra,ofknowingsandknowables,withvariousdegreesofoverlapsamongthem.
Amoredetailedexample,presentedelsewhere(Braud,1994,p.30),mayfurtherclarify
thenatureofthissecondposition:
Imagineathreedimensionalcubeconstructedoftwelvesticks,andimaginealight
sourceprojectingtheshadowofthiscubeframeontoatwodimensionalsheetofpaper.
Viewedonlyasatwodimensionalprojection,thecubehaslostitsthirddimension,and
itsrealityhasbeen"steppeddown."Imagine,further,thatthelightsourcebeginstomove
andthatthecubebeginstomoveandtorotate.Thecube'stwodimensionalprojection
willchangedramatically.Ifoneislimitedtoastudyofthetwodimensionalsurface,what
onecansayaboutthecubeitselfwillbelimitedandnecessarilyincomplete.The
constantlychanging,andsometimesapparentlycontradictory,patternsoftheprojections
mayleadtoconfusionandseemingparadoxesaboutthesourceoftheseshadows.To
attempttodrawfinalconclusionsaboutthenatureofthecubefromanyoneshadow
patternwouldbeunwise.Tobuildupaconceptionofthecubegradually,andby
consideringalloftheprojectionsandtheirpossibleinterrelationships,wouldprovidea
truerpictureofthecube'snature.Althougheachprojectionisincomplete,itis
nonethelesstruetoaparticularaspectofthecube.Invariantrelationshipsofaspectsofthe
cubeinthreespacewillbereflectedinsimilarlyinvariantrelationshipswithinthetwo
spaceshadowprojections.Theprojectionsnevertellusanythingfalseaboutthecube.
Theirlessonsaremerelyincompleteandrelative.
Inthiscubeandshadowsexample,theeyeofthetwodimensionalpapercancaptureatleast
certainaspectsofthecubethatwouldbeavailabletoaneyecapableofseeingthecube,
clearlyanddirectly,inthreedimensionalspace.
12
 Accordingtothethirdposition,acertainformofknowingmightbeabletoaccessthe
essentialqualitiesofallknowables.ThiswouldseemtobethecontentionofSriAurobindo,
whenhearguesthatknowledgebyidentity(Vedicknowledge)orbyintuitioncanknowallthatis
essentialabouttheManybecauseoftheunderlyingonenesssharedbytheknowerandthe
multipleknowns.RelevantherearetheUpaniadicavowal,"WhenThatisknown,allisknown"
(citedinCornelissen,2001,p.8),aswellasAurobindos(1981)statementaboutknowingthe
entireuniverseinoneofitsfrontalappearances(p.30).
Anotherissuethatarisesinthecontextofthepluralityofknowingmodesandthe
manifoldobjectsofknowingisthequestionofwhethertheremightbehierarchiesofefficacy,
power,orqualityforthevariouswaysofknowingandofvalue,worth,orimportanceforthe
manyobjectsofknowing.Suchhierarchies(orholarchies)areimpliedbythespectrum
conceptualization.Inequalitiesamongformsofknowingandamongwhatmightbeknownare
impliedbyKurtGdelsandGregoryChaitinstheoremsandtheoriesthatcertainthingsarenot
knowablewithinagivensystemandthatnosystemcanexplainanyothersystemthatismore
complexthanitself(Gdel,1962;Nagel&Newman,1958;Rucker,1987),aswellasby
HustonSmiths(1992,pp.119,151,200)contentionthataformofknowingmightnotbe
capableofunderstandinganythingthatissuperiortoitselfinqualitiesofintelligence,
awareness,compassion,value,orworth.Theseviewssuggestthattherearecertainthingsthat
wemightnevertrulyknow.However,thispositionmightbecounteredbytheunderstandingof
tattvamasi(thatthouart)thatinanessentialandprofoundmannerweareallthingsand
thereforeareabletoknowallthings,throughaknowledgebyidentity.
Giventhesecontextualizationsoftherangesandlimitsofknowingsandknowables,we
arereadytomoveontoaconsiderationpracticalwaysinwhichYogicprinciplesandtechniques
havebeenormightbeintroducedintoresearchpraxis.

