Industrial Aerodynamics

PROF.
G PRABHAKARAN
JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
AE 2022 AIRCRAFT GENERAL ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
AE2022 AIRCRAFT GENERAL ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE PRACTICES 3003
QUESTION BANK
OBJECTIVE
To teach the students about the basic concepts of aircraft general engineering and maintenance
practices.
UNIT I AIRCRAFT GROUND HANDLING AND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT 10
(516/9a) Mooring, (523/9a) Jacking, (57/9a) Levelling and (517/9a) Towing operations Preparation
Equipment precautions (489) Engine starting procedures Piston engine, turboprops and
turbojets (503) Engine fire extinguishing (494/9a) Ground power unit.
UNIT II GROUND SERVICING OF VARIOUS SUB SYSTEMS 8
/15a)Air conditioning and pressurization Oxygen and oil systems Ground units and their
maintenance.
UNIT III MAINTENANCE OF SAFETY 5
Shop safety Environmental cleanliness Precautions
UNIT IV INSPECTION 10
(460) (CHPTER 10)
(461) Process Purpose Types Inspection intervals (461) Techniques (462) Checklist (463)
Special inspection (464) Publications, (464) bulletins, (464) various manuals (465) FAR Air
worthiness directives (465) Type certificate Data sheets (466) ATA Specifications
UNIT V AIRCRAFT HARDWARE, MATERIALS, SYSTEM PROCESSES 12

(118) (CHAPTER 6)
Hand tools Precision instruments Special tools and equipments in an airplane maintenance shop
Identification terminology Specification and correct use of various aircraft hardware (i.e. nuts,
bolts, rivets, screws etc) American and British systems of specifications Threads, gears, bearings,
etc Drills, tapes and reamers Identification of all types of fluid line fittings. Materials, metallic and
non-metallic Plumbing connectors Cables Swaging procedures, tests, Advantages of swaging
over splicing.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOK
1. Kroes Watkins Delp, Aircraft Maintenance and Repair, McGraw Hill, New York, 1993.
REFERENCES:
1. A&P Mechanics, Aircraft Hand Book, F A A Himalayan Book House, New Delhi,
1996
2. A&P Mechanics, General Hand Book, F A A Himalayan Bok House, New Delhi, 1996
AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 1

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
UNIT I
PART A
1. What is meant by mooring of an aircraft? (April /May 2004)
What is mooring? (MAY/JUNE 2007) (NOV/DEC 2008) (NOV/DEC 2010)
Ans: Mooring is the act of aircraft that moors. It is the act to secure an aircraft or a ship or a
boat etc., in a particular place as by cables and anchors or by lines. Usually a mooring means
ones stability or security.
2. Enumerate the various ground power units used in aircraft maintenance?

