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Historically, substation assets have been loaded beyond nameplate ratings and the need to
accommodate these emergency or contingency conditions are best served using
on-line electrical apparatus monitoring systems.
2
Planned Loading beyond Nameplate
Normal Operation Normal Life
Planned Long-Time Short-Time
Standard Loading Beyond Emergency Emergency
This loading [2] results in the conductor Expectancy
Nameplate 1-3 Months 0.5-2 Hours
hottest-spot or top oil temperature exceeding the Insulated IEEE 120C 130C 140C 180C
Conductor
limits suggested for normal life expectancy Hottest-Spot IEC 120C (N/A) 140C 160C
loading. The user accepts this loading as a Temperature
normal, planned-for operating condition. There is Other Metallic IEEE 140C 150C 160C 200C
(Supports,
no associated equipment outage or core, etc.)
IEC 140C (N/A) 160C 180C
emergencies with this type of loading. Cyclic Top Oil IEEE 105C 110C 110C 110C
loads resulting in hottest-spot conductor Temperature IEC 105C (N/A) 115C 115C
Load Factor IEEE (N/A) (N/A) (N/A) 1.5 p.u.
temperatures in the range of 120 130C would
Per Unit
be associated with this loading requirement. IEC 1.3 p.u. (N/A) 1.3 p.u. 1.5 p.u.
Current
This type of loading would occur frequently, and
in some cases daily, during a short part of the TABLE 1
transformers load cycle. SUGGESTED MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES
3
Things to consider before using Limiting Factors for the Dynamic
Dynamic Loading Calculations Loading Calculations
Prior to stressing any utility asset beyond their Prior to using the dynamic loading calculations
nameplate value, a thorough review of the in your DRMCC, the limiting factors of
assets health is recommended. Among the temperature and loading limits for the calculation
must be programmed. The calculation is based
items that should be considered in a health
on both the short time and long time limits
review are: programmed in the monitor.
Maintenance history
o Past and present DGA results
(including moisture) The safe maximum load is the maximum load
o Past and present Power Factor (PF) the transformer can carry without exceeding any
test reports of the limiting factors. IEC / I.E.E.E. load limits,
o Oil quality transformer manufacturers, regional system
o Oil level operators and your utility loading guidelines
o OLTC problems should be reviewed prior to programming the
limits in the monitor.
Cooling system health / condition
The limiting factors of temperature or current or
Bushing and OLTC ratings
time may be configured via SCADA or
programmed from the interface unit (IU) as
Load profile of the transformer to ensure the
shown here:
hottest phase is being monitored
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Tap position is used to calculate the system Secure System Status
losses. Tap positions resulting in higher system
losses will result in a lower safe maximum load The DRMCC features a built in WEB server to
calculation. display the safe loading capability of the unit.
182% of
nameplate
FIGURE 2
Emergency ONAF (2 Hour) Transformer Rating using IEEE
Default Temperature Limits
FIGURE 3
Emergency ONAN (2 Hour) Transformer Rating using
I.E.E.E. Default Temperature Limits
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Effects and Hazards of Long-Time Described below are a few selected short-term
Emergency Loading loading hazards and their effects, not limited to:
This is not a normal operating condition and its The main risk for short-term failures is the
occurrence is expected to be rare, but it may reduction in the dielectric strength due to the
persist for weeks or even months at a time, and possible presence of gas (water vapor) bubbles in
can lead to significant aging of the solid the regions of high electrical stress, that being the
insulation system, not limited to: windings and the leads.
Deterioration of the mechanical properties of the These bubbles are likely to occur when the
conductor insulation will accelerate at higher hot-spot temperature exceeds 140C for a
temperatures. This aging acceleration is also transformer with winding insulation moisture
dependent on the moisture content of the content of 2.5% or more. This critical temperature
conductor insulation. Taken together, it is an will decrease as the moisture concentration (in the
exponential function in terms of aging rate of the winding insulation) increases.
transformer. It will reduce the effective life of the
transformer, particularly if the unit is subjected to Gas bubbles can also develop (either in oil or in
system short-circuits or transportation events. solid insulation) at the surfaces of heavy metal
parts heated by leakage flux or be produced by
The contact resistance of the OLTC could increase the super-saturation of water in the oil. Such
at elevated currents and temperatures and, in bubbles usually develop in regions of low electric
extreme cases thermal runaway could take place. stress and have to circulate in regions where the
stress is higher before any significant reduction in
The gasket materials in the transformer may
the dielectric strength occurs.
become more brittle as a result of elevated
temperatures.
Pressure build-up in the bushings may result in a
failure due to oil leakage. Gassing in
Effects and Hazards of Short-Time condenser-type bushings may also occur if the
temperature of the insulation (inside the bushing)
Emergency Loading
exceeds approximately 140C.
Short-time increased loading will result in a
service condition having an increased risk of The expansion of the oil could cause an overflow
failure. of oil in the conservator (if equipped).
Short-time emergency overloading causes the Breaking and making excessive high current in the
conductor hot-spot to reach a level likely to On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC) could be hazardous.
result in a temporary reduction in the dielectric
strength. However, acceptance of this risk for a Adding Real-Time Communications
short time may be preferable to loss of supply. Drives Customer Benefits
As discussed, on-line monitoring systems
This type of loading is expected to occur rarely,
provide benefits which are optimized when
and it should be rapidly reduced or the coupled with the addition or inclusion of
transformer disconnected within a short time in Real-Time communication systems.
order to avoid its failure.
The DRMCC system can function as the
NOTE: The permissible duration (typically) of communication hub. Acting as the link to the
this load is shorter than the thermal time customers network, the link can use either
constant of the whole transformer, and depends Serial or Ethernet communications via a
on the operating temperatures before the Copper wire, Optical Fibre, Wireless Radio or
increase in loading. Powerline Communication System (PCS).
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PCS is rapidly becoming The two most significant benefits of this
the industrys most secure, reliable and coupling are improved system reliability and
economical solution for sub-station maintenance savings. This strategic
communications. This includes communication combination allows electrical apparatus
between devices in the sub-station, to customer owners to confidently migrate from failure or
service or control buildings or among preferred time based maintenance strategies to
networks. PCS is as an alternative to installing a conditions based maintenance (CBM)
new wire or pulling optical fibre. programs. (Graph 2)
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Conclusion - On-Line Monitoring for
Dynamic Loading
On-line monitoring of power transformers, for
condition assessment, has gained popularity
over the past twenty years, the typical
technology adoption period, from concept to
commercial reality, in the electric utility industry.
In the final analysis, if the unit is not fit for the References
purpose or if its poor condition leads to sudden [1] Life Management Techniques for Power Transformers,
Cigre Technical Brochure 227, 2004.
failure, the value of monitoring dynamic load
capability becomes academic at the time. [2] IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed
Transformers, IEEE C57.91-1995
Clearly, good condition assessment and [3] IEC Loading Guide for Oil-Immersed Power
dynamic (on-line) load monitoring go together Transformers, IEC 354.
hand-in-glove.