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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

(BFC 3013)
Mohd Hazreek Bin Zainal Abidin
Department of Geotechnical and Transportation Engineering
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Tun Hussein Onn University Of Malaysia
Syllabus:
1. INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
2. MINERALS
3. THE STUDY OF ROCKS IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND
METAMORPHIC

4. WEATHERING
5. GEOLOGIC AGENTS
6. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
7. GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION &
GEOPHYSICS
8. ROCK TESTING
9. ROCK MASS
CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION
TO GEOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
Geology study of planet earth, its origin, history,
composition, structure and dynamics of how it changes.

The term Geology has been derived from the Greek


words Geo + logos where Geo means Earth and logos
means discourse (study or science).

Geology event formed during geological time involving


interpretation and observation of event occurred and still
occurring at present in earth.

Geological process occurred during very large span of


geological time left their record in rocks.
Engineering geology is a subfield of
geological study concerning about the
geological inputs and the uses of the
information to solve the engineering
problems.

It exists solely to serve art and science


of engineering through description of
the structure and attributes of rocks
connected with engineering works.
(Goodman,1993).
Why a Civil Engineer
studies Geology?

Think ???
Answers

Still need more


explaination? Try to see and
think this MORE
The geologist presents the geological
data and interpretations for use by the
civil engineers.

The role of engineering geology -


begins during the planning stage, where
the geologic data are required in order
to achieve accuracy.
Some engineering works that need
understandings/related to geological aspect:

Construction of dam

Landslide - Slope

Rock as aggregates & construction material

Hydro geological

Etc s.
Earth
The largest of four planets of inner group solar system
i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars and third closest to
the sun.

Shape - spherical
Polar radius - 21 km shorter than equatorial radius
Average radius - 6378 km (3965 miles)
Surface Area - 510 x 106 km2 (29% is land)
Overall Density - 5.5 g/cm3
Mount Everest is 8.8 km above sea level
Ocean floor is an average 3.7 km below sea level
Average height above sea level is 7 km
Principal Division of Earth
Consist of three:-

1) Atmosphere Troposphere and Stratosphere

2) Hydrosphere

3) Lithosphere
(1) Atmosphere:

Gaseous portion of the Earth extending upwards for hundreds


of miles above sea level.

It is a mixture of 98% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, carbon dioxide,


water vapour and minor amount of other gases. The
atmosphere is divided into two parts which is Troposphere
and Stratosphere.

Troposhere - the closest to the Earth ~ 13 km. It contains


almost all of the water vapor, clouds and storms.

Stratosphere - the overlying layer ~ 55 km above the surface,


contains the ozone layer.

The atmosphere is an important geologic agent and is


responsible for the processes of weathering which are
continually at work on the Earth's surface.
(2) Hydrosphere:

Total mass of water or the surface of our planet (about


98% of water in the oceans and 2% in lakes, rivers as
well as ground water which exist in the pores and
crevices of the crustal rocks and soils).

71% of Earth covered by oceans to average depth of 4


km. Water is essential to man and of geologic important.

Hydrosphere is in constant motion - evaporating through


atmosphere, precipitating as rain and returning to Earth.

As water moves over the Earth's surface it erodes,


transports and deposits weathered rock material,
constantly modifying the Earth's landscape.
(3) Lithosphere:

Lithos means rock.

The solid portion of the Earth composed of crust and


upper mantle.

It is a layer of rocks about 70 km thick, that rests upon


soft weak material that broken into about 12 major plates
which is slowly moved by the flow of material in a layer
that directly underlies the lithosphere called the
asthenosphere.

There are three basic types of rock: Igneous,


Sedimentary and Metamorphic.
Physical Features of the Earth
Major Concepts

Earth is segregated and concentrated into layers according


to density.

The major internal layers based on physical properties


are:
(a) Lithosphere (b) Asthenosphere
(c) Mesosphere (d) Core

Material within each of these units is in motion, making


Earth a changing dynamic planet.

Continents and ocean basins are the principal surface


features of Earth.
Major Structural Units of Earth

The constituents of Earth are separated


and segregated into layers according to
density.

The denser materials - concentrated near


the center, the less dense - near the
surface.

The internal layers are recognized on the


basis of composition and physical
properties.
The internal layers based of composition are:-

1. Crust Continental Crust and Oceanic Crust

2. Mantle Earth mass, which compose of composed of iron


(Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and
oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000C, the
mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner.

3. Core (inner & outer) - composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is


so hot that cause the outer core is molten, with about
10% sulphur (S). The inner core is under such extreme
pressure that it remains solid.

