Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
NOTES
2013
Om P. Gandhi
Text: Warren L. Stutzman and Gary A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, Third
Edition (2013), John Wiley & Sons.
The identified page numbers and the equations with dashes (x-xxx) refer to the equations
of the text.
Example: Show that for far-field region V = j V = j r V for any vector
V
A, H and E of the radiated fields from antennas.
such as
Solution: A, H and E are of the form
The radiated fields
K(,) jkr
V= e V(r, , )V
V (1)
r
where K(, ) would, in general, depend upon the current distribution on the
antenna.
In spherical coordinates
V(r, , )
K(, ) jr
=
V r + + e V
r r r sin r
(2)
1
=
+ 1 V (
j V(r V) V) + 1 V ( V)
r r r sin
j V (r V ) = j r V = j V (3)
since all terms other than the second term in Eq. 2 are a factor of 1/r
2 r
r
smaller. For = >> 1 , all of these terms can, therefore, be neglected.
A j A
H= = j r A (4)
H j H
E= = = r H = r H (5)
j j
1
p. 44, 45, 50 Text General Theory of Conduction Current Antennas
R P
r
r
( r ) .
J
Formulate
Steps
1. Calculate
A
J(r) j(t R) JS j(t R)
=A = e dV e dS
4 V R 4 S R
For surface current radiators
For volume current radiators I j(t R)
= e d
4 R (2-101)
For line current radiators
A A r A E 1
2. H == j =
j = = r E (2-107)
o o o jo
H 2 r
3. E= = ( r A) = j r (r A)
j o j
o o
( ) (
= j A A r r = j A + A
) (2-105)
( ) ( ) (
A B C = A C B A B C )
( ) ( )
r r A = r A r ( r r ) A
1
4. Calculate = S
2
Re E H* ( ) (2-127)
1 2
5. =
Total Radiated Power = S ds
2
( )
Re E H* E H* r 2 sin dd (2-128)
0 0
2
Calculation of Magnetic Fields of Conduction Current Antennas
Definition of Magnetic Vector Potential A : A Simplifying Mathematical
Intermediate Step
I
F
R = R R (x,y,z)
1 R
=
(3)
R R2
0
1 1 J
J = J(r) (4)
R R R
The first term in Eq. 3 is zero, since the current density J is a function of source
coordinates r = (x , y, z) whereas the curl J involves derivatives with respect to
Thus the magnetic field at the field point can be written as curl of magnetic vector
potential A where A is given by
o J dV
A= (6)
4 V R
Note that calculation of B is a lot simpler if the intermediate step of first calculating A is
undertaken since integral of Eq. 6 is much simpler than that of Eq. 5 or Eq. 1.
2a
Note that because of time retardation for propagating fields, Eq. 6 should be modified to
o J(r)e j(t R)
A= dV (7)
4 R
Same as Eq. 2-101
of the text
Once, the only complicated step that of integration for Eq. 7 has been done, the magnetic
field B from Eq. 5 can be simplified to
B = A = j A = j R A
j A
H= (2-107) text
o
2b
p. 45 Text A Uniform Line Source
r
R
L L
I( z ) = Io for < z < (2-109)
2 2
R = r z cos (2-86)
j r L / 2
A= e Io e jz cos dz z
4r L / 2
L
jr sin cos
Io Le 2
Az = (2-110)
4r L
cos
2
L
sin cos
I L 2
E = j sin A z = j o sin (2-111)
4r L
cos
2
From Eq. (2-107)
1 E
H = E r =
Radiation pattern for a plot of normalized values of E(, ) is given by
E(, )
F(, ) = (2-112)
E max
I = Io L = z
L z
= << 1
2
L
cos << 1
2
sin x
In Equations 2-110 to 2-114; 1
x
I z
E = j o sin (2-74a)
4r
E jIo z
H = = sin (2-74b)
4r
Io2 z 2 sin 2
=
S r (2-76)
8 ro2
=
Radiated Power P
1
2 (
Re E H* ds)
1 2
=
2
( )
Re E H* E H* r 2 sin d d (2-128)
0 0
2
I2 z 1 2
= o = Io R r
3 2
4
Valid only for very short length
789.6
2 2 Hertzian dipoles ( z 0.02 )
2 z 2 z
R r= R a= = 80 (2-169) p. 57
3
Smax
=D = 1.5 (2-148) p. 54
So
L
z =
2
L
) Im sin z
L
I(z= z < (6-1) p. 152
2 2
) L
Note that =Ia I(z= z =0
I m sin (1)
2
R = r z cos
From Eq. 2-101
0 L
=A Im sin + z e jz cos dz
4r L / 2 2
(6-3)
L/2
L
+ sin z e jz cos dz e jr z
0 2
e j r j60 Im
E = j sin A z = j 2Im F() = F()e jr (6-6) p. 154
4r r
where F() is the function that gives the variation of radiated fields with angle .
Note that this expression for the radiated -directed E field can also be expressed
in terms of the feedpoint antenna current Ia using Eq. (1) on this page.
5
L L
cos cos cos
F() = 2
2
(2)
sin
See p. 154 of the text, Fig. 6-4, for plots of F() for several values of L/.
F() is always zero for angle =0 i.e. no radiated fields along the length of the
dipole.
1
= S
2
Re E=(H
*
)E E*
=
2
r
15 I2m 2
r 2
F () r
15 Ia2 2 30 Prad F2 ()
= F= ()r
r 2 sin 2 L r 2 R a sin 2 L
(3)
2 2
15 I2m 2 2
Radiated Power Prad= S ds=
2
F ()r 2 sin d d
r 0 0
1 2 1 2
= = Im R rm Ia R a (4)
2 2
60 I2m 2
=Ra F () sin d (5)
Ia2 0
6
Table 1. Calculated values of the driving point resistance R a for end-fed monopoles of different
lengths h/. (Multiply
Calculated values ofbythe
2 to obtain
driving the resistance
point driving point resistance
R a for end fed for center-fed
monopoles of
different h/. (Multiply by 2 to obtain the driving point resistance for dipoles.)
dipoles of length L = 2h.)
h/ = L/2 Ra h/ = L/2 Ra
7
Fig. 1. The calculated resistance Ra and reactance Xa of an end-fed monopole antenna
of length h (in terms of wavelength ). Multiply by 2 to obtain the driving
point resistance Ra for a center-fed dipole antenna of length L = 2h.
