Solids Mixing

L. T. FAN, S. J. CHEN, AND C. A. WATSON

olids mixing or solids blending is the operation by which
S two or more solid materials in particulate form are scattered
randomly in a mixer among each other by the random movement
of the particles. I t has long been one of the most widely used
industrial, agricultural, and pharmaceutical processes. However,
it has been much less developed both theoretically and practically
compared to other processes. Therefore, the practice of art often
dominates in the operation and design of the mixing equipment
and in the assessment of quality of a mixture. The rapid growth
of other process industries has made solids mixing a well recognized
but not yet well developed operation. A considerable amount
of work has been reported in the literature since Weidenbaum
(779) made an extensive review in 1958. The development of
fast and large memory computers has made digital simulation an
important technique in studying solids mixing.
The present work surveys the literature (from 1958 to 1969) re-
lated to solids mixing, especially the more recent information, and
discusses a variety of topics and concepts on solids mixing.
The important aspects of solids mixing can be summarized by
asking the following questions:
What is a homogeneous mixture?
How can one tell if a mixture is well mixed?
How can a homogeneous mixture be prepared efficiently and
economically?
A homogeneous solid mixture is one in which the compositions
of the constituents are uniform throughout the whole mixture.
T o know the homogeneity of a mixture, some criteria of the degree
of mixedness have to be defined. Samples, instead of the entire
mixture, are analyzed; the samples should be representative of
the mixture. The amount of material in a sample and the number
of samples to be taken are important and difficult problems in
solids mixing.
Knowing mechanisms of mixing, characteristics of materials to
of mixedness. A useful and general index should be related as
closely as possible to specified characteristics of the final mixture,
should be independent of the mixing processes, and should be
easily determined.
Criteria of degree of mixedness. Over 30 different criteria of
the degree of mixedness which have been proposed by many
investigators in studying different systems are summarized in
Table I. Most of these criteria are based on statistical analysis.
Others include photometry (58, 779) and kinetic approaches
(78, 28). The difference i n the definitions for the criteria reveals
the complexity of the mixing process and the uncertainty of various
concepts and notions in the field of solids mixing. Because of the
random nature of the mixing process, statistical analysis has be-
come the approach most frequently used among investigators. I t
concerns primarily the measurement of the standard deviation or
the variance of the spot samples taken from a mixture. T h e
criteria are then expressed in different forms of the standard
deviation of the variance. Most of the statistical criteria deal with
binary mixtures, mixtures consisting of two constituents.
Table I, a n expanded form of Kanise's (84),includes the
criteria which were reviewed extensively by Weidenbaum ( 179)
in 1958. Some criteria reported in the literature since then and
some criteria not covered by Weidenbaum are reviewed here and
are also included in the table. T h e table also lists mixing equip-
ment and methods of sampling and analysis used by various
investigators.
Some fundamental statistical terms are essential for the following
discussions. They are defined below:
A sample arithmetic mean is defined as
5 = -x
1
n
"
i=l
xi

be mixed, and the characteristics of a mixer is essential for the where

preparation of a desired homogeneous mixture. In the following
sections these topics are discussed in detail. n = number of spot samples
xi =ith value of x which represents a characteristic of a spot
sample such as composition
Concept of the Degree of Mixedness

A completely ordered arrangement of particles in a mixture was A sample variance is defined as

widely regarded as a perfect mixture for a long time. Though
spot samples taken from this ordered mixture would give the same
exact composition, such a mixture cannot be obtained by means of
= -
n
5
i=l
(Xi - 5)2 (2 1

a conventional mixing operation. Skidmore (762) reported that An unbiased sample variance is defined as
it may be obtained by other techniques, such as manually placing
individual constituents in a definite order, or properly controlling
a specially designed mixer to handle individual constituents.
For most applications, a statistically random mixture is obtained
(Tz = __ 5
n - I . 1=1
(Xi - a)% (3)

(767). The most common definition of a perfectly random mix- The theoretical mean (or expectation), /I, and the theoretical
ture is one in which the probability of finding a particle of a con- variance, uV2,are defined as
stituent of the mixture is the same for all points in the mixture.
Usually a mixture obtained from a mixing process is not com- /L = E ( x ) = ZXiF(X) (4 )
pletely random. Unlike a liquid mixture, compositions of spot and
samples of a solid mixture are different from each other. There- LT2 = E[(Xi - p)2] = Z(Xi - /.)ZF(X) = E(Xi2) - ,uz (5)
fore, the first important thing to know about a solids mixture is
how well it is mixed. To understand the homogeneity of a solids where P ( x ) is the probability distribution function. The summa-
mixture, a mixing index is generally used to measure the degree tions are carried over all the spot samples in the system.

VOL. 6 2 NO. 7 JULY 1970 53

 TABLE I . SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS O F
Experiment
Degree of mixedness .Volniioni
Investigators or varznnce Material Type of mixer Sampling
M = degree of mixedness
Lexis (1877) as re- M=' . I .
U = observed standard de-
ported (66) CI viation
Charlier (see 69) - uz - orz ,.. ... -7 = theoretical
viation ofstandard
complete
de-
22 random mixture
Coulson and Coal-salt 25-100 Inclined cylinder 30 samples each containing p = mean
stituent
fraction
in mixture
,of con-
Maitra (38) M = 1 -X = ff X 100% mesh 150 particles were taken
with a sample thief x* = mean fraction of con-
stituent in samples
I: = percentage
taken together
unmixed
nj(xj - PI2 x
m = number of samples
Hemelrijk (see 69) x12 I _____-
j =1 ... which have approxi-
P ( l - P) mately same com-
position of overall
when P is known, otherwise mixture
use = number of samples
= number of particles in
the ]th sample
= fraction of A particles
in j t h sample
= fraction of A con-
stituent
Lacey ( 9 6 ) Bullet tapioca-bullet Wooden sphere Mixture was partitioned in a Y = average number or
tapioca 5000-5000 p trav. Particles were particles per sample
co;nted in each partition x: = fraction of key con-
Sand-Sand (-34,' Horizontal cylinder Sample thief was used to take * stituent in sample
Blumberg and at least 160 samples. z = mean fraction of x in
Maritz (7 7 ) +48) (-48/+65)
Colored particles were mixture
counted up = standard deviation of
complete random
mixture
uo = standard
mixturedeviation of
before mix-
ing
Ferrite-pyrite Tumbler ?riagnetic properties of fer- c = observed
viation standard de-
Kramer (see 95) rite were used to separate
it from pyrite

Lacey (95)

Sand-picric acid Finger prong Samples of 1 cc. were taken

Smith (763) tracer 41712'35 and analyzed colori-
-417/295 z. ! metrically
1 . Quartz-ZnO Simpson laboratory Samples of size ranging from
Chudzikiewicz (31j 2 . Quartz-Salt roll mixer 0.5 g to 10 g were taken
a t different time intervals
Sand-salt -40/50 Horizontal cylinder Three sample thieves were M = degree of mixedness
Weidenbaum and mesh inserted horizontally to C? = standard deviation o
Bonilla (780) take 27 spot samples with complete random
sample size ranging from c = standard
mixturedeviation
120 to 160 particles
among samples
PVC NazCO3- 1. V-mixer co = standard deviation of
Yano Kanise and sal;d-~nnj20n 2. Double cone
Tahaka (I&) mixture before mix-
mesh 3. Cubic mixer ing
4. Horizontal cylinder xi = particle concentration
Masterbatch-poly- I . Double cone Samples of 50 g. each were of ith sample
Adams and Baker thene 3000-4000 fi 2. Ribbon blender taken from outlet of p = mean concentration of
(1) 3. Cubic mixer mixer, and number of mixture
4. V-mixer black masterbatch par- n = number of samples
ticles were counted
Viscose-caustic Continuous mixer 30 samples taken
Beaudry (8)

... = degree of mixedness

Buslik (27) uo = standard deviation of
mixture before mix-
ing
c = standard deviation
among samples
1. Witherite-Sand 1. Double cone Sample thief was used to ur = standard deviation of
Ashton and Valen- (isoojsoo- 2 . Airmix take 20-100 samples, complete random
tin (6) 1500/800 p 3. Vertical helical im- which were analyzed mixture
2. Witherite-pyrites chemically C = fraction by weight of
(isoojsoo- mrticle size e
180/110 ill 2Tg = avkrage weighiof par-
3. Calcite-sand ticle of size g
(1soojsoo- = average weight of par-
180/1 10) ticle of all sizes in
Samples of 1 cc were taken mixture
Dextrose-clay- Finger prong
Michaels and
.w 5= water and analyzed chemically W = wekilt
Puzinaukas (705) 00 q, = standard deviation of
P(1 - P ) w ... the complete ran-
Manning (702) ,Jvz = ___ dom mixture
W = fraction by weight of
P
Bonilla and Z'Xi -i l ,.. Batch mixer with hori-
zontal screw-shaped
... one constituent in
Crownover, and Ai the mixture
Bonilla and M = - log 2___
x(l - x j
blades w = weight of one size
particle
Goldsmith (see
779) FV = sample weight
Stange (765) For a binary mixture: ... .x\Ii = degree
weight of mixedness
fraction of key
C,2 = constituent in the
ith sample