(April /May 2004) (NOV/DEC 2008) (Apr/May 2010)
Ans: The various GPU are as follows:
1. Battery Trolley
2. Mobile GPU
3. Self propelled GPU
Apart from this various ground support units are used for the operational support to the
aircraft are as follows:
The various GSU are as follows:
ELECTRICAL POWER - GPU
HYDRAULIC POWER
AIRCONDITIONING AND HEATING UNITS
GROUND SUPPORT AIRSTART UNITS
PREOILING UNIT
AIR FUELLING UNIT
3. Differentiate between towing and taxiing of an aircraft? (April /May 2004)
Ans:
Movement of large aircraft on an airport and about the flight line and hangar is usually
accomplished by towing with a tow tractor (sometimes called a tug). In the case of small aircraft,
some moving is accomplished by hand, by pushing on the correct areas of the aircraft.
Taxing of an aircraft is that the movement of the aircraft with engine on, to the hanger from
the runway or to the flight line from the hanger after landing or about to depart from the airfield
respectively. As a general rule, only rated pilots or qualified airframe or and power-plant technicians are
authorized to start, run up, and taxi aircraft. All taxiing operations should be performed in accordance with
applicable local regulations with the help of Marshallese by signalling the standard taxi light signals used by
control towers to control and expedite the taxiing of aircraft.
4. Differentiate between APU and GPU (APRIL/MAY 2008)
Ans:
A GPU is a ground power unit, is vehicle or a trolley capable of supplying power to aircraft
parked on the ground. GPU may also be built into the jet way;, making it even easier to supply
electrical power to aircraft. Many aircraft require 28 v of direct current and 110 v 400Hz of
alternating current. The electric energy is carried from a generator to a connection on the aircraft via
3 phase 4 wire insulated cable capable of handling 200 amps. These connectors are standard for all
aircraft.
PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
A APU is an auxiliary power unit. Most larger aircraft use APUs. These power units furnish
electrical power when engine-driven generators are not operating or when external power is
not available. The power output from the APU supplies a constant voltage at a constant frequency.
The APU does not depend on engine rpm. Most units use a gas turbine (fig. 7-3) to drive the
generator. The gas turbine provides compressed air for air conditioning and pneumatic engine
starting. This makes the aircraft independent of the need for ground power units to carry out its
mission
APU is a small engine, it can be easily started using battery power, and therefore batteries can
be smaller than if they were required to start a main engine. The output from many APUs is
sufficient to allow simultaneous starting of all main engines, saving time on the ramp. It is not
normally run in flight, unless a main engine fails, in which case it will provide a second power
source for the aircraft systems.
Aircraft APUs may be located anywhere on the aircraft, but of course it needs a flow of air into
it, and provision to disperse the exhaust gases. On many airliners, the APUs are located in the aft
most end of the fuselage, and on combat aircraft typically located above the main engines aft of the
cockpit. Since they are fuelled by standard aviation turbine fuel, they can use fuel from the same
tanks as the main engines.
5. What is levelling? (APRIL/MAY 2008)
Ans:
Levelling is the procedure to establish the aircraft in a level attitude prior to checking and
adjusting wings and control surfaces. This process takes place when rigging an aircraft. The
level attitude of the aircraft includes both a longitudinal level and a lateral level position. Once
the aircraft is levelled, the component can be rigged.
Or
Levelling of an aircraft is the procedure of placing an aircraft in its rigging position by means of
lifting the aircraft by hydraulic jacks so as to enable the rigging check on newly assembled A/C
or replacement/renewal of any major component of the aircraft in order to ensure the correct
fitting and alignment of aircraft.
6. Differentiate between taxing and touring operations(MAY/JUNE 2007)
Touring operation is nothing but towing the aircraft.
Refer the answer of Q.No. 3
7. What is the normal tide down procedure on small aircraft after each flight?
(MAY/JUNE 2007)
Ans:
Preparation
1. Tie down aircraft after each flight
2. Aircraft parked and tie-down into the wind direction. (ie., aircraft should be headed as nearly
as possible into the wind depending on the locations of fixed parking area tie-down points)
3. Ensure wing tip clearance with other aircraft
4. Lock the nose wheel or tail wheel in the fore and aft position
Tie Down procedure on small aircraft:
1. Light aircraft is tied with rope
2. Tie at proper place provided at the aircraft.
3. Give allowance for shrinkage of rope due to adverse weather condition.
4. Provide anti-slip knot
8. What type of equipment is used for towing the aircraft? (Apr/May 2010)
Ans:
The following are the type of equipment is used for towing the aircraft:
1. Tow bar
2. Tow tractor or tug
Movement of large aircraft on an airport and about the flight line and hangar is usually
accomplished by towing with a tow tractor (sometimes called a tug). In the case of small
aircraft, some moving is accomplished by hand, by pushing on the correct areas of the aircraft.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Some types of tow bars available for general use can be used for many types of towing
operations. These bars are designed with sufficient tensile strength to pull most aircraft, but
are not intended to be subjected to torsional or twisting loads.
9. What is the purpose of jacking? (Apr/May 2010)
Ans:
The purpose of jacking of aircraft in order to perform maintenance, while servicing certain
components like greasing the wheel bearings, rigging, levelling, retraction test, changing the tyre,
etc and inspection. Since jacking procedures and safety precautions vary for different types of
aircraft.
10. Why jacking is required?
Ans:
For maintenance activities such as rigging, levelling, retraction test, wheel brake assembly
change and major component change the A/C must be jacked up properly. The jacking up can be
done by single point lifting by bottle jack or three point lifting by tripod jack. The jacks may be
hydraulic or screw type as supplied by the manufacturer apart from this required the additional
tail jacks or trestles may be used in accordance with the maintenance manual or the type of
activities.
11. What is rigging of an aircraft?
Ans:
The rigging of an aircraft is the position of the aircraft at which longitudinal and lateral axis
are parallel to the ground (Straight level position)
Rigging of an aircraft involves two principles of operations: 1. aircraft structure must be
rigged for correct alignment of all fixed components. 2. Rigging is the alignment of control surfaces
and controls that move the surfaces.
12. What is the procedure for parking?
Ans:
Parking is defined as the normal condition under which the aircraft will be secured
while on the ground. The proper steps for securing the aircraft must be based on the time the aircraft
will be left unattended, the aircraft weight, the expected wind direction and velocity, and the
anticipated availability of ground and air crews for mooring and/or evacuation. When
practical, head the aircraft into the wind, especially if strong winds are forecast or if it
will be necessary to leave the aircraft overnight. Set the parking brake and chock the wheels
securely. Following engine shutdown, position and engage the control locks.
13. What is precaution to be taken while parking an aircraft?
Ans:
PRECAUTION:
Head the aircraft into the wind, especially if strong winds are forecast or if it will
be necessary to leave the aircraft overnight.
Ensure chain links are inserted into the chain adjuster.
Incorrect insertion may cause the chain adjuster to fail and compromise the mooring system.
14. What are the inspections in a fire extinguisher?
Inspection of Fire Extinguishers
Fire extinguishers should be checked periodically utilizing a checklist. If a checklist is
unavailable, check the following as a minimum:
Proper location of appropriate extinguisher
Safety seals unbroken
All external dirt and rust removed
Gauge or indicator in operable range
Proper weight
No nozzle obstruction
No obvious damage
15. State the type of fires and the fire extinguishing agents?(Nov/Dec 2010)
Ans:
PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
1. Class A - fires occur in ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, cloth, paper,
upholstery materials, and so forth.
2. Class B- fires occur in flammable petroleum products of other flammable or combustible
liquids, greases, solvents, paints, and so forth.
3. Class C - fires occur involve energized electrical wiring and equipment.
4. Class D - fire, is defined as fire in flammable metal -. Occur in certain metals like magnesium,
sodium, potassium, titanium or zirconium
FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENSTS
Water or water type - for class A fire
CO2, halogenated hydocarbons (halons), and dry chemicals for class B fire
CO2 , (may be halogenated hydocarbons (halons), and dry chemicals) for class C fire
Dry chemical powder, FREON(CHLORINATED CARBON),HALON 1301 (MONO
BROMOTRIFLUOROMETHANE CF3Br), NITROGEN(N2) for class D fire
PART B
1. What is levelling of an aircraft? Explain the different methods adopted to carryout the
levelling? (April /May 2004)
Ans:
Levelling is the procedure to establish the aircraft in a level attitude prior to checking
and adjusting wings and control surfaces. This process takes place when rigging an aircraft. The
level attitude of the aircraft includes both a longitudinal level and a lateral level position. Once
the aircraft is levelled, the component can be rigged.
There are various aircraft manufacturers have devised several methods by which the aviation
technician can establish a level attitude of the aircraft.
Method 1. : used on many light aircraft is to set a spirit level on a longitudinal structural
member to establish the longitudinal level position and another level across specific structural
members to establish lateral level position. The same basic procedure is accomplished in some
aircraft by the installation of two nut plates on the side of the fuselage. Screws can be placed in
these nut plates and longitudinal level is determined when a sprit level placed on the extended
screws level.
Method 2: some aircraft make use of a plumb bob and a target to establish the aircraft level on
both axes. This is done by suspending a plumb bob from a specified structural member and
adjusting the aircraft until the plumb bob is cantered on the target.
Method 3: used is to attach a permanent sprit level to the aircraft for each of the two axes.
These levels are normally located in an equipment compartment or a wheel well and may have
accuracy as great.
The above said methods may be accomplished by using the transit, spirit level, or plumb bob
and datum plate method. You should always use the method of levelling specified by the
manufacturer. When you are levelling an aircraft for an alignment check, the aircraft should
be inside a hangar where air currents will not interfere with the accuracy of the alignment
readings. Jacks should be used to control the attitude of the aircraft during the check.
Transit Method:
The transit method is the most accurate. Transit levelling is accomplished by sighting
specified points on the aircraft. Two longitudinal and two lateral points are used for this method.
The reference points are sighted through a surveyors transit. Figure illustrates longitudinal and
lateral levelling of an aircraft using the transit method.( Fig 1)
Spirit Level Method:
Aircraft that use the spirit level method have levelling lugs either built into the structure or
provisions for mounting them on the structure. The levelling lugs are usually in the nose wheel
well. Spirit levelling lugs are shown in figure 2.
NOTE: The levelling lugs should be inspected for possible damage or misalignment prior to
levelling the aircraft. In the event of damage to the levelling lugs, the repaired lugs must be
calibrated by cross reference with the transit levelling method.
PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Fig 1
Fig 2

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Plumb Bob and Datum Plate Method:
This method uses a datum plate or scale mounted on the deck of a compartment. Provisions
for hanging the plumb bob are located directly above the datum plate. The aircraft is level when the
plumb bob pointer is at 0 degrees on the datum plate. Figure shows the plumb bob and datum plate
method of aircraft leveling. (Fig 3)
Fig 3
2. Explain the procedure of jacking an aircraft and state the precautions taken while jacking.
(April /May 2004)
Ans:
PRECAUTIONS WHILE JACKING:
Extensive aircraft damage and serious personal injury have resulted from careless or improper
jacking procedures
Jack should be inspected before use to determine the specific lifting capacity, proper
functioning of safety locks, condition of pins and general serviceability.
Before raising an aircraft on jack all work stands and other equipment should be removed from
under and near the aircraft
No one should remain in the aircraft while it is being raised or lowered unless maintenance
manual procedures require such practice for observing levelling instruments in the aircraft.
The aircraft to be jacked must be located in a level position well protected from the wind.
The manufacturers maintenance instruction for the aircraft being jacked should be consulted
for the location of the location of the jacking points.
These jacking points are usually located in relation to the aircraft centre of gravity so the
aircraft will be well balanced on the jacks. However there are some exceptions to this.
On some aircraft it may be necessary to add weight to the nose or tail of the aircraft to achieve
a safe balance.
Sand bags usually used for this purpose.
Caution should be observed since on many jacks the piston can be raised beyond the safety
point: therefore, never raise an aircraft any higher than is necessary to accomplish the job.
Procedure of Jacking an Aircraft:
The jacking procedures vary for each aircraft type and its configuration. The procedures are as
follows: Jacking procedures on land do not require tie-downs, except in high-wind conditions.
Check Manufacturers Instructions Manual for jacking restrictions, warnings, and cautions.
Obtain the support equipment required by the MIM, ensuring all preoperational inspections
have been complete.
PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Make sure that all protective covers and ground safety devices are installed, as required by the
MIM.
The surrounding area around the aircraft must be roped off during the entire aircraft jacking
operation, and signs posted stating DANGER: AIRCRAFT ON JACKS?
The area below and around the aircraft must be cleared of all equipment not required for the
jacking operation.
Install jack adapters, aircraft mooring adapters, and tie-down chains as required by the MIM.
Position and extend wing and nose jacks until seated on wing jack and tie-down adapters
Raising Aircraft
Apply jack pressure on each jack without lifting the aircraft, and check to see that the base of
each jack is evenly seated.
Correct base position of jack, as required, for firm base seating.
For shipboard operations, all jacks must be tied down before jacking aircraft with a
minimum of three tie-down chains per jack.
The jack must be tied down at the spring-loaded wheel caster mounts, thus allowing the jacks
to make small movements with the aircraft jack points.
Release the aircraft parking brake.
Remove main landing gear chocks.
Jack aircraft evenly and extend tie-down chains while jacking.
Extension of tie-down chains must be coordinated in a way that preload on each tie-down
chain is partially removed before jacking.
Partial preload is maintained with jacking of aircraft by rotation of the chain tensioning
grip
Screw the leek collar down as each jack is being extended. Jack the aircraft until its wheels
clear the deck, and set the lock collar hand tight.
Set each tie-down chain to preload by manually rotating and tightening tensioning grip
NB: You can answer this way also:

AIRCRAFT JACKING
PRECAUTIONS
1. Refer A/C manual before jacking up the A/C to know the correct method/procedure,
sequence of operation and requirement of equipments.
2. Ensure the lifting capacity of the jack and the jacks are fully serviceable.
3. If necessary fit the jack pads on the A/C structure.
4. Avoid A/C jacking up operation in open area.
5. Find out the weather status from the ATC/MET department.
6. Select the hard & level ground.
7. If required keep trestles ready for use. Do not jack up the A/C before ensuring that the
C.G and Gross weight are within safety limits.
8. Do not attempt to jack up the A/c by the main gear shock strut.
9. Ensure that the nose landing gear upper & lower torque links are connected prior to
jacking.
10. Maintain the communication between the crews.
11. Ensure all ground support units are clear of the A/C.
12. Place caution boards/sign boards on the ground near the nose, wing tip and tail of the
A/C.
13. Keep safety lines around the A/C.
PROCEDURE
The procedure offers as per the type of A/C and as per the manufacture instruction.
1. Ensure that the ground is hard & level without slipping
2. Remove the Chocks from the wheels
3. Place the trestles wherever it is applicable
4. Place all jacks at specified jacking points.
5. Deploy one person at each jacking point, ensure that the jacks are properly placed
PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
6. Raise the jack slowly till the contact of the A/C jacking pod is at the correct place slightly way
out the jack and align it.
7. First raise the nose slightly then simultaneously all the jacks till the wheels are clear by one
inch from the ground
8. Engage the lock mechanism and lock the jack to prevent the sudden collapse due to hydraulic
leakage of jacks.
9. If the A/C is likely to be jacked more than 24 hours or over night, it is recommended to adjust
the trestles at all specified stations to support the A/C weight.
10. Place a display board (A/C ON JACKS) in front of A/C
11. While lowering the A/C from the jack, ensure the parking brakes are in off position.
12. No loose items are available in and around the A/C while lowering the A/C and abstraction if
any to be cleared before lowering.
3. Explain in detail the starting procedure of Piston Engine Aircraft including the
preparation, internal and external checks and the starting drill. (MAY/JUNE 2007)
(APR/MAY 2010)
Ans:
BEFORE STARTING or PREPARATION
1. Aircraft to head into the wind for the purpose of engine cooling.
2. Ensure to damage to property or person due to exhaust or propeller or propeller blast.
3. Ensure safe removal electrical eqpt if used
4. Fire guard is equipped with a suitable fire Extinguisher at appropriate place.
5. Incase of turbine engine the frontal area is to be clean to avoid FOD.
6. Follow manufacturer manual
7. Remove control surface locks.
PISTON ENGINE STARTING PROCEDURE:
1. Remove various covers (wing, tail, cockpit, wheel, and so forth)
2. Aircraft with external power should be used to start to avoid load on aircraft internal
battery.
3. All other electrical load should be OFF
4. Ensure hydraulic lock is not applied to the propeller by checking free rotation
5. Put on auxiliary pump.
6. Place the mixture control in idle or rich depending on the type of carburetor.
7. Open the throttle to a position that will provide 1000-1200 RPM.
8. Use primer to pump fuel initially one to three strokes.
9. Do not crank the engine continuously more than one minute.
10. Keep the throttle in rich mixture position
11. Check the instruments for monitoring performance rpm, oil temperature guage,
Cylinder head temperature, exhaust gas temperature, fuel flow guage.
CHECKS:
Immediately after the engine starts,
Check the oil pressure indicator. If oil pressure does not show within 30 seconds, stop
the engine and determine the trouble.
If oil pressure is indicated, adjust the throttle to the aircraft manufacturers specified
rpm for engine warm-up.
Warm-up rpm will usually be in the 1,000 to 1,300 rpm range.
During all ground running, operate the engine with the propeller in full low pitch and
headed into the wind with the cowling installed to provide the best degree of engine cooling.
Closely monitor the engine instruments at all times.
4. Describe in detail all the ground power units used in the aircraft? (MAY/JUNE 2007)
Ans:
Refer the answer of Q.No.6
5. Explain the precautions observed while handling an aircraft (6)? Describe the engine
starting procedure of a turbo jet engine (10)? (APRIL/MAY 2008)