8
Example 1: Calculate and compare the directivities, gains, and power densities including E-fields created by dipole antennas of lengths L =
0.07 , 0.18 , 0.5 , and 1.1 . Power radiated by the antenna is 100 W and distance from the antenna to the field point ro = 10
km.
Note that the radiated power and the distance ro are needed to calculate the power density and maximum electric fields.
1 2 Prad
* Note that Prad = I a2 Ra from Eq. (4) on p. 6 of Class Notes; I a =
2 Ra
L L L L
cos cos cos cos cos cos
i
on p. 6 of Class Notes, F ( )
From Eq. (2)= = 2 2 . For L/ < 1.38 1.4; F() is max. for = 90.
sin sin
F ( ) max = 1 cos ( L )
=90
120 F ( ) max
2
ii
From Eq. (6) on p. 6 of Notes, D =
Ra sin 2 ( L )
f MHz
iii
Rohmic is given by Eq. (9) on p. 13 of Class Notes; RS = 1.988 ; Take 2a = 3.264 mm (0.1285) 8 AWG wire (App. B on p. 783 of the Text).
For Aluminum, from App. B.1, = 3.5 107 S/m; take fMHz = 10 MHz.
9
Example 2:
30
L= 2h= 0.65= 0.65 = 23.35 cm
0.835
h L
= = 0.325
2
84.974 + 96.727
Ra = 2 = 181.7
Table1 2
1 2
Prad = Ia R a
2
Ia = 0.1049 A
Ia Ia
=Im = = 0.1177
L L
sin sin
2
L
1 cos
60 Im 60 Im 2 mV
E max= F() = = 10.265
r =90 r 1 m
mV
E rms = 0.707 E peak = 7.26
m
E max 2 E rms 2 W
Smax = = = 0.1398 2
2 m
F2 ()
120 120 2.114
D= max = =
1.759 (2.45 dBi)
Ra 2 L 181.7 sin 2 (0.65)
sin
2
This is an improvement of only 1.073 times (or 0.3 dB) relative to a half wave dipole.
W
Smax = So D = 0.1398
m2
10
Radiation patterns xy plane H-plane
z y
Fig. 2. The radiation pattern of a z-directed dipole antenna for the xy plane or H-plane
(normal to the orientation of the dipole).
yz plane (E-plane)
HP
HP
Fig. 3. The radiation pattern of the z-directed dipole antenna for the yz plane or the
E-plane.
2
L L
cos 2 cos HP cos 2 1 L
2
= 1 cos
2
(7)
sin HP 2
11
pp. 57, 58 Text Ohmic Losses for a Linear Dipole
dR
I( z ) = I m sin z
L L
0 z
2 2
(1)
L
+ z
L
= Im sin z 0
2 2
) L
= =
Ia I(z I m sin (2)
z=0 2
Pohmic =
1 L/2 2
I dR
2 L/2
( ) (3)
dz R dz
dR = = s (4)
(2a ) 2a
where
1
R=
s = (5)
2
(2-171)
p. 58
is the surface resistance which depends on the conductivity of the material and
frequency (= 2f). See App. B.1 of the Text for of various metals.
12
R s L / 2 2 L
0
L
=
Pohmic Im sin 2 z dz + I2m sin 2 + z dz (6)
4a 0 2 L / 2 2
L/2 L / 2 L / 2
L 1 1 sin (2 )
sin + z dz
2
= sin d= 2
0 2 0
2 2 0
1 L sin ( L)
= (7)
2 2 2
L
+ z
where = =
2
2 R s L sin (L) 1 2
Pohmic = Im 1 =
8a (L) 2
IA R ohmic (8)
Rs L 1 sin (L)
=R ohmic 1 (L) (9)
4a L
sin 2
2
P Prad Ra
Antenna efficiency =
er = = (2-177)
Pin Prad + Pohmic R a + R ohmic
Gain G = er D (2-155)
2
2 z
R=
a 20 (2-172)
Rs z Rs L
R= = (2-175)
6 6 a
ohmic
For the general case of a linear dipole or a monopole Rohmic is calculated from the
general Eq. 9 given above.
Example 3:
2 2
2 L L
Ra =
20 197.4 (2-172)
13
Using the conductivity of steel (see App. B.1 of the Text) = 2 106 S/m.
(L)3
L
Rs L 1 6 = R s L
R ohmic= 1 Short dipole (2-175)
4a L 2 L 6a
2
p. 59
For L/ = 0.02 dipole at f = 1 MHz; taking 2a = l/8"
= 300m ; L = 6m
1.4 103 6
R ohmic = 1
= 0.2807
2
6 2.54 10
16
Ra 0.0788
=
Antenna Efficiency er = = 0.219 (21.9%)
R a + R ohmic 0.0788 + 0.2807
Note that for short dipoles of thin wires, the ohmic resistance can be substantial
and even larger than Ra. Therefore, this leads to reduced efficiency of radiation.
Example 4:
L L
L = 0.5; Ra = 73.12 ; = = ; L = ; f = 10 MHz; L = 15m; 2a = 1/8"
2 2
From Eq. 9
=
R ohmic
Rs L
=
(1.4 103 10 ) 15= 3.33
4a 1
4 2.54 102
16
73.12
=er = 0.9565 (95.65%)
73.12 + 3.33
Ia
Ia
Image antenna
L L
I(z) same as on page 5 of the Notes I ( z ) I m sin z 0 z
= (1)
2 2
For 0 180 For 0 90
60 I m j 60 I m
E= j F ( ) e j r (2) E = F ( ) e j r (3)
r r
15 I m2 2 15 I m2 2 15 I a2
S= F ( ) r =
(4) S = F ( ) r F 2 ( ) r (5)
r2 r 2
r2 L
sin 2
2
1 2 1 2
Prad = I a Ra (6) =
Prad I a Ra (7)
2 2
Since a monopole radiates in the upper half space while a dipole radiates both in
the upper and lower half spaces,
1
S dipole =
S monopole for identical radiated powers (8)
2
Dmonopole = 2 Ddipole (9)
Ra 1 Ra
= (10)
X a monopole
2 Xa dipole
I a = 2 I a (11)
I m = 2 I m (12)
15
Example 4:
h L
= = 0.35 Monopole Antenna
2
L
h= = 70 m ; Prad = 103 W (1 KW)
2
From Eq. 5,
2
L L
2 cos cos cos
S =
15
(3.967) 2 2 0.29 mW / m 2
=
monopole 106 sin 2 (0.7 ) sin
=90
S
D = = 3.64= 2 D
monopole Prad dipole
So =
4r 2
F2 ()
120
D= max
Ra 2 L
sin
2
L
Note that = h which is the height of the monopole.
