3.

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES I

Summary so Far

1. Examined some of the basic physics behind

semiconducting materials. In particular, have been able
to calculate:
carrier concentrations, nc and pv
conductivity

in terms of g, me*, mh*, T etc.

for both:
intrinsic semiconductors
extrinsic semiconductors
 2. For extrinsic semiconductors:

ncand can be controlled over a wide range by

doping (addition of small amounts of impurities).

Ec Ec
EF

EF
Ev Ev

n-type p-type

Group V impurities Group III impurities

e.g. P e.g. B

At room temp: nc is large At room temp: pv is large

Can build semiconductor devices by combining n-type

and p-type semiconductors.
Initially, will look at 2 basic device types.

1. METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTION

All devices require connection to metal wires to form

electronic circuits

2. PN JUNCTION

Device formed by joining together p-type and n-type

semiconductors.

Very Important!

Many devices based on this.

 3.1 METAL-SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTION
SCHOTTKY BARRIER

Consider what happens when metal is brought into

contact with an n-type semiconductor.

Band Diagram before contact

conduction
s band
Fermi m
level Fermi
level

valence
band
Metal n-type Semiconductor

m - work function of metal

s - work function of semiconductor

Fermi levels of metal and semiconductor at different

energies - unstable energetically

upon contact, electron flow between materials

until Fermi levels equilibriate

If m > s (as drawn), electrons flow from semiconductor

to metal.
Band diagram after contact

depletion region
+
m - s +

Fermi
level

x = x0 x=0
x

Metal Semiconductor

Electron density in semiconductor is much less than in

metal
electron flow from semiconductor to metal
depletes a substantial volume of the semiconductor of
charge carriers leaving positively ionised donors

depletion layer.

Energy barrier - m s

This arises due to an electrostatic dipole layer between

electrons transferred to metal and the positively ionised
donors in depletion layer

How wide is barrier? Can get this using Poissons

equation in depletion region (between x = 0 and x = x0).
WIDTH OF DEPLETION REGION

Poissons equation in 1-D

dV
2


dx 2
0

[relates potential V to charge density ]

= dielectric constant

In depletion region: = Nde

[Nd density of ionised donors]

Electron energy, = - eV

d Ne
2 2

dx
2
0

Solving subject to the boundary conditions

= (d/dx) = 0 at x =0
= m s at x = x0

find that
N xe 2 2

d 0 0

2
m s
0

So: Width of depletion layer (x0) N 2

d

Typically 100 < x0 < 1000

CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) BEHAVIOUR
So previous result tells us:

For heavy doping (large Nd)

barrier becomes thin compared to electron

mean free path (x0 very small)

can effectively consider junction as 2 thermionic

emitters [Unit 2]facing one another across barrier.

In zero applied bias (voltage) currents equal and

opposite
Ism

Ims

Metal Semiconductor

Ism = current from semiconductor to metal

Ims = current from metal to semiconductor

Recall from Unit 2 that equilibrium current I0 for

thermionic emitter (at temp T) can be written as

I0 = A exp m

kT
s

(c.f. Dushman-Richardson eqn)

Consider applying forward bias (voltage) V to junction.

Fermi level of semiconductor is raised relative to that in
metal current from semiconductor to metal Ism is
increased
eV
Ism = A exp m s

kT

eV
= I exp
0
kT

Work function effectively lowered.

Current from metal to semiconductor Ims remains

constant and is therefore I0.

So net current I in forward bias is given by

I = Ism - Ims

eV
I = I [exp
0 1]
kT

Similarly, in reverse bias V, can show

eV
I I [1 exp ]
kT
0

Fermi level in semiconductor is lowered relative to Fermi

level in metal.

I
 forward
bias

reverse bias

Rectifying action diode behaviour

3.2 P-N JUNCTION

Consider what happens when an n-type semiconductor

and a p-type semiconductor are brought into contact.
Band diagram just before contact

c
Fn

Fp
v
n p

Energetically unstable (once n and p are in contact).

On n-side - have large no. of electrons in condn band

On p-side - have large no. of holes in valence band

Need to consider flow of both electrons and holes.

Electrons close to interface flow from n to p

Holes close to interface flow from p to n

- until Fermi levels equilibriate.

These recombine get layer on both sides of barrier

depleted of free carriers

Band diagram after contact

n p

+
+
 +
c
F

Lp
V

-Ln
x=0
x

Depletion layer electrostatic dipole layer

positively charged donor ions on n-side
negatively charged acceptor ions on p-side

Width of depletion layer - Ln + Lp

Can determine width of depletion layer by solving

Poissons equation in interface region.

