A

Project Report on

High Performance Phase Rotated Spreading Codes for MC-

CDMA
CONTENTS

1) Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

2) Chapter 2: BACKGROUND

3) Chapter 3: APPROACHES RELATED

4) Chapter 4: LITERATURE SURVEY

5) Chapter 5: PROPOSED METHOD

6) Chapter 6: RESULT

7) Chapter 7: CONCLUSION

8) Chapter 8: REFERENCES

APPENDIX I: MATLAB
 ABSTRACT

In conventional multi-carrier CDMA (MC-CDMA) systems, binary spreading codes such as

Hadamard-Walsh codes are employed to spread user information across all subcarriers to
exploit frequency diversity in frequency selective fading channels. We rst recap that because
of the binary nature of the spreading codes, transmission power is not distributed evenly across
all subcarriers. Oftentimes, certain subcarriers have zero transmission power, leading to less
diversity to be exploited at receiver. We employ a phase rotated spreading code design and
derive the corresponding combining scheme for the phase rotated codes. As a direct result, MC-
CDMA system now exploits full diversity available in the channel at all times, leading to
signicant performance gain. Simulation results over various multi-path fading channels
conrm the performance gain of the scheme.
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

In multi-carrier code division multiple access (MC-CDMA) systems, unique spreading codes
are assigned to different users to spread their information bits over all subcarriers to exploit
frequency diversity in frequency selective fading channels. Conventionally, binary spreading
codes such as Hadamard-Walsh codes are employed. With its excellent performance in fading
channels and ease of implementation through FFT/IFFT, MC-CDMA has attracted lots of
attention in recent years. It has been recognized that due to the nature of the spreading codes
being used in conventional MC-CDMA systems, the BER performance of the commonly used
Hadamard transform is asymptotically bad. A phase rotated spreading transform was proposed
to achieve better asymptotic performance. However, in previous works the spreading code
length is assumed to be quite small.

Therefore, either an optimum maximum likelihood detection receiver or a sub-optimum

linear equalization detection receiver can be exploited. In most of MC-CDMA systems, it is
highly desired to develop a simple yet effective subcarrier combining scheme that offers
excellent performance at minimal complexity. In this paper, we revisit the phase rotated
spreading code design for MC-CDMA system and derive the minimized mean square error
combining (MMSEC) scheme for it. We show that the MMSEC receiver can effectively exploit
full diversity and offer excellent BER performance at minimal computational complexity. The
derivation of the MMSEC also indicates that the phase rotated spreading code design reduces
the power of multiple access interference (MAI) in half. Additionally, we show that previously
developed carrier interferometry (CI) MC-CDMA (CI/MC-CDMA) systems provide phase
rotation (and consequently reduced MAI) in the majority of the subcarriers. This offers a new
understanding of the performance gain of CI/MC-CDMA systems.

Recently, there has been considerable interest in applying direct sequence spread spectrum
(SS) techniques to multiple access communications. This is partly due to its multiple access
capability, robustness against fading, and anti-interference capability. On the other hand, the
multicarrier modulation scheme, often called orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
(OFDM), has drawn a lot of attention in the field of radio communications. This is mainly
because of the need to transmit high data rate in mobile environment which makes a highly
hostile radio channel. To combat the problem, the OFDM seems to be a solution.
The combination of OFDM and CDMA for mobile radio transmission has been pro- posed
by several authors such as Multicarrier (MC-) CDMA, Multicarrier DS- CDMA,
Mutilating (MT-) CDMA. These signals can be easily transmitted and received using the
fast Fourier transform (FFT) without increasing the transmitter and receiver complexities, and
have the attractive feature of high spectral efficiency due to minimally densely subcarrier
spacing.
The combination of OFDM and CDMA is anticipated a good approach to the 3rd generation
mobile communication system where users will get access to an array of voice, data, and video
communication services anywhere in the world at any time. All these rates with different
qualities of services will be variable and the data rate will be up to 2 Mbit/s for HDTV etc.
Also the request for accessing the system will be very intensive.
MC-CDMA Transmitter

In MC-CDMA system, sub-carrier frequencies are usually chosen to be orthogonal to each

other, i.e., sub-carrier frequencies satisfy the following condition

cos it cos jt dt = 0 for i j

sm0 cos0

amk sm1 cos1

sm N 1 cosN 1

Modulator
 Fig. Realization of MC-CDMA transmitter of a single user

frequency

Fig. Spectrum of MC-CDMA signal

The MC-CDMA transmitter for the base station is presented in Figure 3. After spread- ing
chips the users unique PN sequences are added. The result of this summation is a composite
sequence. Multi-carrier modulation is achieved by applying IFFT to this summarized signal.
Every chip in this composite sequence corresponds to one frequency bin. The circular prefix is
attached to every block of N samples.

MC-CDMA receiver

The equalization usually uses adaptive equalizer or adaptive discrete matched filter (ADMF) at
the receiver input. Its coefficients are calculated adaptively according to the adequate
algorithm. For the correct operation of the applied adaptive filter we assume the channel
characteristic remains unchanged during the duration of the block of N samples. The changes of
channel characteristics depend primarily on the vehicles speed. Thus, the duration of a single
block must be much smaller than the inverse of the maximum Doppler frequency
 0 0 0

1 1

FFT EQ 1 amk
RF A/D
CPR

S/P De-
N-1 N-1 N-1
spreading

RF: receive filter;

CPR: circular prefix
removing; EQ means
equalization
Fig MC-CDMA receiver for a mobile station
1.2 OVERVIEW

In this proposed method, we revisit the phase rotated spreading code design for MC-CDMA
system and derive the minimized mean square error combining (MMSEC) scheme for it. We
show that the MMSEC receiver can effectively exploit full diversity and offer excellent BER
performance at minimal computational complexity. The derivation of the MMSEC also
indicates that the phase rotated spreading code design reduces the power of multiple access
interference (MAI) in half. Additionally, we show that previously developed carrier
interferometer (CI) MC-CDMA (CI/MC-CDMA) systems provide phase rotation (and
consequently reduced MAI) in the majority of the subcarriers. This offers a new
understanding of the performance gain of CI/MC-CDMA systems.