2
16
pp. 84-89 Small Diameter (<< ) Loop Antennas
The loop antenna is a radiating (or receiving) coil of one or more turns of circular
or rectangular form. Ferrite or air core loops are used extensively in radio
receivers, direction finders, aircraft receivers, and UHF transmitters.
The theory of loop antennas is derived in a manner similar to the General Theory
of Conduction Current Antennas given on page 44 of Text and on page 2 of my
handout notes.
We start by assuming, as seen in Fig. 1, that the current I in the loop has the same
magnitude and phase. This is certainly possible for small diameter loops where
2b < /10.
z
R
r
x
2 I e jR
A= bd (1)
4 0 R
R= ( x x )2 + ( y y )2 + z 2 (2)
Note that we have defined the x-axis (the choice of which is arbitrary) such that
the field point lies in the xz plane. The field point F, therefore, has coordinates (x,
0, z) in Cartesian coordinate system and (r, , 0) is spherical coordinate system.
1/ 2 b
R = r 2 + b 2 2 br sin cos r 1 sin cos
r
(4)
r b sin cos
=
17
since, for the far-field region, r >> b.
I e jr 2
A= e jb sin cos bd (5)
2r 0
2b
For small radii b = << 1 , we can write
y = (8)
On page 19, we compare the expressions for the radiated fields from a loop
antenna to those for an ideal (infinitesimal) dipole and show duality of the two
sets of fields. Ohmic resistance of a circular loop antenna can be written as
follows:
2b bR s
R ohmic = Rw = = (10)
(2a) a (3-60)
p. 88 Text
where
1 f
=
Rs = 1.988 MHz
s
where "b" is the mean loop radius and "a" is the wire radius; Rs = 1/ is the
surface resistance at the frequency of interest previously defined on page 12 of
Class Notes.
The small loop antenna is inherently inductive. For a small circular loop of N
turns wound on a magnetic core
8b
L= N 2 b eff o n 2 (11)
a
(Eq. 3-62 p. 88 Text)
18
Table 2. Field expressions for small diameter circular loop antennas and an ideal (infinitesimal) dipole antenna [see p. 4 of Class Notes].
Magnetic Vector Potential ( A) jIS (9) I z j r (2-65)
sin e j r (3-48) Text e z p. 33 Text
4 r 4 r
Magnetic Field
A j IS 2 j r (3-50) j I z j r (2-74b)
H= = r A e sin p. 86 Text e sin
4 r 4 r (2-70)
since r z = sin p. 33 Text
Electric Field
H IS 2 j r (3-49) j I z j r (2-74a)
E= = r H e sin p. 86 Text e sin p. 34 Text
j 4 r 4 r
19
Radiated Power
1 2
10I 2 ( 2 S )
2 (3-52) (2-77)
= ds 2 I Rr ( I z )
2
P S p. 86 Text p. 33 Text
12
z z
2 2 2
S
20 ( S )
2
Rr (for single turn loop) 2
31, 200 2 (3-53) 80 = 790
2 (2-169)
p. 57 Text
S max
Directivity D = 1.5 1.5
So
2
NS
Rr 31, 200 eff 2 (3-54)
N turn loop
19
For an N-turn loop, Rohmic is also higher proportional to overall length of the wire
bRs
R ohmic =N (12)
N turn a
loop
The effective permeability eff depends not only on the permeability r of the
ferrite core material, but also on the core geometry, i.e., length to diameter ratio
R, given as follows:
r
eff = (13)
1 + D ( r 1)
Calculate the input impedance, directivity, and gain for an N = 1000 turn loop
antenna wound with a AWG 22 copper wire on a ferrite rod of diameter 3/4".
This antenna is to be used at a frequency of 1.5 MHz. It is given that eff = 50
for the ferrite that is used.
For copper = 5.7 107 S/m (p. 783, Text); Rs = 3.22 10-4 at f = 1.5 MHz
3
Mean loop radius b = + a = 9.847 mm
8
Rohmic = 9.85
2
= 31,200 2
= 45 (3-54) Text
4
R. Pettengill, H. Garland, and J. Mendl, Receiving antennas for miniature receivers, IEEE Transactions
on Antennas and Propagation, Vol AP-26, pp. 528-530, July 1977.
20
From Eq. 11 above
D = 1.5; = = 0.82 (82%)
+
G = erD = 1.23
Pt Pr
Gt Gr
Voc = VA
i 2 2
1 E (z)
2
1 VA VA2
=
PAm = RA = (1)
2 2R A 8R A 8 RA
VA = E i z (2)
PAm 3 2 2
Maximum effective aperture area = Ae,m = S = 8 = 0.119 (3)
inc
21
2
Sinc Ei
= 2 (4)
4 4 3 2
D= A e,m = = 1.5 (6)
2
2 8
(4-23) Text
4
G = 2 Ae (7)
PA = S Ae (4-26) Text
Pt
S = Gt 2 (4-31)
4R
G t Pt G t G r2
= =
Pr SA er =A er Pt (4-33)
4R 2 (4R)2
or
A et A er
Pr = Pt Friis transmission formula (4-33)
R 2 2
Example 6:
Prad ~ 5 - 10 kW
22
Gt ~ 20 - 50 (factor)
2 2
A e,r = G r = 5.6 m
4
Using the logarithmic form of the Friis communication link formula Eq. (4-34)
Pr 56.2 W
=
Sinc = = 10
A e 5.6 m2
Assume RA= 80
2
Voc V2
A =
power picked up and delivered to a matched load Sinc A e
8R A 8R A
23
Chapter 8 -- Antenna Arrays (see pp. 271..... Text)
F(x,y,z)
d cos
For N identical radiating elements (length, orientation, etc.) that are excited with
identical magnitudes but progressively phase-shifted currents i.e.