Initialintegrationsofyogicprinciplesandpracticesintoresearch
ThissectionprovidesdescriptionsofwaysinwhichYogicandrelatedprinciplesandpractices
alreadyarebeingimplementedintotheformsofresearchconductedattheInstituteof
TranspersonalPsychology.
13
 TheInstitutesgeneralatmosphere.BecauseoftheInstitutesemphasisontranspersonal
psychology,itsgeneralambiancealreadyisonethatisfavourabletotheaims,values,and
principlesofYogaandIndianPsychology.Mostofthefacultyandstudentsalreadyhave
backgrounds,interests,andexperiencesrelevanttospiritualityandtopsychospiritualgrowthand
transformation.Inaddition,theInstitutespedagogyemphasizesexperientialandwholeperson
teachingandlearning,andthisfitswellwiththegeneralemphasesofyoga.Asubsetofthe
facultyandstudentsareengagedmorespecificallyandactivelyinthespiritualandwisdom
traditionsofHinduism,Buddhism,AdvaitaVednta,andvariousformsofyoga,perse,and
thesepersonsalreadyareintegratingyogicandyogiclikeprinciplesandpracticesintotheirlives
andwork,includingtheirresearchendeavours.Allofthisprovidesaveryhospitablecontextfor
theimplementationofthewaysofIndianPsychologyintotheresearchconductedatthe
Institute.However,thepresenceofthisspecialconduciveatmosphere,totheextentthatitisnot
availableelsewhere,suggestscautioningeneralizingwhatmayormaynotbepossibleor
successfulinotherresearchcontexts.
InclusionsinIntegralInquiry.TheresearchapproachofIntegralInquiry(Braud,1994,
1998a,1998b)includesseveralprinciplesandpracticesthataredirectlyorindirectlyrelatedto
yogaandtoIndianpsychologymoregenerally.Thenamingofthisapproachhadnothingtodo
withtheIntegralYogaandIntegralYogaPsychologyofSriAurobindo(1948/2000)andThe
Mother,theintegralstructureofconsciousnessdescribedbyJeanGebser(1949/1986),orthe
IntegralPsychologyofKenWilber(2000).However,theapproachhasconsiderableoverlaps
withtheseviews.WithIntegralYoga,theapproachsharestheaimofbeingasinclusiveand
integrativeaspossible,inbothitsepistemologyanditsontology.Theapproachacknowledges
thelegitimacyofagreatvarietyofwaysofknowing(endorsingWilliamJames[1912/1976]
radicalempiricism)andlevelsofwhatistobeknown(levelsofreality).Thefollowingare
additionalareasofoverlapandcorrespondencebetweenIntegralInquiryandtheemphasesof
IntegralYogaandIndianpsychologyatlarge:
Emphasisonexperienceasdisciplinedinquirysprimarysubjectmatter
Researchmaybetransformativefortheresearcher,theresearchparticipants,andthe
audienceofaresearchreport
Inclusionofbodily,emotional,aesthetic,andintellectualfacetsinresearchandas
validityindicators
14
 Recognitionofthelimitationsofpurelyintellectualorexclusivelysensoryapproaches
toresearch
Theimportanceoftheprocessesofintention,attention,andintuitioninresearch
Thepossibilityofdirectknowingandknowingthroughbeingorbecomingwhatistobe
known
Stressingtheimportanceoftheadequacyorpreparednessoftheresearcher
Clearingandoptimizingresearcherasinstrumentthroughreductionofpsychological
impedanceandsourcesofdistraction,bias,andnoise
Patajalissayamaasawayofknowing
Acknowledgingtheresearchrelevantcontributionsofmanydisciplines(naturalsciences,
socialandhumansciences,humanities,arts,spiritualandwisdomtraditions)
Preparationoftheresearcher.Itiswellrecognizedthataresearchersknowledge,skills,
andcharacteristicsareoftheutmostimportanceinresearch.Theresearchersownqualities
informallaspectsofaresearchproject.Thesequalitieshelpdeterminethesubjectsandtopicsto
beinvestigated;howprojectsareframed;thenatureofresearchhypothesesorquestions;how
researchparticipantsaretreated;howdataarecollected,analyzed,andreported;andwhereand
howonelooksforinspirationandsupportthroughouttheresearchprocess.Researcher
characteristicsareespeciallyimportantinqualitativeresearch,inwhichtheresearcheristhe
majorinstrumentintheresearchproject,andinwhichallmaterialsarecollected,processed,
andinterpretedthroughthefiltersthataretheresearcherspersonalqualities.Thisaspectof
researchhasbeenrecognizedinthequalitativeapproachofgroundedtheoryinitstreatmentof
theoreticalsensitivity,inwhichtheinvestigatorspriorfamiliaritywithwhatisstudiedandheror
hisobservationalandinterpretativeexperiencesandskillshelpinformthetheoriesthatarebeing
developedalongwithdatainteractionsthroughoutaresearchproject(Glaser,1978).Investigator
qualitiesalsohavebeentreatedbySkolimowski(1994)intermsofthevarioussensitivitiesofthe
knower,andbySchumacher(1978)astheknowersadaequatio(adequateness)withrespectto
thatwhichistobeknown.Theessenceoftheseandotherrelatedtreatmentsisthataresearcher
canknowonlythatforwhichhisorherbeinghasbeenadequatelyprepared.Someofthis
preparationmaybeinfluencedbypreexistingdispositions(perhapsgeneticallyorkarmically
informed),andotheraspectsmaybedevelopedthroughappropriatetraining.Theimportantrole
thatYogamightplayinsuchtraininghasbeenexpressedwellbyCornelissen(2001,p.11):