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Ans:
Precautions Observed While Handling An AIRCRAFT:
Before carrying out any work on the A/C, the respective maintenance manual is to be referred
for further instructions. The necessary safety precautions are to be strictly followed.
1. Before entering the cock pit of a fighter A/C, ensure that the ejection seat is in safe and all
armament operating switches are in safe position and all the safely pins are in position.
2. Before switching on the master battery switch ensure that the under carriage selector lever is in
down position and latched and all the armament store door switches are in safe condition.
3. Ensure that the wheel chocks are engaged.
4. Before operating the control surface, ensure that the control locks are removed.
5. Before starting the engine.
b. Chocks are to be kept in front of the wheel.
c. Verify A/C brake system is serviceable.
d. A serviceable fire extinguisher is available.
e. Never tow an aircraft without a person inside the cockpit before towing the A/C, check the
brake pressure.
f. While towing the A/C never exceed the walking speed.
g. Never drop any tool while working.
h. While working inside the A/C, collect all the tools and space on completion of the job and
ensure no items are left behind.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
1. Always release the system pressure before removing a component from the A/C
2. Never does any maintenance work on airplane with any other specified oil other than the
recommended one.
3. Carry out the patch test on the system to prevent the contamination of oil. This can be carried
out using Millipore patch test kit.
4. Never mix different grade of hydraulic oil to service the A/C.
5. Blank all the ports of the removed components and the A/C pipe ends to avoid the entry of
dust, dirt and foreign particles.
6. Follow the necessary precautions to dismantle the hydraulic components.
7. Avoid spilling of hydraulic fluid on the A/C and in and around from the A/C. If spilled it
should be cleaned immediately to avoid slipping.
8. Before fitting a new hydraulic component, it should be un-blanked, degreased, washed and
flushed.
9. While fitting the non return valve and restrictors, ensure that the marked arrows are in the
desired direction.
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
1. Release the system pressure before attempting a job.
2. Clean all the vents of the aircraft
3. On removal of components, blank all the parts of the component and the respective pipes.
4. While carrying out the pressure test never exceed the given limitation
5. While charging the pneumatic pressure always use the pressure regulator and safety valve.
Drain the oil and water separator.
6. Never handle any bottle or cylinder from its charging nozzle. Always use protective cover.
OXYGEN SYSTEM
1. Smoking, open flames or smokes should not be permitted while working on the oxygen system.
2. Do not carry matches while handling the O2 system
3. A/C must be grounded and all electrical power must be switched off.
4. Keep working area and equipment free of oil, grease or any other flammable material.
5. Keep the tools and clothing free of oil and grease.
6. Object should not come in contact with grease or solvents as this will cause spontaneous
explosions.
7. Never lubricate the O2 system components except on approved compatible lubricant.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
8. Hand should be clean and free from oil. Do not use greasing gloves.
9. A spark is not necessary to cause a fire or explosion but the chemical reaction of fuel, gas and
oil combined with O2 is sufficient to develop instant combustion and cause fire and explosion.
10. Never permit O2 cylinder to come in contact with electrical welding circuits and apparatus.
11. Never use oxygen from cylinder without reducing the pressure through a reducing regulator
and safety valves.
12. Never mix other gas or compressed air is an O2 cylinder.
13. Never test for pipe line leaks or flow pipe line with oxygen unless the lines are specifically
made for that.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED DURING FUELLING AND DEFUELLING
1. Do not operate radio, radar or any other electrical and electronic equipment except those
specified.
2. Ground the fuel supply unit and aircraft.
3. Make sure the fuelling source contain the proper fuel grade as specified by the manufacture.
4. No smoking, open flame is permitted in and around the A/C.
5. It is not permitted to drop any tool while the operation is on.
6. The operation should be carried out in an open or fully ventilated space.
7. Do not carry out oxygen related work.
TURBO JET ENGINE STARTING PROCEDURE:
Unlike reciprocating engine aircraft, the turbojet- powered aircraft does not require a pre-flight Run-
up unless it is necessary to investigate a suspected malfunction.
In the starting of all turbine engines, refer to the detailed procedures contained in the
applicable manufacturers instructions or their approved equivalent.
Most turbofan engines can be started by either air turbine or electrical starters. Air-turbine
starters use compressed air from an external source.
Fuel is turned on either by moving the start lever to idle/start position or by opening a fuel
shutoff valve.
If an air turbine starter is used, the engine should light off within a predetermined time after
the fuel is turned on.
This time interval, if exceeded, indicates a malfunction has occurred and the start should be
discontinued.
Most turbofan engine controls consist of a power lever, reversing levers, and start levers.
Newer aircraft have replaced the start levers with a fuel switch.
Turbofan engines also use all the normal instruments speeds, (percent of total rpm) exhaust
gas temperature, fuel flow, oil pressure, and temperature.
An instrument that measures the amount of thrust being delivered is the engine pressure ratio.
This measures the ratio between the inlet pressures to the outlet pressure of the turbine.
The following procedures are useful only as a general guide, and are included to show the
sequence of events in starting a turbofan engine.
1. Move power lever to off position unless the engine is equipped with thrust reverser.
2. If the engine is so equipped, place the power lever in the idle position.
3. Turn on electrical power to engine.
4. Turn fuel system shutoff switch to fuel on position.
5. Turn fuel boost pump switch on.
6. A fuel inlet pressure indicator reading of 5 p.s.i. ensures fuel is being delivered to engine
fuel pump inlet.
7. Turn engine starter switch on; when engine begins to rotate, check for oil pressure rise.
8. Turn ignition switch on after engine begins to rotate.
9. Move throttle to idle (if engine is not equipped with thrust reverser).
10. Engine start (light up) is indicated by a rise in exhaust gas temperature.
11. After engine stabilizes at idle, ensure that none of the engine limits are exceeded.
12. Turn engine starter switch off after start.
13. Turn ignition switch off.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
6. Explain in detail the various ground power units commonly used in ground servicing?
(APRIL/MAY 2008)
Enumerate the ground power units and explain in detail about the operation of any two
units (NOV/DEC 2010)
Ans: (figures are not required for exam)
The following are the ground power unit used for aircraft maintenance and servicing on the
ground:
1. Electrical GPU - Battery trolley
Mobile GPU
Self Propelled GPU
2. Hydraulic Power
3. Air-conditioning and Heating Unit
4. Ground Support Air start Units
5. Pre-oiling Unit
6. Air Fuelling Unit
Electric Ground Power Units
Ground support electrical auxiliary power units vary widely in size and type. However, they
can be generally classified by towed, stationary, or self-propelled items of equipment. Some units
are mainly for in-hangar use during maintenance.
Others are designed for use on the flight line either at a stationary gate area or towed from
aircraft to aircraft. The stationary type can be powered from the electrical service of the facility. The
movable type ground power unit (GPU) generally has an onboard engine that turns a generator to
produce power. Some smaller units use a series of batteries (can be called as battery trolley) is
also used to start the light aircraft engine on ground. The towed power units vary in size and range
of available power. The smallest units are simply high-capacity batteries used to start light aircraft.
These units are normally mounted on wheels or skids and are equipped with an extra-long electrical
line terminated in a suitable plug-in adapter.
Larger units are equipped with generators. Providing a wider range of output power, these
power units are normally designed to supply constant-current, variable voltage DC electrical power
for starting turbine aircraft engines, and constant-voltage DC for starting reciprocating aircraft
engines. Normally somewhat top-heavy, large towed power units should be towed at restricted
speeds, and sharp turns should be avoided. An example of a large power unit is shown in Figure11-
27.
Self-propelled power units are normally more expensive than the towed units and in most
instances supply a wider range of output voltages and frequencies. Another example, the stationary
power unit shown in Figure 11-28 is capable of supplying DC power in varying amounts, as well as
115/200-volt, 3-phase, 400-cycle AC power continuously for 5 minutes.
When using ground electrical power units, it is important to position the unit to prevent
collision with the aircraft being serviced, or others nearby, in the event the brakes on the unit fail. It
should be parked so that the service cable is extended to near its full length away from the aircraft
being serviced, but not so far that the cable is stretched or undue stress is placed on the aircraft
electrical receptacle. Observe all electrical safety precautions when servicing an aircraft. Additionally,
never move a power unit when service cables are attached to an aircraft or when the generator system
is engaged.
Figure 11-27. A mobile electrical power unit. Figure 11-28. A stationary electrical power unit

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Hydraulic Ground Power Units