CHAPTER-2

8
 BACKGROUND

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a multiplexing technique where a number of users
simultaneously and asynchronously access a channel and spread their information-bearing signals
with pre-assigned signature sequences. CDMA technique has been considered to be a candidate to
support multimedia services in mobile radio communications [29], because it has its own capabilities
to cope up with asynchronous nature of multimedia data traffic, to provide higher data transmission
capacity compared to conventional access techniques such as Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Direct Sequence (DS) and Frequency
Hopping (FH) CDMA have been an active area of research to combat the hostile channel frequency
selectivity. The Multi-carrier modulation scheme also known as Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) has drawn a lot of attention in the field of radio communications. This is
mainly because of the need to transmit high data rate in a mobile environment, a highly hostile radio
channel. The Multi- carrier CDMA has been first proposed by N. Yee, J.P. Linnartz.

The MC- CDMA system can be implemented using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
technique and has the device without increasing transmitter and receiver complexities, and have the
attractive feature of high spectral efficiency due to minimally dense sub- carrier spacing. Though
OFDM scheme is roboust to frequency selective fading, however, it has severe disadvantages such as
difficulty in sub-carrier synchronization and sensitivity to frequency offset and nonlinear
amplification, which results from the fact that it is composed of a lot of sub-carriers with their
overlapping power spectra and exhibits a non-constant nature in its envelope. Therefore, the
Multicarrier CDMA schemes inevitably have the same drawbacks. However, the combination of
OFDM signalling and CDMA scheme has one major advantage that it can lower the symbol duration
which results into minimizing the synchronization problem. The Multi-carrier CDMA schemes are
categorized mainly into two groups. One spreads the original serial data stream using a given
spreading code, and then modulates a different subcarrier with each chip (in a sense, the spreading
operation in the frequency domain), and other spreads the serialto- parallel (S/P) converted data
streams using a given spreading code, and then modulates a different sub carrier with each of the data
stream (the spreading operation in the time domain).

In the frequency domain spreading, the orthogonality among users has to been sured in the
frequency domain. To ensure this orthogonality, Walsh-Hadamard sequences are often used for
spreading. In order to limit the peak-to average power ratio, the Kasami or the Zad off-Chu spreading
sequences may also be considered, but at the expense of some orthogonality losses. However, the
transmission channel is generally frequency selective, which breaks the orthogonality among these

9
sequences, and the resulting MAI drastically reduces the system performance. In time domain
spreading, the processing gain is achieved by spreading code. More the length of the spreading code
more will be the processing gain. An MC-CDMA transmits N chips simultaneously by assigning each
chip a separate carrier so that each input symbol is transmitted on N carriers. Signal spreading in this
scheme is performed purely in the frequency domain. The receiver extracts the transmitted symbol on
N-carriers by correlating the signal samples at the OFDM output with the code sequence used for
signal de-spreading. In MC- DS- CDMA, signal spreading is performed in the time domain so that the
first symbol of each user is transmitted on the first carrier, the second symbol is on the second carrier,
and so on. Multi-tone (MT) CDMA scheme uses longer spreading codes in proportion to the number
of subcarriers.

In TF- CDMA, the signal is spread both in time and in frequency. In this chapter the focus has
been given on Direct Sequence Multi Carrier CDMA in which spreading has been achieved in time
domain. Further, MC- CDMA has been chosen as the multicarrier system. MC- CDMA System
lowers the symbol rate in each subcarrier increasing the symbol durations which minimize the
multipath fading effects of the channel. It uses multi- user capability of CDMA system, allowing
multiple users to interact simultaneously with low BER using standard receiver techniques. In MC-
CDMA, the modulation and demodulation is achieved by using Inverse Fast Fourier Transform and
Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT/ FFT) algorithms in the frequency domain and spreading with number
of carriers in the time domain

2.1 Direct Sequence Multi Carrier Code Division Multiple Access (DSMC- CDMA)

In the context of Direct- Sequence (DS) Code- Division Multiple- Access (DS- CDMA)
communications, there are two types of spreadspectrum schemes used. The first oneuses a signature
code in the time domain, and the spread- spectrum signal is transmitted using a single carrier. In
contrast, the second one spreads the original data stream to a number of sub- carriers using a signature
code in the frequency (F) - domain, and each chip of the resultant spread spectrum signal is
transmitted by a different carrier. Hence, this scheme is also referred to as Multi-Carrier CDMA (MC-
CDMA) in the literature.

Furthermore, there is a family of multicarrier CDMA systems in which subcarrier signal

constitutes of a T- domain DS spread signal, but no frequency spreading is employed. This family of
multi-carrier CDMA is usually referred to as MC DS- CDMA. An amalgam of these spread- spectrum
schemes has also been proposed in the literature. This extended spread spectrum scheme spreads the
transmitted data stream using two signature codes, where one of the signatures corresponds to the
Tdomain spreading, while the other corresponds to the F- domain spreading. The multi- user detection

10
capability of this system requires complex receivers and is very difficult to implement practically. A
new technique has been proposed in this Chapter. The proposed scheme has been investigated for the
detection performance when communicating over Additive White Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel.
In this scheme processing gain is increased by spreading the signal in two successive stages and
simultaneously the data stream is transmitted to a number of subcarriers. Since the proposed
multicarrier DS- CDMA scheme employs time domain spreading at two stages, it is referred to as T
T spread MC DS- CDMA technique.

The benefits of employing the T T spreading in MC DS- CDMA system are Multifold.
First, the future generations of broadband multiple- access systems [19] are expected to a bandwidth
on the order of tens or even hundreds of MHz. When single- carrier based DS- CDMA or MC-
CDMA using solely T- domain spreading or solely F- domain spreading is utilized, the total system
bandwidth is related to either the individual T- domain spreading factor or to the F- domain spreading
factor. These broadband systems may inevitably require a high chip- rate and long spreading codes, a
hill task in practical implementation. In the proposed T T spread MC DSCDMA scheme, the total
system bandwidth is related to the product of individual T- domain spreading factor. Therefore, a
relatively low- chip rate and short spreading codes can be employed in the proposed T T MC
DSCDMA schemes. Second, the broadband multiple- access systems are expected to support a wide
range of services and bit rates, as well as a number of simultaneous users. It is widely recognized that
in CDMA based communications, multiuser detection is capable of suppressing the multi user
interference and of significantly increasing the systems user capacity. When a singlecarrier DS-
CDMA or a MC- CDMA(which uses high spreading factors) is invoked for the sake of supporting a
large number of users, the employment of advanced multiuser detection algorithms becomes
impractical due to their high complexity. Third, when the spreading codes of large length in multi user
CDMA are being used, the cross correlation becomes high which increases the Multiple Access
Interference (MAI). In the proposed scheme, the multi user detection can be carried out separately in
the T- domain and consequently, the detection complexity of the proposed scheme can be
significantly reduced compared to that of conventional single carrier DS- CDMA or MC- CDMA
schemes.