I , I e j , I e 2 j , I e j ( N 1) (1)
E
we can write the total electric field T as follows
j
r j r1 j rN 1
ET = Eoe + E1e + E N 1 e (1)
r = xx + yy + z z
(2)
= (x d)x + yy + zz
r
1
= [sin cos x + sin sin y + cos z ] (3)
j
E o e r 1 + e j e jd sin cos + e2 j e2 jd sin cos +
ET =
N 1
= E o e j r e jn (4)
n =0
(3-16)
since
( r1 r ) = d sin cos ; ( r2 r ) = 2d sin cos (6)
24
From Eq. 4
E
T = E o AF
where
N 1
1 e jN
=
Array Factor AF
= e jn (7)
n =0 1 e j
sin(N / 2)
AF = e j(N1) / 2 (8)
sin( / 2)
(8-19) p. 279 Text
sin(N / 2)
Normalized AF f() = (9)
N sin( / 2)
(8-22 Text)
UE, ESLA
where
= ( d x sin cos x ) for an x directed array
( )
= d y sin sin y for a y directed array
= ( d z cos z ) for a z directed array (see Eq. 3-19 Text) (10)
sin(N / 2) *
E T = NEo f() = E o (11)
sin( / 2)
ET j
HT = = r E T (12)
j o j o
1 *
=
S
2
(
Re E T H=
T
2
)
E T E*T
r (13)
* From Eq. 11, for directions of max radiation = 0, , 2,
2
p. 280 Text
A number of trends can be seen by examining the normalized array factor |f()|.
1. As N increases the main lobe narrows. Peak for the main lobe occurs for
= 0 where |f()| =1.
25
Plot of |f()| as a function of .
Fig. (8-8) p. 280 Text.
N
= , 2,
2
i.e.
2 4
= , , (14)
N N
2. More than one major lobe will exist if it is possible to get values of = 2,
4. The additional lobes are called Grating Lobes.
3. The minor lobes are of width 2/N in the variable and the major lobes (main
and grating) are twice this width i.e. 4/N in the variable .
1 1
1: : (16)
3 5
N sin N sin
2N 2N
For large N, SLL decrease as
2 2
1: : : (17)
3 5
i.e.
2 2
0, 20 log , 20 log
,
3 5
or
dB
0, -13.46, -17.90, (18)
5. As N increases, there are more side lobes in one period of f(). See also the text,
Fig. 8-8, p. 280.
26
Case A. Broadside Arrays
= d cos = 0, 2, 4
(19)
2
= , cos 1 , cos 1 (20)
2 d d
Subcase 1
Two and only two major lobes of radiation for = /2 i.e. in directions
broadside to the stretch of the array
27
= FN left FN right
BWFN (24)
1
= cos 1 cos (25)
Nd Nd
(8-31) p. 283 Text
2
2sin 1
= radians =
114.6 (26)
Nd Nd Nd
(8-33)
for
Nd >>
Example 6:
d/ = 0.5 , N=8
From Eq. 23
1
FN = sin 1 = 14.5 (27)
2 4
BWFN = 29 (28)
N 8d 3
= 4(d cos ) = cos = (29)
2 2
3
= cos 1 = 68 ; 112 (30)
8
Subcase 2
d
1 2
From Eq. 19, for major lobes
= d cos = 0, 2, 4 ,
(31)
2
cos = 0, ,
d d (31a)
This corresponds to six major lobes and a radiation pattern of the type shown on
the next page.
28
Example 7:
d/ = 1.5
3 cos = 0, 2, 4 (32)
cos = 0, 2 / 3, 4/ 3
(33)
=90
=
180 48.3
= 131.8 =48.3
48.3
131.8.3
d/ > 1
90
Angles for first nulls for each of these maxima are obtained from Eq. 21
2 2
3 cos FN = ; 2 (35)
N N
Subcase 3
d/ = 1.0
For this case, there are four maxima of radiation (major lobes); the two fatter
lobes in the above figure coalesce into single modes with directions of
maximum radiation = 0, 180.
(36)
29
= 90, 0, 180
(37)
2 2 2
= d cos FN = ; 2 , (38)
N N
cos FN = , 1 , (38a)
Nd Nd
Example 8:
N = 8, d/ = 1.0
30
p. 315 Case B. Electronically-Scannable (Steerable) Antennas -- Phased Array
Antennas
The phase shift of currents (excitations) for adjacent antennas may be altered
= 0, , 2 ,
(42)
2
= 0 , 2 , 4 ,
(43)
d ( cos cos o=
) 0 , 2 , 4 ,
(44)
cos = cos o , cos o , cos o 2 ,
(45)
d d
For two and only two major lobes for = o, d/ should be less than 0.5.
o cos 1
=
d
o
Example 9:
1 / 6
N = 8 , d/ = 0.3 ; = -30 ; o = cos = 73.9
2 0.3
For
variable from -30 to -75
31
For directions of zero radiation, from Eq. (14) on p. 25 of Class Notes,
N
=
2
2
=
N
2
d ( cos cos o ) =
N
2
FN cos o
cos=
Nd
2
= FN cos 1 cos o
N d
= cos 1 cos o (45a)
Nd
0.4167
1
= FN cos 1 0.2773
2.4
= 46.05 ; 98.01
BWFN = 51.96
Example 9, Part B: Let us compare the antenna array of N = 8, d = 0.3 for the
following three conditions:
Direction of
max radiation BWFN
from Eq. (26) on p. 28 of Class Notes
o = 90
0 Broadside array BWFN = 2sin 1
from Eq. (20) on p. 27 Nd
of Class Notes
= 49.25
-30 directions of max
from Ex. 9 on this radiation o = 73.9 BWFN = 51.96
page o = 73.9
End fire antenna BWFN 2 cos 1 1
=
-108 array o = 0 Nd
= -d = 108.6
See Eq. 52 on p. 36 of Class Notes
32
For a one-dimensional antenna array
The array factor of a one-dimensional antenna array from Eq. (8) of Class Notes
p. 25 is as follows:
sin ( N 2 )
AF = (1)
sin 2
= 0, 2,
N
= , 2 ,
2
directions of max.