15
 Tomakethispossible,aconsiderablepurificationofonesinnerinstrument,or
antahkaranaisessential.Thedifferentyogictraditionsthusallhavetheirmethodsto
improvetherange,the"resolution"andthereliabilityofinnerperception.These
techniquescanbegroupedintothosethataimatgreaterconcentration,atfreedomfrom
thesensemindleadingtoanabilitytopenetratethedeeperandhigherlayersof
consciousness,andatfreedomfrompartialidentifications,thatisfromthebody,fromthe
vitaldrivesandemotions,fromonesthoughtsandfinallyfromtheegosense.These
techniquesarewithintheirtraditionconsideredtoleadtoafreeconsciousness,capableof
watchingthemovementsofPrakriti,nature,asacompletelyindependentwitness,
makingitpossibletoobserveinnereventsnotonlywithagreaterprecisionbutalsowith
aperfect"objectivity"andthusreliability.TheinnerdisciplinesofYogacanthusplay
exactlythesameroleforascienceoftheinnerrealitiesasmoderntechnologyisplaying
forthematerialsciences.
Although,inthiscomment,CornelissenwasaddressingtheuseofYogicpreparationin
developingmoreaccurateintrospection,inrefiningtheobservationofinnerexperience,thesame
techniquescanbeappliedinpreparingandpurifyingtheresearchersantakaraa(internal
organofknowing)foradeeper,moreaccurate,andmoresatisfyingstudyofanyobjectof
inquiry.Thispurificationprocesscanallowtheresearchertoreducevariousdistractionsand
biasesthatmightdistortwhatistobeknown.Thisissimilarto,butmuchmoreprofoundthan,
theroleplayedbythesocalledbracketingprocessinphenomenologicalresearch(see
Polkinghorne,1989),inwhichoneattemptstosetasidepreconceptionsandpreunderstandings
ofwhatisstudied.TheYogicpreparationandpurificationismoreprofoundinthatitaddressesa
muchwideranddeeperrangeofpossibledistractorsorimpedimentstoknowingthatcanexist
notonlyatthecognitivelevel,butatsensory,bodily,emotional,andmoresubtlelevels,aswell.
Besidesreducingpossiblyinterferingnoiseordistractions,thesesamepreparatoryand
purifyingtechniquesintheform,forexample,ofpracticingtheeightlimbsofPatajalis
Atgayogacanhelptheresearcheradjusthisorherverybeinginwaysthatcanallowmore
directformsofknowingtheobjectofresearch(i.e.,formsofknowingthroughbeingor
becomingwhatistobeknown).
16
 AttheInstitute,OlgaLouchakova(2005)hasbeendevelopingatrainingprogramfor
enhancingtheresearcherspreparedness,fitness(adaequatio),clearmindorclearinternal
instrument(antakaraauddhi),andcapacityforknowledgebypresence,basedon
principlesandpracticesfromthetraditionsofVednta,ktaVednta,Sufism,andHesychasm
(theearlymysticaltraditionwithinChristianity).
Thisresearchertrainingwasintendedtodevelopthefollowingqualities,asunderstoodin
theIndianandrelatedtraditions,andassummarizedinLouchakovasreport(2005,paraphrased
fromp.98):
Discrimination (viveka)the capacity of discernment of real and unreal, that is,
between cognitions of constant and changing elements of the mind, and eventually
betweenpureawarenessandphenomenalawareness
Dispassion(vairgya)duetocessationofresolvedorsatisfieddesires,asaprecondition
forknowledgeoftheSelf,tobefollowedbycontrolofthemindandsenses,cessationof
socialactivity,controlofpassionsandendurance,settlingdowntoreflectonthenatureof
consciousness,andfaith
Passionatedesireforliberation(mumukutvam)
Qualitiesofhumility,modesty,nonviolence,endurance,simplicity,purity,persistence,
andselfcontrol(fromthektaVedntatradition)
Removaloftheveilsofthemind,initsnaturalcondition,throughpersistenceinstudy,
contemplation,spiritualdisciplineandexercise,inthequesttodevelopamindofthe
heart,thatis,directintuition,ratherthanknowledgevialogicalprocesses(fromthe
Sufismtradition)
Purifyingtheheartthroughwatchfulness,curtailingpassions,resistingtemptationtothe
externalsenses,anddevelopingdetachment,mindfulness,andinwardlydeployed
attention(fromtheHesychasmtradition)
Developingthequalitiesnotedabovecanhelpcorrectmentalandcharacterstructuresand
processesthatordinarilyinterferewiththeclarityofdirectperceptionanddirectknowing.
Theactualtrainingexercisesinvolvedpracticeofmindfulnessinidentifying,recognizing,
andnamingformsofinternalawareness(sensing,feeling,imagining,andthinking);reflectingon
thetypeofresearchparadigm(e.g.,positivism/postpositivism,criticaltheory,constructivism)
17
thatbestfittedtheresearchersprojectandaims;anddevelopingknowledgethroughpresence
(developingmindoftheheart)throughatechniqueoffocusedintrospectiononthesenseof
self,localizingawarenessintheinnerspaceofthe(rightsideofthe)chest.
Louchakova(2005,pp.106107)describedoutcomesofthetrainingasfollows:
Startingfromthesenseofself,predominantlyidentifiedontherightsideofthechest,
studentsdescribedthelayersofintrospectiveexperiencesasemerginginthefollowing
succession:(a)senseofpersonalselfoftherightsideofthechest;(b)sensory
experiences;(c)layerofrisingemotions,subtlersensationsofenergy,andbreath;(d)
layeroftalkingmind;(e)layerofimages;(f)stillness,nothing,unknowing,likeina
deepsleep.Thislayer,(f),ofstillnessandthefollowinglayer,(g),layerofsheerintellect,
meanings,andvastspaceandsubtlementalstates,archetypes,andessentialrelations
commonlyinterpenetratedeachother.Finally,itwaspossiblethataneighthlayerwas
reached:(h)absorptionofawarenessinpuresubjectiveconsciousness...Students,inthe
courseofthetraining,learntodifferentiatebetweenthevariousmanifestationsof
consciousness....Thisdirectknowledgeofthestructuresofthepsycheprovidesavery
tangiblehelpinlearningtheskillsofphenomenologicalanalysis,bycorrelatingthe
maximsofphenomenologyandonesowninnerexperience.Phenomenologystopsbeing
perceivedasanabstractphilosophicalsystemandbecomesapracticalguidetoself
understandingandinteriortransformation.Studentsfindinternalcorrespondentsto
differentphenomenologicalterms,suchasintentionality,andlearntodiscernthe
hierarchiesofmeaningandrelationshipbetweensignifiersandthesignified...Ona
personallevel,theyreportadecreaseofimpatienceandanxietyandanincreaseofself
acceptanceandselfappreciation.Studentsreporttheshiftsintheirsenseofidentityand
attitudestowardtheworld.
Theexercisesmentionedabovefocuseduponthepreparationoftheresearcherfor
phenomenologicalresearch;however,theirusemaybegeneralizedtootherformsof
qualitativeresearchand,indeed,toresearchingeneral.Liketheseexercises,thepracticeofthe
eightlimbsofPatajaliyogaandoftheintegralresearchskillsdescribedbelowalsocanfoster
agreaterpreparednessandadequacyoftheresearcher.
18
 Integralresearchskills.IntegralResearchSkillsisthenameofthefirstinasequence
ofresearchcoursesofferedattheInstitute.Thiscourseisplacedfirstbecauseitprovidesavery
accessibleintroductiontoresearch.Inthiscourse,studentslearnhowpersonalandspiritual
practicescanbetranslatedintoskillsthatcanbeusedintheserviceofresearch.Theskillscan
playthreerolesinresearch:Theycanhelpincreasethesensitivitiesandpreparednessofthe
researcher,theycanprovidevehiclesformultiplemodalitiesofknowing,andtheycanallow
accesstoagreaterrangeofwhatmightbeknowninanyresearchproject.Theskillsarerelevant
toIndianPsychologyandtoYogainthattheycanhelpresearchersexperiencemoreexpanded
aspectsofthemselvesandoftheirpotentials,theycanhelpestablishpreconditionsfordirect
knowing,andsomeofthemcloselyresembleactualyogictechniques.Theskillsarecalled
integralresearchskillsbecausewhenusedtogethertheycanhelpprovideacompleteand
integrated(integral)appreciationofthetopicbeingstudied.
Table1,below,indicatestheskillscoveredinthiscourse,alongwithbriefdescriptionsof
howeachskillispracticedandused.
19

