ELE 486: INDUCTION MOTOR CONTROL

Instructor: Dr. Habib-ur Rehman

Department
p of Electrical Engineering
g g
American University of Sharjah
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
 Chapter # 7
I d ti Motor
Induction M t

Review of Fundamentals of Induction

Machine ELE 351
7.1: Induction Motor Construction
The name induction machine because the rotor voltage (which
produces the rotor current and rotor magnetic field) is induced
in the rotor winding rather than being physically connected by
wires.
A distinguishing feature is that no DC field current is required
to run this machine.
Motor Construction:
Stator: An induction motor has the same p physical
y stator as a
synchronous generator.
Rotor: is of two types.
1 Squirrel Cage Rotor or simply cage rotor
1.
2. Wound rotor

3
7.1: Induction Motor Construction
Squirrel Cage Rotor: In squirrel cage rotor series of conducting bars
are laid in the slots carved in to the face of rotor and shorted at
either end by large shortening rings.

4
 7.1: Induction Motor Construction
Wound Rotor: It has a complete set of three phase windings
that are mirror image of the windings on the stator. Three
phases are usually y-connected.
y-connected The ends of rotor wires are
tied to slip rings on the rotor shaft. The rotor windings are
shorted through brushes riding on the slip rings.
Rotor current can be examined and extra resistance can be
inserted into the rotor circuit.
Wound rotor induction motors are expensive than the cage
rotor, and they require much more maintenance because of
th wear associated
the i t d with
ith th
their
i bbrushes
h andd slip
li rings.
i As
A a
result, wound-rotor induction motors are rarely used.

5
7.2: Basic Induction Motor Concepts
When three phase set of voltages
are applied to stator, three phase
current flows in the stator
winding.
A magnetic field BS is produced,
which is rotating counter clock
wise.
The speed of magnetic fields
rotation is given by: 120 f e
n sync
P
The rotating magnetic field
passes over the rotor bars and
eind (v B).
)l
induces voltage in them.
It is the relative motion of the rotor compared to the
stator
t t magnetic ti fi
field
ld that
th t produces
d induced
i d d voltage
lt in
i the
th
rotor bar.
6
The Development of Induced Torque

The velocity of the upper rotor bars

relative to the magnetic field is to the
right so the induced voltage in the
right,
upper bars is out of the page, while the
induced voltage in the lower bars is
into the page.
This results in a current flow out of the
upper bars and into the lower bars.
Since the rotor assembly is inductive,
inductive
the peak rotor current lags behind the
peak rotor voltage.
The rotor current produces a rotor
magnetic field BR which results in
induced torque in the machine:

ind K BR BS
7
The Development of Induced Torque

The resulting torque is counter clockwise. Since the rotor

induced torque is counter clock wise, the rotor accelerates
i that
in th t direction.
di ti There
Th is
i a finite
fi it upper limit
li it to
t th
the motors
t
speed.
If the induction motor rotor were running at synchronous
speed,d th
then the
th rotor
t bars
b wouldld be
b stationary
t ti relative
l ti to
t
the magnetic field and there would be no voltage induced.
If eind were equal to zero, then there would be no rotor
current,t andd no rotor
t magnetic ti field,
fi ld thus
th the th induced
i d d
torque would be zero.
Practically, as a result of friction and windage losses, an
i d ti
induction motor
t can speed d up to
t only l near-synchronous
h
speed, but it can never exactly reach synchronous speed.
In the normal operation both the rotor and stator magnetic
fi ld BR and
fields d BS rotate
t t ttogether
th att synchronous
h speed, d
while the rotor itself turns at a slower speed. 8
The Concept of Rotor Slip

The voltage induced in the rotor

depends upon the speed of the n slip n sync nm
rotor
t relative
l ti to
t the
th magnetic
ti
fields. This relative motion is n slip slip speed
commonly defined by two n sync magnetic field speed
terms:
I. Slip Speed nSlip nm rotor speed
II. Slip, S

nslip
S 100%
nsynch
y
nsynch nm
S 100% nm (1 S )nsynch
nsynch
synch m
S 100% m (1 S ) synch
synch 9
Class Activity 1
Example 7-1: A 208-V, 10 hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected
induction motor has a full load slip of 5 percent.
a)) What
Wh t is
i th
the synchronous
h speedd off this
thi motor.
t
b) What is the rotor speed of this motor at rated load.
c) What is the rotor frequency of this motor at rated load.
d) What is the shaft torque of this motor at the rated load.

10
The Electrical Frequency on the Rotor

The Induction motor works by induced voltage and current in rotor,

therefore some times called as rotating transformer.
Like a transformer Primary (Stator) induces voltage in Secondary
(Rotor), unlike transformer, the secondary frequency is not
necessarily the same as primary frequency.
If rotor is locked then secondary
y frequency
q y is same as primary.
p y If
rotor turns at synchronous speed the Rotor frequency will be zero.
Let us define the rotor frequency at any arbitrary speed.

f r sf e
nm 0 f r f e and s 1
nm n sync f r 0 and s 0 nsynch nm
fr fe
nsynch
f r sf e
P
f r (nsynch nm ) fe
120 f e
P
fr (nsynch nm ) 11

120
7.3: The Equivalent
q Circuit of an Induction Motor
An induction motor is called a singly excited machine (as
opposed to a doubly excited synchronous machine), since
power is
i supplied
li d only
l to
t the
th stator
t t circuit.
i it
We will begin with the transformer model and try to
include the variable frequency and other similar induction
motor effects into account.
account

An induction motor
equivalent circuit differs
from a transformer
equivalent circuit
primarily
p y in the effects of
varying rotor frequency
on the rotor voltage ER
and impedance RR and XR.