11
 CHAPTER-3

APPROACH RELATED

Multicarrier systems like CDMA and OFDM are now days being implemented commonly.
MC-CDMA (or OFDM-CDMA) multiple access has become a most likely technique for
future generation broadband wireless communication system such as 4G. This scheme is a
combination of both OFDM and CDMA that can provide protection against frequency
selective fading and time dispersion. The CDMA part of this scheme provides multiple access
ability as well as spread each user signal over the frequency domain to reduce the impact of

12
frequency selective fading. On the other hand OFDM provides spreading across time domain
of each spreading codes chip which reduces the impact of inter-symbol interference.

This achieves in fulfilment of high data rate transmission, so the number of

subcarrier and spreading codes must be carefully selected according to worst channel
conditions [1][2]. Although MC-CDMA is a powerful multiple access technique but it is not
problem free. OFDM signal has large peak to average ratio (PAPR) which severely limits its
applications, and as long as basic operation of OFDMCDMA is identical to OFDM system,
this undesirable property remains. High PAPR values causes a serious problem to the power
amplifier (PA) used at transmitter. The power efficiency performance at such amplifiers
decreases as PAPR increases. Therefore signal suffers from non-linear distortion at
transmitter and degrades BER performance at receiver. This forces the use of power amplifier
with large linear range which translates into higher cost. Therefore it is desirable to reduce
PAPR by means of PAPR reduction schemes. There are number of schemes to deal with the
issue of PAPR. such as, Signal Distortion, Coding, and Symbol Scrambling techniques.
Signal distortion schemes reduce the amplitude by linearly distorting the MC-CDMA signal
at or around the peaks. This includes techniques like clipping, peak windowing, and peak
cancellation. It is the simplest technique but it causes in-band and out-band distortion.
Scrambling scheme is based on scrambling each MCCDMA signal with large PAPR.

It includes techniques such as Selected Mapping (SLM), Partial Transmit

Sequence (PTS). In case of PTS technique, MC-CDMA sequences are partitioned into sub-
blocks and each subblock is multiplied by phase weighting factor to produce alternative
sequences with low PAPR. However large number of phase weighting factors increases the
hardware complexity and makes the whole system vulnerable to the effect of phase noise.
The SLM technique pseudo-randomly modifies the phases of the original information
symbols in each OFDM block several times and selects the phase modulated MCCDMA with
best PAPR performance for transmission. In Code allocation techniques, based on the
orthogonal sets of spreading sequences PAPR reduction schemes are developed that excludes
MC-CDMA signal with large PAPR.

13
 fig MC-CDMA transmitter/receiver

Implementation

3.1 MC-CDMA

The basic MC-CDMA signal is generated by a serial concatenation of classical DSCDMA

and OFDM. Each chip of the direct sequence spread data symbol is mapped on to a different
sub-carrier. Thus, with MC-CDMA the chips of a spread data symbol are transmitted in
parallel on different sub-carriers, in contrast to a serial transmission with DS-CDMA. Lets
assume K be the number of simultaneously active users1 in an MC-CDMA mobile radio

14
system. Figure 2-1 shows multi-carrier spectrum spreading of one complex-valued data
symbol d(k) assigned to user k. The rate of the serial data symbols is 1/Td . For brevity, but
without loss of generality, the MC-CDMA signal generation is described for a single data
symbol per user as far as possible, such that the data symbol index can be omitted. In the
transmitter, the complex-valued data symbol d(k) is multiplied with the user specific
spreading code c(k) = (c(k) 0 , c(k) 1 ,...,c(k) L1) T (2.1) of length L = PG, where PG is the
processing gain. The chip rate of the serial spreading code c(k) before serial-to-parallel
conversion is 1 Tc = L Td (2.2) and is L times higher than the data symbol rate 1/Td . The
complex-valued sequence obtained after spreading is given in vector notations by s (k) =
d(k)c(k) = (S(k) 0 , S(k) 1 ,...,S(k) L1) T . (2.3)

Figure . Multi-carrier spread spectrum signal generation

A multi-carrier spread spectrum signal is obtained after modulating the components S(k) l , l
= 0,...,L 1, in parallel on to L sub-carriers. With multi-carrier spread spectrum systems,
each data symbol is spread over L sub-carriers. In cases where the number of sub-carriers Nc
of one OFDM symbol is equal to the spreading code length L, the OFDM symbol duration
with a multi-carrier spread spectrum including a guard interval results in T s = Tg + LTc.
(2.4) In this case one data symbol per user is transmitted in one OFDM symbol. 2.1.2
Downlink Signal In the synchronous downlink, it is computationally efficient to add the
spread signals of the K users before the OFDM operation as depicted in Figure 2-2. The
superposition of the K sequences s(k) results in the sequence s = K 1 k=0 s (k) = (S0,
S1,...,SL1) T . (2.5) An equivalent representation for s in the downlink is s = Cd, (2.6)

15
 Figure . Multi-carrier spread spectrum signal generation

System model

1.1 MC-CDMA Transmitter

An OFDM carrier signal is the sum of number of orthogonal sub-carriers, with baseband data
on each sub-carrier being independently modulated commonly using some type of quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM) or phase-shift keying (PSK). This composite baseband signal
is typically used to modulate a main RF carrier. S (n) is a serial stream of binary digits. By
inverse multiplexing, these are first de multiplexed into N parallel streams, and each one
mapped to a (possibly complex) symbol stream using some modulation constellation (QAM,
PSK, etc.). An inverse FFT is computed on each set of symbols, giving a set of complex
time-domain samples. These samples are then quadrature-mixed to pass band in the standard
way [11]. The transmitter of MC-CDMA is shown in Fig.