radiation principal lobe/s directions of first nulls
=0 derived on p. 32 BWFN
cos 1 cos o
Nd
2sin 1
0 o = 90 Nd
= cos 1
Nd
broadside array see Eq. (26) on p. 28 of
Class Notes
see Eq. (22) on p. 27 of
Class Notes
cos 1 cos o
Nd
o cos 1
= calculate FN1, FN2
d
= cos 1
see p. 31 of Class d Nd BWFN = FN2 - FN1
Notes
see Eq. 45a on p. 32
of Class Notes
2 cos 1 1
Nd
o = cos-1 (1)
= -d cos 1 1
Nd = 4sin 1
= 0
End fire array 2Nd
see Eq. 52 on p. 36
of Class Notes
33
Case C. End Fire Arrays
From the previous section, we can see that in order to get a single major lobe for
o = 0 i.e. along the line or stretch of the array, we need
= - d and d/ < 0.5 (47)
For this case, the two major lobes on the previous page coalesce into one major
lobe in the end fire direction.
Example 10:
N = 20 , d/ = 0.4
2d
= d = = 144 (48)
2
= d ( cos FN 1) = (49)
N
(49a)
7
cos 1 =
FN = 28.96 (50)
8
2 FN =57.92
BWFN = (50a)
Example 11:
1 1
= =
BWFN 2 sin sin 1 14.36
2=
Nd 8
34
Example 10 (continued): N = 20 ; d/ = 0.4
1
=
d + (8-37) ; d< 1 (8-38a)
N 2 20
180
= 144 + d < 0.475
20
= 153
For directions of first nulls (from Eqs. 10, 14 on pp. 25, 26 of Class Notes)
2 2
=
d z cos z =
144 cos FN 153 =
=
=
18
N 20
FN = cos 1 ( 0.9375 )
= 20.36
35
Nd/
= 2 cos 1 1
Nd
= 4sin 1
2Nd
Nd
Example 11-1: = 5.0
BWFN = 23.07 for a broadside array
BWFN = 73.74 for an end fire array
1 2
Power radiated by the antenna array = IA ( R A0 + R A1 + R N 1 )
2
1 N 1
IA R Ai
2
= (55)
2 i =0
36
R A0
In general D array = N 2 Do (55a)
N 1
R Ai
i =0
where Do and R A0 pertain to an isolated element of the antenna array.
RA0 = RA1,
= RN-1
1 2
Power radiated by the antenna array = IA RA0 N = N Po (56)
2
2
Smax AF max
D= =
Do =
Do N (57)
N Po N
4r 2
Example 12:
Calculate the directivity of an antenna array of 20 half wavelength (L = /2)
dipoles that are fed in phase and consequently radiate in broadside directions.
Neglect the mutual impedance effects for this problem.
Solution:
2
AF
D = max =NDo =20 1.64 =32.8
N
Example 13:
b. Calculate the relative phase difference between monopoles if the major lobe of
radiation is to be in the end fire direction assuming an ordinary end fire array.
Solution:
a. D = N Do = 30 3.636 = 109.08
b. From Eq. 47
2d
= d = = 72
37
Each of the successive elements should be fed with a current that is lagging in
phase by 72 from the previous element.
1 5
cos FN = 1 =1 = 1 =
Nd 6 6 6
E T = E 1 AF x AF y AF z
38
N
sin x ( d x sin cos + x )
AF x = 2
1
sin ( d x sin cos + x )
2
Ny
sin (
d y sin sin + y )
AF y = 2
2
1
(
sin d y sin sin + y
)
N
sin z ( d z cos + z )
AF z = 2
1
sin ( d z cos + z )
2
As always
E j r E T r E T
HT = T
= =
j o
j o
S T = S 1 AF 2x AF 2y AF 2z
S1
where S 1 is the radiated power density due to one of the elements. These
arrays are also called mattress Arrays.
In order to obtain a unidirectional broadside array, we can use a 2-D antenna array
of Nz = 1, Ny = 2, Nx which can be an arbitrary number. By using a back row of
antennas that are placed with dy = /4 and y = 90, we can obtain an antenna
pattern as shown.
/4
x
39
Universal field-pattern chart for arrays of various numbers n of
isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and spacing
|Array factor|
or f ( )
40
41
0 90
= 90; d = /4
42
Reactance of Linear Dipoles
Like the current distribution on a linear dipole, the input reactance can be written
as though a two-wire line of length L/2 had been opened up as shown in the
following:
d E
D E
L/2
S
D E
z
L/2 E
2 D g/2
a. L/
z = 0 2 z
D -g/2
D S(z) z
D
E E
b. c.
120 2S
Zo = n (1)
r d
L/2
1
Zo =
L/2 Zo (z) dz (2)
0
43
For the completely opened-up transmission line of Fig. c, we can define
g / 2+ L / 2
2 120 4z
Zoa =
L r
n
d
dz
g/2
(3)
120 2L
= n 1
r d
L
ZDD =
Zin =
jZoa cot (4)
2
L
ZDD = jXin = j Zoa cot (5)
2
1
R in = R in (6)
monopole 2 dipole
Similarly,
1 2L
Z=
oa =Zoa 60 n 1 (7)
monopole 2 dipole d
From Eq. 5
1
Xin = Xin (8)
monopole 2 dipole
Example 15:
Calculate the feed point impedances Rin + jXin for linear dipoles of length (a) L =
0.5 (half wave dipole) and (b) L = 0.3. Assume that the antenna wire is No. 19
AWG (d = 9.12 10-4 m from Table B.2, p. 623) and frequency f = 30 MHz.
Take copper as the material for the antenna.
44
a. From the table on driving point resistance, p. 7 of Class Notes
R ri =
2 36.56 =
73.12 (9)
L / 2 =0.25
Rs 1 L sin (L)
=R ohmic 4 (10)
a 24
sin
2
1
R=
s = 2.61104 f MHz for copper
L= =5m
2
14.4 104 5
R ohmic = = 1.411 (12)
4.06 104 4
10
Zoa= 120 n 1= 996.3
4 (14)
9.25 10
2 0.510
cot =0.0314
2
L
jXin =
j 996.3 cot =+ j 31.3 (15)
2
45
Note that if we had constructed a slightly shorter, say L = 0.49 dipole
jX in = j 996.3 cot L 0
b. You can solve for the numbers for part b of the problem following the procedure
indicated above.