12
The Equivalent
q Circuit of an Induction Motor
Due to the air gap in an induction machine, the reluctance
of the flux path is increased greatly, which reduces coupling
b t
between primary
i ( t t ) and
(stator) d secondary
d winding
i di ( t )
(rotor).
The higher reluctance caused by the air gap means that a
higher magnetizing current is required to obtain a given
u Therefore,
flux. e e o e, magnetizing
ag e g reactance
eac a ce will be much
uc ssmaller.
a e
E1 coupled to ER by an ideal transformer with an effective
turn ratio aeff.

The voltage ER produced

in the rotor in turn
produces a current flow in
p
the shorted rotor (or
secondary) circuit of the
machine.

13
Rotor Circuit Model
In an induction motor when voltage is applied to stator
winding, a voltage is induced in the rotor winding of the
machine.
hi
The greater the relative motion (Slip Speed) between rotor
and stator magnetic fields, the greater the resulting rotor
voltage
lt andd rotor
t frequency.
f
The largest relative motion occurs when the rotor is
stationary, called Locked Rotor or Blocked Rotor condition.
The smallest voltage (0 V) and frequency (0 Hz) occurs when
the rotor moves at the same speed as the stator magnetic
field, resulting in no relative motion.
The magnitude and frequency of the voltage induced in the
rotor at any speed is proportional to the slip of the rotor.

ER sE R 0 ER0 is the magnitude of the induced

voltage at locked rotor condition. 14
Rotor Circuit Model
The frequency of the f r sf e
induced voltage at any slip
will be given by:
X R r LR
The rotor resistance is 2 f r L R
constant independent of 2 s f e L R
frequency and thus the slip.
slip
The reactance of the rotor s ( 2 f e L R )
depends on the inductance X R s X R0
of the rotor
rotor, and the
frequency of the voltage
and current in the rotor.
XR0 is the blocked rotor
reactance.
The resulting equivalent
circuit is shown in the
Figure.
15
Rotor Circuit Model
The rotor current in this ER
IR
circuit can be written as: RR jX R
F
From Eq.(i),
E (i) notice
ti that
th t it is
i sE
ER 0
IR
possible to treat all of the RR jsX R 0
rotor effects due to varying ER 0
rotor speed as being caused IR (i )
RR jX
by a varying impedance s R0
supplied with a power from R
a constant voltage source Z R ,eq R jjX R 0 (ii )
s
ERO. The equivalent rotor
impedance from this point of
view is ggiven in Eq
q ((ii).
)
Thus the equivalent rotor
circuit can modified as
shown in Fig.g

16
Final Equivalent Circuit
To produce the final equivalent VP VS aVS
'

circuit, it is necessary to refer

rotor part of the model over to IS
IP IS
'

the stator side. a

ZS a2Z S
'
The rotor circuit model derived
above has all the speed effects
concentrated in the impedance
E2 ER aeff ER 0
'
term.
In an ordinary transformer
transformer, the IR
voltage, current and
I2
aeff
impedances on the secondary
side can be referred to primary RR
Z 2 aeff ( jX
2
side by means of turn ratio. X R0 )
s
The same transformation can
Let R2 aeffff RR
2
be applied to the induction
machine.
X 2 aeff X R 0
2
17
Final Equivalent Circuit
The rotor resistance and locked rotor reactance XR0
are very difficult or impossible to determine on a
cage rotor also the effective turn ratio aeff is difficult
to obtain for squirrel-cage rotor .
Fortunately, it is possible to make measurements
that will directly give the referred resistance and
reactance R2 and X2, even though RR1 ,XR0 and aeff
are not known separately.

18
Class Activity 2
Example 7-2: A 480 V, 60-Hz, 50 hp, three phase induction
motor is drawing 60 A at 0.85 pf lagging. The stator copper
losses are 2 kW, and rotor copper losses are 700 W. The
friction and windage losses are 600 W, the core losses are
1800 W, and the stray losses are negligible. Find the
following quantities:
a)) The
Th air-gap
i power PAG.
b) The power converted Pconv.
c) The output power Pout.
d) The efficiency of motor.

19
Class Activity 3
Example 7-3: A 460 V, 25-hp, 60 Hz, four pole, Y-connected
induction motor has the following impedances in ohms per
phase referred to stator circuit:
R1=0.641 R2=0.332
X1=1.106 X2=0.464 , XM=26.3
The total rotational losses are 1100 W and are measured to
be constant. The core loss is lumped in with rotational losses.
For a rotor slip of 2.2 percent at the rated voltage and rated
f
frequency, find
fi d the
th motors
t
a) Speed
b) Stator current
c) Power factor
d) Pconv and Pout
e) Tind and Tload
f) Efficiency
20
4.2: The Rotating Magnetic Field

Just as a rotating magnetic field induces three phase set of

voltages in the coils of a stator, a three phase set of currents in
the stator coils can produce a rotating magnetic field.
The fundamental principle of ac machine operation is that if a
three phase set of currents, each of equal magnitude and
differing in phase by 120o flows in three phase windings, spaced
physically 120o apart around the surface of the machine, then it
will produce a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude.