16
 fig Transmitter of MC-CDMA

1.2 MC_CDMA receiver

The receiver picks up the signal r(t), which is then quadrature-mixed down to baseband using
cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency. This also creates signals centered on 2fc, so
low-pass filters are used to reject these. The baseband signals are sampled and digitized using
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), and a forward FFT is used to convert back to the
frequency domain. This returns N parallel streams, each of which is converted to a binary
stream using an appropriate symbol detector. These streams are then re combined into a serial
stream, s (n) which is an estimate of the original binary stream at the transmitter [12]. The
receiver of MCCDMA is shown in Fig.

fig Receiver of MC-CDMA

17
 CHAPTER-4

LITERATURE SURVEY

MC-CDMA is the combination and improvement of CDMA technique and OFDM parallel
transmit technique [2]. In [3], authors presented the concept of combined equalization for
uplink MC-CDMA and perform a theoretical analysis which shows that better single-user
bounds than the classical matched-filter bounds are achieved with the proposed concept. In
[4], authors proposed a novel fractionally spread multicarrier CDMA arrangement i.e. the FS
MC-CDMA scheme, which employs both T-domain spreading and F-domain spreading.
Specifically the employment of concatenated T-domain spreading for improving the
achievable performance, when communicating over wireless channels exhibiting both
frequency-selective and time-selective fading is presented. In [5], authors proposed a
multicarrier direct sequence code division multiple access, the so called pre-multi-coded MC-
DS-CDMA system. In this scheme, the basic MC-DS-CDMA system is augmented with a
pre-coder and a multi-code encoder at the transmitter. A frequency based multiple access
architecture, frequency division multi carrier CDMA (FD-MC-CDMA) is proposed in [6].
The proposed architecture combines the best elements of FDMA and MC-CDMA to
simultaneously exploit frequency diversity and minimize multiple access interface (MAI). In
[7], authors proposed a technique for interference suppression in multicarrier code-division
access systems which exploit the structural differences in signals that arrive at the receiver
with Doppler shifts or carrier offsets. In [8], authors presented a new method of using MC
CDMA as transmission scheme, instead of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing in
WiMAX based on the IEEE 802.16 standards.

A novel receiver is designed that utilizes the time domain localization property of the wavelet
packets. In this design multipath signals within one chip period are combined in the time
domain to achieve timedomain diversity in a manner similar to the conventional RAKE
receiver design. Each RAKE finger uses a wavelet packet transform to demodulate the
corresponding path of the multicarrier signal in the timedomain rather than the frequency
domain. The demodulated signal is then de-spread using the corresponding spreading code
[9]. Compared with WP Based MC-CDMA and conventional MC-CDMA, the need of guard
intervals in WP MC CDMA or MCCDMA is eliminated by using WP time diversity
modulation (FMT) in wireless application [10]. The spectra of each sub carrier in WP
approach are overlapped, resulting in more efficient use of the spectrum. In other words, the

18
orthogonally of the transmitted waveforms is achieved not by either cyclic prefix or on
overlapping sub channels, but rather by making use of the unique simultaneous time and
frequency localization properties of the WP which are not achievable by the conventional
MC-CDMA and WP MC-CDMA. This is similar in spirit to the pulse-shaped conventional
MC CDMA. The complete set of wavelet waveforms are used instead of only one wavelet.
Waveform helps to exploit explicitly the introduced time-diversity in a RAKE receiver
design.

[1] S. Hara and R. Prasad,Overview of multi-carrier CDMA, IEEE Communications

Magazine, We review new multiple access schemes based on a combination of code division
and multi-carrier (also known as OFDM: orthogonal frequency division multiplexing)
techniques, such as multi-carrier code division multiple access (MC-CDMA), multicarrier
DS-CDMA and multitone CDMA (MT-CDMA). We discuss their advantages and
disadvantages, and present some computer simulation results on the down-link bit error rate
(BER) performance in a frequency selective slow Rayleigh fading channel. Code division and
OFDM based multiple access schemes have drawn a lot of attention in the field of wireless
personal and multimedia communications because of the need to transmit at a high data rate
in a mobile environment.

[2] L. Rugini, Linear Equalization for Multicode MC-CDMA Downlink Channels, We

investigate multirate multicarrier code-division multiple-access (MC-CDMA) downlink
systems with multicode transmission. Specifically, we design a new linear equalizer that
outperforms the minimum mean-squared error (MMSE) per-carrier equalizer, without
requiring the spreading codes of the interfering users. The complexity of this new linear
equalizer is similar to that of the MMSE per-user equalizer, which however needs the
spreading codes of the interfering users. Simulation results validate the effectiveness of the
proposed equalizer, especially when there are few interfering users.

[3] T. Miyajima, and M. Kotake, Blind Channel Shortening for MC-CDMA Systems by
Restoring the Orthogonality of Spreading Codes,

In this paper, we review new multiple access schemes based on a combination of code
division and Multi-Carrier (also known as 0FDM: Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing) techniques, such as MultiCarrier Code Division Multiple Access (MC-CDMA)
, Multicarrier DS-CDMA and Multitone CDMA (MTCDMA). We discuss their advantages

19
and disadvantages, and present some computer simulation results on the down-link bit error
rate (BER) performance in a frequency selective slow Rayleigh fading channel.

[4] R. Rajbanshi, Q. Chen, A. M. Wyglinski, Quantitative Comparison of Agile

Modulation Techniques for Cognitive Radio Transceivers we present a quantitative
comparison of two agile modulation techniques employed by cognitive radio transceivers
operating in a dynamic spectrum access (DSA) network. One of the modulation technique is
non-contiguous orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (NC-OFDM), which is designed
to avoid interference with the transmissions of incumbent users by deactivating subcarriers
within their vicinity.

