Soil Classification

In solving problems related to geotechnical engineering, usually the required soil properties
are measured and, then, these soil properties are used in some rational expressions to solve
the problems. However, measurement of the fundamental soil properties like permeability,
compressibility, and strength can be difficult, time consuming and expensive task. In
addition, obtaining representative samples for laboratory testing poses other practical
limitations on the reliability of the obtained soil properties. Furthermore, use of such
expensive, and time consuming test results for preliminary studies are not required. In this
context, sorting soils into groups showing similar behavior may be very helpful. Such sorting
is referred to as soil classification.

Soil classification is thus the placing of a soil into a group of soils all of which exhibit
similar behavior. The correlation of behavior within a group in a soil classification
system is usually an empirical one developed through considerable experience. Soil
classification permits us to solve many types of simple soil problems and guide the test
program if the difficulty and importance of the problem dictate further investigation.
Most soil classifications employ very simple index-type tests to obtain the characteristics of
soil needed to place it in a group. Clearly, a soil classification loses its value if the index tests
become more complicated than the test to measure directly the fundamental property needed.
The most commonly used characteristics are particle size and plasticity.
Soil classification has proved to be a valuable tool to the geotechnical engineer. It helps the
engineer by giving him general guidance through making available in an empirical manner
the results of field experience. However, the engineer must be cautious in his use of soil
classification. Solving flow, compression, and stability merely on the basis soil classification
can lead to disastrous results.
Engineering behavior of soil to large extent depends on the amount and type of clay
minerals present in fine grained soils. The classification systems, which do not take into
account the soil plasticity, are not capable of predicting the engineering behavior of fine
grained soils. Therefore, the classification systems, such as USDA classification system
shown in Table 9a, based only on the texture (surface appearance and the size distribution of
the particles) are not adequate for engineering purposes.
In USDA classification, following soil types are identified based on the particle size:
Sand 2.0 to 0.05mm in diameter
Silt 0.05 0.002mm in diameter
Clay smaller than 0.002mm in diameter
The classification of a soil having 30% sand, 40% silt and 30% clay according to USDA
classification system in shown in Figure 9a.

Figure 9a USDA soil classification chart

USDA classification is based only on particles smaller than 2mm. Therefore, if the soil has
particles larger than 2mm, a correction should be applied. For example soil having gravel
20%, sand 10%, 30% silt and 40% clay, the modified sand, silt and clay percentages should
be estimated as below:
10100
= = 12.5
100 20
30100
= = 37.5%
100 20
40100
= = 50.0%
100 20
The soil is classified as clay according to USDA classification system. However, due to large
percentage of gravel, soil may be classified as gravelly clay.
Classify the following soil based on USDA classification system
Soil No Gravel (%) Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%)
1 18 51 22 9
2 15 20 35 30
There are two widely used soil classification systems that are used for engineering purposes,
namely AASHTO classification system and the Unified soil classification (USC) system.
AASHTO classification system is preferred by highway engineers for the use of soil in
highway construction and the USC system is generally preferred by geotechnical engineers.

AASHTO classification system

This classification system is developed in 1928 and was initially named as the public Road
Administration Classification system. This classification is mainly used to select material for
the highway subgrade. According to this classification system, particles are divided into
different types as shown below:
Gravel fraction passing 75 mm sieve and retained on No 10 (2mm) U.S. sieve.
Sand Fraction of the soil passing no 10 (2mm) US sieve and retained on the No 200
(0.075mm) U.S. sieve.
Silt and clay fraction passing No 200 U. S. sieve.

Soil is classified using Table 6. And the classification is done from left to right by
elimination.

Table 6 - AASHTO classification charts

To evaluate the quality of the material as a highway subgrade material, a number called the
group index (GI) is also incorporated with the groups and subgroups of the soil. The group
index is written in parentheses after the group o r the subgroup designation. The group index
is estimated using the following Equation:

GI ( F 35)[0.2 0.005( LL 40)] 0.01( F 15)( PI 10)

Where
F Percentage passing no 200 sieve
LL liquid limit
PI plasticity index

Following points should be noted in the estimation of the group number.

If the equation gives a negative group index, it is taken as zero
Group index is rounded off to the nearest integer
The group index of soil groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3 will
always be zero
For soil groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, the group index is estimated using the
following Equation:
GI 0.01( F 15)( PI 10)

In general the quality of the material for the subgrade is inversely proportional to the group
index.