21
4.2: The Production of Rotating Magnetic Field

Mark the polarities and

demonstrate how the
rotating magnetic field
is produced at t=0o,
t=90o, t=180o and at
t=270
270o,

22
4.2: The Rotating Magnetic Field

The three phase iaa t I M Sint A

current are given ibb (t ) I M Sin(t 120) A
by:
icc (t ) I M Sin(t 240) A
When these
currents flow in the
three coils, they H aa (t ) H M Sint0 A.turn/m
produce magnetic H bb (t ) H M Sin(t 120)120 A.turn/m
field intensity
y (An
( H cc (t ) H M Sin(t 240)240 A.turn/m
A turn/m
effort to produce
the magnetic field):
B H T
This effort will
Baa (t ) BM Sint 0 T
produce the flux
whose flux density Bbb (t ) BM Sin(t 120)120 T
is g
given by:
y Bcc (t ) BM Sin(t 240)240
240
'
T

23
4.2: The Rotating Magnetic Field

Now we can examine the currents applied and the

corresponding flux densities at various instants of time like at
t=0 90,
t=0, 90 270 and 360 degrees;
At t=0o

Baa 0
3
Bbb BM Sin(120)120o BM 120
2
3
Bcc BM Sin(240)240 BM 240
2
Bnet Baa Bbb Bcc
Bnet 1.5BM 90

24
4.2: The Rotating Magnetic Field

Flux densities at t= 90o

Baa BM Sin 900 Bnet Baa Bbb Bcc
Bbb BM Sin (30)120 BM 0.5 BM 120 0.5 BM 240
Bcc BM Sin (150)240 Bnet 1.5 BM 0

25
4.2: The Rotating Magnetic Field

Like wise at t=180o and B net 1 . 5 B M 90

at t
t=270
270o, the net
magnetic field is given as: B net 1 .5 B M 180
Thus the direction of Bnet
changes but magnitude
remains constant. The
net magnetic field is
rotating in a circle.
l
This rotating magnetic
field in the stator can be
represented d as a moving
north and south pole.
Run Matlab Program

26
The Relationship between Electrical Frequency
and Speed
p of Magnetic
g Field Rotation
Where the flux leaves is denoted
as North Pole, and where it enters
i called
is ll d South
S th Pole.
P l
When the electrical cycle of the
applied current completes one
rotation
t ti th
the magnetic
ti poles
l also
l
complete one mechanical
rotation.
Th
Therefore,
f mechanical
h i l speed d off
rotation of magnetic field in
revolution per second is equal to
the electric frequency in Hertz. fe fm 2 poles
The windings on the two pole
stator occur in the order (taken e m 2 poles
counter clockwise): a-c
a c-b-a
b a-c-b
c b.
27
The Relationship between Electrical Frequency
and Speed
p of Magnetic
g Field Rotation
If the winding pattern is repeated twice;
a-c-b-a-c-b-a-c-b-a-c-b; then when the three e 2 m
sets of currents are applied, two north and two fe 2 fm
south poles will be created.
A pole moves only half way around the stator e 2 m
surface in one electrical cycle. Therefore, electrical
movement is 360 whereas mechanical movement
of poles is 180.

28
Mathematical Proof of The Rotating Magnetic Field

http://www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/electa/teaching/maxwell/
screenshots/inductionmachines.html
Run Matlab program

Now we will
mathematically prove that
at any time
i t, the
h net
magnetic field will have
the same magnitude 1.5
BM, and it will continue to
rotate at an angular
velocity .

Bnet (t ) Baa (t ) Bbb (t ) Bcc, (t )

Bnet (t ) BM Sint 0 BM Sin(t 120)120
BM Sin(t 240)240
29
 Mathematical Proof of The Rotating Magnetic Field

Bnet (t ) BM Sint x

0.5 BM Sin(t 120)x
3
BM Sin(t 120) y
2

0.5 BM Sin(t 240)x
3
Sin(t 240) y
2

Bnet (t ) BM Sint 0.5 BM Sin(t 120) 0.5 BM Sin(t 240)x
3 3
BM Sin(t 120) BM Sin(t 240) y
2 2

Bnet (t ) BM Sint BM Sint BM Cos (t ) BM Sint
1 3 1 3
BM Cos (t ) x
4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3
BM Sin(t ) BM Cos (t ) BM Sin(t ) BM Cos (t ) y
4 4 4 4
A constant magnetic field

whose angle changes Bnet (t ) 1.5 BM Sint x 1.5BM Cos (t ) y
30
continuously in ccw. direction
7.4: Power and Torque
q in Induction Machine
An induction motor can be basically described as a rotating
transformer. Its input is 3-phase systems of voltages and
currents.
t
For an ordinary transformer the output of transformer is
electric power from secondary winding.
The secondary (rotor) of an induction machine is shorted.
shorted
Therefore, no electrical output form induction machine
instead the output is mechanical.