The other modulation technique under study is a variant of multicarrier code division
multiple access (MC-CDMA). Although several studies comparing conventional OFDM and
MC-CDMA has been conducted in literature to justify robust error performance of
MCCDMA, a quantitative performance evaluation of these schemes has not been performed
when employed in a DSA network. Due to deactivated subcarriers in DSA networks, in this
paper we showed their performance can be significantly different from the conventional
setup. Analytical expressions for the error probability of an NC-OFDM transceiver have been
derived and compared with computer simulation results. The results show that the error
robustness of NC-OFDM is relatively constant regardless of the number of deactivated
subcarriers, unlike MC-CDMA transmissions, whose error performance degrades with an
increase in deactivated subcarriers.

[5] Z. Wu and C. R. Nassar, FD-MC-CDMA: A Frequency-based Multiple Access

Architecture for High Performance Wireless Communication,

MC-CDMA demonstrates good probability-of-error performances in frequency selective

fading channels, a direct result of its ability to exploit the available frequency diversity
benefits. However, MC-CDMA performances are limited by degradation due to large
multiple-access interference (MAI). FD-MC-CDMA, a novel multiple access architecture
proposed in this paper, exploits the available frequency diversity benefits while minimizing
MAL Instead of transmitting all users information bits over all carriers, FD-MC-CDMA
employs a subset of carriers to support a subset of users (maintaining the same overall system
capacity and throughput as in MC-CDMA). By careful selection of each subset of carriers,
the available frequency diversity benefits are fully exploited, while the MA1 experienced by

20
each user is minimized. Simulation results show FDMC-CDMA outperforming MC-CDMA
and FDMA in frequency selective fading channel.

CHAPTER-5

PROPOSED METHOD

21
The transmitted signal of a downlink MC-CDMA system can be described as

where K is the total number of active users, b(k) is the kth users data symbol (b(k) {1,1}

if BPSK modulation is used is the amplitude, Es is the symbol energy, Ts is

the symbol duration, N is the number of subcarriers, (k) n is the nth component of user ks
spreading code, fn is the frequency of the nth subcarrier and fn = fc+nf (where fc is the
carrier frequency and f = 1/ Ts to ensure orthogonality among all subcarriers, and p(t) is the
rectangular pulse shape.

Normally, a binary code matrix C is employed to assign spreading codes to all users. The
most commonly used spreading code is the Hadamard-Walsh code. In the code matrix C,

Where,(k) represents the spreading code of the kth user and (k) = ((0) k (1) k ...(N1) k
).

It is important to note that the code matrix is binary, i.e., (k) n {1,1}. Hence, oftentimes
the transmitted signal has uneven power distribution over all subcarriers. Particularly, what is
most problematic is when some subcarriers have zero transmission power. Lets use an
example to demonstrate this. Assume a MCCDMA system with N = 8 subcarriers. A length 8
Hadamard Walsh code matrix is used as the spreading code matrix. The K active users will
randomly pick K rows from this matrix as their spreading codes. Assume there are two users
on the system and one user (the 0th user) is using spreading code {1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1}, while the
other user (the 1th user) is using spreading code {1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1}. When both users
transmit the same data symbol (for example, b(0) = 1 and b(1) = 1), the binary nature of the

22
spreading codes lead to transmitted signal over the 8 subcarriers as {2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 }. Hence,
only the rst 4 subcarriers have power and the other 4 subcarriers are actually not
transmitting anything. This leads to less frequency diversity: only half of the diversity is
exploited in this case. This scenario is shown in Figure 1.

fig5.1 Uneven Subcarrier Power Distribution 1

If both users are transmitting the opposite data symbols (for example, b(0) = 1 and b(1) = 1),
the actual transmitted signal over the 8 subcarriers becomes {0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2}. Now, only the
last four subcarriers are transmitting power while the rst four subcarriers have zero power.
Therefore, only half of the frequency diversity is exploited.

There are even cases that multiple users signal accumulate to only one subcarrier containing
all the transmission power and all other subcarriers transmitting zero power. For example, if
all users transmit data symbol 1, transmission power will be only on subcarrier 0, while all
other subcarriers have zero power. In these cases, no diversity is exploited at all.

5.2 PHASE ROTATED CODE DESIGN

23
To solve this problem and bring full diversity to MC-CDMA system at all times, we employ
the phase rotated spreading code design developed by [8]. Particularly, by rotating each row
of the spreading code matrix with a different phase, a new spreading code matrix is created
that maintains the orthogonality among all rows. However, this new spreading code matrix
eliminates the possibility of zero power accumulation on any subcarrier. Therefore, all
subcarriers are actively participating in the demodulation of the data symbol at receiver side,
exploiting full frequency diversity available in the frequency selective fading channel at all
times.

Figure 2 explains the problem of zero power accumulation. Since user k is transmitting the
product of data symbol and spreading code bkk n on the nth subcarrier, user l is transmitting
bll n, due to the binary nature of the code k n (and l n) and the data symbol bk (and bl, the
code/data combination bkk n is either +1 or 1. Therefore, it is inevitable that sometimes
one users code/data combination will be +1 and another users code/data combination will
be 1 and when they transmit the signal results in a zero, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 5.2 Binary Code/Data Combination

A new spreading code matrix CNew can be created by introducing an unique phase offset to
each and every row of the original Hadamard-Walsh code matrix:

24
As shown in equation (3), a phase rotator P(k) is multiplied to the kth row of the original
Hadamard-Walsh code matrix where P(k) = ej N k. Consequently, each row is rotated by a
different amount in the phase space. It is easy to show that the introduction of the phase
rotation does not change the orthogonality of the spreading code matrix, i.e., CNew is still an
orthogonal matrix. The inner product of the kth row and the lth row of the new code matrix
CNew is: < P(k) ~ (k),P(l) ~ (l) >= P(k) P(l) < ~ (k), ~ (l) > (4) Since C is an
orthogonal matrix, < ~ (k), ~ (l) >= 0,k 6= l. Therefore, < P(k) ~ (k),P(l) ~ (l) > is
also 0 for any two different rows in CNew.

Therefore, no matter what the code/data combination of every user is, it is guaranteed that
they will not accumulate to zero. This is shown in Figure 3. In Figure 3, 8 different phases
separated by 8 are introduced to the 8 different users spreading codes. Therefore, if the
original binary code/data combination is +1 for one user, it will pick one of the 8 different
points shown in the up-left constellation; otherwise it will choose one of the 8 points in the
bottom constellation. However, it is guaranteed that the sum of two different users signal
will not be zero.