Example 16:
Solution:
From Eq. 16
1
Z in = Z in = 37.27 + j15.65
monopole 2 dipole
L/ = 0.4; wire radius a = 0.0005 (same as in Fig. 6-6, p. 157 Text). Assume
L = 1.04 L .
0.8
Z=
oa 120 n =
1 682.15
0.001
L
ZDD = j Zoa cot = j682.15 cot (0.41.04) = j184.3
taking L = 1.04L (from Table 6-2 on p. 159 Text). From the graph in Fig. 6-6, p.
157 Text
Im ( ZA ) =
j180
Example 18:
L/ = 0.3; wire radius a = 0.0014 (one of the wire radii on p. 8 of Class Notes).
46
From Eq. 3, p. 44 of Class Notes
0.6
Z=
oa 120 n =
1 524.08
0.0028
L
ZDD = j524.08 cot L = j524.08 cot 0.3 = j351.4
L
taking L / L = 1.04 .
which is close.
Distance to ground d g = / 4
1 z
dg
2d g = distance to image antenna2 = / 2
dg
Image
From Fig. 8-25a, b, for d/ = 0.5 2
antenna
Z12 =
12.5 j30; I1180 =
I2 = I1
V1
Z1= = (73 + j42.5) (12.5 j30)
I1
= 85.5 + j72.5
Radiation Pattern
47
Figure 8-25 The mutual impedance between two resonant parallel dipoles as a
function of their spacing relative to a wavelength. (a) The real part. (b) The
imaginary part.
48
Figure 8-26 The mutual impedance between two resonant collinear dipoles as a
function of spacing relative to a wavelength. (a) The real part. (b) The imaginary
part.
49
sin ( N / 2 )
AF =
sin ( / 2 )
where
= d x sin cos + x = 2d g sin cos +
= sin cos +
2 R A,isolated 73
D=G=Do AF max 1.64 N 2 4
= = 5.60
R A,with ground effect 85.5
D = G = 1.64
Example 20: A broadside array of five monopoles ( = 0)
/4
d = /2
Ant. #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
d12 = / 2
d13 = d15 = 2
d14 = 3 / 2 I=
1 I=
2 I=
3 I=
4 I5 because it is a broadside array
V
Z1 = 1 = Z11 + Z12 + Z13 + Z14 + Z15
I1
1 63.7 + j27.5
= [(73 + j42.5) + (12.5 j30) + (4 + j18) + (1.8 j12) + (1 + =
j9) ]
2 2
= 31.85 + j13.75
monopoles
Z5 = Z1 by symmetry
50
Same as Z12 d 25 = 3 / 2
Z2 = Z12 + Z22 + Z23 + Z24 + Z25
d 24 =
1
= [ 2(12.5 j30) + (73 + j42.5) + (4 + j18) + (1.8 j12)]
2
monopoles 1
= [50.2 j11.5] = 25.1 j5.75
2
Z2 = Z4 by symmetry
Same as Z23
Z3 = Z13 + Z23 + Z33 + Z34 + Z35
= 2Z13 + 2Z23 + Z33 Same as Z13
1
= [ 2(4 + j18) + 2(12.5 j30) + (73 + j42.5)]
2
monopoles 56 + j18.5
= = 28 + j9.25
2
Note that for each of the antennas, the input impedances are slightly different and
each of these values are different than
73 + j42.5
or 36.5 + j21.25
2
Directivity
From Eq. (55a) on p. 37 of the Class Notes, including mutual impedance effects
2 R A isolated
D = Do AF max
5
R Ai
i =1
36.5
=3.28 N 2 25 = 21.1
2 31.85 2 25.1 28
+ +
Re ( Z1 + Z5 ) Re ( Z2 + Z4 ) Re ( Z3 )
Note that a directivity of 21.1 is higher than NDo of 5 3.28 = 16.4 which would
be obtained for this antenna array neglecting mutual impedance effects.
51
Inclusion of mutual impedance effects can often lead to an increased gain relative
to the value had the mutual impedance effects been neglected.
Example 21: Two monopole antennas separated by . (Note that the second
/4
antenna is grounded.)
=
V1 Z11I1 + Z12 I2
/4
=0 Z12 I1 + Z22 I2 I1 /4 I2
Z (36 j25) / 2
I2 =
12 I1 =
I1
Z22 (73 + j42) / 2
43.8 e j34.87
=
0.52 e j64.78 e j180 I1
I =
1
84.22 e+ j29.91
= 0.52 e+ j115.2 I1
V1 I
Z=
1 = Z11 + Z12 2 (1)
I1 I1
From p. 307, Fig. 8-25 of the Text (see also p. 48 of the Class Notes)
36 j25
Z12=
d = / 4
= 21.91 e j34.8
2
From Eq. (1) monopole
73 + j42
+ 0.52 e j115.2 21.91 e j34.87
=Z1
2
= 38.4 + j32.2
Antenna 1 is the only antenna that is driven and is to be fed (current in antenna 2
is created by induction)
1 2 1 2
P= =
rad 100W I1 R=A1 I1 38.4
2 2
I1 = 2.28A
52
0.52 I1 e j115.2 =
I2 = 1.19 e j115.2 A
Example 22: Calculate the feedpoint impedances of two parallel antennae separated by a
distance of /4 and fed with a phase shift = -90. Each of the antennas is a /2
dipole.