31
Power and Torque
q in Induction Machine
The core losses of an induction motor come partially from
the stator circuit and partially from the rotor circuit. Since an
i d ti
induction motor
t normallyll operatest att a speed d near
synchronous speed, the relative motion of the magnetic field
over the rotor surface is quite low, and the rotor core losses
are very tiny compared to the stator circuit
circuit. Since the largest
fraction of the core losses comes from the stator circuit, all
the core losses are lumped together at that point on the
diagram.
diagram
The higher the speed of an induction machine, the higher its
friction, windage and stray losses. On the other hand the
higher the speed of the motor the lower its core losses.
Therefore, these three categories of losses are sometimes
lumped together and called rotational losses.
The total rotational losses of a motor are often considered
constant with the changing speed, since the component
losses change in opposite directions with a change in speed. 32
Power and Torque in Induction Machine

33
Power and Torque in Induction Machine
V
I1 ,
Z eq
1
Z eq R1 jX 1
1
Gc jBM
R2 / S jX 2

Therefore, the stator copper PSCL 3I12 R1

losses and the core losses can be
PCORE 3E1 GC
2
found.
The air-gap power can be found
as:
PAG Pin PSCL Pcore
The only element across which the
air-gap power can be consumed is R2
PAG 3I 2
2
the rotor resistance. Therefore, S
the air-gap
air gap power can be given
as:
34
Power and Torque in Induction Machine

The actual resistive losses in the PRCL 3I R RR

2

rotor circuit are given by:

PRCL 3I 2 R2
2
When referred to the stator side
will still remain the same.
After
e stator
s a o copper
coppe losses,
osses, core
co e PCONV PAG PRCL
losses, and rotor copper losses are
subtracted from the input power R2
3I2
2 3I 22 R2
to the motor, the remaining power S
is converted into mechanical
1
power. 3I 2 R2 1
2

S
1 S
PCONV 3I 2 R2
2

S

35
Power and Torque in Induction Machine

The rotor copper losses can be also expressed in

terms of air-gap power. PRCL s PAG
Therefore, the lower the slip of the motor, the
lower the rotor copper losses in the machine.
If the
e rotor
o o is
s not
o running,
u g, the
e slip
s p S=1
S and
a d the
e
air-gap power is entirely consumed in the rotor.
This is logical since if the rotor is not turning, the
mechanical output power must be zero.
POUT Tload m
PConv PAG PRCL
PAG SPAG
PConv (1 s)
s ) PAG
POUT Pconv Pf &w Pmisc 36
Power and Torque in Induction Machine

The induced torque ind in the

machine was defined as the torqueq
Pconv
Tind
generated by the internal electric- m
to-mechanical power conversion.
This torque
q differs from the torque
q (1 S
S)) PAG
actually available at the terminals ind
of the motor by an amount equal to
(1 S ) synch
friction and windage torque in the
machine.
The last expression is very useful PAG
ind
because it expresses induced synch
torque directly in terms of air-gap
power and synchronous speed,
which does not vary.

37
Separating the Rotor Copper Losses and the Power
Converted in an Induction Motors Equivalent Circuit

Part of the power coming Pconv PAG PRCL

across the air gap in an
i d ti
induction motor
t iis consumedd R2
Pconv 3I 2
3I 22 R2
in the rotor copper losses, and 2
S
part of it is converted to
mechanical power to drive the 2 1
Pconv 3I 2 R2 1
motors shaft. These two uses S
of air gap can be separately
indicated on the motor 1 S
R conv R2
equivalent circuit. S

38
Power and Torque in Induction Machine

The induced torque ind in the

machine was defined as the torqueq
Pconv
Tind
generated by the internal electric- m
to-mechanical power conversion.
This torque
q differs from the torque
q (1 S ) PAG
actually available at the terminals ind
of the motor by an amount equal to
(1 S ) synch
friction and windage torque in the
machine.
The last expression is very useful PAG
ind
because it expresses induced synch
torque directly in terms of air-gap
power and synchronous speed,
which does not vary.

39
 Chapter # 7
I d ti Motor
Induction M t

ELE 486
Variable Speed AC Drives
ELE 486 Course Outcomes on Induction Motor
Control

Describe the pprinciple

p of operation
p of an
induction motor and its torque-speed
characteristic.
Describe
D ib basic
b i induction
i d ti motor
t speed d control
t l
concepts, equivalent circuit, power, torque and
V/f speed control technique.

41
Final Equivalent Circuit
The rotor resistance and locked rotor reactance XR0
are very difficult or impossible to determine on a
cage rotor also the effective turn ratio aeff is difficult
to obtain for squirrel-cage rotor .
Fortunately, it is possible to make measurements
that will directly give the referred resistance and
reactance R2 and X2, even though RR1 ,XR0 and aeff
are not known separately.

42
7.5: Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

How does the torque of an induction motor changes as the

load changes?
How much torque can an induction motor supply at starting
conditions?
How
o muchuc does the e speed of
o an
a induction
duc o motoro o drops
d ops as
its shaft load increases?
To find out the answers to these and similar questions, it is
necessary y to clearly
y understand the relationships
p among g
the motors torque, speed, and power.