The internal layers based of are physical properties are:-


1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Core
Layers of the earth based on composition

Outer layer of the Earth, extending from solid surface down to the first major discontinuity in seismic wave
velocity in the lithosphere. Thickness of crust varies from about 8 km under the oceans to about 35 km under the
continents.
There are two kinds of earth crust classified according to two different kinds of rock they contained where
each with its own general composition, thickness and density.
(a) Continent Crust: 35 - 60 km thick
Outer relatively low density
granitic rock
Crust average density: 2.8 g/cm3
(b) Oceanic Crust : thickness rarely exceed 5 km
denser material
basaltic composition
average density: 2.9 g/cm3

The next major compositional layer of the Earth which covers the core and this zone constitute 82% of its
volume and 68% of mass of the Earth. The mantle is composed of iron and magnesium silicate rock, and it goes
down to about 2900 km from surface of Earth. The earth's mantle is a heavy layer of rock which lies under the
Mantle earth's crust. In places where the crust is broken, part of the upper mantle can melt and form a substance called
magma, or molten rock. Magma can be forced through the earths crust. It flows out of volcanoes as lava.
Average density: 4.5 g/cm3
It is speculated that the thickness is about 2250 km and it is made of molten iron and nickel. The outer
Outer core core is so hot that the metals in it are all in the liquid state. Average density: 10.7 g/cm3

The thickness' is about 1300 km and probably consists of mostly iron and nickel. The inner core of the
Earth has temperatures and pressures so great that the metals are squeezed together and are not able to move
about like a liquid, but are forced to vibrate in place as a solid. The temperatures may reach 9000 degrees F.
Inner core and the pressures are 45,000,000 pounds per square inch. This is 3,000,000 times the air pressure on you at
sea level!!!
Average density: 17.0 g/cm3
Internal layers of the Earth based on Physical Properties

Lithosphere The top of the asthenosphere is about 100 km below the surface.
Above the asthenosphere, the material is solid, strong and rigid.
(rock sphere)
This layer is called lithosphere. Contains the continental crust of
the uppermost part of the mantle.

Asthenosphere A major zone within the upper mantle where temperature and
pressure are just the right balance so that part of the material
(weak sphere) melts. The rocks lose much of their strength and become soft
plastic and easily deformed. The thickness is about 200 km.

The rock below the asthenosphere is stronger and more rigid


than the asthenosphere because the high pressure at this depth
Mesosphere offsets the effect of high temperature. The region between the
asthenosphere and the core-mantle boundary is called the
mesosphere.
The core of the Earth marks a change in both physical properties
and composition. It is composed mostly of iron and is therefore
distinctly different from the silicate (rocky) material above. On the
Core basis of physical properties, the core has two distinct parts - a
solid inner core and liquid outer core. Heat loss from the core
and the rotation of the Earth probably causes the liquid outer core
to circulate and generate the Earth's magnetic field.
Composition of earth
Composition of earth
The internal structure of Earth
The Earth is divided into several layers
which have distinct chemical and
seismic properties (depths in km):-

0 - 40 Crust
40 - 400 Upper mantle
400 - 650 Transition region
650 - 2700 Lower mantle
2700 - 2890 D'' layer
2890 - 5150 Outer core
5150 - 6378 Inner core
The crust is composed of two basic rock types granite and basalt.

The continental crust is composed mostly of granite.

The oceanic crust consists of a volcanic lava rock called basalt.

Basaltic rocks of the ocean plates are much denser and heavier than the granitic rock of
the continental plates.

Because of this, the continents ride on the denser oceanic plates, the crust and the upper
layer of the mantle together make up a zone of rigid, brittle rock called the Lithosphere.

The layer below the rigid lithosphere is a zone of asphalt-like consistency called the
Asthenosphere.

The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that flows and moves the plates of the Earth.
The crust
The mantle is approximately 2900 kilometers thick, making it
Earth's largest layer.
The mantle has a property called "plasticity" (where a solid has
the ability to flow like a liquid). You might call the mantle "partially
molten".
Remember that the temperature of the mantle increases the
deeper you go.
This difference in temperature causes CONVECTION
CURRENTS to form. This type of current forms when hot things
rise and cooler things sink.
These convection currents tumble throughout the mantle.
They cause the Lithospheric plates floating on the mantle to move
around.
These currents cause our continents and oceans to change
location slightly each year.
The currents are the driving force for Plate Tectonics or
Continental Drift. The forces which drive continental drift seem
to come from the mantle.
The hot rock, which boils up at mid-ocean ridges, comes from
the upper mantle.
This rock spreads out forming new oceanic plates. When these
meet the continents they plunge back down into the mantle,
sometimes going down as far as the outer core.
In addition there are hot spots, which start at the outer core and
rise up through the mantle to form islands such as Hawaii or
Iceland.
Convection Currents

Convection Currents - Large convection systems in the mantle may carry along the plates of the lithosphere like a conveyor belt
Outer Core & Inner core
Inner Core

The inner core of the Earth has temperatures and


pressures so great that the metals are squeezed
together and are not able to move about like a
liquid, but are forced to vibrate in place as a solid.