Portable hydraulic test stands are manufactured in many sizes and cost ranges. [Figure 11-29]
Some have a limited range of operation, while others can be used to perform all the system tests that
fixed shop test stands are designed to perform. Hydraulic power units, sometimes called a hydraulic
mule, provide hydraulic pressure to operate the aircraft systems during maintenance.
They can be used to:
Drain the aircraft hydraulic systems.
Filter the aircraft system hydraulic fluid.
Refill the aircraft system with clean fluid.
Check the aircraft hydraulic systems for operation and leaks.
This type of portable hydraulic test unit is usually an electrically powered unit. It uses a hydraulic
system capable of delivering a variable volume of fluid from zero to approximately 24 gallons per
minute at variable pressures up to 3,000 psi.
Operating at pressures of 3,000 psi or more, extreme caution must be used when operating
hydraulic power units. At 3,000 psi, a small stream from a leak can cut like a sharp knife. Therefore,
inspect lines used with the system for cuts, frays, or any other damage, and keep them free of kinks
and twists. When not in use, hydraulic power unit lines should be stored (preferably wound on a reel)
and kept clean, dry, and free of contaminants.
Ground Support Air Units
Air carts are used to provide low pressure (up to 50 psi high volume flow) air which can be
used for starting the engines, and heating and cooling the aircraft on the ground (using the onboard
aircraft systems). It generally consists of an APU built into the cart that provides bleed air from the
APUs compressor for operating aircraft systems or starting engines. [Figure 11-30]
Figure 11-29. A portable hydraulic power unit. Figure 11-30. A portable compressed air cart.
Ground Air Heating and Air Conditioning

Most airport gates have facilities that can provide heated or cooled air. The units that cool or
heat the air are permanent installations, which connect to the aircraft by a large hose that connects to
the aircrafts ventilation system. Portable heating and air conditioning units can also be moved close
to the aircraft and connected by a duct, which provides air to keep the cabin temperature comfortable.
Pre-oiling Equipment
Pre-oiling reciprocating aircraft engines is usually necessary before starting a new or
preserved engine, or one which has been idle for a period of time. Using a pre-oiler (see figure 11-6)
for reciprocating aircraft engines simplifies the job of pre-oiling. Such units supply preheated oil
under pressure to the engine to ensure adequate lubrication before starting.
The conditions for pre-oiling turbine engines are essentially the same as those for
reciprocating engines. In addition, if a lubricating oil line fitting has been disconnected on a turbine
engine, the engine must be pre-oiled before starting again. The portable pre-oiler tank supplies low-
pressure oil to the lubrication system of the turbine engine.
Aircraft Fuelling

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Strict fire precautions must be adhered to during the fuelling process. Smoking is not
permitted in or around an aircraft during fuelling. Also, open flames such as oil lanterns, candles, or
matches are prohibited. Exposed electric switches, slip-rings or commutators, dynamos or motors,
spark-producing electrical equipment, or any burning material must not be permitted within 100 feet
of an aircraft being fuelled or de-fuelled. No lights other than approved explosion-proof lights are
permitted within 100 feet of these operations, and no light of any sort may be placed where it can
come in contact with spilled fuel. Warning signs should be posted as a precautionary measure.
All aircraft fuels or other combustible liquids accidentally spilled should be immediately
removed by washing with water or covered with a foam blanket to prevent ignition, or neutralized by
other means. The proper fire authorities must be notified if necessary.
If indications of underground leakage of combustible liquids are discovered, areas must be
guarded by appropriate means, and the proper fire authorities must be notified immediately.
It is recommended that aircraft fuel tanks be filled before storing aircraft in hangars, since this
leaves no space for explosive vapours to form. This practice is also recommended after each flight to
prevent water condensation in fuel tanks.
7. Explain in detail about preparation of an aircraft, internal and external checks, and the
starting procedure of the piston engine of aircraft. (NOV/DEC 2008)
Ans:
8. Explain about unsatisfactory starts of turbojet engine. Describe about the starting
procedure of turbo jet engine. (NOV/DEC 2008)
Ans:
Unsatisfactory Turbojet Starts
1. Hot Starts.
A hot start occurs when the engine starts, but the exhaust gas temperature exceeds specified
limits. This is usually caused by an excessively rich fuel/air mixture entering
the combustion chamber. The fuel to the engine should be shut off immediately.
2. False or Hung Start.
False or hung starts occur when the engine starts normally but the r.p.m. remains at some low
value rather than increasing to the normal starting r.p.m. This is often the result of insufficient
power to the starter, or the starter cutting off before the engine starts self-accelerating. In this case,
the engine should be shut down.
3. Engine Will Not Start.
The engine will not start within the prescribed time limit. It can be caused by lack of fuel to
the engine, insufficient or no electrical power, or malfunctions in the ignition system. If the engine
fails to start within the prescribed time, it should be shut down.
In all cases of unsatisfactory starts the fuel and ignition should be turned off.
Continue rotating the compressor for approximately 15 seconds to remove
accumulated fuel from the engine.
If unable to motor (rotate) the engine, allow a 30- seconds fuel draining period before
attempting another start.
shutoff valve.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
discontinued.
Turbofan engines also use all the normal instruments speeds; (percent of total rpm) exhaust
fuel pump inlet.
9. State the starting drill of turbo jet aircraft.(8). Write down the refuelling procedure being
followed to refuel an aircraft (8). (APR/MAY 2010)
Ans:
shutoff valve.
discontinued.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
fuel pump inlet.
REFUELLING PROCEDURE BEING FOLLOWED TO REFUEL AN AIRCRAFT:
The proper fuelling of an aircraft is the responsibility of the owner/operator. This does not,
however, relieve the person doing the fuelling of the responsibility to use the correct type of fuel and
safe fuelling procedures. There are two basic procedures when fuelling an aircraft. Smaller aircraft are
fuelled by the over-the-wing method. This method uses the fuel hose to fill through fuelling ports on
the top of the wing. The method used for larger aircraft is the single point fuelling system. This type
of fuelling system uses receptacles in the bottom leading edge of the wing, which is used to fill all the
tanks from this one point. This decreases the time it takes to refuel the aircraft, limits contamination,
and reduces the chance of static electricity igniting the fuel. Most pressure fuelling systems consist of
a pressure fuelling hose and a panel of controls and gauges that permit one person to fuel or refuel any
or all fuel tanks of an aircraft. Each tank can be filled to a predetermined level. These procedures are
illustrated in Figure.
Fig 11.31
Prior to fuelling, the person fuelling should check the following:
1. Ensure all aircraft electrical systems and electronic devices, including radar, are turned off.
2. Do not carry anything in the shirt pockets. These items could fall into the fuel tanks.
3. Ensure no flame-producing devices are carried by anyone engaged in the fuelling operation.
A moment of carelessness could cause an accident.
4. Ensure that the proper type and grade of fuel is used. Do not mix AVGAS and JET fuel.
5. Ensure that all the sumps have been drained.
6. Wear eye protection. Although generally not as critical as eye protection, other forms of
protection, such as rubber gloves and aprons, can protect the skin from the effects of spilled or
splashed fuel.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
7. Do not fuel aircraft if there is danger of other aircraft in the vicinity blowing dirt in the
direction of the aircraft being fuelled. Blown dirt, dust, or other contaminants can enter an open fuel
tank, contaminating the entire contents of the tank.
8. Do not fuel an aircraft when there is lightning within 5 miles.
9. Do not fuel an aircraft within 500 feet of operating ground radar.
When using mobile fuelling equipment:
1. Approach the aircraft with caution, positioning the fuel truck so that if it is necessary to depart
quickly, no backing will be needed.
2. Set the hand brake of the fuel truck, and chock the wheels to prevent rolling.
3. Ground the aircraft and then ground the truck. Next, ground or bond them together by running a
connecting wire between the aircraft and the fuel truck. This may be done by three separate ground
wires or by a Y cable from the fuel truck.
4. Ensure that the grounds are in contact with bare metal or are in the proper grounding points on the
aircraft. Do not use the engine exhaust or propeller as grounding points. Damage to the propeller can
result, and there is no way of quickly ensuring a positive bond between the engine and the airframe.
5. Ground the nozzle to the aircraft, and then open the fuel tank.
6. Protect the wing and any other item on the aircraft from damage caused by spilled fuel or careless
handling of the nozzle, hose, or grounding wires.
7. Check the fuel cap for proper installation and security before leaving the aircraft.
8. Remove the grounding wires in the reverse order. If the aircraft is not going to be flown or moved
soon, the aircraft ground wire can be left attached.
When fuelling from pits or cabinets, follow the same procedures as when using a truck. Pits or
cabinets are usually designed with permanent grounding, eliminating the need to ground the
equipment. However, the aircraft still must be grounded, and then the equipment must be grounded to
the aircraft as it was with mobile equipment.
10. Explain in detail the procedure of starting the turbo jet aircraft parked in hangar.
(NOV/DEC 2010)
Ans:
Before starting, all protective covers and air inlet duct covers should be removed. If possible,
the aircraft should be headed into the wind to obtain better cooling, faster starting, and smoother
engine performance. It is especially important that the aircraft be headed into the wind if the engine is
to be trimmed.
The run-up area around the aircraft should be cleared of both personnel and loose equipment.
The turbofan engine intake and exhaust hazard areas are illustrated in Figure 11-17. Exercise care to
ensure that the run-up area is clear of all items, such as nuts, bolts, rocks, shop towels, or other loose
debris (FOD). Many very serious accidents have occurred involving personnel in the vicinity of
turbine engine air inlets. Use extreme caution when starting turbine aircraft.
Check the aircraft fuel sumps for water or ice, and inspect the engine air inlet for general
condition and the presence of foreign objects. Visually inspect the fan blades, forward compressor
blades, and the compressor inlet guide vanes for nicks and other damage. If possible, check the fan
blades for free rotation by turning the fan blades by hand. All engine controls should be operated, and
engine instruments and warning lights should be checked for proper operation.
shutoff valve.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
discontinued.
fuel pump inlet.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
UNIT II
PART A
1. State five basic requirements for the successful functioning of a cabin pressurisation and
air conditioning system. (APRIL/MAY 2008)
Ans:
Five Basic Requirements for the successful functioning of a cabin pressurisation and air
conditioning system:
1. SOURCE OF CABIN PRESSURE by either engine driven compressors, or
independent cabin superchargers, or air bled directly from the engine.
2. CONTROLLING PRESSURE- by pressure regulator and an outflow valve.
3. LIMITING PRESSURE - Pressure relief valves and dump valves are used
4. REGULATING TEMPERATURE - by the refrigeration system, heat exchangers control
valves, electrical heating elements and a cabin temperature control system
5. SEALED SECTION OR REDUCTION IN LEAKAGE OF AIR TO MINIMUM - must be
sealed to reduce inadvertent leakage of air to minimum.
2. Enumerate five types of valves commonly used in high pressure gaseous oxygen systems.
(APRIL/MAY 2008)
Ans:
Five Types of Valves Commonly Used in High Pressure Gaseous Oxygen Systems
1. Oxygen system Filler valve
2. Check valve
3. Shut-off valve
4. Pressure reducer valve
5. Pressure Relief valve
3. State the four operational checks carried out in the cabin pressurization system.
(MAY/JUNE 2007)
Ans:
Checking the cabin pressurization system consists of the following:
(1) A check of pressure regulator operation
(2) A check of pressure relief and dump valve operation
(3) A cabin static pressure test and
(4) A cabin dynamic pressure test
4. Explain the sources of cabin pressure(NOV/DEC 2008)
Ans:
SOURCE OF CABIN PRESSURE:
A source of compressed air for pressurization and ventilation. Cabin pressurization sources can
be either engine driven compressors, independent cabin superchargers, or air bled directly from the
engine.
5. What is the function of air conditioning systems? (NOV/DEC 2008)
Ans:
FUNCTIONING OF AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEM:
1. To maintain a comfortable air temperature within the aircraft fuselage.
2. To increase or decrease the temperature of the air as needed to obtain the desired value.
3. Capable of producing an air temperature of 70 deg F or 80 deg F with normally anticipated
outside air temperatures
4. The temperature conditioned air is distributed so that there is a minimum os stratification
(hot or cold layers)
5. Must provide for control of humidity and must prevent fogging of windows and must
maintain the temperature of wall panels & floors at comfortable levels
6. What is the purpose of oxygen system used in the aircraft? (NOV/DEC 2010)
Ans:

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
\ Aircraft oxygen systems are provided to supply the required amount of oxygen to keep a
sufficient concentration of oxygen in the lungs to permit normal activity up to indicated altitudes of
about 40,000 ft.
7. What are the classifications of oxygen system? (NOV/DEC 2010)
Ans:
Oxygen systems classified according to source of oxygen supply may be described as
1. Chemical or solid state
2. Storage gas
3. Liquid Oxygen (LOX) systems
Oxygen systems are also classified according to the type of regulator that controls the flow of oxygen.
1. Continuous flow type
2. Demand and dilute regulators
3. Pressure demand regulators
8. Explain the term oxygen hazard? (NOV/DEC 2010)
Ans:
Oxygen Hazards:
Gaseous oxygen is chemically stable and is non-flammable. However, combustible materials
ignite more rapidly and burn with greater intensity in an oxygen rich atmosphere. In addition, oxygen
combines with oil, grease, or bituminous material to form a highly explosive mixture, which is
sensitive to compression or impact. Physical damage to, or failure of oxygen containers, valves, or
plumbing can result in an explosive rupture, with extreme danger to life and property. It is imperative
that the highest standard of cleanliness be observed in handling oxygen and that only qualified and
authorized persons be permitted to service aircraft gaseous oxygen systems.
9. Why is flow indicators used in oxygen system? (NOV/DEC 2010)
Ans:
Flow indicators are used in oxygen systems to give visual indications that oxygen is flowing
through regulator. They do not show how much oxygen is flowing. Furthermore, their operation does
not indicate that the user is getting enough oxygen. The fig shows the blinker type flow indicator, the
eye opens and closes each time the user inhales and exhales. To check the flow indicator, set the
diluter lever to 100% oxygen and take several normal breaths from the mask to regulator hose. If the
blinker opens and closes easily with each breath it is in operating condition.
10. What is the function of water separator in the cabin air conditioning system (NOV/DEC
2010)
Ans:
Water separators are used in the cabin air conditioning system to remove excessive moisture
from the air. In most refrigeration systems a water separator is installed in the discharge duct of the
cooling turbine. Also, since very little moisture is present in the air at high altitudes, permit cold air
to pass directly, through the water separator, bypassing the coalescent bag and reducing system back
pressure.
11. What are the factors to make the cabin air contaminated with fumes? (Apr/May 2010)
Ans:
1. Super chargers and turbochargers have disadvantages in that fumes and oil can be
introduced into the pressurized air and foul the cabin air.
2. The possibility of contamination of air from lubricants or fuel in the event of leakage
when turbine engine compressors are used.
3. Dependence of air supply on the engine performance