43
Induced Torque from a Physical Standpoint:
No Load Condition

Figure shows the induction motor operating at no-load. At no load

the rotor slip is very small and so the relative motion between the
rotor and the magnetic fields is small.
small
The voltage ER induced in the bars of the rotor is very small and
the resulting current flow IR is very small.

Also, because the rotor frequency is very

small, the reactance of the rotor is nearly zero,
and the maximum rotor current IR is almost in
phase with the rotor voltage ER.
The rotor current thus produces a small
magnetic field BR at an angle slightly greater
than 90o behind the net magnetic
g field Bnet.
Notice that the stator current must be quite
large even at no load, since it must supply
most of Bnet. This is why induction motor have
l
large no load
l d currentt compared d to
t other
th types
t
of the machines.
44
Induced Torque from a Physical Standpoint:
No Load Condition

The induced torqueq which keeps

p the
motor running is given by:
ind kBR Bnet
Since the rotor magnetic field is very
small, the induced torque is also quite ind kBR Bnet Sin
small---just
ll j llarge enoughh to overcome
the motor rotational losses.

45
Induced Torque from a Physical Standpoint:
Machine under Loaded Condition

Now suppose the induction motor is loaded down as shown in the

Figure. As the motors load increases, its slip increases, and the
rotor speed falls.
falls
Since the rotor speed is slower, there is more relative motion
between the rotor and the stator magnetic fields in the machine.
Greater relative motion produces a stronger rotor voltage ER
which in turn produces a larger rotor current IR. With a larger
rotor current, the rotor magnetic field BR also increases.

However, the angle of the rotor current

However
and BR changes as well. Since the rotor
slip is larger, the rotor frequency
(fr=sfe), and the rotor reactance
increases (LR).
Therefore, the rotor current now lags
further behind the rotor voltage, and
the rotor magnetic field shifts with the
current.
46
Induced Torque from a Physical Standpoint:
Machine under Loaded Condition
Figure shows induction motor operating at a fairly high load.
Notice that the rotor current has increased and that the angle
has increased.
increased
The increase in BR tends to increase the torque while increase in
angle tends to decrease the torque (Tind is proportional to sin
and >90o).)
Since the first effect is larger than the second one, the overall
induced torque increases to supply the motors increased load.
When does the induction motor reaches pullout torque?
This happens when the point is reached
where, as the load on the shaft is
increased, the sin term decreases more
than
h the
h BR term increases.
i At
A that
h pointi a
further increase in load decreased Tind, and
the motor stops.
For a typical induction motor,
motor the pullout
torque on the curve will be 200 to 250
percent of rated full load torque of the 47

machine.
The Derivation of Induction Motor Induced-Torque
Equation
The objective is to clearly
understand the relationship
among the motor
motorss torque, speed,
and power.
We will use the equivalent circuit
of an induction machine and Pconv
power flow diagram to drive a ind
general expression for induced m
torque as a function of speed. PAG
The air-gap power is the power ind
crossing the gap from stator synch
circuit to rotor circuit. It is equal
to power absorbed in resistance R2
R2/S. PAG ,1 I 2
2
If I2 can be determined, the air-
S
gap power and the induced torque R
will be known.
known PAG 3I 22 2
S
48
The Derivation of Induction Motor Induced-
Torque Equation
Perhaps the easiest method to
find the current I2 is to
determine the Thevenin
equivalent of the portion of
the circuit to the left of the Xs
in the Figure.

jX M
VTH V .
R1 jX 1 jX M
XM
VTH V .
XM >> X1 and XM >> R1, the R12 X 1 X M
2

magnitude of the Thevenin

voltage can be approximated XM
as: VTH V .
X1 X M
49
The Derivation of Induction Motor Induced-Torque
Equation
For ZTH the equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig.
Z1.Z M
ZTH
Z1 Z M
ZTH RTH jX TH
jX M R1 jX1
ZTH
R1 j X1 X M

2
XM >> X1 and (X1 + XM)>> R1, XM
using these approximations RTH R1
the thevenin resistance and X1 X M
reactance are approximately
given
i b
by: X TH X 1
50
The Derivation of Induction Motor Induced-Torque
Equation

VTH PAG
I2 ind
ZTH Z2 SYNC
VTH R2
I2 PAG 3I 2
2
s
RTH R2 jXTH jX2
s 2R2
3V
VTH TH
s
I2 ind
2
R R2 X X 2
2
2
TH SYNC RTH s XTH X2
R2
s
TH 2

51
Comments on the Induction Motor Torque Speed Curve

1. The induced torque of

the motor is zero at
synchronous speed.
speed
2. The torque-speed curve
is nearly linear between
no load and full load.
3. There is maximum
possible torque that cant
be exceeded. This torque
i called
is ll d th
the pullout
ll t
torque or breakdown
torque, is 2 to 3 times
rated
ated full
u load
oad torque.
to que

4. Starting torque is slightly larger than its full load torque, so

this motor will carry any load that it can supply at full power.
5
5. The torque on the induction motor for a given slip varies as
a square of the applied voltage.
52
Induced Torque and Power Versus Speed
The power converted to
mechanical form in an
induction machine is equal
to Pconv=Tindm
The resulting plot for the
power is shown in the
p
figure.
Notice that the peak
power supplied by the
motor occurs at a speed d
different than the
maximum torque.
Also of course no power
Also,
is converted to mechanical
form when the rotor is at
zero speed.

