Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(BFC 3013)
Mohd Hazreek Bin Zainal Abidin
Department of Geotechnical and Transportation Engineering
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Tun Hussein Onn University Of Malaysia
Syllabus:
1. INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
2. MINERALS
3. THE STUDY OF ROCKS IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND
METAMORPHIC
4. WEATHERING
5. GEOLOGIC AGENTS
6. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
7. GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION &
GEOPHYSICS
8. ROCK TESTING
9. ROCK MASS
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
TO GEOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
Geology study of planet earth, its origin, history,
composition, structure and dynamics of how it changes.
Think ???
Answers
Construction of dam
Landslide - Slope
Hydro geological
Etc s.
Earth
The largest of four planets of inner group solar system
i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars and third closest to
the sun.
Shape - spherical
Polar radius - 21 km shorter than equatorial radius
Average radius - 6378 km (3965 miles)
Surface Area - 510 x 106 km2 (29% is land)
Overall Density - 5.5 g/cm3
Mount Everest is 8.8 km above sea level
Ocean floor is an average 3.7 km below sea level
Average height above sea level is 7 km
Principal Division of Earth
Consist of three:-
2) Hydrosphere
3) Lithosphere
(1) Atmosphere:
Outer layer of the Earth, extending from solid surface down to the first major discontinuity in seismic wave
velocity in the lithosphere. Thickness of crust varies from about 8 km under the oceans to about 35 km under the
continents.
There are two kinds of earth crust classified according to two different kinds of rock they contained where
each with its own general composition, thickness and density.
(a) Continent Crust: 35 - 60 km thick
Outer relatively low density
granitic rock
Crust average density: 2.8 g/cm3
(b) Oceanic Crust : thickness rarely exceed 5 km
denser material
basaltic composition
average density: 2.9 g/cm3
The next major compositional layer of the Earth which covers the core and this zone constitute 82% of its
volume and 68% of mass of the Earth. The mantle is composed of iron and magnesium silicate rock, and it goes
down to about 2900 km from surface of Earth. The earth's mantle is a heavy layer of rock which lies under the
Mantle earth's crust. In places where the crust is broken, part of the upper mantle can melt and form a substance called
magma, or molten rock. Magma can be forced through the earths crust. It flows out of volcanoes as lava.
Average density: 4.5 g/cm3
It is speculated that the thickness is about 2250 km and it is made of molten iron and nickel. The outer
Outer core core is so hot that the metals in it are all in the liquid state. Average density: 10.7 g/cm3
The thickness' is about 1300 km and probably consists of mostly iron and nickel. The inner core of the
Earth has temperatures and pressures so great that the metals are squeezed together and are not able to move
about like a liquid, but are forced to vibrate in place as a solid. The temperatures may reach 9000 degrees F.
Inner core and the pressures are 45,000,000 pounds per square inch. This is 3,000,000 times the air pressure on you at
sea level!!!
Average density: 17.0 g/cm3
Internal layers of the Earth based on Physical Properties
Lithosphere The top of the asthenosphere is about 100 km below the surface.
Above the asthenosphere, the material is solid, strong and rigid.
(rock sphere)
This layer is called lithosphere. Contains the continental crust of
the uppermost part of the mantle.
Asthenosphere A major zone within the upper mantle where temperature and
pressure are just the right balance so that part of the material
(weak sphere) melts. The rocks lose much of their strength and become soft
plastic and easily deformed. The thickness is about 200 km.
0 - 40 Crust
40 - 400 Upper mantle
400 - 650 Transition region
650 - 2700 Lower mantle
2700 - 2890 D'' layer
2890 - 5150 Outer core
5150 - 6378 Inner core
The crust is composed of two basic rock types granite and basalt.
Basaltic rocks of the ocean plates are much denser and heavier than the granitic rock of
the continental plates.
Because of this, the continents ride on the denser oceanic plates, the crust and the upper
layer of the mantle together make up a zone of rigid, brittle rock called the Lithosphere.
The layer below the rigid lithosphere is a zone of asphalt-like consistency called the
Asthenosphere.
The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that flows and moves the plates of the Earth.
The crust
The mantle is approximately 2900 kilometers thick, making it
Earth's largest layer.
The mantle has a property called "plasticity" (where a solid has
the ability to flow like a liquid). You might call the mantle "partially
molten".
Remember that the temperature of the mantle increases the
deeper you go.
This difference in temperature causes CONVECTION
CURRENTS to form. This type of current forms when hot things
rise and cooler things sink.
These convection currents tumble throughout the mantle.
They cause the Lithospheric plates floating on the mantle to move
around.
These currents cause our continents and oceans to change
location slightly each year.
The currents are the driving force for Plate Tectonics or
Continental Drift. The forces which drive continental drift seem
to come from the mantle.
The hot rock, which boils up at mid-ocean ridges, comes from
the upper mantle.
This rock spreads out forming new oceanic plates. When these
meet the continents they plunge back down into the mantle,
sometimes going down as far as the outer core.
In addition there are hot spots, which start at the outer core and
rise up through the mantle to form islands such as Hawaii or
Iceland.
Convection Currents
Convection Currents - Large convection systems in the mantle may carry along the plates of the lithosphere like a conveyor belt
Outer Core & Inner core
Inner Core
(a) Gradation:-
The time span of the earth is called eras and subdivided into
periods (see Table 1.2).
Rocks which are created during that particular period for example
Cambrian are said to belong to the Cambrian system.
For example rocks from the Precambrian era are known to be very
hard, crystalline materials but often with many fractures and
microstructures, whereas sandstone formed from Pilocene
series tends to be porous as soil and easily excavated without
blasting.
GEOLOGIC TIME
Era Period Absolute (million years)
Cenozoic Holocene 0.012
Pleistocene 2
Tertiary Pilocene 7
Milocene 26
Oligocene 38
Eocene 54
Palaeocene 65
PERMIAN TRIASSIC
225 MILLION YEARS AGO 200 MILLION YEARS AGO
JURASSIC CRETACEOUS
135 MILLION YEARS AGO 65 MILLION YEARS AGO
PRESENT DAY
Major plates of the lithosphere are broken into a dozen or
so rigid slabs that are moving relative to one another
Major plates of the lithosphere
Contd
At or near the crest of the ridge, the rocks are very young,
and they become progressively older away from the ridge
crest.
Oceanic-continental convergence
Oceanic-oceanic convergence
Continental - continental convergence
(3) Transform boundaries
The Marianas Trench (paralleling the Mariana Islands), the best example, marks where the fast-
moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower moving Philippine Plate.
Over millions of years, the erupted lava and volcanic debris pile up on the ocean floor until a
submarine volcano rises above sea level to form an island volcano.
Such volcanoes are typically strung out in chains called island arcs.
Continental - continental convergence
Q & A