Integralresearchskillsandhowtheyarepracticedandused
TheSkills
Workingwithintention
Quietingandslowing
Playing
Workingwithattention
Auditoryskills
Visualskills,imagery,
visualization,imagination
Table1
Theirdescription,practice,anduse
Awarenessof,anddeliberateframingof,intentions
forallphasesofaresearchproject
Setsstageforuseofotherskills,relaxesandquiets,
reducesdistractionsandnoiseatmanylevels,
reducesstructuresandconstraints,allowschange,
allowsfullerobservationsandappreciationofmore
subtleaspectsofwhatisstudied
Fosterscuriosity,creativity,andinsight;encourages
beginnersmind;providesnovelty,newcombinations;
encouragesexcitement,enthusiasm,exploration
Practiceindeploying,focusing,andshiftingattention;
deautomatizingattention;attendingtodifferentforms
andchannelsofinformation;changingfocalplaneor
magnificationofattention;developingwitnessing
consciousness
Practiceindevotingmorecompleteattentionto
externalandinternalsoundsandtosoundmemories
andsoundimagination
Practiceindevotemorecompleteattentiontoouter
andinnersightsandimages;useofmemoryimages,
visualization,spontaneousandguidedimagery;active
imagination;empoweredimagination
2
0
Kinestheticskills Practiceinknowing,rem

knowingandbeingthro
movements

Proprioceptiveskills Practiceinidentifyinga
andmuscularsensations
feelings,affectiveknow