53
Comments on the Induction Motor Torque Speed Curve
If rotor runs at a speed
faster than synchronous
speed then the direction
off the
h induced
d d torque in
the machine reverses and
the machine becomes a
generator, converting
mechanical power to
electric power.
If the motor is turning
backward relative to the
direction of the magnetic
fields, the induced torque
in the machine will stop
machine very rapidly and
will try to rotate it in the
other direction. Since reversing the direction of the magnetic field
is matter of only switching any two stator phases, this fact can be
used as a way to very rapidly stop the induction motor. The act of
switching two phases in order to stop the motor very rapidly is 54
called plugging.
Maximum Pull out Torque in Induction Machine
Since induced torque is equal Z source Z load
PAG/synch, the maximum
possible torque occurs when the Z source RTH jX TH jX 2
air-gap power is maximum.
The air gap power is power
R2
consumed in the resistor R2/S,
the maximum induced torque will R TH 2
X TH X 2
2

occur when power consumed by

S
resistor is maximum. R2
Using max power transfer
S max
theorem, drive the condition for R TH 2
X TH
X 2
2

R
Smax. 3 VTH2 2
s
Substitute the Smax condition in ind

2

the Tind equation and get the SYNC RTH 2 s X TH X 2 2
R
expression for Tmax.
3VTH2
Tmax
2 SYNC RTH RTH X TH X 2
2 2
55
Maximum Pull out Torque in Induction Machine

The maximum torque is

proportional
p p to the square
q of the
supply voltage and is also
inversely related with the size of 3VTH2
Tmax
the stator impedances and rotor 2 SYNC RTH RTH X TH X 2
2 2

reactance
reactance.
The smaller the machine
reactance the larger the
maximum torque q it is capable
p of
achieving. S max
R2
Notice that the slip at which RTH 2 X TH X 2 2
maximum torque occurs directly
proportional
ti l tto th
the rotor
t
resistance, but the value of the
maximum torque is independent
of the value of the rotor
resistance.
56
Class Activity 4
Example 7-4: A two pole, 50 Hz induction motor supplies 15
kW to a load at a speed of 2950 rpm.
a)) What
Wh t is
i the
th motor
t slip.
li
b) What is the induced torque in the motor in N.m. under
these conditions.
c) What will the operating speed of the motor be if its torque
is doubled.
d) How much power will be supplied by the motor when the
torque is doubled.

57
Class Activity 5
Example 7-5: A 460 V, 25-hp, 60 Hz, four pole, Y-connected
induction motor has the following impedances in ohms per
phase referred to stator circuit:
R1=0.641 R2=0.332
X1=1.106 X2=0.464 , XM=26.3
a) What is the maximum torque of the motor. At what speed
and slip does it occur.
b) What is the starting torque of this motor.
c) When the rotor resistance is doubled, what is the speed at
which the maximum torque occurs. What is the new
starting torque of the motor.
d) Calculate and plot the torque-speed characteristics of this
motor both with the original rotor resistance and with the
rotor resistance doubled.

58
Class Activity 5

59
7.9: Speed Control of Induction Motor

Until the advent of modern solid state drives, induction

motors in general were not good machines for applications
requiring considerable speed control.
The normal operating range of a typical induction motor is
confined to less than 5 percent slip, and the speed variation
over that range is more or less directly proportional to the
load on the shaft of motor.

Even if the slip could be

made larger, the efficiency of
the motor would become
very poor,
poor since the rotor
copper losses are directly
proportional to the slip on
the motor. ((PRCL=sPAG)

60
7.9: Speed Control of Induction Motor

There are really only two techniques by which the speed

of an induction motor can be controlled
1. The first technique is to vary the synchronous
speed, which is the speed of the stator and rotor
magnetic fields,
fields since the rotor speed always remains
near synchronous speed. This can be accomplished
by adjusting the electrical frequency or by changing
the number of poles.
2. The second technique is to vary the slip of the
motor for a given load. This can be accomplished by
adjusting the rotor resistance or the terminal voltage
of the machine.

61
Speed Control by Changing the Line Voltage

The torque
q developed
p by
y
an induction motor is
proportional to the square
of the line voltage.
If the
h load
l d has
h a torque-
speed characteristics such
as the one shown in the
figure, then the speed of
the motor may be
controller over a limited
range by controlling the
line voltage.
oltage
Application is small
motors using driving fans.

62
Speed Control by Changing the Rotor Resistance

In the wound rotor

induction motor, it is
possible to change the
shape of the torque-speed
curve by inserting extra
resistances in to the rotor
circuits.
However, inserting extra
resistance into the rotor
circuit of an induction
machine seriously reduces
the efficienc
efficiency of machine.
machine

63
Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics

Effect of Input Voltage Variation.