Rad. pattern
1 2
Z11 =
73 + j42.5 ; Z12 =
36 j25
73 + j42.5
V
V1 = I1Z11 + I2 Z12 Z1 = 1 = Z11 j(36 j25)
I1
Z1 =48 + j6.5
V2
V2 = I1Z12 + I2 Z22 Z2 = = j(36 j25) + (73 + j42.5)
I2
Z2 =98 + j78.5
1 2
Power fed to Ant. 1 = I1 48 3.29 KW
2
1 2
Power fed to Ant. 2 = I1 98 6.71 KW
2
1
Total power = I12 ( R A1 + R A2 ) =
10 KW
2
I1 = 11.7 A
R A,isolated 73
G=N 2G1 =
4 1.64
2 146
R Ai
i =1
= 3.28
53
Methods of Matching Power to the Antennas
Example 23:
Z a 10 j300
za = = = 0.033 j1
Zo 300
Z Zo
Voltage reflection coefficient = a = 0.9672270 (1)
Z a Zo
1+
=
VSWR = 60.0 (2)
1
Pr 2
Power reflection coefficient = = = 0.9354 (3)
Pinc
i.e. 93.54% of the input power Pinc is reflected and only 6.46% of the transmitter
power is radiated -- a truly poor situation!
2400
jXse = j = j1200
2
54
Example of the Transmission Line Matching Method
f = 30 MHz ; o = 10 m ; Za = 10 - j300
55
Fig. 2.
ab = (0.231 0.125) = 0.106 = 1.06 m (8)
and use (as sketched in Fig. 3) a shunt element to match the line.
Fig. 3.
8 j
j Ysh = j mho (9)
300 L sh
300
L sh = 6 = 0.2 H (10)
8 2 30 10
56
USE OF LUMPED ELEMENTS FOR MATCHING AN ANTENNA
Topology 1
Vs
Fig. 1
Z AB = Z S = 15 j130 (1)
=15 j130
Taking the capacitive shunt reactance -j44.86 and equating the imaginary parts
on both sides of Eq. 2, we get
57
1
Xse = j104.6 =
jCse
1
=
X sh = 44.86
Csh
1
=
X se = 104.6
Cse
Cse = 1.69 pF
Fig. 2
Topology 2
Fig. 3
58
1 15 + j130 1 1
=
YAB = = + (4)
15 j130 (15) + (130)
2 2 50 + j(Xse 20) jXsh
2 50 17125
2500 + (Xse 20)
= = 57, 083
15
=
X e 253.6; 213.6
=
X se 253.6 =
Lse 44.85 nH
(2)2
the load = I2rms R A
Power transferred to = = 50 12.25 mW
(15 + 50)2 + (130 20)2
(2)2
Power transferred to the load = Irms 2 Re
= Zs = 15 66.7 mW
(15 + 15)2
Vs = 6V RMS
59
A REACTIVE THREE-ELEMENT CIRCUIT FOR ANTENNA MATCHING
Example 25: A reactive three-element network is a versatile circuit for matching power
onto the antenna. To illustrate the procedure, let us look at the circuit of Fig. 1. The
antenna equivalent impedance is RA + jXA.
RA
jX A
Figure 1
In order to match power into the antenna, it is necessary that the impedance of the
network between points A and B be purely resistive and have the same value as Zo, the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
From Fig. 1, the expression for the impedance ZAB can be written as:
=ZAB
( R A + jX A + jX1 ) jX 2 + jX
3 (1)
R A + jX A + jX1 + jX 2
We select X1 and X2 such that the reactance in the denominator of the first term is zero,
i.e.,
X A + X1 + X 2 0 (2)
=ZAB
( R A jX 2 ) jX 2 + jX
3 (3)
RA
60
and X3 such that
X3 = -X2 (5)
and the antenna would then be matched onto the transmission line.
To illustrate the procedure by a numerical example, let us say that the antenna is a
monopole and its impedance ZA has been calculated and found to be 1.5 - j460.
Let us take Zo = 300 ohms (we must, of course, make sure that the diameter of the
feeder line is not overly thin for the current-carrying requirement). From Eq. 4,
X2 =
1.5 300 =
21.2 (6)
The upper sign corresponds to an inductance L = 21.1/ and the lower sign corresponds
to a capacitance
1
C= .
21.2
jX 2 =
j L 2 =j21.2
X1 = - X2 - XA = -21.2 + 460
= 438.8
X3 = - 21.2
61
Figure 2
1
jX 2 = = j21.2
j C 2
= 481.2
jX1 =
j L1 =j481.2 (an inductor)
j21.2 j481.2
Figure 3
62
= 90
= 180
63
Gain of a dipole antenna placed in a corner reflector of corner angles = 180
(flat reflector) and = 90 (90 corner reflector).
= 30
= 30
64
H. V. Cottany and A. C. Wilson, "Gains of Finite Size Corner Reflector Antennas," IEEE
Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, Vol. AP-6, 1958, pp. 366-369.
65
Some Commonly Used Feeder Lines for Antennas
Example:
2S
= 12.2 for Zo = 300 (air-filled line)
d
60 2S 60 4h
=Zo = n n
r d r d
Example:
h
= 3.05 for Zo = 150 (air-filled line)
d
3. Coaxial Line
b
n
60
Zo =
r a
Example:
66
b
= 3.345 for r = 2.1 (Teflon) coaxial line of Zo = 50
a
Some of the other transmission lines useful for printed antennas are:
a. Miscrostripline
We have previously considered the effect of ground for the radiation from a
vertical monopole antenna. The net effect was that the monopole antenna of
length L/2 radiates electromagnetic fields much like a dipole of length L albeit for
the upper half plane i.e. for field points above ground.
For a horizontal dipole antenna placed at a distance h from the ground as sketched
in Fig. 1, an image antenna 1 is created, which has a current excitation that is
equal in magnitude (for high conductivity ground) but 180 out of phase with that
in the installed antenna #1.
90
67
sin 2
2 E 2 cos 1 2 h sin sin +
=E T E=1 AF y E1 = 1 ( )
2
sin (1)
2
= E1 2 sin ( h sin sin )
E
neglecting the phase factors both in writing |AF|y and 1 . Note that Eq. 1 could
also have been written by following a procedure similar to that for Eq. 4 on page
24 of the Class Notes.
E T= E1 + Ei= E1 1 e ( 1 1 ) = E1 1 e (
j r r j 2h sin sin )
(2)
= E1 e j h sin sin e j h sin sin=
2 E1 sin ( h sin sin )
ignoring the phase factors, as also done in writing Eq. 1. From Eqs. 1 and 2
h sin o = , 3 , (4)
2 2
h
sin FN = 0,
, 2, (5)
Example 26
a. Calculate the spacing h to ground for a half-wave dipole antenna if the maximum
of radiation is desired for angle o = 30 off the horizon.
b. Calculate the directions of maximum and zero radiation for the selected h.
c. Calculate the gain of the antenna, without and with mutual impedance effects.
a.