3 = mean value of x for .V

spot samples
0. q = concentration of the
1 . . constituents
5 = mean particle weight
mix constituents of

54 INDUSTRIAL A N D E N G I N E E R I N G CHEMISTRY
DEGREE OF MIXEDNESSa
Degree o/ mixedness Experiment
Investigators or variance Material Type of mixer Sampling Notations
Poole, Taylor, and Copper-nickel Lodige mixer Random numbers were used UT = standard deviation o
Walls modifica- to help sample randomly
tion of Stanges the complete ran-
by using a sample thief, dom mixture
definition for a Samples of size ranging
binary mixture p, q = concentration of the
from 5 to 1000 g were constituents
( 733) analyzed spectrophoto-
Danckwerts (39) Scale of segregation:
metrically 7 =
=
sample weight
weight fraction of a
sample within a
size class
ai, a2 = concentrations mea-
S = LmR(r)dr sured a t two points
in mixture a dis-
tance r apart
where ri, 6 = mean concentration
of a and b in mix-
ture as a whole
ea2, abZ= variances of point
of B
constituents A and
concentrations
from the overall
mean concentra-
Hyun and Chazal Horizontal cylinder tions d and 6, re-
spectively
20 samples were taken ran-
(75) domly with the aid of x = volume fraction of
random numbers after 900 large particles
revolutions. A plastic
scoop was used to collect a = ratio of sam le to
samples. Each sample volume o?large par-
was separated into 3 con- ticles
stituents by screening y = volume fraction of
medium particle
sample volume
Vsa = sample volume
V m + , = volume available to
medium and small
particles
V = volume of medium
particles
Vez = excluded volume
VI = volume of large par-
Sakaino (750) TNT-NHaNOs Samples were analyzed ticles
w = ratio of diameter of a
chemically medium particle to
ticle of a large par-
that
E = notation for expecta-
tion
W = sample weight
Leggatt (99) Niffenegger (774)carried out experiments usi ng mixtures of seeds and com- M = degree of mixedness
pared these four definitions E = mean concentration of
Westmacott and the constituent in
Linehan (782) samples
xi = mean concentration of
Miles (706) the constituent in
co = s t before
2 d Z X :mixing
iation
Miles Carter and
Shgnberge; (707) e = standard deviation
among samples
M = degree of mixedness
i = light intensity, corre-
sponding to maxi-
mum concentration
difference
io = light intensity, corre-
Oyama (see 729) Limestone-limestone Horizontal cylinder Micro photographic method sponding to maxi-
12-200 mesh was used to measure the mum concentration
intensity of light as mixing difference at the
proceeded start
Gray (58) I = probe meter reading
1. Sand-ilmenite 1. Horizontal cylinder A reflectivity probe was used
2. AlzOailmenite 2. V-mixer to measure the light in- 7 = average probe meter
3. BaSOa-ilmenite 3. Double cone tensity reading
4. Ribbon-mixer x2 = Pearsons chi-squares
p = average number of
Shinnar and Naor If White-black pottery V-mixer T h e whole mixture was particles per unit
(760) bisque frozen by wax. Samples
x2 2
2 rrp2rz2,
were taken by slicin the
area
ri = shortest distance (dis-
then the mixture is not
random
mixture. Shortest
tances were measured
31s- tance of each par-
ticle to its nearest
If under a microscope neighbor)
xoZ = observed chi squares
x2 5 2 T f i 2 1 2 2 , for any mixture
the mixture is random xrZ = ex ected chi-squares
Gayle, Lacey, and
Gary (56)
- xo2 - x12 Roofin granules,
14/28 mesh
Mixing wheel of the
Bureau of Mines
12 samples, each containing x2 = exfor
ected
random
chi-squares
mixture
xs2 - x72 about 40 particles were For segregated mix-
taken by a sample thief. ture
T h e distribution of the ua2 = variance of samples
constituents in the first 30 containing tia
particles was recorded ag lomerates
Dukes (44) Coal-MgO ... 40 samples were taken. x i s na = nurn%erof agglomer-
equal to 13,000 and ates
21,000 for 0.57 g and 1.34 P = equivalent agglom-
g samples, respectively erate size
= intensity of variation
Bosanquet (72) ... ...
12
between agglom-
erates
S2 = measure of segrega-
Hersey (70) Potassium di- Kenwood planetary A sample thief was used to tion
chromate-exsiccated mixer take 10 to 50 samples with cq = theoretical standard
sodium sulfate weight ranging from 50 to deviation of sample
500 mg. T h e samples concentration
were analyzed chemically allowed by the mix-
ture specification,
assuming 95 % con-
fidence limits and
normal distribu-
a Notations used by various investigators arc often different. For uniformity, one notation is used to denote the same variable in the Tables. tion

VOL. 6 2 NO. 7 JULY 1 9 7 0 55

 A chi-square value is computed from the expression

where xi = observed frequencies

fi = expected frequencies
k = number of possible outcomes of a n experiment that is
performed n times

For a solids mixture consisting of particles which are distinguish-

able only by color--e.g., black and white, the perfectly random
state follows the binomial distribution.

F ( ~ AiV)
, = (~AN)PNA(~ - P)~-%A (6 )
where F ( ~ AN)
, is the probability of obtaining n~ black (or white)
particles out of the total of N particles i n a sample and P is the
concentration of black (or white) particles in the mixture. T h e
theoretical mean (or expectation) of this distribution is found as

p = E(nA) = & A F ( n A , fv) NP (7)

and the variance is

uTz = E [ ( ~-
A NE')'] = ( n -
~ N P ) ' F ( ~ AN
, ) =
E(na2) - ( N P ) z = N P ( 1 - P) (8)
Alternatively, the variance can be obtained by considering the
fraction instead of the number of black (or white) particles, that is,

E[ (; - P)z] Figure 7. Schematic relationship betzceen variance

(6, 72, 28, 96, 97, 733)
CT: and sample size

From Equations 9 and 10 it can be seen that for a n intermediate

mixture, the variance is a function of the sample size and lies
between these two extreme values, u , and
~ uo2. Schematically the
relationship between the theoretical variance for the perfectly
random mixture and the sample size is shown in Figure 1.
Combining Equations 7 and 8 gives Dukes (44) proposed the equivalent agglomerate size as the
degree of mixedness. I n this model a mixture is considered as
consisting of randomly distributed agglomerates. As mixing
proceeds the size of agglomerates diminishes. If P is the fraction
of A agglomerates in a perfectly random mixture, then for samples
(9) containing n, agglomerates the theoretical variance is as in Equa-
tion 9,
Before mixing starts, the mixture is in a completely segregated
state. Among the n spot samples taken, n A particles are black
(or white) and the remaining (n - n ~ are ) white (or black)
particles. The sample variance can be obtained by using Equa- If we consider the ,V particles i n the n, agglomerates, the theoret-
tion 2, in which ical variance then is
% = P
Thus (723),
nA = nP If dV is the number of particles in each agglomerate (the equivalent
agglomerate size), then
n - 72.4 = n(l - P) -
N = n,N (13)
From Equations 11-13, the equivalent agglomerate size can be
found as
. n

Taking into account the agglomeration and segregation, Bosan-

quet ( 1 2 ) proposed the following formula,

where
S = measure of segregation
Z = intensity of variation between agglomerates of size m
If we apply Equation 13, Equation 15 can be rewritten as (28)

56 I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G CHEM'ISTRY
 where
average weight per particle of size range g
tijg =
If there is no segregation and if only unmixed agglomerates exist, @ = average weight of all particles
then (28) G = weight fraction of particles in the particular size range
W = sample weight
s2 = 0
Hyun and Chazal (75) pointed out that Busliks model is a
and substantial improvement over Mannings and gives good results
for large particles, but gives poor results for small particles. They
I = uo? = P ( l - P) studied the case in which a mixture is composed of large, medium,
and small particles. If the large particles are randomly dis-
Equation 16 thus becomes
tributed, some of the large particles will be so close together that
P ( l - P) the medium particles cannot fit between them. I n other words,
g? =
(N/R) 1 + the gaps between these large particles are available only to small
particles and are not available to medium-size particles. Thus,
the volume in which the medium particles can be randomly
Combining Equations 9 and 17 yields
distributed is correspondingly smaller. Buslik did not take this
into consideration. Hyun and Chazal derived three variance
_
U?
-- N
UT2- (N/R)+ 1 equations for large, medium, and small particles, respectively :

which is slightly different from the expression obtained by Dukes-

i.e., Equation 14. When N > fl, Equation 18 reduces to the
Dukes equation.
Hixson and Tenney (72) studied the mixing of a solid and liquid
system of sand and water. The efficiency of mixing of agitators
and the homogeneity of the mixture were studied. T h e degree of
mixedness was defined as the average value of the percentage
mixed of the samples taken from the mixer. T h e percentage where
mixed was defined as
y =
Si 100 - li
xz = -
SO
x 100 = ____
100 - I, x 100
b =
where

si =
so =
rC
by wt. of sand i n the ith sample
ye by wt. of sand in the total mixture
uez2 = [F) + (4.25 8 w.
I
+ 4 w) uz2