64
Maximum Pull out Torque in Induction Machine

65
7.9: Speed Control by Changing the Line
Frequency

The synchronous speed of the motor at rated condition

is known as the BASE SPEED.
SPEED
By using variable frequency control it is possible to
adjust the speed of motor either above or below the
base speed.
speed
A properly designed variable-frequency induction motor
drive can be very flexible. It can control the speed of an
induction motor over a range from as little as 5 percent
of base speed up to about twice the base speed.
However, it is important to maintain certain voltage and
torque limits on the motor as the frequency is varied,
varied to
ensure safe operation.

66
Volts per Hertz Control

When running at a speed below the base speed of motor,

it is necessary to reduce the terminal voltage applied to
the stator for proper operation.
The terminal voltage applied to
the stator should be decreased
linearly with decreasing stator
frequency. This process is
called derating.
If it is not done the steel in the
core of the induction motor will
saturate and excessive
magnetization currents will ll
flow in the machine.

67
Volts per Hertz Control
To understand the necessity of de-rating,
recall that an induction motor is basically
rotating transformer.
transformer As with any
transformer, the flux in the core of an d
v (t ) N
induction motor can be found from fradays dt
law. v (t ) VM sin t
Note that the electrical frequency appears in 1
Np
the denominator of this expression. (t ) v (t )dt
Therefore, if the electrical frequency applied
to the stator decreases by 10% while the 1
magnitude of the voltage applied to the

Np v (t )dt
stator remains constant, the flux in the core
of the motor will increase by about 10% and VM
cos t
the magnetization current will increase. N p
In the unsaturated region of the motors
magnetization curve, the increase in
magnetization current will also be about
10%. 68
Volts per Hertz Control
However in the saturated region of the motors magnetization
curve, a 10 % increase in the flux requires much larger increase
in magnetization current.
Induction motors are normally designed to operate near the
saturation point on their magnetization curves, so the increase in
flux due to a decrease in frequency will cause excessive
magnetization current to flow in the motor which will cause
excessive heating of the machine. d
v (t ) N
To avoid this excessive saturation current, it dt
is common to decrease the applied stator v (t ) VM sin t
voltage in direct proportion to the decrease in 1
Np
frequency whenever the frequency falls below (t ) v (t )dt
rated frequency of the motor.
motor
Since the applied voltage v appears in the 1
numerator of equation and the frequency

Np v (t )dt
appears in denominator
denominator, the two effects
VM
counteract each other, and the magnetization cos t
current is unaffected. N p 69
Volts per Hertz Control Below the Base Speed
Figure shows a family of induction motor torque-speed curves for
speed below the base speed assuming that the magnitude of
stator voltage varies linearly with frequency.
When the voltage applied to the induction motor is varied linearly
with the frequency below the base speed, the flux in the motor
pp y constant. Therefore,, the maximum
will remain approximately
torque which the motor can supply remain fairly high.

The power supplied to a three

phase induction motor is given by.
by
P 3VL I L cos
If the voltage VL is decreased, then
the maximum power P must also
be decreased, or else the current
flowing in the motor will become
excessive, and the motor will
overheat.
70
Volts per Hertz Control Above the Base Speed
When the electrical frequency applied to the motor exceeds the
rated frequency of the motor, the stator voltage is held constant at
rated value.
value Although saturation considerations would permit the
voltage to be raised above the rated value under these
circumstances, it is limited to the rated voltage to protect the
winding insulation of the motor. V
M cos t
N p
The higher the electrical
frequency above the base speed,
the larger the denominator of
flux equation becomes.
Since the numerator term is held
constant above the rated
frequency, the resulting flux in
the machine decreases and the
machine decreases with it.

71
Volts per Hertz Control Below and Above the Base Speed

Thus, if the stator

voltages are varied
linearly with
frequency below the
base speed and is
h ld constant
held t t att rated
t d
value above the base
speed, then the
resulting
esu t g family
a y of
o
torque speed
characteristics is
shown in the figure.
The rated speed of
the motor shown in
the figure is 1800
rpm
rpm.

72
7.10: Choice of Voltage and Frequency Profile

The method of choice today for induction motor speed

control is the solid-state variable-frequency induction
motor drive. A typical drive of this sort is shown in
Figure. The drive is very flexible: its input power can
b either
be i h single-phase
i l h or three-phase,
h h either
i h 50 or 60
Hz, and anywhere from 208 to 230 V. The output
from this drive is a three-phase set of voltages
whose
h frequency
f can be
b varied
i d from
f 0 up to
t 120 Hz
H
and whose voltage can be varied from 0 V up to the
rated voltage of the motor

73
7.10: Choice of Voltage and Frequency Profile
The output voltage and frequency
control is achieved by using the
pulse width modulation (PWM)
techniques. Both output frequency
and output voltage can be
controlled independently by pulse-
width modulation.
Figure 7-46 illustrates the
manner in which the PWM drive
can control the output frequency
while maintaining a constant rms
voltage level.

74
7.10: Choice of Voltage and Frequency Profile

Figure 7-47 illustrates the

manner in which the PWM
d
drive can controll the
h rms
voltage level while
maintaining a constant
frequency.

75
7.10: Choice of Voltage and Frequency Profile
It is often desirable to vary the output frequency and output rms
voltage together in a linear fashion. Figure 7-48 shows typical
output voltage waveforms from one phase of the drive for the
situation in which frequency and voltage are varied
simultaneously in a linear fashion.