Directknowing,intuition,
empathicidentification
Identifyingwiththeobj
throughpresence,empa
love,being,becoming,p
resonance;empathicide
processes

Accessingunconsciousprocesses Reducingegoiccontrol;
andmaterials transitionalconditions;
vehiclesthatcarryprevi
information;identifying

Mindfulness Beingpresentintime,c
disidentifyappropriately
selfobservation

Discernment Maturejudgment,integr
sourcesandnaturesofe
consciousness

Compassion Empathy,service,perso
forothers,understandin
ofothers

Appreciationofdifferences Opennesstonewinform
waysofbeing,knowing
21
 change;flexibility,inclusiveness,and
tolerance;honouringofdifferencesandothers

Studentsidentifyandpracticetheseskillsthroughexperientialexercisespresentedbythecourse
instructor.Theythenindicatehowtheymightusetheskills,inthemselvesasresearchersin
thethreemajorphasesofanyquantitativeorqualitativeresearchproject(planningand
collectingdata,workingwithdata,presentingdata).Theyalsoareencouragedtointroducethe
skillsmorefullyintotheirprofessionalworkandintotheirlives,intheserviceoftheirpersonal
growthanddevelopment.
Inadditiontoworkingwiththeseskills,themselves,asresearchers,studentsare
encouragedtoconsiderwaysinwhichtheymightrequesttheresearchparticipantsintheirfuture
studiestousesimilarskillsforpurposesofremembering,reliving,andcommunicatingpastor
presentexperiencestotheresearcher,inwaysthatmightbemorecomplete,detailed,and
accuratethanwhatmightbepossiblewithouttheuseofsuchtechniques.Also,studentsare
askedtoconsiderhowtheymightasktheaudiences/readersoftheirresearchreportstouse
similarskills,inordertomorefullyreceivethefindingsthatarebeingpresentedtothem.
Someoftheintegralresearchskillsmentionedabovearecloselyrelatedtoprinciplesand
practicesofIndianPsychologyand,especially,tocertainoftheeightlimbsofPatajaliyoga.
Noneoftheskillsarecloselyrelatedtothefirsttwolimbsyama(restraints)andniyama
(observances).Quietingandslowingaresomewhatrelatedtothethirdandfourthlimbsofsana
(postures)andpryma(vitalenergy/breathcontrol).Theauditory,visual,kinesthetic,and
proprioceptiveskills,totheextentthattheseinvolveshiftsawayfromtheouterworldandtoward
innerexperience,aresomewhatalignedwiththefifthlimbofpratyhra(sensorywithdrawal).
Theskillsofattention,directknowing,intuition,empathicidentificationand,tosomeextent,
slowingandquietingaswellsharecertainfeatureswiththesixth,seventh,andeighthlimbsof
dhran(concentration),dhyna(meditation),andsamdhi(absorption).Directknowingitself,
asaformofknowingthroughbeingorbecomingorbyidentity,isrelatedmostcloselytothe
intensiveandconjointpracticeofdhran,dhyna,andsamdhi,treatedassayamainthe
YogaStrasofPatajali.Theskillofplaying,ofcourse,resonateswiththeHinduconceptof
ll,cosmicplay.
22
 Yogicprinciplesandpracticesinpsiresearch.TheimportantrolesthatIndianthought
andYogicprinciplesandpracticeshaveplayedinpsiresearch(thescientificandscholarlystudy
ofparanormalprocessesoftelepathy,clairvoyance,precognition,psychokinesis,andrelated
phenomena)havebeentreatedextensivelyelsewhere(e.g.,Braud,2006b;Rammohan,2002;
Rao,2002).Yogicapplicationsinpsiresearchhaveemphasizedboththeory(e.g.,therelevance
oftheguasandthesiddhis)andtechnique(particularlytherelevanceofsomeofthelimbsof
PatajaliAtgayogaforthesomaticandpsychologicalpreparationofresearchparticipantsin
psiexperiments).Hereisasummary,intabularform,ofhowresearchershaveusedpractices
relatedtothoseofseveralofthelimbsofAtgayogainconductingexperimentsandexploring
relationshipsinvariousareasofpsiresearch.Table2isorganizedsimplytoindicate
concentrationsandpatternsofresearchfourclustersofresearchareasthatcorrespondtofour
clustersofyogictechniquesratherthanpreciseonetoonecorrespondences;itisrecognized
thatthevariousyogicpracticesareinterrelated,asaretheprocessesatworkinthevariouspsi
researchareas.ThereaderisreferredtoBraud(2006b)fordetailedtreatmentsofthismaterial.It
maybeofinteresttonotethatvirtuallyalloftheseapplicationshavebeeninpsiresearch
projectsthathavebeencarriedoutinaquantitativeresearchfashion.