I; = 7@ by wt. of liquid in the ith sample x = volume fraction of large particles i n a mixture
I, = yo by wt. of liquid in the total mixture a = ratio of the sample volume to the volume of large
particles
Thus the degree of mixedness was defined as
Y = volume fraction of medium particles i n a mixture
N v,, = sample volume
c st
vm+s
v*
=
=
volume available to medium and small particles
volume of a medium particle
vez = excluded volume
v1 = volume of large particles
where n is the number of samples. T h e degree of mixedness us. w = ratio of the diameter of a medium particle to that of a
the speed of agitation was studied experimentally. The degree of large particle
mixedness was found to increase slowly a t low speeds, to increase E = notation for the expectation
sharply at higher speeds, and then to flatten off.
Theoretical analysis of a mixture of particles with a size range is Hyun and Chazal (75) used a horizontal cylinder for their experi-
less tractable than that of a mixture of uniform particle size. ments. T h e mixtures were glass beads and silica gel, each consist-
Manning (702) attempted the analysis of a mixture of multisized ing of three different sizes. Standard deviations were computed
particles. The variance was expressed by using Equations 23-25 and by Busliks Equation 22. They
found that the standard deviations computed by their equations
G ( l - G)w had better agreement with the experimental data than those
up? = computed by Busliks equation.
W Stange (765) derived a n expression for a binary mixture of
where different particle sizes.

w = average weight per particle i n a particular size range

G = weight fraction of particles i n the particular size range
W = sample weight
where
For a mixture of two particle sizes, the following relation is used: fraction of one constituent of a mixture
p =
W = total sample weight
U?2 = IT12 + u1+22 (21) a = average particle weight of the whole mixture
u = standard deviation of the particle weights of the mixture
where
constituents
u12 = variance of large particles q =1-p
uZ2 = variance of small particles Harnby (64)showed that for a binary mixture in which one of
u 1 + 2 = variance of large and small particles the constituents has a narrow size range, the expressions of Buslik,
Equation 22, and Stange, Equation 26, for the variances of a
Buslik (27) pointed out that Mannings relations are not appli- perfectly random mixture of multisized particles, are identical.
cable to random samples. H e modified Mannings model to give Poole, Taylor, and Wall (733)modified the above equation to give

