Concept of Trimmed Flight

Concept of Aircraft Trim

 Motion Related Terminologies
Conventionally, aircraft motion is described through a
set of state variables, which are nothing but the minimal
set of variables for completely describing the motion.
Typically, state is a vector that denotes a point in the n-
dimensional space having motion variables as its
coordinate axes.
Further, dynamics, which is an evolution of the motion
variables in time, is described through a set of ordinary
differential equations as follows.

{x } = { f ({x },{u })},{x } State, {u } Control

 Concept of Equilibrium Flight

Equilibrium is defined as that condition of the aircraft in

which its states do not change with time.
It is also called steady-state in a more general sense, but
equilibrium is more commonly used to reflect the
mechanics based representation of the dynamics.
In aircraft context trim is commonly used to describe the
condition of net forces / moments going to zero, which
are closely associated with equilibrium or steady state.
Following is the condition that represents an equilibrium.
{x } = 0 { f ({x },{u })} = 0 {x } = {x ({u })}
e e
 Typical Trimmed Flights
In general, an aircraft has various trim configurations,
e.g. climb, cruise, turns etc., which need to be analyzed for
establishing the performance, stability and control.
As all these trim conditions depend on the nature of
forces and moments acting on the aircraft as well as their
relations with the motion variables, it is necessary to first
establish the applicable force / moment systems.
In view of the fact that aircraft has a plane of symmetry,
it is convenient to separate symmetric & anti-symmetric
motion of aircraft, as longitudinal and lateral-directional.
We will first consider the longitudinal motion.
 Longitudinal Motion Model
Longitudinal motion of aircraft is determined by forces
and moments that lie in x z plane, as shown below.

Longitudinal Trim Equations: T D = 0; L W = 0; M = 0

L Lift; D Drag;W Weight; M Pitching Moment
 Aircraft Force System

Primary forces and moments, responsible for flight, arise

from aerodynamics, gravity and propulsion.
However, among these, aerodynamic forces and moments
play a significant role and hence focus is more on these.
Further, while aerodynamic forces depend on complete
aircraft, as a first step, we consider only wing, which also
is a major contributor to the lift.
Lastly, for moderate aspect ratios, a reasonable solution
for wing is possible by considering only the aerofoil.
 Aerofoil Aerodynamics
Consider the lift characteristics of an aerofoil, as below.
 Aerofoil Force and Moment

Non-dimensional lift, CL, is resultant of aerodynamic

pressure created on the aerofoil, which acts at a point
along the chord called, aerodynamic centre.
Aerodynamic centre (ac) is defined as that point along
chord at which moment is independent of angle of attack.
For most aerofoils, aerodynamic centre is at (or around) a
point at a distance c/4 from leading edge, along chord.
In addition to the above force, there is also a non-
dimensional moment (pitching moment) that acts on the
aerodynamic centre, called Cmac.
 Aerofoil Force and Moment

Basic expressions for force and moment coefficients, in

respect of aerofoils are as follows.
L M
CL = , Cm = ; c Chord
1 2 1
V S V 2 Sc
2 2
CL Cmac
CL = = 2 / rad = 0.11 / deg., Cmac = =0

CL = CL 0 + CL ; Cmac = Cmac 0
CL 0 , Cmac 0 = 0 for Sym Aerofoils
Positive Camber: CL 0 > 0, Cmac 0 < 0
 Finite Wing Force and Moment

In reality, aerofoil related force and moment expressions

are applicable only for wings with infinite aspect ratio.
For finite rectangular wings, there is a correction to lift
coefficient derivative, as shown below.

2 b2
CL ; AR Aspect Ratio =
(
1+ 2
AR) S

Reduction in lift due to finite aspect ratio is mainly due to

pressure equalization across the wing tips.
 Aerofoil Force Diagram

Lift is the main aerodynamic force which acts normal to

the velocity vector in upward direction, while weight acts
along the direction of gravity, as shown below.

L
X
cg M
ac
V W
Z

We also assume that thrust balances drag and lift balances

weight.
 Aerofoil Force & Moment Example

For an aerofoil, the ac lies 0.05c ahead of cg at which

the moment coefficient is -0.016. If the lift coefficient is
0.45, calculate Cmcg.

CL ( xcg xac ) 0.45 ( 0.05c )

Cmcg = Cmac = 0.016 = 0.0065
c c

An aerofoil is tested in wind tunnel and it is found that its

CL is zero at = -1.5o and is 0.52 at = 5o. Further, at =
1o & 7.88o, Cmcg values are -0.01 and 0.05 respectively. If
the cg is located at 0.35c, determine the values of ac and
Cmac. (Origin is aerofoil LE).
 Aerofoil Force & Moment Example

0.52
CL = = 0.08 / deg.;
6.5
0.08 2.5 ( 0.35c xac )
Cmcg = Cmac = 0.01
c
0.08 9.38 ( 0.35c xac )
Cmcg = Cmac = 0.05
c
0.08 6.88 ( 0.35c xac )
= 0.06
c
xac = 0.35c + 0.109c = 0.241c ('ac' ahead of 'cg')
Cmac + 0.0218 = 0.01 Cmac = 0.0318
 Aerofoil Trim Solution

In order to ensure the trim, we need to make moment

coefficient zero at the trim point, which is taken to be the
cg. This can be stated as follows.
CL ( xcg xac )
Cmcg = Cmac = 0 (for equilibrium)
c
CL ( xcg xac ) Cmac c
Cmac = CL = CL =
c ( xcg xac )
W
L = W = QSCL CL =
QS

It is seen that trim can be established for different ,

as long as CL satisfies the two constraints.
 Aerofoil Flight Under Trim

An aerofoil, under trim, will continue to fly in that

condition, as long as there is nothing to disturb this
condition.
However, in reality, there are always disturbances
present and hence the ability of the aerofoil to fly will
depend on its ability to maintain the trim.
In general, maintaining the trim condition is dictated
by the nature of incremental forces and moments that
get generated at trim point due to disturbances and
typically falls under the domain of stability of trim.
 Summary

Flight mechanics aims to investigate the steady and

unsteady characteristics of flight.
In this regard, trim is an important concept that help in
examining the equilibrium flight.