Table2
Areasofpsiresearchandcorrespondinglimbsofyogicpractice

PsiResearchAreas YogicPractices

___ Yama(restraints)
___ Niyama(observances)

Relaxationresearch sana(postures)
Hypnosisresearch Pryma(vitalenergy/breathcontrol)

Physiologicalresearch
2
3
 Dreamtelepathyresearch Pratyhra(sensorywithdrawal)
Ganzfeldresearch

Concentration/visualizationinreceptivepsi Dhran(concentration)
Concentration/visualizationinactivepsi Dhyna(meditation)

Meditationresearch Samdhi(absorption)

Absorptionresearch

Theuseoftechniquessimilartotheyogicpracticesinexperimentalpsiresearchnotonlyindicates
therelevanceoftheIndianpracticestoresearch,buttotheextentthattheirpracticeisassociated
withaccuratepsifunctioningintheexperiments,theexperimentoutcomesprovideempiricalsupport
fortheexistenceofthesiddhilikeprocessesthatarebelieved,inIndianthought,tobeassociated
withtheextensivepracticeoftheyogictechniquesinmorenaturalsettings.Theseempirical
confirmationsofcertainyogicclaimsincreasethepossibilitythatfutureresearchwillsupportthe
validityofotheryogicepistemologicalandontologicalclaimsaswell.

Furtherpossibilities
Theforegoingsectionoutlinedthebeginningsofattemptstointroduceyogicprinciplesand
practicesintoquantitativeand(especially)qualitativeresearch.Thereareseveralwaysinwhich
suchintroductionsandintegrationsmightbeincreasedinthefuture:
PracticesassociatedwitheachofthelimbsofAtgayogacouldbeintroducedmore
fullyandmoreformallyintoresearchpraxis.Presently,practicesassociatedwiththefirst
twolimbsyama(restraints)andniyama(observances)areconspicuouslyabsent.The
relevanceofthesetwolimbsnotonlytoresearchdealingwithpsychospiritualtopicsbut
toresearchatlargewouldseemtobeanespeciallyfruitfularenaforfutureexploration.
Thepracticeofthesetwolimbsshouldbeespeciallyusefulforenhancingthe
preparedness(adequacy)oftheresearcher.
24
 Inordertointroduceformsofinnerknowing(directknowing,knowledgebyidentity,
intuition)intoresearch,waysoftraininganddevelopmentoftheseformscanbe
investigatedmorefully.Anobviousfirstapproachtodevelopingdirectknowingisthe
practiceoftheeightlimbsofAtgayoga.
Severalpracticesthatmightfacilitatethedevelopmentofintuitionhavebeenidentified.
Salmon(2001)hasdescribedanumberofthese:makingourselvesmorereceptiveto
intuitionalknowing;workingwithsymbolism,metaphors,anddreams;attendingmore
fullytoconscienceorethicalintuition;preparingourselvesforintuitiveknowingby
learningmoreeffectivewaysofquietingthemind,emotions,andbody;andbypracticing
detachmentandhonesty.Thesecouldbepursuedpersonally,aswellasinformalresearch
contexts.
Salmon(2001,pp.3334)suggeststhatintuitionmightbedevelopedbyengagingin
analyticmeditation:
Analyticmeditation...involvesanalternationbetweenpurelydiscursive
reasoningandstable,onepointedconcentrationonintuitiverealizationsasthey
arise.Onetakesanideaortheme,suchastheimpermanenceofallthingsthatcan
beperceivedorconceived.Onethenengagesincarefulintellectualreasoning,and
callsupimagesandmemoriesfrompersonalexperience,bringingthecentral
themetomindwithgreatvividness,clarityandaliveness.Whenthisprocessis
pursuedwithsufficientconcentration,therewillcomemomentsinwhicha
suddeninspirationflashesintothemind.Itisessentialtoremainattunedtothe
possibilityoftheemergenceoftheseintuitivemoments,astheymayeasilypass
unrecognized.Whensuchamomentarises,activethoughtshouldbetemporarily
suspended,andallone'sconcentrationfocusedwithgreatenergyontheintuition
notmanipulatingit,simplyjustfocusingonitnomatterhowvagueitmayat
firstappear.Overthecourseoftime,ifthispracticeisfollowedwithdiligence,a
changemaygraduallyoccurinwhichthediscursivereasoningtakesonamore
intuitiveandglobalquality,whiletheintuitionsthatemergegaininacutenessof
perceptionanddiscernment.
Mentioningintuitiveandglobalqualitycallstomindafascinatingandpotentially
powerfulresearchtooltheprojectivedifferential,developedbyPeterRaynolds(1997).