VOL. 6 2 NO. 7 JULY 1970 57

where
fa = fraction of particles within a size range
wa = mean particle weight of a size range
They also verified the model experimentally, using mixtures of
copper and nickel powders in a centrifugal type batch mixer.
Stange (766)further developed a n equation for the variance of a
single constituent i n a multiconstituent mixture.
(28)
Extending Busliks expression, Harnby (64) obtained the same
equation as Equation 28.
Investigators who have studied the mixing of seed have proposed
several criteria for the degree of mixedness. Leggatt ( 9 9 )proposed
a chi-square index for determining seed homogeneity with respect
to numbers of weed and (or) foreign seeds.
where
x = observed concentration of a particular seed
2 = expected concentration
The Leggatt homogeneity test is described i n the 1953, 1956, and
1959 editions of the International Rules for Seed Testing ( 7 8 a ) .
Westmacott and Linehan (782) suggested that the Leggatt
index should be replaced with an index that measures the extent
of heterogeneity.
where
u = observed standard deviation
u, = theoretical standard deviation
Miles (706) recommended the criterion
This criterion replaced Leggatts in the 1966 International Rules
for Seed Testing.
Miles, Carter, and Shenberger (107) proposed the criteria based
on the F-distribution
for nonchaffy seeds, and
(33)
for chaffy seeds. Niffenegger (774) evaluated these criteria of the
degree of mixedness by conducting a series of experiments on seed
blending. He concluded that none of them in their present form
fulfill the need of the seed industry.
Shinnar and Naor (160) emphasized that the design of a test
for randomness depends on the specifications of an alternative
hypothesis (or a series of alternative hypotheses) about the non-
random character of the mixture. Perfect randomness of a mix-
ture is taken to be the null hypothesis. For a good test of a null
hypothesis, two things are required (760):
that it possesses a small probability of rejecting the null hy-
pothesis when it is true
that it possesses a large probability of rejecting the null hy-
pothesis when it is false
Shinnar and Naors (760) model of a random mixture of particles
of uniform size was assumed to follow the Poisson distribution in
which the fraction of black particles was less than 570. T h e
criterion for the degree of mixedness is based upon the shortest
distance between particles. If
n cal Engineering, and C . A . Watson is with the Agricultural Research Ser-
58 INDUSTRIAL AND E N G I N E E R I N G CHEMISTRY
then the mixture is not random, and if
n
xznla2 > 2 =pCr32
i= 1
then the mixture is random where
~ 2 ~ =, values
~ 2 of chi-square distribution with 2 n degrees of
freedom, which is exceeded with probability of a
n = number of particles under investigation
p = average number of points per unit area
ri = shortest distance (distance of each particle to its nearest
neighbor)
Hersey (70) compared the criterion for the degree of mixedness
suggested by Poole et al. (133) and that by Ashton and Valentin
(6). He concluded that both criteria appear to agree with the
fact that coarse particles are more likely to result in a randomized
mixture than fine particles. Nevertheless, the two criteria appear
to show opposing tendencies o n the effect of different concentra-
tions. Hersey (70) studied the effects of concentrations and
particle sizes using different proportions of potassium dichromate
mixed in sodium sulfate of the mean sizes of 48 p and 84 w , respec-
tively. With these studies as a basis he proposed the measure for
the degree of mixedness as
(34)
where
u = observed standard deviation
uq = theoretical standard deviation of sample concentration
allowed by the mixture specification, assuming 95y0
confidence limits and a normal distribution.
Mixing parameters. Solids mixing is a complex process in
which characteristics of solids and mixing equipment and operating
conditions can influence the tendency to mix a n d demix. There-
fore, the degree of mixedness and the rate of mixing are functions
of many variables related to these characteristics and of operating
conditions. T h e variables can be grouped as follows (2, 3 6 ) :
Characteristics of Solids
1. Particle size distribution
2. Particle shape and surface characteristics
3. Bulk density and particle density
4. Moisture content
5. Angle of repose
6. Coefficient of friction of particles
7. Friability
8. State of agglomeration
9. Flowability
Characteristics of Mixing EquiFment
1. Mixer dimension and geometry
2. Agitator dimension
3. Construction materials and surface finishes
4. Type, location, and number of loading and emptying
devices
Operating Conditions
I . Weight of each constituent added
2. Ratio of volume of the mixture to that of the mixer
3. Method, sequence, place, and rate of adding constituents
4. Mixer or agitation speed, if any
In solids mixing, each constituent to be mixed usually has a
range of particle sizes. Most of the reported results deal with
constituents of uniform particle sizes or of two sizes. Some in-
vestigators studied mixtures containing a range of particle sizes.
Sawahata (752) studied the degree of mixedness of a powder
AUTHORS L. T . Fan and S. J . Chen are with the Department of Chemi-
vice, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Kansas State University, M a n -
hattan, Kan. 66502
mixture of given size distribution by applying the method of sedi-
mentation for size analysis. Segregation of particles usually
occurs when mixing a solids mixture having a size distribution
(26, 40-42). Larger particles stay at the top of the mixture, and
smaller particles sink to the bottom.
If there is a difference in density of particles, segregation will
occur. However, for a density ratio of less than 3 : 1 , which is
usually encountered in practice, Campbell and Bauer (26) re-
ported that size distribution exerts greater influence on mixing and
demixing than the difference in density. Friedrich (53) studied
effects of the bulk weight, bulk density, and particle size distribu-
tion on dispersion of tracer particles.
Shape and surface characteristics affect the flowability of par-
ticles. Round and smooth particles flow more readily than rough
and irregular ones.
Ciborowski (34)studied the influence of moisture content of the
particles mixed in a horizontal cylinder. He found that the rate
of axial mixing can be enhanced by increasing the moisture content
of the particles, provided the mixing mechanism is diffusion.
Nevertheless, moist and sticky particles retard the mixing process
if they adhere to the walls of the mixer or if they cause agglomera-
tion ( 3 6 ) .
Angle of repose, coefficient of friction, and flowability are closely
related. Solids particles possessing small angles of repose exhibit
good flowability and small coefficient of friction. Good flow-
ability is not necessarily of advantage for mixing. Segregation
may occur due to their rapid movement. Friable particles are
easily broken into pieces; mixing friable particles can thus increase
the range of particle sizes.
Dimension and geometry of a mixer and those of an agitator
have influence on the particles flow pattern and flow velocities.
Interactions between solids particles and the construction materials
and surface finishes of a mixer may produce static charges and
hence cause agglomeration. Friction between particles and the
surface of a mixer has some effect on mixing and demixing. Type,
location, and number of loading and emptying devices may en-
hance or hamper the mixing action.
The operating conditions of a mixer greatly affect the degree of
mixedness and the rate of mixing. Donald and Roseman (40)
and Carley-Macauly, and Carley-Macauly and Donald (27-29)
investigated, in detail, the effects of different operating conditions
on mixing and demixing.
Rose (737) attempted a dimensional analysis by assuming that
mixing and demixing occur simultaneously in a mixer. He dis-
cussed the relationships between the mixing process and the physi-
cal parameters. Parameters considered to be related to mixing
were:
Diameter of the mixer
Speed of rotation of the mixer
Mean diameter of the particles
Mean coefficient of friction of the particles
Gravitational force
and those parameters considered to be related to demixing were
Diameter of the mixer
Speed of rotation of the mixer
Mean diameter of the particles
Difference of the mean sizes of the two constituents of the mixture
Mean density of the mixture
Difference of the densities of the two constituents of the mixture
This analysis is in good agreement with the experimental data.
Experimental data of Coulson and Maitra ( 3 8 ) and those of
Weidenbaum and Bonilla (780) are also in good agreement with
the analysis.
Sampling. Unlike liquid mixing, which can produce a homo-
geneous mixture, solids mixing always produces an inhomogeneous
mixture. T o determine the degree of mixedness, samples are
taken and analyzed. Therefore, sampling techniques and the
methods of analyzing the samples are indispensable in studying
solids mixing. Sampling can be as simple as scooping a quantity
of solids from the mixer or it can be complex. It is always de-
sirable that the samples taken should represent the whole mixture.
However, there is always a difference between the sample and the
mixture. Therefore, details of the sampling procedure are often
given in reporting results of a mixing study and should include the
method and the locations of sampling, the sample size, and the
number of samples (779).
Method of Sampling and Samplers. The choice of a sampling tech-
nique depends on the characteristics of the mixer and the mixture.
Commonly used methods are suggested in (27,28).
(a) Probe sampling: Coulson and Maitra (38),and Blumberg
and Maritz (77)devised a sampling thief which consists of a solid rod
with radial holes. A sleeve is rotated to uncover these holes when
a sample is taken. The thief is designed to cause as little dis-
turbance to the mixture as possible. Ridgway and Wibberley
(736) reported that their photoelectrical sampling probe is con-
nected to a computer for fast data gathering. The Prob-A-Vac
and the Pneumatic Probe ( 9 2 )use air in conjunction with a probe.
A smaller cylinder fits inside a larger cylinder. By use of a nega-
tive pressure a t the top of the smaller cylinder, air is forced down-
ward between the two cylinders and back up inside the smaller
cylinder. This movement of air pulls the particles into the smaller
cylinder and assists in pushing the probe into the bulk mixture.
(b) Complete subdivision of the mixture: Lacey ( 9 6 ) used
trays divided into many cells to hold the final mixture. Particles
are counted one by one in each cell. Though accurate counts
can be obtained, it becomes very tedious if the mixture contains
many particles.
(c) Freezing the mixture and taking a section through it:
Shinnar, Kattan, and Steg (759) froze the mixture by pouring a
monomer into the mixture, and then polymerizing in an oven.
(d) Samples can be taken at an outlet stream from the mixer
at a fixed time interval.
(e) Sampling by mechanical belt cup-type: These samplers
have cups which periodically dip into the material on a moving
belt or as the material falls off the end of the belt. The cups are
arranged so that they sample at different places across the width
of the belt. Performance of the samplers was reported by Kramer
(97).
( f ) Sampling by manual cup-type: These samplers are essen-
tially some form of a container that is passed through the stream of
free-falling material. The most common one used for grain
sampling has a container which is formed in the shape of a pelicans
pouch and is called the Pelican sampler. Kramer (90, 91)
compared the performance of the Pelican sampler with a mechani-
cal diverter-type sampler. Other samplers and their performance
have been discussed by Johnson (82).
Locations where the samples are taken are randomly or orderly
distributed throughout the whole mixture. Tables of random
numbers are usually used to help locate random positions in a
mixture. For orderly sampling, samples are taken a t uniform
intervals in the mixture. Theories of both random and orderly
sampling have been discussed by Landry (97). Methods which
have been used to analyze samples are ( 5 ,27, 29,68, 739): numeri-
cal counting, radioactive counting, chemical analysis, reflection
of light to a photocell, flame spectrometry, X-ray fluorescence, and
magnetic separation.
Sample Sire. There are two extremes of the sample size. T h e
smallest possible sample size is a single particle which does not give
any information of mixing, and the largest possible sample size
is the entire mixture which always indicates that mixing is perfect.
This of course, is not true. I n the neighborhood of these two
extremes, little information about the mixedness of a mixture can
be obtained. Too small a sample gives scattered data of variance,
and too big a sample gives rise to information which makes the
mixture appear to be better than it actually is. No systematic
methods have been proposed to determine the optimum sample
size. When the final product is a tablet or a package, the con-
venient sample size is the actual tablet or the package. If a num-
ber of samples must be taken, too much of the material should not
be removed for each sample. A rough rule (2, 779) is to remove
not more than 5 yo of the mixture.
Recently some work has been done on the effect of sample size
on the mixing index. Figure 1 schematically summarizes the
results. Lacey (96) showed that for a completely random mixture
the variance of sample composition decays inversely with the
sample size, while for a totally segregated mixture it is independent
of the sample size. Bourne ( 7 7 ) derived relationships for the
variance and the sample size. The relationships were influenced
by the type of sampling and the type of correlation inherent in
the mixture. Bourne ( 7 6 ) also studied the influence of the shape
of samples on variances. The statistical properties of square,
two-dimensional samples lie between those of linear and spherical
samples.
For diffusive mixing, mixing due to the random movement of
particles over a freshly developed surface, Lacey ( 9 5 ) stated that
VOL. 6 2 NO. 7 J U L Y 1 9 7 0 59
 (1 - M ) , where M is the degree of mixedness, should be inde-
pendent of sample size. However, for the case of convective
mixing, mixing due to transfer of groups of adjacent prrticles from
one location in the mixture to another, the index depends on the
sample size.
Poole, Taylor, and Wall (733)found an approximate correlation
between the coefficient of variation and the sample size. The
experimental data were approximated by a straight line on the
logarithmic plot in their range of sample sizes from 2 to 1000 mg.
Effect of the sample size on the rate of mixing was also reported.
Landry (97) developed detailed statistical methods and applied
the methods to the problem of coal sampling in the determination
of the ash content. He reported that the change in variance with
the sample size gives information about the structure of a mixture. Fz'gure 2. Flow of particles in simple horizontal cylinder (749)
Budryk ( 1 9 ) had a similar discussion on variance and sample size -
- - + Centrifuging . ... + Rolling
in studying coal and ore sampling. Cornish (37) discussed the - - - - + Cataracting e
- SliF
problems of coal blending and the methods of sampling in large ---+ Cascading O-- General Flow
scale operations. Bourne (74) interpreted the mixing data ob-
tained by Poole, Taylor, and Wall (733, 734) by using Landry's
correlation theory. Other results of variance-sample size rela-
tionships have been reported by Ashton and Valentin (6).
The effect of sample size on the degree of mixedness was in-
vestigated by Chazal and Hung (30). They showed that the ratio
of actual variance to the random variance is a function of the
sample size and the cluster size. (A cluster is a group of particles
having the same characteristics.) However, if the samples are
approximately spherical or cubic in nature, and if the mixture is
uniform, samples containing ten thousand particles will give an
index of mixing nearly independent of sample size.
Number of Samples. The larger the number of samples, the more
knowledge of the mixture we can gain. Statistically speaking, to
obtain a higher per cent confidence, a large number of samples
are required. I t is, therefore, necessary to optimize the effort
and the time in taking and analyzing a large number of samples.
The effect of the number of samples on the precision of determina-
tion of mixing time was discussed by Stange (764).
T h e determination of the number of samples depends primarily
upon the mixer and the mixture, the technique of sampling, and
the method and cost of analyzing the sample. No systematic
methods have yet been developed to determine the optimum
number of samples. I t is suggested that 5 to 1 5 samples be taken
for both batch and continuous mixing (2). Figure 3. Boundary conditions f o r horizontal cylinder (95)