25
 Fig 5.3 Phase Rotated code/data combination

Figure 4 shows the generic block diagram of the MCCDMA lth users receiver. Note that in
the dispreading stage we use (l) n (the complex conjugate of (l) n ) since we now have a
complex spreading code matrix instead of a real matrix.

fig 5.4 MC_CDMA receiver

After the dispreading, the nth subcarriers output is:

26
Where, n is the fading gain of the nth subcarrier. In equation (5), the rst term represents the
desired signal of the lth user, the second term represents the multiple access interference
(MAI) from the other K1 users, and the third term represents additive Gaussian noise. Next,
a linear combiner combines across all subcarriers to form a decision variable:

Where, Wn is the combining weight for the nth subcarrier. Since we have assumed BPSK
modulation, the MAI in equation (5) only contains the real part of the product of (k) n and
(l) n . Since (k) n {ej N k,ej N k} and (l) n {ej N l,ej N l}, Re[(k) n (l)
n ] becomes:

Without losing generality, assume l = 0, we can easily derive the minimized mean square
error combining (MMSEC) scheme to be:

Where, N0/2 is the power spectral density of the AWGN.

It is important to note that because of the phase rotation, the MAI observed at the MC-
CDMA receiver using the phase rotated codes (with BPSK modulation) at each subcarrier is
only half of that when binary Hadamard-Walsh codes are used. Hence, when BPSK
modulation is employed, the phaser rotation spreading code design provides a two-fold
benet: on one hand, the MAI power is reduced in half; on the other hand, full diversity is
always exploited. Unfortunately, the MAI power reduction benet disappears when high
modulations such as QPSK and QAM are employed.

27
Now lets revisit previously developed CI/MC-CDMA system [10]. In CI/MC-CDMA
system, the spreading code matrix is the DFT matrix. The kth users spreading code is:

~ (k) =ej 2 N k0,ej 2 N k1,...,ej 2 N k(N1) (10)It has been shown in [10] that
CI/MC-CDMA system outperforms MC-CDMA system employing Hadamard-Walsh codes
when BPSK modulation is employed. However, when higher modulation such as QPSK is
employed, CI/MC-CDMA no longer offers such performance gain over MC-CDMA with
Hadamard-Walsh codes. Now we can provide an explanation of this distinction. On
subcarrier n, i.e., the nth chip of the kth users spreading code is (k) n = ej 2 N kn.
When n = 0, (k) n = ej 2 N k0 = 1. When n = N 2 , (k) n = ej 2 N k N 2 = ejk
{+1,1}. In other words, on these two subcarriers, all spreading codes are binary. However,
on other subcarriers (i.e.,n 6= 0,n 6= N 2 , the spreading codes from different users are
actually phase rotated. As a direct result, CI/MC-CDMA enjoys the same MAI reduction
benet as the phase rotated MC-CDMA system on N 2 subcarriers out of the total N
subcarriers. This is the source of the performance gain of CI/MC-CDMA shown in [10].

CHAPTER-6

RESULT

28
 CHAPTER-7

CONCLUSION

In this paper, we have designed a low complexity minimized mean square error combining
scheme for downlink MC-CDMA systems using phase rotated spreading codes. The proposed
scheme eliminates the problem of zero power distribution on subcarriers. As a direct result,
full diversity is always exploited and signicant performance gain is achieved in multi-path
fading channels. Simulations over various channel conditions and scenarios conrm the
effectiveness of the proposed scheme.

29
 CHAPTER-8

REFERENCES

[1] S. Hara and R. Prasad, Overview of multi-carrier CDMA, IEEE Communications

Magazine, vol. 35, no. 12, Dec. 1997, pp. 126-133

[2] L. Rugini, Linear Equalization for Multicode MC-CDMA Downlink Channels, IEEE
Communications Letters, vol.16, no.9, pp.1353-1356, September 2012.

[3] T. Miyajima, and M. Kotake, Blind Channel Shortening for MC-CDMA Systems by
Restoring the Orthogonality of Spreading Codes, IEEE Transactions on Communications,
vol.63, no.3, pp.938-948, March 2015.

[4] R. Rajbanshi, Q. Chen, A. M. Wyglinski, G. J. Minden and J. B. Evans, Quantitative

Comparison of Agile Modulation Techniques for Cognitive Radio Transceivers, IEEE
CCNC2007, First Workshop on Cognitive Radio, Las Vegas, January, 2007.

30
[5] Z. Wu and C. R. Nassar, FD-MC-CDMA: A Frequency-based Multiple Access
Architecture for High Performance Wireless Communication, IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 13921399, July 2005

[6] S. Hijazi, B. Natarajan, M. Michelini and Z. Wu, Flexible Spectrum Use and Better
Coexistence at the Physical Layer of Future Wireless Systems via a Multicarrier Platform,
IEEE Wireless Communications, April 2004, Vol.11, No. 2, pp. 64-71.

[7] Z. Wu, B. Natarajan and C. Nassar, The Road to 4G: Two Paradigm Shifts, One
Enabling Technology, IEEE DySPAN2005, 2005.

[8] A. Bury, J. Egle and Jrgen Lindner, Diversity Comparison of Spreading Transforms for
Multicarrier Spread Spectrum Transmission, IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol.
51, No. 5, pp. 774-781, May 2003

[9] R. Raulefs, A. Dammann, S. Sand, S. Kaiser and Gunther Auer, Rotated Walsh-
Hadamard Spreading with Robust Channel Estimation for a Coded MC-CDMA System,
EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking, 2004:1, 7483

[10] B. Natarajan, C.R. Nassar, S. Shattil and Zhiqiang Wu, HighPerformance MC-CDMA
via Carrier Interferometry Codes, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 50, no.
6, pp. 1344-1353, November 2001

[11] B. Natarajan, C.R. Nassar and V. Chandrasekhar, Generation of Correlated Rayleigh

Fading envelops for spread spectrum applications, IEEE Communication Letters, vol. 4.
no.1. Jan, 2000, pp. 9-11.