25
 Theprojectivedifferential(PD)isastandardized,holisticandintuitiveprocedurethatcan
beusedtoqualitativelyandquantitativelyassessapersonssalientintegrationof
cognitiveandaffectivereactionstoaparticulartopicthatisbeingassessed.ThePDuses
choiceresponsestoverybrieflypresentedpairsofcarefullydesigned,abstractimagesin
ordertoregisterholistic,intuitive,affective(nonverbal,unconscious)reactions,
preferences,andattitudes.Ithasfeaturessimilartothoseofthemorefamiliarsemantic
differential(Osgood,Suci,&Tannenbaum,1957).Itresemblesatachistoscopic
Rorschachpresentation.Therapidandprojectivenatureoftheprocedureservesto
minimizedeliberate,consciousdistortions,and,therefore,thePDresultsmayhave
greatervaliditythandomanydeliberate,verbalassessments.ThePDproceduresalso
includebuiltinindicatorsofthediscrepancyorincongruencebetweenitsownnovel
(imagistic,intuitive,affective)measuresandmoretraditional(verbal,consciouslyand
deliberatelyconsidered)measures.ThePDisrecommendedasaveryspecificwayin
whichtostudyaformofintuitiveknowinganditsaccompanimentsandoutcomesin
formalresearchsettings.
FutureresearchersmayprofitablyexploremethodsdescribedbySriAurobindoandThe
Mother(1956),inwritingsoneducation,fordevelopingandrefiningthemajormental
faculties.Inhissectionofthatbook,Aurobindodescribedthesefunctionsasthefour
layersoftheinnerinstrument(antakaraa):basicmentalconsciousnessandmemory
(citta);sensemind(manas);intelligence(buddhi);supermind(vijna).Inthecontext
ofthesefunctions,headdressedsimultaneousandsuccessiveteachingmethodsand
suggestedwaysofremovingobstaclesandobstructionstoknowingandwaysoftraining
theaccuracyandsensitivityofthesenses,thementalfacultiesgenerally,andthelogical
facultyspecifically.Healsoaddressedtheimaginationasamostimportantand
indispensableinstrument,anditsproperexerciseasbeingasimportantasthetrainingof
thefacultiesthatobserveandcompareoutwardthings.Manyofthemethodsand
proceduresdescribedinaprevioussectionofthispaper,onIntegralResearchSkills,are
verycloselyalignedwithAurobindossuggestionsforusefuleducationaltraining.
TheapproachofInsightDialogue,developedbyGregKramerandTerriOFalloncouldbe
exploredasawaynotonlyofaccessinginnerknowingbutalsoofcommunicatingthat
26
 knowingwithsomeoneelse.TheapproachwasdescribedbySalmon(2001,p.24)as
follows:
GregKramer...incollaborationwithTerriO'Fallon,hasdevelopedameditative
practicehecalls"InsightDialogue."Initssimplestterms,thepracticeinvolves
meditatingwhileengagedininterpersonalinteraction;inotherwords,speaking
whilemeditating....Kramerdevelopedaresearchmethodologywhichapplies
thispracticetoscientificresearch.Themethodologyhaseachindividual,ontheir
own,attemptfirsttoenterintoameditativestateofdeeptranquillityand
equanimity.Fromthisstate,theyeachengageinaprocessofintellectualand
intuitiveexplorationregardinganinnerobjectofstudysuchasaparticularmind
state,feeling,patternofsensations,sequenceofideas,memory,worldview,etc.
Afteraperiodofindividualinvestigation,theywouldcometogether.Engagingin
aninsightdialoguesession,theywouldcommunicatewhileremaininginastate
oftranquillityandequanimity,alwaysmindfulofandreceptivetoflashesof
intuitiveknowingtheresultsoftheirrespectiveinvestigations,inquiringmore
deeplyofeachother,checkingforbiases,unquestionedassumptions,etc.Perhaps
othersuchapproacheswillevolveincomingyears.
Thisdialogicinquiryapproachisdescribedindetailinanunusualjointdissertationby
KramerandOFallon(1998).
Thedialogicinquiryapproachcouldbeextendedtodevelopwaysofsharingones
innerknowingwithothers,inamannerthatmighthelpestablishthevalidityand
reliabilityofsuchknowledge.ThiswouldbeastepinthedirectionofwhatCharlesTart
(1976)hasadvocatedasstatespecificscience.
Formsofparanormalknowing(telepathy,clairvoyance,precognition)mightbe
introducedmorefullyintotheresearchenterprise,notonlyasobjectsofstudybutas
techniquestobeusedintheactualconductofresearch.TheIntegralResearchSkills
coursementionedearlieralreadyincludessomeofthesetechniquesinthecontextof
thedirectknowing,intuition,andempathicidentificationskills.
27
 Inconnectionwithparanormalknowing,theuseofexercisesrelatedtoAtgayoga,
mentionedinTable2above,couldbeextendedfromquantitativestudies,inwhichthey
typicallyhavebeenused,toqualitativeinvestigationsofpsi.
AttheInstitute,RosemarieAnderson(2004)hasbeendevelopingaresearchapproach,
IntuitiveInquiry,thatsubstantiallyhonoursintuitionasaresearchtool.Shehasidentified
fivemodesofintuition:unconsciousprocesses,psychicorparapsychological
experiences,sensorymodesofintuition,empatheticidentification,andthroughour
wounds,alongwithablendedformofthesemodes.Althoughonlysomeofthesemodes
closelyresembleintuitionasitisconsideredinthepresentpaper,agreateremphasison
themodesdescribedbyAnderson,alongwithgreaterpracticeofwaysoffosteringthose
respectivemodes,maybehelpfulinestablishingsomeofthepreconditionsnecessaryfor
theemergenceofthemoredirect,knowingbyidentity,formofintuitiondiscussedhere.
Typically,oneattemptstoexpressonesinnerknowingthroughlinearprose.Alternative
meanscouldbetriede.g.,poetry,artwork,movement,andvariousnonlinear,nonverbal
meansandthesemightbeabletocommunicatesympatheticunderstandingstoothers
thatarenotpossiblevialinearprose.Anderson(2001)hastakenstepsinthisdirection
throughdevelopingwhatshecallsembodiedwriting,inwhichoneattemptstopresence
aninnerexperiencewhilewriting,inordertoinvitethesameexperienceinareader,
throughsympatheticresonance.Thepracticesmentionedherewhichoneusuallythinks
ofonlyinconnectionwiththefineartsandthehumanitiescouldbeintroducedmore
fullyintoresearchanddisciplinedinquiryinordertocommunicateonesfindingsmore
effectivelytotheaudienceofoneswork.InIndia,thereisalongtraditionofusing
poetrytoexpressinnerknowing,asintheVedas,intheUpaniads,andinvariousforms
ofmysticalpoetry.