Rate OF Mixing
I n mixing operations it is necessary and important to know the
time required to achieve a desired degree of mixedness in a mixer. t = time
I t is often difficult to predict systematically the time of mixing be- x = distance in the direction of diffusion
cause no complete theories of mixing mechanisms have been Da= axial diffusion coefficient
developed. Rate of mixing is important for understanding the
basic mechanisms of mixing and for improving the design of a Lacey stated that since radial diffusion is extremely fast, rate of
mixer. I n this section mixing mechanisms and rate equations mixing is controlled by axial diffusion. Hence the mixing process
proposed by various investigators are discussed. can be considered as a one-dimensional diffusion process described
Mechanisms of mixing and rate equations. Three mixing by Equation 35. The axial diffusion coefficient was assumed to
mechanisms were assumed by Lacey (95) in developing the theory be constant. Equation 35 was solved with the following initial
of the rate of mixing. They are: (a) convective mixing-transfer and boundary conditions
of groups of adjacent particles from one location to another in the
mixture, (b) diffusive mixing-distribution of particles over a C(0, x ) = 1, 0 5 x 5 z'
(36)
freshly developed surface, and (c) shear m i x i n g s e t t i n g up of
slipping planes within the mixture. As mixing proceeds, all three
C(t,x ) = 0, E <x 5 1
mechanisms function to some extent. Different mixers give where
different predominating mechanisms.
A considerable amount of work has been done on the model of = average concentration of black (or white) particles
diffusive mixing. Identical solid particles differing only in color x = fractional distance in the direction of diffusion
are loaded in a horizontal cylinder which rotates about its axis. t = time
I n the mixer the behavior of particles rolling down the freshly
developed surface is similar to ordinary molecular diffusion. Schematically the initial and the boundary conditions are shown
Each particle has an equal chance of deflecting to either side on in Figure 3. The solution is
each collision with another particle. Thus within the mixing
plane, particles exhibit random movement. Flow of particles in a
simple horizontal cylinder is shown in Figure 2. Lacey (95)
applied the classical diffusion theory to describe the mixing
process. Fick's diffusion equation is written as where
Dt
bC
_ - a*c T = -
(35) L2
at - Da52
L = actual mixer length
where k = an integer
C = concentration of the mixture The variance of C at any instant is

60 INDUSTRIAL AND E N G I N E E R I N G CHEMISTRY

 Hogg et al. and Cahn (22, 74)solved Equation 35 with the
initial and boundary conditions
L
C(X, 0) = 0, -- < x < o
2 -
L
=1, o < x < ,

where N , the rotational speed of the mixer, was used instead o f t .

T h e solution was found to be

1
C(x, N ) = - +-
2 " ___1 [ -2 (k -L:)a~2D,N
rr k = l (2k - l)exp

sin ['2 L l)rx] (40)

Figure 4. Cylindrical tank mixer equipped with impeller (121)
Equations 37 and 40 are similar in form. Hogg et al. (74) treated
the case in which

For a large value of N , higher terms in Equation 40 become for large N,and
negligible. Equation 40 can then be approximated by (22, 74).

For small values of N, the system was approximated by considering for small N . Experimental data agreed closely with these predic-
diffusion in a n infinite cylinder. The solution to the system is: tions (74).
Otake, Kitaoka, and Tone (727) studied the diffusive mixing in
a cylindrical tank equipped with a paddle-type impeller. Figure 4
shows the mixer loaded with particles before mixing. If we neglect
the axial diffusion, the diffusion equation can be written as
The axial diffusion coefficient was determined from the experi-
mental data by using Equation 42. The variance of C a t any aQc 1 ac
(49 )
number of revolutions N is given by bt
where
D , = radial diffusion coefficient
C = concentration of the mixture
r = radial distance
t = time

Kinetics of mixing can be visualized by studying the relation T h e initial and the boundary conditions of the system are
between the degree of mixedness and the mixing time. The
degree of mixedness used by Hogg et al. is C(x, 0 ) = 1, 0 5 7 5 Ri

M x = l - -
Uh7' = 0, Ri <r _< R ,
(44)
U02

where
=
u ~ 2 observed variance
uo2 = variance before mixing
As N becomes large the variance is approximately the first term of where
Equation 43
uN2 = ;2z exp (- 2I-->
rr2D,N
(45 )
Rj = radius of the portion of the tank occupied by colored
particles
Ro
-
= radius of the tank
For a small value of N the corresponding variance is C = average concentration of the mixture
The solution was

Substituting Equations 45 and 46 into Equation 44 gives two

equations
where mb are the roots of the following equation:
a 2 +D,N
log(1 - MN) = log 2-7 (47 1
Jl(mk&) = 0

VOL. 6 2 NO. 7 JULY 1970 61

J denotes the Bessel functions. (Values of Bessels functions are
tabulated in mathematical handbooks, such as Handbook of
hlathematical Functions, edited by Abramowitz and Stegun. )
T h e radial diffusivity was determined by using Equation 51 and
the experimental data of the concentration distribution.
The variance was calculated from the following equation:
Jo
where
p = density of particles
H = height of the mixture in the mixer
When we substitute Equation 51 into Equation 52 and integrate,
the resulting expression yields
The degree of mixedness was defined as
Comparing the theoretical values of the degree of mixedness with
the observed values, the authors obtained good agreement.
Hence, they concluded that diffusive mixing is the conspicuous
mechanism in the mixer equipped with an impeller (127 ).
Fisher (50) made the following assumptions in applying the
diffusion equation to describe the mechanism of solids mixing:
The particle system may be treated as a continuum, the radial
mixing process is rapid in comparison to the axial mixing process,
the axial mixing process is analogous to pure equimolecular
counter-diffusion, and the axial diffusion coefficient is not a func-
tion of position in the mixer.
T h e equation which completely describes the mixing in a
horizontal cylinder is
(55)
Based on the assumptions above, Equation 55 is reduced to Equa-
tion 35. Fisher solved the equation with the following initial
and boundary conditions :
C(X, 0 ) = 1, x =
L
- Acceleration type
0,
2
otherwise
T h e solution was found to be
where
Experimentally the initial condition represents a plane of par-
ticles with thickness of one particle diameter. The plane is
located a t x = L / 2 , and is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder.
Thus the solution is (50):
62 INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
T h e variance was found to be
uz = 0.08333 +-8 -
a3d k = l
1 ka
- e-mkt cos - cos k7r sin
k3 2
rL
kad
(59)
T h e observed values of the variance are larger than those calcu-
lated. Fisher pointed out that the lack of agreement is due to the
limited applicability of the diffusion equation to a discontinuous
medium, and the presence of convection currents at the ends of
the mixer.
Factorial design techniques werc applied to estimate the axial
diffusion coefficients by Fisher (SO), which was considered as a
response variable. T h e independent variables are : the particle
diameter, rotational speed of the mixer, mixer volume occupied
by particles, initial position of the tracer particles, and an antistatic
agent. Among these variables, mixer speed, mixer volume oc-
cupied by particles, and the particle diameter have significant
influence on the diffusion coefficient.
Limitations of the one-dimensional diffusion model are (50):
iixial mixing was shown to have convection as well as diffusion;
radial mixing, by convection, may not be rapid enough to justify
the assumption that it can be neglected; and a t high rotational
speed of the mixer large scale convection currents exist within the
bed of particles.
T h e mathematical models thus far proposed are for axial diffu-
sion in a simple horizontal cylinder. Detailed studies on the
convective and shear mixing mechanisms have not been reported.
Hogg e t al. ( 7 4 ) pointed out that these are in fact combinations
of effects which involve both diffusion and the breakup of aggre-
gates.
Many models based on the diffusion theory have been proposed
to describe the relation between the degree of inixedness and the
mixing time. h.lost of them describe the first-order kinetic be-
havior of the mixture. Table 11, an expanded version of Weiden-
baums (779), summarizes the proposed models, the reported rate
equations, and the final results.
Mixing Equipment
hlixers which have been used in studying solids mixing and
those employed commercially are usually classified according to the
mechanisms of mixing or the movement of the mixer. Lloyd and
Yeung (700)recently reviewed the published work on solids mixing
and classified mixers into four general categories according to
mixing mechanisms : tumbling, tumbling with shear, shear, and
others. Williams (786) classified the solids mixers into two groups:
segregating mixers, which rely mainly on diffusion and shear, and
nonsegregating mixers, which rely mainly on convection. Moran
(708) classified mixers according to movement as follows :
[Power driven or tumbling
Batch mixers
[,Transportation
type.
type
Gravity mixer
Vertical
[Horizontal
LIntrnsive mixers
Fluid bed mixers Conventional fluid bed
mixers
Conventional fluid bed
mixer with high pressure
jet injection
Vortex type air flow fluid
bed mixers
Continuous mixers
r Overflow batch mixers
Gravity mixers
r ~ o n v e y i n gsystems
[centrifugal mixers
A large number of different mixers have been developed to meet
various industrial needs. RecentIy some new mixers, motionless
mixers, and S-type mixers have been invented. In a motionless
mixer, mixing is accomplished by immobile inline mixing devices
that repeatedly split and combine the process stream to achieve
intermixing of the solid particles. Because there are no moving
parts in the mixer, they are called motionless mixers (726). Per-
formances of some motionless mixers are under investigation by
the authors. An S-type mixer is made of a cylinder shaped like
a n S. Mixing is accomplished in the mixer when it rotates a t a
horizontal axis a t the middle of S. Some results of the per-
 TABLE II. SUMMARY OF RATE EQUATIONS
Investigators Proposed model Rate equation Ftnal equation given Notations
Brothman, Wollan, and
Feldman (78)
T h e surface of separation of two constituents
increases as mixin proceeds, following
yi+i = yt + 9(1 - Ut)
Pt 3 1 - e-kSpU-s-') y: = proportion of the maximum theoreti-
cally ossible surface of separation,
t
Sp, w&ch has been developed in