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
PART B
1. State the three steps followed in trouble shooting of cabin pressurization? List out the
possible causes, isolation procedure and correction of the following trouble if occurred in
cabin pressurization. Cabin temperature too high or too low (will not respond to control
during auto operation) (MAY/JUNE 2007)
Ans:
Trouble shooting of cabin pressurization system:
It consists of the following steps:
(1) Establishing the existence of trouble
(2) Determining all possible cause of the trouble and
(3) Identifying or isolating the specific cause of the trouble
1. Conduct a visual inspection. This inspection should be thorough and searching- checking
all lines, linkages, and components for obvious damage, evidence of leakage, looseness, security,
material condition, and proper installation; and servicing when applicable.
2. Conduct an operational check. The malfunctioning system or subsystem is checked for
proper operation. This may be accomplished by using special support equipment such as the
environmental control test set or by using aircraft power and equipment with the engines running.
Each aircraft maintenance manual provides the steps to be taken in performing the operational
checkout of all the aircraft's systems. The operational checks and troubleshooting charts for each
system are numbered so that when a malfunction occurs during a step in the operational checkout, the
malfunction can be located under the same step number in the troubleshooting chart. The
troubleshooting chart will provide a list of the most probable causes of the malfunction in the order of
probability, along with a recommended remedy.
3. Classify the trouble. Malfunctions usually fall into three basic categories- electrical,
mechanical, and/ or improper installation. Using the information acquired in steps 1 and 2, and
determines under which category the malfunction occurs. Proper use of the test set or a millimeter will
identify whether the trouble is electrical or mechanical. Something affecting the flow of gas or liquid
(as could be the case in the vapor cycle ACS) could be categorized as a combination electrical/
mechanical failure. Most mechanical failures should be found on the visual inspection; however, drive
shaft failure on some of the air-conditioning valves is not readily apparent until the valve is operated.
In some cases it may even be necessary to disconnect the valve from the ducting so that the butterfly
valve can be observed through the end opening. The position indicator on some valves can indicate
that the valve is changing positions, which would be a false indication if the shaft was broken after the
indicating mechanism, or if the butterfly valve was damaged in such a manner that the shaft would
rotate without actually repositioning the valve.
4. Isolate the trouble. This step calls for sound reasoning and a full and complete knowledge
of how each component and the system should operate. The system schematics to trace system
operation and systematically eliminate components. At a reasonable conclusion concerning the cause
of the malfunction based on facts and deductive reasoning. Usually the trouble can be pinned down to
one or two areas. By checking each individual area or component, the trouble can be isolated.
5. Locate the trouble. This step is used to eliminate unnecessary parts removal, thus saving
time, money, and man-hours. Once isolated the trouble to a certain area or component, a closer
observation of the valve or component in operation should provide some obvious indication that it is
not operating as specified.
6. Correct the trouble. This step is performed only after the trouble has been definitely pin-
pointed and there is no doubt that the diagnosis is correct. Removal, replacement, or repair of the unit
or system is done using the instructions provided in the applicable aircraft manual.
NOTE: While performing maintenance on any system, ensure that the step-by-step procedures
outlined in the MIM including CAUTIONS, WARNINGS, and SAFETY notes concerning the
specific procedures are strictly complied with.
7. Conduct a final operational check. The affected component or system must be given an
operational check following installation or repair to verify proper system or component operation. The

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Manual will provide the procedures for conducting the operational check. It will usually require
operation of the system in various modes (manual and automatic for air-conditioning and
pressurization systems) or through several cycles, as applicable. Specified steps throughout the repair
procedure and operational check must be observed and certified.
S.No. Possible Cause Isolation Procedure Correction