Additionalconsiderations
Theforegoingsectionsaddressedsomeofthewaysinwhichspecificaspectsofyogicpractices
andprinciplesandsomeaspectsofIndianpsychologyalreadyhavebeenapplied,ormightbe
applied,inthecontextofresearchpraxis.Alongwithsuchapplicationsthereariseanumberof
issuesthatmeritadditionalconsideration.Oneoftheseisthatcareisneededwhencertain

28
practicesdevelopedinonecultureareappliedinothercultures.Thesuccessofsuchapplications
mayvarywidely,dependingonthenatureofthepriorandnewcontextsandwhetherthe
practicesareappliedinunchangedorinmodifiedforms.Thisissuemaybeaddressedbypaying
carefulattentiontothecontextsoforiginationandapplicationandtohowthepracticesare
framedandpresentedtothenewusers,alongwithcarefulmonitoringoftheaccompaniments
andoutcomesoftheapplications.
Anotherissuerelatestohowandhowmuchoftheprinciplesandpracticesofone
traditionmightbewiselyappliedinanothertradition.Salmon(2001)hashighlightedthedangers
ofpickingandchoosingonlyselectedaspectsfromacomplexandwellintegratedIndian
tradition,withtheresultantrisksofdilutionsanddistortions.HeurgedtakingIndianpsychology
seriouslyhonouringitsownunderstandings,ratherthanfilteringthoseunderstandingsthrough
otherinterpretativelenses.Asexamplesofsuchfiltering,heindicatedhowcertainaspectsof
Indianthoughtandteachingsmightbevariouslyinterpretedthroughphenomenological,
historical,psychoanalytic,neuroscientific,andpostmodernistlenses.Inapplyingyogicprinciples
andpracticestoresearch,itisimportanttobealerttothepossiblelossesordistortionsthatmight
resultthroughgrossorsubtleperhapsevenunconsciousframingoftheborrowedor
translatedtechniques,influencedbythepredispositionsoftheborrowers.Onemayaddressthese
risksbyattemptingtodeepenonesunderstandingofthesourceandnatureofwhatisborrowed
asmuchaspossibleandbyattendingasfullyaspossibletotheapplicationitselfandtoitsside
effectsandoutcomes.
IntheIndianandyogictraditions,inwhichtheprinciplesandpracticestreatedinthis
paperhavetheirhome,theoverarchingemphasisisonthepsychospiritualgrowth,development,
andtransformationofthepractitioner.Inapplyingthevarioustechniquestoresearch,inother
contexts,itisimportantthatattentionbepaidnotonlytohowthosetechniquesmightfacilitate
theknowledgegainofthediscipline,butalsotohowwelltheborrowedorbridgingtechniques
mightfosterthewisdom,spiritualgrowth,andtransformativechangeoftheresearcher,the
researchparticipants,theintendedreceiversoftheresearchfindings,andsocietyandcultureat
large.
Inthisvein,thischapterendswithashortquotationfromtheconclusionofa
previouspaper(Braud,2006b,p.22):
29
 Priorusesofyogarelatedprocessesinpsiresearchmightbelikenedtostealingjewels
fromtemples.Adeeperappreciationoftheseprocessesmightfosterarealizationof
thepurposesforwhichthetempleswereconstructedinthefirstplace.

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