+'
the first order me&anisrn
Coulson and Maitra
(38)
Same as above
g = k(So - S) In = kt
1 time
k, c = constants
Weidenbaum and The ratio u,/u can be considered as the d ( udtv / u ) - k(l - (u,/u)) In[ 1 S = interfacial area of surface per unit
Bonilta (780) fractional distance toward equilibrium, volume
which follows first-order mechanism 1 So 3 maximum surface per unit volume

Oyama and Ayaki (724) T h e observed variance follows first-order -

bu2 -k(& - urP)
In[ -1 -kt
+
c +
cy 3 standard deviation of complete random
mixture
mechanism at uo2 -ut% u = observed standard deviation

Sakaio (750) T h e size of a glomerate diminishes as mix-

in$ proceels, following first-order mech-
- 2 E K (-
~ E,)
ln(z-, = -kt)
E = size of agglomerate
zo = initial value of E
anism z, = equilibrium value of E
Lacey (95) Axial diffusive mixing is assumed to occur ac = D~ a2c
-i m
C = concentration of constituent
in a horizontal cylinder z- ax
d s average concentration of key con-
Initial Conditions k=l stituent
and Boundary
Conditions
C(X, 0) -
1, 0 5 x <c
( s y ) z x , - i 2 1 ~ 2 ~k 2 ~= integer

T 3%
ac a2c L 3 length of mixer
Ho g Cahn Healy, and Same as above
iulratena; (74) = Da k=l Da s axial diffusion coefficient
Initial Conditions 1 N = number of revolutions of the mixer
and Boundary
Conditions
(2k-l)2Xexp
2(2k l)+DaN -
(- *3
DX2

C(X, 0) = 0, La ) d 3 diameter of particles

-_
L <x<o

C = concentration of key constituent

Fisher (50) Same as above = 0'08333 + F8 d c = average concentration of key constit-

+
uent
Initial Conditions co
and Boundary e--mk2t cos Dr = radial diffusion coefficient
Conditions k-1 r = radial distance
L krd Ri = radius of key constituent charged in the
C(x, 0 ) = 1, x = -
2
= 0, otherwise
k r sin -
' Ro
tank
= radius of tank
J = Bessel functions
mk = roots of Ji(mkRo) = 0
L = length of mixer
M = degree of mixedness
Otake, Kitaoka, and Radial diffusive mixing takes place in a
Tone (727) cylindrical tank equipped with a paddle-
type impeller
at = D I (STazc +

--
_r -ark
1~
Ro4
k=1
5x N
k
= number of revolutions of the mixer
= constant
d = inside diameter of mixer
br)
JIZ(mkRi) Me = equilibrium value for the degree of
Initial Conditions mkVo(mkRo) mixedness
and Boundary
Conditions .-2D,rnkzt A = coefficient defining rate of mixing
C(x, 0 ) 1, 0 5 r 5 R i B = coefficient defining rate of demixing
0, Ri < r 2 Ro R = intrinsic efficiency of mixer
t = time
9 E demixing potential

Gayle, and Gary (55) Mixin proceeds by a n initial second-order

mec%anism and is followed by a slower -
dM
-dt
I; d
LZ
E
M
= 1 + kdi.45 (g)'
first-order mechanism
Rose (738) A mixing and demixing potential are
operative simultaneously
E
dt
=A ( I - M ) - B+ Me=

formance of S-type mixers have been reported by Aka0 and Noda
(3).
Moran (708) gave some typical criteria to be used in selecting a
mixer. They are given below.
Mixing Characteristics. The list includes: accuracy of mix and
reproducibility of results, mixing time, type of mix required,
tendency to segregate or demix, tendency to damage product,
tendency to cause heat, suitability for liquid addition, and quantity
to be mixed.
Physical Construction. Included are physical dimension, founda-
tion requirement, necessary auxiliary equipment, horsepower
requirement, ease of loading and unloading, ease of cleaning,
materials for construction available, wear and product contamina-
tion, safety factor, and flexibility for different operating conditions.
Cost Factors. The following items must be considered : capital
cost of mixer, capital cost of necessary auxiliary equipment, labor
cost, and other operating costs, such as power, depreciation, and
maintenance.
Similar criteria for selecting a mixer were given by Fischer (48),
Clump (36),and Valentin (774).
Gray (58) described and compared the performance of seven
mixers. Difference in the rate of mixing was found. Gayle (54)

VOL. 6 2 NO. 7 JULY 1970 63

made a direct comparison of the mixing mechanism in a V-mixer
with that in a horizontal cylinder. He concluded that the general
trend of the results for each mixer was similar. Rate of mixing for
both mixers which had marked differences in physical charac-
teristics followed second-order kinetic behavior. This suggested
that many mixers have similar mixing mechanisms. Harnby
( 6 3 )studied segregation by mixing a 4:1 millet/salt (sizes: 1525 p /
363 p , specific gravities: 1.2/2.16) in V-mixer, Rotocube, Nauta-
mix, and Ribbon Blender. Performances of these mixers were
compared. Nautamix and Ribbon Blender were reported to be
superior to others for mixing segregating particles.
Scott (757) described several kinds of mixers and indicated the
predominating mixing mechanisms in them. hlellenbergh ( 703)
compared the mixing performance of various types of mixers.
Wornick ( 790) summarized characteristics of several mixers in
studying the premixing of microingredients for the feed industry.
Weidenbaum ( 779) reviewed extensively the performance and
comparisons of different mixers. Tables l a and l b of Lloyd and
Yeung (700) were combined and expanded to construct Table I11
which summarizes the different types of mixers, their recom-
mended applications, and references to literature describing their
use.
Sirnulalion of Solids Mixing Processes
which are beyond the existing techniques of experimental analysis.
I n such cases, Monte Carlo methods are the best, and sometimes
the only available techniques. There are no rigid procedures
to follow in applying Monte Carlo methods. To solve a problem
a random sampling procedure must be determined according to
the nature of the problem. However, use of random numbers in
sampling is common to all problems. hlethods of generating
random numbers can be found in texts treating simulation tech-
niques, such as in (772) and (770). For the general discussion
of Monte Carlo methods, readers are referred to (62) and (770).
A few investigators have attempted to employ Monte Carlo
techniques in treating solids mixing and sampling problems.
Buslik ( 2 7 ) devised a random sampling technique to take samples
from a simulated multisized solids mixture in order to compare his
equation,
ITiz = G ( l - G)@, + GZ(a - c g )
W
with Mannings equations
G ( l - G)ZO
g72 = ~-
W
IT22 = u12 + u1+22

Though the theoretical analysis of the mixing of particulate
solids has started to appear in the literature, it has not been suffi-
ciently developed. Experimental analysis of a mixture is often
subject to appreciable experimental and sampling errors. Hence
experimental verification of the validity of the theoretical criteria
for the degree of mixedness of a mixture is not always satisfactory.
With the recent advent of high speed and large memory com-
puters, it has become possible to simulate a solids mixing process
in a relatively short time. Simulation by using a computer is
essentially a mathematical experiment. I n the experiment, the
computer can be considered as the apparatus. The experimental
material consists of random numbers, functions, and computer
programs which can be modified and controlled. Hence sampling
errors and errors due to instrumental measurements are eliminated.
Monte Carlo simulation of solids mixing processes. hfonte
Carlo techniques are numerical methods which involve sampling
from statistical distributions, either theoretical or empirical, to
approximate the real physical phenomena without reference to
the actual physical systems. There are a variety of problems
.A table of random numbers was employed to obtain various digits,
0 to 9, which were assigned to represent particles of different weight.
Digit 1 represented a particle of weight equal to 1 unit, digit 2 a
particle of weight equal to 2 units, and so on. Thc digit 0 repre-
sented a particle of weight equal to 10 units. Samples were
taken by running along rows of the table of random numbers.
Digits were added until a sum of a t least 95 was reached so that
the average weight was approximately 100. I n each sariiple the
number of digits of each kind and hence the per cent by weight of
each kind were computed. Values of standard deviations were
computed by using Equations 20-22. They were compared with
experimental standard deviations. Busliks equation gave better
agreement between the experimental and computed standard
deviations than Mannings equations.
Based on the analogy between the random movement of solids
particles in mixing and random mixing of numbers in a digital
computer, Rose and Robinson (738) employed the hfonte Carlo
simulation to study the mixing of powders and various sampling
techniques. The model consists of 480 stores in the computer,

TABLE 111. S U M M A R Y OF M I X E R S
.Mixers Recommendations fop
Genera! w e App!i cationf Ref8retrce.c

Batch Mixers

Tumbling mixer Horizontal cylinder Free flowing particles I , 22-24, 26-29, 10-42, 50, 55, 56, 58, 7 4 , 85, 123, 12.1, 1.19,
167, 168, 180, 1 93a-195, 197
Inclined cvlinder 11, 28, 2 9 , 38, 739, 787
Rotating dube 1. 58, 6 3 , 193a, 195, 197
Double cone 1 , 25, 29, 58, 71, 19.7, 195, 197
Tumbling mixer with shear Horizontal cylinders with
baffles or paddles
V-mixer
Concrete mixer
Hammer mill
Shear mixer Ribbon mixer Free flowing particles, cohesive 1, 58, 63, 131, 199
Finger prong particles, and segregating mix- 45, 105
Kneader tures 163
Muller 58, 163
Cintrifugal mixer
Centrifugal 140, 763
Reducing helix extruder 163
Reciprocating conveyor 163
Vertical agitator 121
Pro ellant mixer 73
L o J g e mirer 133
Vertical helical impeller 5, 6: 59, 63
Z-blade 6
Fluidization mixer Airmix mixer Dry solid particles 6