WIDTH OF DEPLETION REGION OF PN JUNCTION

dV
2

Potential V (Poissons Eqn)
dx 2
0

Charge density


Nde
Lp
x
-Ln
-Nae

n-side p-side
= d = Nde = a = -Nae

Integrate Poissons eqn (twice) on BOTH SIDES

(i.e. for both n and p)

Solutions for n and p sides must match at x = 0!

i.e. V and (dV/dx) both continuous at x = 0).

Boundary Conditions

At x = -Ln: (dV/dx) = 0, V = Vn
At x = Lp:(dV/dx) = 0, V = Vp

At x = 0: (dV/dx) and V are continuous.

[V = V0]

Solve as outlined above (and Tanner pages 145-146).

Potential difference V across junction

V = Vn V p
 eN L N / N 1
2

V d n d a

2 0

This applies whether junction is under external bias V or

under zero bias.

For zero applied bias: V g/e

If external bias V is applied, use: c = dQ/dV

Charge Q per unit area is: Q = NdLne

So for capacitance (per unit area) c, can show

1
c 1

V 2

Width of depletion layer depends on applied bias V

capacitance of layer varies on V
pn junction can act as variable capacitor

[See Seminar Question 4!]

I-V BEHAVIOUR OF PN JUNCTION

Zero Applied Voltage (Bias)

Recall earlier band diagram

np0
Ec
+
 nn0 + eVB
+
F

Ev
pn0 pp0

n-type p-type

Away from depletion region:

n-side provides supply of free electrons (nn0 large)

p-side provides supply of free holes (pp0 large)

However, due to thermal excitation of charge carriers

across the junction, we get:

small concn np0 of free electrons on p-side

small concn pn0 of free holes on n-side

Potential drop VB across junction (in zero applied bias):

np0/nn0 = pn0/pp0 = exp(-eVB/kT) [1]

External Forward Bias

What happens if external bias voltage Vext is applied?

Band diagram
np
nn
 Ec eVj
EF
eVext

Ev
pn pp

Forward Bias - potential drop across junction is reduced.

So np (and pn) increase.

If Vj is the potential drop across the junction

np/nn = pn/pp = exp(-eVj/kT)

We have that Vj = VB - Vext

Hence
np/nn = pn/pp = exp(-eVB/kT)exp(eVext/kT) [2]

For zero applied bias we had that

np0/nn0 = pn0/pp0 = exp(-eVB/kT) [1]

Can substitute for exp(-eVB/kT) using eqns [1] and [2].

np/nn = np0/nn0 exp(eVext/kT)

pn/pp = pn0/pp0 exp(eVext/kT)

nn is large - plenty of free electrons on n-side
pp is large - plenty of free holes on p-side

They change only slightly when we apply a bias voltage.

i.e. nn nn0 pp pp0

So to good approximation we can write

np/np0 = pn/pn0 = exp(eVext/kT)

Can now recall argument used for metal-semiconductor

junction - i.e. treat both halves of pn junction as 2
thermionic emitters facing each other.

I I exp eV / kT 1
0 ext

External Reverse Bias

Band diagram

np
Ec nn eVext
EF

Ev
pn pp

Reverse Bias - potential drop across junction is

increased.

So np (and pn) decrease.

Can use similar argument to show that in reverse bias:

I I 1 exp eV / kT
0 ext

Band Diagrams - Summary

p

zero applied
 external bias

eVext
applied forward
bias
np increases

n p

eVext

applied reverse
bias
np decreases

I-V Characteristic

I I exp eV / kT 1
0 ext - forward bias

I I 1 exp eV / kT
0 ext - reverse bias
N.B. - 2 carrier types.

I-V characteristics for holes and electrons identical

current flow is additive

negative electrons flow from n to p
positive holes flow in opposite direction.

So pn junction behaves as a rectifier (diode).

Assumed that junction was narrow i.e. negligible

probability of electrons and holes recombining in
junction region.

More rigorous treatment considers diffusion of carriers

across junction, taking account of recombination
probability leads to same form of I-V
characteristic though
In practice often get

threshold

I in forward bias doesnt turn on until V > threshold.

Due to presence of traps in junction region I > 0 once

traps are saturated.

Zener Diode

pn diode with very heavy doping levels.

Recall that depletion layer width as doping concn

So voltage drop across junction is over small distance

E-field very high in depletion region.
Hence, electrons injected into depletion region subject to
v. high acceleration.

If E-field high enough, electrons gain enough energy to

ionise atoms in semiconductor lattice
rapid increase in I in for small changes in V for
reverse bias
I

Vz V

Breakdown occurs at specific value of V - Vz

Can taylor Vz by altering doping level

Useful in protection circuits for delicate components.