Classify the following soil types according to the AASHTO classification system and find the
group index.
Soil No % Finer Liquid limit Plasticity index
No 10 No 40 No 200
1 100 82 38 42 23
2 48 29 8 - 2
3 100 80 64 47 29
4 90 76 34 37 12

Plasticity Chart

Casagrande (1932) studies the relationship of the plasticity index to the liquid limit of a wide
variety of natural soils. On the basis of the test results, he proposed the plasticity chart shown
below.

Plasticity index

70 U-line
PI=0.9(LL-8)
60 Inorganic clays of A-line
high plasticity PI=0.73(LL-20)
50
Inorganic clays of
40 medium plasticity
30 Inorganic Inorganic silts of
clays of low high compressibility
plasticity and organic clays
20
Inorganic silts of
medium
10
compressibility and
organic silts
20 40 60 80 100
Inorganic silts of Liquid limit
low compressibility

The A-line is an empirical line given by the equation PI = 0.73(LL 20). The A-line
separates the inorganic clays from inorganic silts. Plot the PI vs. LL, the point lies above A-
line for clays and it is plotted below A-line for silts.
There is a line called U-line above the A-line. The U-line is approximately the upper limit of
the relationship between PI and LL for any soil found so far. The plasticity chart is used in
the Unified soil classification system for classification of silts and clays.

Unified soil classification system

This classification was first developed by Casagrande in 1942 for the use in air field
construction works.
According to this classification system, soil is grouped as below:
Percentage of gravel Fraction passing (76.2 mm) opening and retained on the No. 4 (4.75
mm opening)

Percentage sand Fraction passing the No 4 (4.75mm opening) and retained on No 200
(0.075mm opening)

Percentage silt and clay Fraction finer than No 200 sieve (0.075 mm opening)

The group symbol has two letters and the first letter of the group symbol is decided as
follows:

If the soil has more than 50% of the material retained on No 200 sieve, it is classified as
coarse grained soils and the material could be gravelly or sandy in nature. First letter in the
group symbol may be either S (for sand) or G (for gravel). If the gravel fraction is more it is
termed a gravelly soil and will have the first letter of the group symbol G. On the other hand,
if the sandy fraction is more, the soil is termed sandy and the first letter of the group symbol
is S.
If the soil has more than 50% passing through the No 200 sieve, it is classified as fined grain
soils and the group symbol starts with M (Inorganic silt), C (inorganic clay) or O (organic
silts and clay).
The second letter in the group symbol may be one of the following letters:

For coarse grained soils:

W well grade
P poorly graded
For fine grained soils:
L low plasticity (Liquid Limit less than 50)
H High plastic limit (Liquid Limit more than 50)

Tables 7 and 8 are used for the classification of gravelly and sandy soils respectively. Fine
grained soils are classified using Table 9 and the plasticity chart given in Figure 9b.
Table 7 - Groups symbols for sandy soils

Table 8 - Group symbol for gravelly soils

Table 9 - group symbol for silty and clayey soils

Figure 9b - plasticity chart

Group name for sandy and gravelly soils could be obtained from Figure 10. Flow chart to
determine the group symbol of the inorganic silty and clayey soils is given in Figure 11
Similarly, the flow chart to determine the group name of the organic silty and clayey soils are
given in Figure 12.
Figure 10 - Group names for gravelly and sandy soils
Figure 11 - Group names for inorganic silts and clays
Figure 12- Group names for organic silts and clays
Revision

i. A moist soil sample has a volume of 464 cm3 in natural state and weight of 793 g.
The dry weight is 735 g and the specific gravity is 2.68. Determine the void ratio,
the porosity, the water content, and the degree of saturation.
ii. A soil has e = 0.75, w = 28% and Gs = 2.71. Determine
a. Moist unit weight.
b. Dry unit weight.
c. Degree of saturation.
iii. Following are the results of a sieve analysis:

U.S sieve No Mass retained on each sieve (g)

4 0
10 40
20 60
40 89
60 120
80 100
100 130
200 80
Pan 131

a. Determine percentage finer than each sieve and plot the particle size
distribution curve.
b. Determine D10, D30, and D60 from the PSD curve.
c. Calculate the uniformity coefficient, Cu.
d. Calculate the coefficient of gradation, Cc.
e. If the soil is non-plastic,
i. Classify the soil according to AASHTO classification system and
determine the group index.
ii. Classify according to the Unified Soil Classification System and
determine the group symbol and the group name.

iv. Following are the results of liquid limit test.

Number of blows Moisture content (%)

15 42.0
20 40.8
28 39.1

a. Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit.

b. If the PL = 18.7, what is the plasticity index.