Figure 7-48a shows the output

voltage adjusted for a
frequency of 60 Hz and an rms
voltage of 120 V.
V
Figure 7-48b shows the output
adjusted for a frequency of 30
Hz and an rms voltage
g of 60 V.
Figure 7-48c shows the output
adjusted for a frequency of 20
Hz and an rms voltage of 40 V

76
7.10: Choice of Voltage and Frequency Profile
Notice that the peak voltage out of the drive remains the
same in all three cases; the rms voltage level is controlled by
the fraction of time the voltage is switched on, and the
frequency is controlled by the rate at which the polarity of the
pulses switches from positive to negative and back again.

The typical induction motor

drive shown in Figure 7-45
has many built-in
built in features
which contribute to its
adjustability and ease of use.
Here is a summary of some
of these features

77
7.10: Frequency Speed Adjustment

The output frequency of the drive can be controlled

manually from a control mounted on the drive
cabinet, or it can be controlled remotely by an
external voltage or current signal. The ability to
adjust the frequency of the drive in response to
some external signal is very important an external
computer or process controller to control the speed
of the motor in accordance with the overall needs of
th plant
the l t in
i which
hi h it is
i installed.
i t ll d

78
7.10:A Choice of Voltage and Frequency Patterns

The types of mechanical loads which might be attached to

an induction motor vary greatly.
greatly Some loads such as fans
require very little torque when starting (or running at low
speeds) and have torques which increase as the square of
the speed.
p
Other loads might be harder to start, requiring more than
the rated full-load torque of the motor just to get the load
moving. This drive provides a variety of voltage versus-
f
frequency patterns
tt which
hi h can be
b selected
l t d to
t match
t h the
th
torque from the induction motor to the torque required by
its load.

79
7.10:A Choice of Voltage and Frequency Patterns
Figure 7-49a shows the standard or
general-purpose voltage-versus frequency
pattern,
tt d
described
ib d iin th
the previous
i section.
ti
This pattern changes the output voltage
linearly with changes in output frequency
for speeds below base speed and holds the
output voltage constant for speeds above
base speed. (The small constant-voltage
region at very low frequencies is necessary
to ensure that there will be some starting
torque at the very lowest speeds.)
Figure 7-49b shows the resulting induction
motor torque
torque-speed
speed characteristics for
several operating frequencies below base
speed.

80
7.10:A Choice of Voltage and Frequency Patterns
Figure 7-50a shows the voltage-versus-
frequency pattern used for loads with high
starting torques.
torques This pattern also changes the
output voltage linearly with changes in output
frequency for speeds below base speed, but it
has a shallower slope at frequencies below 30
Hz For any given frequency below 30 Hz,
Hz. Hz the
output voltage will be higher than it was with
the previous pattern. This higher voltage will
produce a higher torque, but at the cost of
increased magnetic saturation and higher
magnetization currents. The increased
saturation and higher currents are often
acceptable for the short periods required to
start heavy loads.
loads
Figure 7-50b shows the induction motor torque-
speed characteristics for several operating
frequencies below base speed. Notice the
increased torque available at low frequencies
compared to Figure 7-49b.
81
7.10:A Choice of Voltage and Frequency Patterns
Figure 7-51a shows the voltage-versus-
frequency pattern used for loads with low
starting
t ti ttorques ((called
ll d soft-start
ft t t lloads).
d )
This pattern changes the output voltage
parabolically with changes in output
frequency for speeds below base speed.
For any given frequency below 60 Hz, the
output voltage will be lower than it was
with the standard pattern. This lower
voltage will produce a lower torque,
torque
providing a slow, smooth start for low-
torque loads.
Figure 77-51b
51b shows the induction motor
torque-speed characteristics for several
operating frequencies below base speed.
Notice the decreased torque available at
l
low ffrequencies
i compared d to
t Figure
Fi 7 49
7-49.
82
7.10: Independently Adjustable Acceleration and
Deceleration Ramps

When the desired operating speed of the motor is changed,

the drive controlling it will change frequency to bring the
motor to the new operating speed.
If the speed change is sudden (e.g., an instantaneous jump
from 900 to 1200 r/min), the drive does not try to make the
motor instantaneously jump from the old desired speed to the
new desired speed. Instead, the rate of motor acceleration or
deceleration is limited to a safe level by special circuits built
into the electronics of the drive
drive. These rates can be adjusted
independently for accelerations and decelerations.

83
4.10: (Kraus) Free Acceleration Characteristics of
Induction Motor
Figure shows torque speed
characteristic during free
acceleration.
acceleration
Machine is initially stalled and rated
balanced voltage is applied.
This simulation has been performed
using the nonlinear differential
equations.
The instantaneous electromagnetic
torque, immediately following the
application of stator voltage , varies
at 60 Hz about an average positive
value.
value

84
4.10: (Kraus) Free Acceleration Characteristics of
Induction Motor

The decaying, 60-Hz

variation in the
instantaneous torque is
due to the transient offset
in the stator current.
Although the offset in
each current

85
The Control System Block Diagram

86
The Control System Block Diagram

87