31
 Appendix A

MATLAB

A.1 Introduction

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates

computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. MATLAB stands for matrix
laboratory, and was written originally to provide easy access to matrix software developed by
LINPACK (linear system package) and EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects.
MATLAB is therefore built on a foundation of sophisticated matrix software in which the
basic element is array that does not require pre dimensioning which to solve many technical
computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of
time.
MATLAB features a family of applications specific solutions called toolboxes. Very
important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow learning and applying specialized
technology. These are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that
extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which

32
toolboxes are available include signal processing, control system, neural networks, fuzzy
logic, wavelets, simulation and many others.
Typical uses of MATLAB include: Math and computation, Algorithm development,
Data acquisition, Modeling, simulation, prototyping, Data analysis, exploration, visualization,
Scientific and engineering graphics, Application development, including graphical user
interface building.

A.2 Basic Building Blocks of MATLAB

The basic building block of MATLAB is MATRIX. The fundamental data type is the
array. Vectors, scalars, real matrices and complex matrix are handled as specific class of this
basic data type. The built in functions are optimized for vector operations. No dimension
statements are required for vectors or arrays.

A.2.1 MATLAB Window

The MATLAB works based on five windows: Command window, Workspace

window, Current directory window, Command history window, Editor Window, Graphics
window and Online-help window.

A.2.1.1 Command Window

The command window is where the user types MATLAB commands and expressions
at the prompt (>>) and where the output of those commands is displayed. It is opened when
the application program is launched. All commands including user-written programs are
typed in this window at MATLAB prompt for execution.

A.2.1.2 Work Space Window

MATLAB defines the workspace as the set of variables that the user creates in a work
session. The workspace browser shows these variables and some information about them.
Double clicking on a variable in the workspace browser launches the Array Editor, which can
be used to obtain information.

A.2.1.3 Current Directory Window

The current Directory tab shows the contents of the current directory, whose path is
shown in the current directory window. For example, in the windows operating system the
path might be as follows: C:\MATLAB\Work, indicating that directory work is a
subdirectory of the main directory MATLAB; which is installed in drive C. Clicking on the
arrow in the current directory window shows a list of recently used paths. MATLAB uses a

33
search path to find M-files and other MATLAB related files. Any file run in MATLAB must
reside in the current directory or in a directory that is on search path.

A.2.1.4 Command History Window

The Command History Window contains a record of the commands a user has entered
in the command window, including both current and previous MATLAB sessions. Previously
entered MATLAB commands can be selected and re-executed from the command history
window by right clicking on a command or sequence of commands. This is useful to select
various options in addition to executing the commands and is useful feature when
experimenting with various commands in a work session.

A.2.1.5 Editor Window

The MATLAB editor is both a text editor specialized for creating M-files and a
graphical MATLAB debugger. The editor can appear in a window by itself, or it can be a sub
window in the desktop. In this window one can write, edit, create and save programs in files
called M-files.
MATLAB editor window has numerous pull-down menus for tasks such as saving,
viewing, and debugging files. Because it performs some simple checks and also uses color to
differentiate between various elements of code, this text editor is recommended as the tool of
choice for writing and editing M-functions.

A.2.1.6 Graphics or Figure Window

The output of all graphic commands typed in the command window is seen in this
window.

A.2.1.7 Online Help Window

MATLAB provides online help for all its built in functions and programming
language constructs. The principal way to get help online is to use the MATLAB help
browser, opened as a separate window either by clicking on the question mark symbol (?) on
the desktop toolbar, or by typing help browser at the prompt in the command window. The
help Browser is a web browser integrated into the MATLAB desktop that displays a
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) documents. The Help Browser consists of two panes,
the help navigator pane, used to find information, and the display pane, used to view the
information. Self-explanatory tabs other than navigator pane are used to perform a search.

A.3 MATLAB Files

34
 MATLAB has three types of files for storing information. They are: M-files and
MAT-files.

A.3.1 M-Files

These are standard ASCII text file with m extension to the file name and creating
own matrices using M-files, which are text files containing MATLAB code. MATLAB editor
or another text editor is used to create a file containing the same statements which are typed
at the MATLAB command line and save the file under a name that ends in .m. There are two
types of M-files:

1. Script Files

It is an M-file with a set of MATLAB commands in it and is executed by typing

name of file on the command line. These files work on global variables currently present in
that environment.

2. Function Files

A function file is also an M-file except that the variables in a function file are all
local. This type of files begins with a function definition line.

A.3.2 MAT-Files

These are binary data files with .mat extension to the file that are created by
MATLAB when the data is saved. The data written in a special format that only MATLAB
can read. These are located into MATLAB with load command.

A.4 the MATLAB System:

The MATLAB system consists of five main parts:

A.4.1 Development Environment:

This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and files.
Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop and
Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for viewing
help, the workspace, files, and the search path.

35
A.4.2 the MATLAB Mathematical Function:

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary

functions like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like
matrix inverse, matrix eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

A.4.3 the MATLAB Language:

This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It allows both
"programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs, and
"programming in the large" to create complete large and complex application programs.

A.4.4 Graphics:

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as
well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and
presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow you to fully customize
the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your
MATLAB applications.

A.4.5 the MATLAB Application Program Interface (API):

This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with
MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking),
calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-files.

A.5 SOME BASIC COMMANDS:

pwd prints working directory

Demo demonstrates what is possible in Mat lab

Who lists all of the variables in your Mat lab workspace?

Whose list the variables and describes their matrix size

clear erases variables and functions from memory

36
clear x erases the matrix 'x' from your workspace

close by itself, closes the current figure window

figure creates an empty figure window

hold on holds the current plot and all axis properties so that subsequent graphing

commands add to the existing graph

hold off sets the next plot property of the current axes to "replace"

find find indices of nonzero elements e.g.:

d = find(x>100) returns the indices of the vector x that are greater than 100

break terminate execution of m-file or WHILE or FOR loop

for repeat statements a specific number of times, the general form of a FOR

statement is:

FOR variable = expr, statement, ..., statement END

for n=1:cc/c;

magn(n,1)=NaNmean(a((n-1)*c+1:n*c,1));

end

diff difference and approximate derivative e.g.:

DIFF(X) for a vector X, is [X(2)-X(1) X(3)-X(2) ... X(n)-X(n-1)].