Continuous Mixers
Continuous ribbon type Free flowing particles and 131
Continuous flow type cohesive particles 98
Circulation tvoe
, I
98
Gravity mixer in8
Centrifuwal mixer 84, 110
Motionl& mixer 726

64 INDUSTRIAL A N D E N G I N E E R I N G CHEMISTRY
 those that have given values of x . Equation 60 can be inter-
preted as: given the present of the process, the future is
independent of its past (725). The conditional probability
is often called a transition probability in a Markov process as it
describes the transition from the state X(t,-,) to the state X(t,).
Oyama and Ayaki ( 724) theoretically considered solids mixing
in a horizontal cylinder as a Markov process. The volume of a
solids mixture consisting of black and white particles was equally
divided into N cells. The concentration of black (or white)
particles in the i cell after t revolutions is denoted by x , ( t ) X P23(t)
and is used to denote the transition probability of the concentration
of i cell after t revolutions given the concentration at j cell after
( t - 1 ) revolutions.
Then
N
x&t) = P<j(t)xj(t-l), i = 1, 2, . ., N
j= 1
In matrix notation Equation 61 is written as
.(t) = Ptx(t-1)

where

Figure 5. Simulation models in computer (138)

each store having 40 bits. Each bit was considered to be a sepa-

rate particle. 0 and l are values of the bits representing two
different types of particles. The model then consists of a total
of 19,200 particles evenly distributed in 480 stores. Figure 5
shows the model of the mixture before mixing. Random numbers If the physical properties of the particles are the same, and if the
were generated in a computer. These random numbers were mixing mechanism in the mixer does not change with time, then
used as a basis for the random interchange of the numbers in the the transition probability is independent of time. Therefore,
stores. An interchange was accomplished by choosing a store a t
random and then a bit from that store. T h e value obtained P1 = Pz = ... = P4 = P (63)
(0 or 1) was interchanged with another bit obtained from another
Substituting Equation 63 into Equation 62 recursively yields
store in a similar manner. After approximately 1000 inter-
changes, the distribution of the numbers in the stores was deter- .(t) pt,to, (64)
mined by sampling. Each sample consisted of one or more
adjacent stores depending on the sample size required. The mean I n a horizontal cylinder, radial mixing is much faster than axial
and the variance were then computed. The simulation was con- mixing; thus the concentration in a plane perpendicular to the
tinued until a random mixture was obtained. The simulation axis is the same. N cells in^ the mixture can be considered as lining
results were compared with the experimental results obtained from u p along the axis. The behavior of the particles in the mixer is
a horizontal cylinder and a V-mixer. The degree of mixedness us. similar to the one-dimensional Brownian motion.
the number of interchanges in a computer and the number of Inoue and Yamaguchi (78) considered the case in which each
revolutions of a mixer were plotted. T h e number of interchanges cell contains a different number of particles. Assuming that
must be suitably chosen with respect to the number of revolutions mixing in a V-mixer undergoes a two-dimensional Markov
of the mixer. Good agreement was obtained between the two process, a n equation corresponding to Equation 61 can be written
results. I t was, therefore, concluded that Monte Carlo simulation as
may be used as a n analog of a practical mixing process. N
Yano, Alaya, and Terashita (792) extended the work of Rose
and Robinson (738) by proposing several methods of generating
m&t) = Pi$t)mj(t-l), i = 1, 2, . ., N
, (65)
j= 1
uniform pseudorandom numbers. Comparisons of the methods
were made. They concluded that their methods are good for where mi(t) is the number of colored particles in the ith cell after t
simulating mixing in horizontal cylinder and in a ribbon mixer. revolutions. I f . b o t h sides of Equation 65 are divided by ni,
They also proposed a circulation model to simulate the screw- the total number of particles in the ith cell, one obtains
type mixer. Their simulated results were in good agreement with
their previous experimental results (793).
Stochastic processes and solids mixing. Gayle, Lacey, and
Gary (56) pointed out the possibility of digital simulation of solids
mixing by using numerical digits and subjecting them to well- Let
defined, discrete, random numerical operations which are similar m
to those used in the study of a random walk process. A random x=-
n
walk process is a stochastic process in which the random variable
is the position of a particle moving on a straight line in such a ni
= -
manner that at each step the particle either remains where it is or n
moves one step to the left or to the right (725). A random walk
process belongs to a more general category of stochastic processes, where m is the total number of colored particles in the mixer and n
called the Markov processes. Mathematically a Markov process is the total number of particles in the mixer. Thus Equation 66
is described as (725) can be written as

P[X(t,) I X,lX(tl) = x1, . . , X(t,_I) = L l I =

P[X(t,) I x,lX(t,_i) = xn.-i] (60)

where P with a bar separating random variables is the conditional , ., N (69 1
probability. Random variables, X, on the right of the bar are