The inner core begins about 4000 miles beneath the


crust and is about 800 miles thick.

The temperatures may reach 9000 degrees F and


the pressures are 45,000,000 pounds per square
inch. This is 3,000,000 times the air pressure on you
at sea level!!!
Geologic Processes that Change the Earth's Structure

Geologic Forces: Earth has undergone great


changes over million of years. Generally this come
form the processes of gradation, tectonism and
volcanism.

(a) Gradation:-

Degradation: Erosion results from wearing of


rocks by water, air and ice.

Aggradation: Deposition results in accumulation


of sediment and ultimate building up of rock strata.
(b) Tectonism

Plate tectonics - a dynamic process of the


lithospheric plate which moves over a weak
plastic layer in the upper mantle.

These plates interact with one another along


their boundaries.

Produce faulting (fracture and displacement),


folding, subsidence and uplift of rock
formation.

Responsible for formation of mountain ranges.


Earths lithosphere is composed of seven large plates
with thickness ranging from 75 to 125 km.

Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate

Antarctic Plate North America Plate

Indian Plate South American Plate

Africian Plate 20 other small plates in between


Major Plates of the Lithosphere
Major Plates of the Lithosphere
(c) Volcanism

Volcano - a vent in the earth's crust


through which molten rock materials within
the earth, lavas, ashes, steam and gas are
ejected.

Responsible for the formation of plutonic


rocks, once solidified at great depth.

Majority of volcanoes are located along


the margins of tectonic plates.
Geologic Time Scale
The Earth's crust is known to be at least 40 million centuries old.

The time span of the earth is called eras and subdivided into
periods (see Table 1.2).

Rocks have been created and destroy throughout geologic time.

Rocks which are created during that particular period for example
Cambrian are said to belong to the Cambrian system.

The nature of rocks created or formed during various eras can


actually reveal about its strength and condition.

For example rocks from the Precambrian era are known to be very
hard, crystalline materials but often with many fractures and
microstructures, whereas sandstone formed from Pilocene
series tends to be porous as soil and easily excavated without
blasting.
GEOLOGIC TIME
Era Period Absolute (million years)
Cenozoic Holocene 0.012
Pleistocene 2

Tertiary Pilocene 7
Milocene 26
Oligocene 38
Eocene 54
Palaeocene 65

Mesozoic Cretaceous 135


Jurassic 195
Triassic 225

Upper Paleozoic Permian 280


Carboniferous 345
Devonian 395

Lower Paleozoic Silurian 440


Ordovician 500
Cambrian 570

Proterozoic and 4600


Archaeozoic
Tectonic Plate
What is a tectonic plate?

A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) - a


massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock,

Generally composed of both continental and oceanic


lithosphere.

Plate size can vary greatly - from a few hundred to


thousands of kilometers across. (e.g. The Pacific and
Antarctic Plates are among the largest)

Plate thickness also varies greatly, ranging from less


than 15 km for young oceanic lithosphere to about
200 km or more for ancient continental lithosphere.
This massive slabs of solid rock can float despite their
tremendous weight because Continental crust is
composed of granitic rocks which are made up of
relatively lightweight minerals such as quartz and
feldspar.

By contrast, oceanic crust is composed of basaltic


rocks, which are much denser and heavier.

Most of the boundaries between individual plates cannot


be seen because they are hidden beneath the oceans.

Yet oceanic plate boundaries can be mapped


accurately from outer space by measurements from
GEOSAT satellites.

Earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated near


these boundaries.
The theory of tectonics plate
The theory of plate tectonics
states that the Earth's outermost
layer is fragmented into a dozen
or more large and small plates
that are moving relative to one
another.
The present is the key to the past, the geologic forces and
processes - gradual as well as catastrophic - acting on the
Earth today are the same as those that have acted in the
geologic past.

Continental Drift - introduced by a German meteorologist


named Alfred Lothar Wegener. He contended that,
around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent
Pangaea began to split apart.