3
h= , ,
4 sin o 4 sin o
3 5
= , , ,
2
2 2
(6)
68
h = /2
2h sin o
h = /2 (7)
b. For this spacing itself, we note from Eq. 4 that the directions of maximum
radiation are:
h sin o = sin o = + (8)
2
o = 30 (wanted), o = 150 (unwanted)
Negative sign is ignored in Eq. 8 since that gives angles o = -30, -150 (both
into the ground).
We will see later how to eliminate the unwanted radiation for o = 150. If we
had taken a larger h of say 3 /2 from Eq. 6, we would have had many more
directions of maximum radiation.
For directions of first null, from Eq. 5, FN = 0 and sin-1(1) or 0 and 90 for the
principal maximum of o = 30, and FN = 180 and sin-1(1) or 180 and 90 for
the principal maximum at o = 150. The radiation pattern is sketched in Fig. 2.
o = 150 o = 30
Fig. 2.
69
c. Ignoring mutual impedance effects Ra1 = 73 (same as for an isolated half wave
dipole). From Eq. 1
E 2max
Emax = 2E1; Smax = = 4S1
2
e jo
70
We take two horizontal dipoles 1, 2 above ground. Distance to ground h is the
same for both dipoles 1 and 2. Shown in Fig. 4 also are the two image antennas
1, 2 . Assuming that antenna #1 is leading in phase by (i.e. antenna 2 is
lagging in phase by ).
- d1 cos o = 0 (9)
+ d1 cos o = (10)
Note in both Eqs. 9 and 10, o = 30 and d1 cos o = 0.866 d1. From Eqs. 9 and
10, both the unknown and d1 can now be found:
= = 90 (phase lead angle for antenna #1) (11)
2
d1 cos o = d1 = = 0.289 (12)
2 4 cos o
This arrangement would cancel the principal lobe for o = 150 (in Fig. 2) while
reinforcing the principal lobe for the o = 30 angle of radiation.
71
p. 349 Text General Theory of Aperture Antennas (or Displacement Current Antennas). For comparison, see also the General Theory of
Conduction Current Antennas on p. 44 of the Text or p. 2 of Class Notes.
R
aperture
Source of Fields H a Define Equivalent surface currents Source of Fields E a
Js= n H a (9-10) M=s E a n (9-11)
J(r) j(t R) Ms (r) j(t R)
F jr F jF r
A j A E2 = = =
H1 = = (1) (3)
= j F r
H1 j H1
E1 = = = jA (2)
jo jo
E T = E1 + E 2 = jA j F r (9-16)
j e j r
E T = E1 + E 2 =
4r ( )
r n E a r n H a e jr r dS (9-17)
Sa
ET j r E T r E T
H T == =
jo jo
1
=S
2
(
Re E H= ) ET ET
2
r
Total radiated power = S dS
sphere
72
p. 466 Text A Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna
/2
Notes
y
W 1. Note that the E-fields have no
E2 variation in the y direction;
E1
hence are identical for the front
and back edges separated by
width W.
2. Because of a separation
distance of /2, the E-fields at
edges E1 and E 2 are 180 out
Ez of phase; also no variation in y-
direction.
Fig. 1. Distributions and variations of electric fields at the four edges of the patch antenna.
(9-2b)
p. 346 Text
z y
x
uniform magnitude; - -directed
Maximum radiation in z-direction (normal to the patch) due to two uniform magnitude
"dipoles" corresponding to edges and ; radiation from edges F and B i.e. the front
and back edges of Fig. 1 cancels out.
73
The array factor for the equivalent current dipoles at edges E1, E 2 can be written from
Eqs. 8 and 9 on page 25 of the Class Notes. For an x-directed array of two elements
N = 2; x =;0
0
= L sin cos + x
N
sin 2 sin cos
= 2 2 = 2 cos L sin cos
Normalized AF =
(1)
2 sin 2
2 sin
2 2
E T = E o AF
=
E E o cos f (, ) (11-5a)
74
p. 470 Text Microstrip Patch Antenna
Max. rad.
L
. W x
E=
E o f (, ) ; E = 0
For direction of maximum radiation, E || x
L
=
FE () cos sin (11-6a)
2
BWFN:
L
sin=
= sin 1
FN
2 2 2L
For L , for xz or E-plane
2
BWFN = 2 sin 1
2L
= 180
HPBW:
L
sin=
= sin 1
HP
2 4 4L
1 1
HPBW = 2 sin 1 2 sin 60
4L
2
75
For y-z plane ( =90 )
W
sin sin
FH (=
) cos 2 (11-6b)
W
sin
2
Maximum for = 0
E =E o cos F(, )
FH ()
For yz or H-plane
W
sin FN =
; sin 1
FN =
2 W
BWFN = 2sin 1
W
2
2r L
ZA = 90 (11-7)
r 1 W
W
=
For Duroid ( r 2.2)
= and 2.7
L
ZA= 50
1
FN yz plane= sin 1 = 47.8
1.35
BWFN = 2 sin 1 = 95.6
W
76
Table 7.1. Radiation characteristics of commonly-used horn antennas.
68 54 4AB
Sectoral E- Beam width 0.65
plane horn in E-plane
B= 2L (A / ) (B / ) 2
(9-138)
70 60 4(area)
0.52
Conical Gain D= 2.8L (D / ) (D / ) 2
77
Table 7.2*. Comparative characteristics of parabolic reflectors with different illuminations.
(See also Table 9-2, p. 389 Text).
Peak Side
3 dB Beam First Null
Lobe Relative
Illumination Width in Position in
Level Gain
Degrees Degrees
(dB)
x L
=G(x) cos m for | x | <
L 2
m = 0 (uniform) 50.8 / L -13.2 1.00 57.3 / L
m=1 68.8 / L -23 0.81 85.9 / L
m=2 83.1 / L -32 0.667 114.6 / L
m=3 95.1 / L -40 0.575 143.2 / L
m=4 111.2 / L -48 0.515 171.9 / L
* M. I. Skolnik, Radar Handbook, Chapter 9, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1970.
78