VOL. 6 2 NO. 7 JULY 1970 65

I n matrix notation, Equation 69 is written as
where
PI1 PI2 .. , Weidenbaum (179) pointed out briefly the importance of related
P = [ : : portation, vibrating, and flow through silos. Williams (786)
P,, P.V% . , .
Recursively Equation 70 can be written as
.(t) = n-'pYIIx(O) (71 )
Muller and Rumpf ( 7 7 7 ) also considered the mixing mechanism
as a Afarkov process. Experiments were conducted on the mixing
of spherical copper and nickel pellets in mixers having axial
mixing.
Cahn (22, 23) simulated axial mixing in a simple horizontal
cylinder. Axial mixing is known to proceed by a Markov process.
T h e entire mixing system could be characterized as a complex
Markov process with as many random walks as there are particles
in the mixer. However, the mathematics involved become so
unwieldy even with a few particles that they attempted a Monte
Carlo simulation. Correlations between the diffusion coefficients
obtained from simulation and those from observations of actual
mixing are extremely high. Thus they concluded that mixing in
the system can be accurately simulated by using hlonte Carlo
techniques. A stochastic model of solids mixing was proposed by
Oleniczak (120). The model describes a complicated three-
dimensional process with complex geometrical boundaries. A
two-quart V-mixer was used to test the model experimentally.
Results of the experiment were in good agreement with the model
over a limited variable range.
Miscellaneous Topics Related to Solids Mixing
So far, the general and major topics o f solids mixing which
appear frequently in the literature have been covered. I n this
section some other related topics will be discussed.
Fluidization. Mixing of particles in a fluidized bed has re-
ceived considerable attention. Fluidized beds are employed as
chemical reactors, dryers, extractors, adsorbers, and as many
other process units. Kunii and Levenspiel (94) summarized the
approaches which have been used to study the rapid movement of
solids particles which gives the fluidized bed its properties. The
following five approaches were mentioned :
Movement of Individual Particled: Movement of particles in the
bed is followed, and trajectories of particles are observed and
analyzed.
Turnover Rate of Solids: Mixing of solids is described in terms of
the flux of solids across a horizontal plane in the bed. Tracer
techniques have been used to measure the change of concentrations
in different horizontal planes.
Residence T i m e Distribution of Solids: Particles are fed and dis-
charged at a steady rate into and from a fluidized bed. Residence
time distribution is measured and analyzed to study the mixing of
particles.
66 I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G CHEMISTRY
Dtxusion Model f o r Movement of Solids: Axial and radial diffusion
of particles are proposed for the mixing mechanism.
Mining Caused by Bubbles: Mixing of solids is related to the mixing
caused by rising gas bubbles. The number and size of the bubbles
increase as the gas velocity increases, and the extent of solids
mixing is enhanced accordingly.
Original references to the above five approaches can be found in
the book by Kunii and Levenspiel ( 9 4 ) . Scarlett (754) gave a
brief review of literature on mixing of solid particles in gas fluidized
beds. Studying mechanisms of mixing and demixing, Donald
and Roseinan (40-42) concluded that the ideal mixer would allow
continual movement of individual particles while not allowing the
particles to fall back on to each other. Thus fluidization may hold
the answer to perfect mixing. Recently a fluidized mixer, called
.\irmix, has been invented. Mixing is accomplished by fluidiza-
tion. Air is blown through a special air nozzle located at the
conical bottom of the mixer. Performance of Airmix has been
reported by hshton and Valentin ( 6 ) .
Handling of Solids Mixtures. An important step in many
processes is the handling of the mixture after the mixing opera-
tion. A mixture may be an excellent product when it comes out
of a mixer, but poor handling may result in a segregated mixture.
process steps after mixing, such as dumping, shaking during trans-
suggested that a process including solids mixing should be designed
so that mixing is carried out as close as possible to where the mix-
ture is to be used, with as little intermediate handling as is prac-
tical.
Williams and Shields (788) studied the segregation of granules
in a vibrated bed with a binary mixture of two sizes of particles.
T h e variables investigated were length of the bed, direction,
frequency, and amplitude of vibration, and the ratio of the sizes
of particles. They found that most of the segregation took place
in the first 6 in. of the upper section of the bed. Maximum
segregation occurred when the direction of vibration made an
angle of about 30" to the horizontal.
Reisner ( 735) investigated the behavior of granular materials
flowing out of hoppers. Discharge rate was measured for different
hopper shape, sizes, and forms of the outlet. The effects of the
properties of the material (mean particle size, shape moisture
content, specific gravity, and internal friction) on the discharge
rate also were investigated. Pressure distribution in a hopper
was measured and the conditions under which arching occurs
were observed. Methods of improving a hopper were discussed.
Solids flow by gravity was investigated by Jenike ( 80) who
pointed out that serious errors of design are made by considering
the flow of a solid to behave like a liquid. The characteristics
which govern the design of a hopper or a reactor are: capacity,
rate of draw, frequency of draw (periodic, intermittent, con-
tinuous), methods of operation, and material characteristics
(fluency, segregation, time deterioration, time consolidation,
effect of pressure, attrition). The development of the mathe-
matical theory is based on the concept of plasticity.
In modeling flow of bulk solids, Johansen (81) considered the
following flow properties of solids : effective angle of internal
friction, angle of internal friction, angle of sliding friction on bin
wall, unconfined yield strength, comprcssibility factor, and bulk
density. The effects of fill rate and flow rate also were considered.
Experiments were conducted by Trees (772) to determine the
rate of flow of particulate solids through open-ended sloping pipes
and through sloping pipes connecting fluidized beds. Particle
size, bulk density, and the pipe material were kept constant.
Effects of pipe diameter, length, inclination angle, and back pres-
sure were studied. Correlations were made to derive formulas
for calculating flow rates.
Blending of agricultural products a n d feedstock. Grain as
well as seed are usually blended to attain a desired level of moisture
of protein content or to obtain a mixture of specific quality.
Furthermore, grain is often blended in large quantities. Yet
proper methods of mixing have not been developed. Seed
blending has received more attention. Niffenegger ( 7 74) exten-
sively reviewed and evaluated the existing methods of determining
seed homogeneity. H e concluded that the existing tests for seed
homogeneity are not satisfactory. I n feedstock blending, it is
desirable to blend nutritive microingredients uniformly into the
mixture. More research has been done on feedstock blending
than on grain and seed blending.
I n feed mixing, Pfost (728) suggested the coefficient of variation
as the degree of mixedness. Headley ( 6 7 )used salt as a tracer to
determine the coefficient of variation. Three methods for deter-
mining the concentrations of salt were sedimentation, potentio-
metric titration, and microtitration. Results obtained from the
three methods did not differ significantly.
Pfost et QZ. (730)pointed out the importance of physical charac-
teristics of microingredients in mixing feed. Physical properties
which may influence mixing include particle size, particle shape,
specific weight, hygroscopicity, susceptibility to electrostatic
charges, and adhesiveness of particles. Methods for determining
the particle density and volume were described. They also
reported methods for testing feed mixtures, mixers and related
equipment. Performance of a vertical twin screw mixer and the
results of mixing were also reported (129). Descriptions of
several mixers for premixing feed ingredients are described in two
articles (704, 790).
Buist (20) discussed problems in feed mixing. Segregation
becomes appreciable with improper handling or conveying.
Though continuous mixing gives high capacity, it is less accurate
and more expensive than batch mixing to operate. Radioactive
gold has been used to test the efficiency of mixing.
Goldrick and Simpson-Lee ( 5 7 ) reported the performance of
several mixers in the feed industry and the similarity of mixing in
food, pharmaceutical, and feed industries.
Fowler ( 5 2 ) discussed the characteristics of granular solids and
fine powders which were closely related to the efficiency of mixing.
Particle size analysis and measurement, determination of surface
area, flow properties, and cohesiveness were studied in detail.
Basic statistical methods for solids mixing. Solids mixing has
long been regarded as a random process. Though it is a com-
plicated process, many statistical techniques have been developed
to obtain a better understanding of the process as reviewed pre-
viously. Knowledge of basic statistical methods will help to
understand the available techniques and to develop new ap-
proaches. A standard text on statistics is useful in acquiring
background material. Weidenbaum ( 779) presented the statis-
tical methods pertinent to solids mixing. Carley-Macauly (27)
gave a detailed discussion of the statistical methods on solids
mixing. Theory of random sampling and its application to coal
sampling were presented by Landry (97). Herdan ( 6 9 )described
methods for using quality control charts for both standard devia-
tion and range. He also discussed and explained several criteria
for the degree of mixedness proposed by some investigators.
Moreover, methods of treating small particles are presented in
detail in his book (69).
Radioactive tracer techniques. For some time radioisotopes
produced in a nuclear reactor were considered hazardous aild
difficult to handle. Use of these radioisotopes in research and in
industry has created a new field of application. Radioisotopes
have been widely used as tracers in many process industries.
High sensitivity and detection without disturbance to the processed
material make radioactive tracer techniques useful tools for sam-
pling and analyzing mixtures. Smith (763) used Psz and Coao
as tracers in evaluating the degree of mixedness by mixing small
amounts of the tracers with soil. Overman and Rohrman (122)
discussed the use of radioisotopes in chemical process industries.
They used Au198 as a tracer in studying the rate of mixing in a
cement mixer. Na2*was recommended by Been and Saeland (9)
as a tracer in solids mixing studies. Buist (20) mentioned that
tests had been conducted on the mixing rate of feedstock blending
by using Aug* as a tracer. Monoiodobenzene, silver-111 carbon-
ate, and iron 59 were used by Hoffman (73) in studying composite
solid propellants in which several components should be mixed
very uniformly.
Mass transfer. Mathematical modeling and experiments on
mass transfer of moisture between wet and dry silica gel spheres
in a cylindrical mixer were attempted by Ciborowski and Wolny
(32, 33). They found that the rotating speed of the mixer did not
affect the rate of moisture transfer, whereas the transfer rate was
inversely related to the diameter of the dry sphere. This method
can be used to predict the rate of mass transfer during mixing of
solids particles which differ markedly in diameter.
Optimization a n d computer control of solids mixing processes.
Significant variables relating to the operating conditions of a
mixer must be analyzed before optimization. For a simple
horizontal cylinder, in addition to the degree of mixedness and the
rate of mixing, the optimum rate of rotatidn, number of rotations,
and the fraction of the mixer volume filled have been studied by
various investigators. Seshan ( 758)employed an experimental de-
sign method to find a functional relationship between the degree of
mixedness and the operating variables of a simple cylinder. Opti-
mum conditions were determined by differentiating the degree of
mixedness with respect to the operating variables. Experiments
were also conducted to verify the calculated results.
Another aspect of the optimization in solids mixing is the deter-
mination of the optimum blend of a mixture. I n the milling
industry wheat is often mixed to mill flour having the desired
specifications. From various lots of grain with different grades
and prices, the method of linear programming has been employed
to select a blend at the least cost. Specifications of the blend and
quantities and grades of grain available are described by linear
equations and inequalities. Solutions of the problem give the
optimum quantities of grain from different lots to be used in blend-
ing to meet the specifications. I n merchandising grain, the same
method is applied to attain the maximum profit by providing in-
formation for sale or purchase of grain according to grades of
various lots. Interested readers in this area are referred to
publications (35, 79, 774, 756, 769). T h e method of linear pro-
gramming has been used extensively in formula feed industry.
Blending according to the optimum blend or according to the
prescribed composition of each constituent can be done by on-line
computer control in a large processing plant to achieve fast,
accurate and efficient blending. Harris (66) discussed, in general,
computer control of a continuous solids blending system. Mul-
doon (709) and Faillace and Heermann ( 4 7 ) described the com-
puter control of solids blending in the cement industry.
Concluding Remarks
A large number of publications have dealt with the definition of
the degree of mixedness. There are over 30 different criteria for
the degree of mixedness. Some of them have not been checked
experimentally. Most of the criteria depend on sample size, and
on characteristics of the material and of the system. No satis-
factory or systematic development has been made for determining
the optimum sample size and number of samples.
Though three mechanisms, diffusion, convection, and shear,
have been proposed for solids mixing, only the mechanism in a
simple horizontal cylinder have been investigated in detail both
theoretically and experimentally. It has been concluded that
diffusion is the mechanism for axial mixing in the mixer similar
to diffusion of particles in gas and liquid phases. Ficks diffusion
equation and Markov processes have been used to describe solids
mixing.
Rate equations have been developed on the basis of first order
kinetics. Much work needs to be done on the determination of the
rate constants.
Recently computer simulation of solids mixing has drawn the
attention of various investigators. Generation of artificial realiza-
tion of a stochastic process by Monte Carlo techniques has provided
a new method to experiment on solids mixing without instrumental
and sampling errors. Monte Carlo simulations seem preferable
to attempting to solve the unwieldy mathematical problems de-
scribing the complex mixing process.
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68 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING C H E M I S T R Y
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VOL. 6 2 NO. 7 JULY 1970 69