Alexander Du Toit, Professor of Geology at Johannesburg


University, proposed that Pangaea first broke into two
large continental landmasses, Laurasia in the
northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland in the
southern hemisphere.

Laurasia and Gondwanaland then continued to break


apart into the various smaller continents that exist
today.
According to the continental drift theory, the supercontinent
Pangaea began to break up about 225-200 million years ago,
eventually fragmenting into the continents as we know them today

PERMIAN TRIASSIC
225 MILLION YEARS AGO 200 MILLION YEARS AGO

JURASSIC CRETACEOUS
135 MILLION YEARS AGO 65 MILLION YEARS AGO

PRESENT DAY
Major plates of the lithosphere are broken into a dozen or
so rigid slabs that are moving relative to one another
Major plates of the lithosphere
Contd

Wegener's theory - based in part on remarkable fit of the


South American and African continents.

For example, the matching animal fossils found on


coastlines of South America and Africa, and the
evidence of dramatic climate changes on some
continents.

For example, the discovery of fossils of tropical plants


(in the form of coal deposits) in Antarctica led to the
conclusion that this frozen land previously must have
been situated closer to the equator, in a more
temperate climate where lush, swampy vegetation could
grow.

Other mismatches of geology and climate included


distinctive fossil ferns (Glossopteris) discovered in now-
polar regions, and the occurrence of glacial deposits in
present-day arid Africa, such as the Vaal River valley of
South Africa.
These two maps showing the American and African
continents may once have fit together, then later separated.
Left: The formerly joined continents before their separation
Right: The continents after the separation
As noted by Snider-Pellegrini and Wegener, the locations of certain fossil plants
and animals on present-day, widely separated continents would form definite
patterns (shown by the bands of colors), if the continents are rejoined
Developing the theory of continental drift

Four major scientific developments spurred the formulation of


the plate tectonics theory:

1. The ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor

2. Repeated reversals of the Earth magnetic field in the


geologic past

3. Developing of the seafloor-spreading and associated


recycling of oceanic crust

4. The world's earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated


along oceanic trenches and submarine mountain ranges
The ruggedness and youth of the ocean floor
Ocean floor mapping shows the ruggedness and youth
of the ocean floor.

The sediment layer on the floor of the Atlantic was much


thinner than originally thought.

Scientists had previously believed that the oceans have


existed for at least 4 billion years, so therefore the
sediment layer should have been very thick.

Why then was there so little accumulation of sedimentary


rock and debris on the ocean floor?

The answer to this question, which came after further


exploration, would prove to be vital to advancing the
concept of plate tectonics.
Repeated reversals of the Earth
magnetic field in the geologic past
This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising
because it was known that basalt - the iron-rich, volcanic
rock making up the ocean floor - contains a strongly
magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort
compass readings.

Rocks generally belong to two groups according to their


magnetic properties.

One group has so-called normal polarity, characterized by


the magnetic minerals in the rock having the same polarity
as that of the Earth's present magnetic field.

This would result in the north end of the rock's "compass


needle" pointing toward magnetic north.
Contd
The other group, however, has reversed polarity, indicated
by a polarity alignment opposite to that of the Earth's
present magnetic field.

In this case, the north end of the rock's compass needle


would point south.

How could this be? This answer lies in the magnetite in


volcanic rock.

Grains of magnetite -- behaving like little magnets -- can


align themselves with the orientation of the Earth's
magnetic field.

When magma (molten rock containing minerals and gases)


cools to form solid volcanic rock, the alignment of the
magnetite grains is "locked in," recording the Earth's
magnetic orientation or polarity (normal or reversed) at the
time of cooling.
A theoretical model of the formation of magnetic striping. New oceanic
crust forming continuously at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge cools and
becomes increasingly older as it moves away from the ridge crest with
seafloor spreading (see text): a. the spreading ridge about 5 million
years ago; b. about 2 to 3 million years ago; and c. present-day.
Seafloor spreading and recycling of oceanic crust
Why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean
floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than
continental rocks?

At or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are very young,
and they become progressively older away from the ridge
crest.

The youngest rocks at the ridge crest always have present-


day (normal) polarity.

Stripes of rock parallel to the ridge crest alternated in


magnetic polarity normal reversed-normal, etc., suggesting
that the Earth's magnetic field has flip-flopped many times.