NaN the arithmetic representation for Not-a-Number, a NaN is obtained as a

result of mathematically undefined operations like 0.0/0.0

INF the arithmetic representation for positive infinity, a infinity is also produced

by operations like dividing by zero, e.g. 1.0/0.0, or from overflow, e.g. exp(1000).

save saves all the matrices defined in the current session into the file,

matlab.mat, located in the current working directory

37
load loads contents of matlab.mat into current workspace

save filename x y z saves the matrices x, y and z into the file titled filename.mat

save filename x y z /ascii save the matrices x, y and z into the file titled filename.dat

load filename loads the contents of filename into current workspace; the file can

be a binary (.mat) file

load filename.dat loads the contents of filename.dat into the variable filename

xlabel( ) : Allows you to label x-axis

ylabel( ) : Allows you to label y-axis

title( ) : Allows you to give title for

plot

subplot() : Allows you to create multiple

plots in the same window

A.6 SOME BASIC PLOT COMMANDS:

Kinds of plots:

plot(x,y) creates a Cartesian plot of the vectors x & y

plot(y) creates a plot of y vs. the numerical values of the elements in the y-vector

semilogx(x,y) plots log(x) vs y

semilogy(x,y) plots x vs log(y)

loglog(x,y) plots log(x) vs log(y)

polar(theta,r) creates a polar plot of the vectors r & theta where theta is in radians

bar(x) creates a bar graph of the vector x. (Note also the command stairs(x))

bar(x, y) creates a bar-graph of the elements of the vector y, locating the bars

according to the vector elements of 'x'

38
Plot description:

grid creates a grid on the graphics plot

title('text') places a title at top of graphics plot

xlabel('text') writes 'text' beneath the x-axis of a plot

ylabel('text') writes 'text' beside the y-axis of a plot

text(x,y,'text') writes 'text' at the location (x,y)

text(x,y,'text','sc') writes 'text' at point x,y assuming lower left corner is (0,0)

and upper right corner is (1,1)

axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax]) sets scaling for the x- and y-axes on the current plot

A.7 ALGEBRIC OPERATIONS IN MATLAB:

Scalar Calculations:

+ Addition

- Subtraction

* Multiplication

/ Right division (a/b means a b)

\ left division (a\b means b a)

^ Exponentiation

For example 3*4 executed in 'matlab' gives ans=12

4/5 gives ans=0.8

Array products: Recall that addition and subtraction of matrices involved

addition or subtraction of the individual elements of the matrices. Sometimes it is desired to
simply multiply or divide each element of an matrix by the corresponding element of another
matrix 'array operations.

39
Array or element-by-element operations are executed when the operator is preceded by a '.'
(Period):

a .* b multiplies each element of a by the respective element of b

a ./ b divides each element of a by the respective element of b

a .\ b divides each element of b by the respective element of a

a .^ b raise each element of a by the respective b element

A.8 MATLAB WORKING ENVIRONMENT:

A.8.1 MATLAB DESKTOP

Matlab Desktop is the main Matlab application window. The desktop contains five sub
windows, the command window, the workspace browser, the current directory window, the
command history window, and one or more figure windows, which are shown only when the
user displays a graphic.

The command window is where the user types MATLAB commands and expressions
at the prompt (>>) and where the output of those commands is displayed. MATLAB defines
the workspace as the set of variables that the user creates in a work session.

The workspace browser shows these variables and some information about them.
Double clicking on a variable in the workspace browser launches the Array Editor, which can
be used to obtain information and income instances edit certain properties of the variable.

The current Directory tab above the workspace tab shows the contents of the current
directory, whose path is shown in the current directory window. For example, in the windows
operating system the path might be as follows: C:\MATLAB\Work, indicating that directory
work is a subdirectory of the main directory MATLAB; WHICH IS INSTALLED IN
DRIVE C. clicking on the arrow in the current directory window shows a list of recently used
paths. Clicking on the button to the right of the window allows the user to change the current
directory.

MATLAB uses a search path to find M-files and other MATLAB related files, which
are organize in directories in the computer file system. Any file run in MATLAB must reside

40
in the current directory or in a directory that is on search path. By default, the files supplied
with MATLAB and math works toolboxes are included in the search path. The easiest way to
see which directories are soon the search path, or to add or modify a search path, is to select
set path from the File menu the desktop, and then use the set path dialog box. It is good
practice to add any commonly used directories to the search path to avoid repeatedly having
the change the current directory.

The Command History Window contains a record of the commands a user has entered
in the command window, including both current and previous MATLAB sessions. Previously
entered MATLAB commands can be selected and re-executed from the command history
window by right clicking on a command or sequence of commands.

This action launches a menu from which to select various options in addition to
executing the commands. This is useful to select various options in addition to executing the
commands. This is a useful feature when experimenting with various commands in a work
session.

A.8.2 Using the MATLAB Editor to create M-Files:

The MATLAB editor is both a text editor specialized for creating M-files and a
graphical MATLAB debugger. The editor can appear in a window by itself, or it can be a sub
window in the desktop. M-files are denoted by the extension .m, as in pixelup.m.

The MATLAB editor window has numerous pull-down menus for tasks such as
saving, viewing, and debugging files. Because it performs some simple checks and also uses
color to differentiate between various elements of code, this text editor is recommended as
the tool of choice for writing and editing M-functions.

To open the editor , type edit at the prompt opens the M-file filename.m in an editor
window, ready for editing. As noted earlier, the file must be in the current directory, or in a
directory in the search path.

A.8.3 Getting Help:

The principal way to get help online is to use the MATLAB help browser, opened as a
separate window either by clicking on the question mark symbol (?) on the desktop toolbar,

41
or by typing help browser at the prompt in the command window. The help Browser is a web
browser integrated into the MATLAB desktop that displays a Hypertext Markup
Language(HTML) documents. The Help Browser consists of two panes, the help navigator
pane, used to find information, and the display pane, used to view the information. Self-
explanatory tabs other than navigator pane are used to perform a search.

42