When the ages of the samples were determined by


paleontologists and isotopic dating studies, they provided the
clinching evidence that proved the seafloor spreading
hypothesis.
Concentration of earthquakes and volcano activity

During the 20th century, improvements in seismic


instrumentation and greater use of earthquake-
recording instruments (seismographs) worldwide
enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to
be concentrated in certain areas, most notably along
the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges.

By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to


identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel
to the trenches that typically were inclined 40-60
from the horizontal and extended several hundred
kilometers into the Earth. These zones later became
known as Wadati-Benioff zones, or simply Benioff
zones.
As early as the 1920s, scientists noted that earthquakes are concentrated in very specific
narrow zones. In 1954, French seismologist J.P. Roth published this map showing the
concentration of earthquakes along the zones indicated by dots and cross-hatched areas
Understanding Plate Motions
There are four types of plate boundaries:

(1) Divergent boundaries

(2) Convergent boundaries:-


Oceanic - continental convergence
Oceanic - oceanic convergence
Continental - continental convergence

(3) Transform boundaries

(4) Plate boundary zones


(1) Divergent boundaries

The new crust is generated as the plates pull away


from each other.

(2) Convergent boundaries

The crust is destroyed as one plate dives under


another.

Oceanic-continental convergence
Oceanic-oceanic convergence
Continental - continental convergence
(3) Transform boundaries

The crust is neither produced nor destroyed


as the plates slide horizontally past each
other.

(4) Plate boundary zones

Broad belts in which boundaries are not well


defined and the effects of plate interaction
are unclear.
An illustrating the main types of plate boundaries;
East African Rift Zone is a good example of a continental rift zone
Divergent boundaries
Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers
where plates are moving apart and new crust is created
by magma pushing up from the mantle.

The rate of spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge


averages about 2.5 centimeters per year (cm/yr), or
25 km in a million years (between South America and
Africa continents).

In East Africa, spreading processes have already torn


Saudi Arabia away from the rest of the African
continent, forming the Red Sea.

The actively splitting African Plate and the Arabian Plate


meet in what geologists call a triple junction, where the
Red Sea meets the Gulf of Aden.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which splits Map of East Africa showing some of
nearly the entire Atlantic Ocean the historically active volcanoes (red
north to south, is probably the best triangles) and the A far Triangle
-known and most-studied example (shaded, center) -- a so-called triple
of a divergent-plate boundary junction (or triple point), where three
plates are pulling away from one
another: the Arabian Plate, and the
two parts of the African Plate (the
Nubian and the Somalian) splitting
along the East African Rift Zone
Convergent boundaries
The Earth's unchanging size implies that the crust
must be destroyed at about the same rate as it is
being created.

Such destruction (recycling) of crust takes place along


convergent boundaries where plates are moving
toward each other, and sometimes one plate sinks (is
subducted) under another.

The location where sinking of a plate occurs is called a


subduction zone.

Convergence can occur between an oceanic and a


largely continental plate, or between two largely
oceanic plates, or between two largely continental
plates.
Subduction zone and Mid Ocean Ridges
Oceanic - continental convergence
Oceanic-continental convergence also sustains many of the
Earth's active volcanoes, such as those in the Andes and the
Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest.

The eruptive activity is clearly associated with subduction.

Oceanic continental convergence


Volcanic arcs and oceanic trenches partly encircling the Pacific Basin form the so-
called Ring of Fire, a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
Oceanic - oceanic convergence

Oceanic oceanic convergence

The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), the best example, marks where the fast-
moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower moving Philippine Plate.

Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result in the formation of


volcanoes.

Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a
submarine volcano rises above sea level to form an island volcano.

Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs.
Continental - continental convergence

Continental continental convergence

The Himalayan mountain range dramatically


demonstrates one of the most visible and spectacular
consequences of plate tectonics.

When two continents meet head-on, neither is


subducted because the continental rocks are relatively
light.
Transform boundaries
Occur at the zone between two plates sliding
horizontally past one another.

Was called a transform-fault boundary, or simply


a transform boundary.

Most transform faults are found on the ocean


floor.

However, a few occur on land, for example the


San Andreas fault zone in California.

They commonly offset the active spreading


ridges, producing zig - zag plate margins, and are
generally defined by shallow earthquakes.
Transform fault jointing segments of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Plate-boundary zones
Not all plate boundaries are as simple as the
main types discussed above.

In some regions, the boundaries are not well


defined because the plate-movement
deformation occurring there extends over a
broad belt (called a plate-boundary zone).

Because plate-boundary zones involve at


least two large plates and one or more
microplates caught up between them they
tend to have complicated geological
structures and earthquake patterns.
End of the Chapter 1

Q & A

Thanks for your attention TQ

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