1 Trouble: cabin temperature too high or too low (will not responds to control during auto
operation)
1A Defective temperature Place the system in manual If system operates correctly
sensor position and rotate air replace temp sensor with one
temperature knob manually known to be operative and
check system again in auto
operation
1B Power supply not Place the system in manual If system operates correctly
reaching to temperature position and rotate air find out the supply reaching to
sensor or sensor covered temperature knob manually the sensor point of connection
with dust or dirty and its cleanliness, remove the
dust or clean the contact and
outer cover of sensor and
check system again in auto
operation
1C Defective auto/manual Check the serviceability of If system operates correctly
switch (temperature temperature sensor, if it is replace auto/manual switch
control switch) serviceable, place the system (temperature control switch)
in manual position and rotate with one known to be
air temperature knob manually operative and check system
again in auto operation
2.* Trouble: cabin temperature too high or too low (will not responds to control during auto
or Manual operation
Defective temperature With system being operated If the valve is not opening and
controller or in manual position and the closing according to control
refrigeration bypass cabin air temperature control settings disconnect electrical
valve inoperative knob being cycled between plug from valve solenoid and
cold or hot. Observe the check the power source. If the
valve position indicator valve position indicates that the
(located on the valve) valve is opening and closing
according to control settings,
continue with the next trouble
shooting items
NB: *trouble no 2 is given for your study purpose
2. Explain the checks carried out on cabin air conditioning and pressurization system.
(April /May 2004) or
Describe the procedures in carrying out two operational checks on a cabin air conditioning
and pressurization system. (NOV/DEC 2008)
Ans:
Two operational checks can be performed on a cabin air conditioning and pressurization
system.
1. A general operational check of the complete system, designed to ensure the proper
operation of each major system component as well as the complete system.
2. A cabin pressurization check designed to check the cabin for air-tightness.
To operationally check the air-conditioning system, either operate the engines or provide the
necessary ground support equipment recommended by the aircraft manufacturer.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
With system controls positioned to provide cold air ensure that cold air is flowing from the cabin
distribution outlets. Position the system controls to provide heated air and check to see that there is an
increase in the temperature of the airflow from the distribution outlets.
1. A check of pressure regulator operation
2. A check of pressure relief and dump valve operation
3. A cabin static pressure test, and
4. A cabin dynamic pressure test.
To check the pressure regulator, connect an air test stand and a monometer (a gauge for
measuring pressure, usually inches of Hg) to the appropriate test adapter fittings. With an external
source electrical power connected, position the system controls as required. Then pressurize the cabin
to 7.13 in.Hg, which is equivalent to 3.5 p.s.i. The pressurization settings and tolerances presented
here are for illustrative purposes only. Consult the applicable maintenance manual the settings for a
particular make and model aircraft. Continue to pressurize the cabin, checking to see that the cabin
pressure regulator maintains this pressure.
The complete check of this pressure relief and dump valve consists of three individual checks.
First with the air test stand connected to pressurize the cabin, position the cabin pressure selector
switch to dump the cabin air. If cabin pressure decreases to less than 0.3 in.Hg (0.15 psi) through both
the pressure relief and dump valves, the valves are dumping pressure properly. Second, using the air
test stand, re-pressurize the cabin. Then position the manual dump valve to dump. A lowering of the
cabin pressure to 0.3 in.Hg (0.15 psi) and airflow through the pressure relief and dump valve indicate
that the manual dumping function of this valve is satisfactory. Third, position the master pressure
regulator shutoff valve to all off. Operation of the pressure relief and dump valves to maintain this
pressure indicates that the relief function of the cabin pressure relief and dump valves is satisfactory.
The cabin static pressure test checks the fuselage for structural integrity. To perform this test,
connect the air test stand and pressurize the fuselage to 10.20 in.Hg. Check the aircraft skin exterior
for cracks, distortion, bulging and river condition.
Pressure checking the fuselage for air leakage is called a cabin pressure dynamic pressure test.
This check consists of pressurizing the cabin to a specific pressure using an air test stand. Then with a
monometer, determine the rate of air pressure leakage within a certain time limit specified in the
aircraft maintenance manual. If leakage is excessive, large leaks can be located by sound or by feel.
Small leaks can be detected using a bubble solution or a cabin leakage tester.
A careful observation of the fuselage exterior, prior to its being washed, may also reveal
small leaks around rivets, seams, or minute skin cracks. A telltale stain will be at the leak area.
3. Explain detail about vapour cycle system (Freon) used in transport aircraft?
(APRIL/MAY 2008) or
With the aid of a sketch explain the operation of vapour cycle air conditioning system
(NOV/DEC 2010)
Ans:
VAPOR CYCLE SYSTEM (FERON):
Vapour cycle cooling systems are used on several large transport aircraft. This system usually
has a greater cooling capacity than an air cycle system, and in addition, can usually be used for
cooling on the ground when the engines are not operating.
An aircraft Freon system is basically similar in principle to the kitchen refrigerator or the home
air conditioner. It uses similar components and operating principles and in most cases depends upon
the electrical system for power.
PRINCIPLES OF VAPOR CYCLE SYSTEM:
1. As liquids change to a gas, they absorb heat, called the latent heat of vaporization.
2. As a given quantity of gas is condensed to a liquid, it emits heat in the same amount that it
absorbs when being changed from liquid to a gas.
3. When a gas is compressed, its temperature increases and when the pressure on the gas on
decreased its temperature decreases.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
4. Another law of science used in the vapour cycle cooling system is that when two materials
have difference temperature and heat is free to flow between them they will attempt to
equalize.
5. Heat transfers only from a material having a given temperature to a material having a low
temperature.
MECHANISM:
A vapour cycle cooling system takes the advantage if the above said laws of nature
using two heat exchangers to control the temperature of the cockpit and cabin.
One heat exchanger takes the heat from the closed system called evaporator. The other
draws heat from the air and adds it to the closed system called a condenser.
The refrigerant is a special fluid called Freon which takes two forms liquid and gas.
The cooling process starts at the compressor, which pushes the refrigerant under
pressure through the entire system.
As a gas enters the condenser, heat is drawn from the refrigerant and passed to the
atmosphere. The cooling of the refrigerant causes it to condense into a liquid. Because of
compressor this liquid is under pressure.
The pressurized liquid is then metered into tiny droplets by an expansion valve.
Because of the change in the form, the pressure pass the expansion valve is lowered.
The droplets then enter the evaporator where they draw heat from the air and then
change into a gas.
As a result of heat being drawn from the air, its temperature is decreased: it is this
cooled air that is introduced into the cabin for cooling.
A more detailed description of a vapour cycle system components are as follows:
FREON SYSTEM COMPONENTS:
The major components of a typical Freon system are the evaporator, condenser and expansion
valve. Other minor items may include the condenser fan, receiver (Freon storage), dryer, surge valve,
and temperature controls. These items are interconnected by appropriate tubing to form a close loop in
which the Freon is circulated during operation.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
4. Describe the procedure of purging the oxygen system. Explain the measures adopted to
carryout inspection and maintenance of oxygen system. (NOV/DEC 2008)
Ans:
Purging the oxygen system:
An oxygen system needs to be purged if:
1. It has been depleted and not recharged with in 2 hrs
2. If any line or component is replaced requiring the draining or opening at the
system for more than 2 hrs or
3. It is suspected that the system has been contaminated.
The main cause of contamination in the system is moisture. Moisture in the system may be due
to damp charging equipment. In very cold weather the small amount of moisture contained in
breathing oxygen can cause contamination, due to repeated charging.
Although the introduction of moisture into the aircraft oxygen system can be considerably
reduced by using the correct charging procedure, cumulative condensation in the system by using the
correct charging procedure, cumulative condensation in the system cannot be entirely avoided. There
have been instances where oxygen systems unused for long periods, have developed an unpleasant
odor which necessitated purging to clear the system moisture.
The procedure for purging may vary somewhat with each aircraft model. Generally speaking,
on aircraft having the filler lines and the distribution lines commonly connected to one end of the
storage cylinder, the system can be purged by filling the system with oxygen and then draining it at
least three times.
On aircraft that have the filler lines connected on one end of the cylinder and distribution lines
connected to the opposite end of the cylinder, purge the system as follows:
Will all regulator emergency valves open; pass oxygen at a pressure of 50 psi, at the filler
valve through the system for at least 30 minute. Perform this job in a well ventilated area and observe
all fire precautions.
Dry nitrogen and/or dry air may also be used to purge oxygen systems. All open lines must be
capped after use, also the system lines musty be purged of the nitrogen by use of oxygen.
Oxygen system inspection and maintenance:
Oxygen system inspection and maintenance should be accomplished according to these
precautionary measures and any in addition to the manufacturers instructions.
1. Never attempt maintenance until oxygen supply is turned off.
2. Fittings should be unscrewed slowly to allow residual pressure to dissipate.
3. Plug or cap all open lines immediately.
4. Do not use masking tape to seal openings: use caps or plugs designed for that purpose
5. Maintain at least 2 inches clearance between oxygen lines and all moving equipment/parts
with in the aircraft to prevent the possibility of wearing oxygen lines.
6. Maintain at least 2 inches clearance between oxygen lines and all electrical wiring in the
aircraft.
7. Provide adequate clearance between oxygen lines and all hot ducts, conduits and equipment
to prevent heating of the oxygen system
8. Maintain at least 2 inches clearance between oxygen lines and all oil, fuel, hydraulic or other
fluid lines to prevent contamination.
9. Do not use lubricants unless specifically approved for oxygen system use.
10. A pressure and leak check must be performed each time the system is opened for
maintenance.
5. Describe the maintenance procedure of an air-conditioning system of an aircraft (8).
What are the inspection and checks being carried out a pressurization of an aircraft?
Explain (8). (APRIL/MAY 2010)
Ans:
The maintenance required on air conditioning and pressurization systems varies with each
aircraft model. This maintenance follows procedures given in the appropriate aircraft manufacturer or
equipment manufacturers maintenance manuals. It usually consists of inspections, servicing,

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
removing, minor repairs, replacement of component parts, performing operational checks and trouble
shooting for the isolation and correction of troubles within the system.
SERVICING:
Each refrigeration unit contains Freon for absorbing heat, plus oil mixed with Freon for
lubricating the compressor motor bearings. If there is insufficient Freon in the unit, it is incapable of
absorbing heat from the air going to the cabin. If there is insufficient oil, the motor bearings will over-
heat and eventually cause unsatisfactory compressor operation. It is important that sufficient amounts
of Freon and oil be in the unit at all times.
In contrast to a hydraulic system where the circuits consist of closed loops containing fluid at
all times, a Freon loop contains quantities of both liquid and vapour. This, in-addition to the fact that
it is unpredictable exactly where in the system the liquid will be at any one instant, makes it difficult
to check the quantity of Freon in the system.
Regardless of the amount of Freon in the complete system, the liquid level can vary
significantly, depending on the operating conditions. For this reason, a standard set of conditions
should be obtained when checking the Freon level. These conditions are specified by the
manufacturer and, as mentioned previously, vary from aircraft to aircraft.
To check the Freon level, it is necessary to operate the refrigeration unit for approximately
five minutes to reach a stable condition. If the system uses a sight glass, observe the flow of Freon
through the sight glass. A steady flow indicates that a sufficient charge is present. If the Freon charge
is low, bubbles will appear in the sight glass
When adding Freon to a system, add as much oil as is felt was lost with the Freon being
replaced. It is impossible to determine accurately the amount of oil left in a Freon charge. However
based on experience, most manufacturers have established procedures for adding oil. The amount of
oil to be added is governed by:
1) The amount of Freon to be added
2) Whether the system has lost all of its charge and has been purged and evacuated
3) Whether topping charge is to be added or
4) Whether major components of the system have been changed.
Usually one fourth ounce of oil is added for each ounce of Freon added to the system. When
changing a component, an additional amount of oil is added to replace that which is trapped in the
replaced component.
Oil for lubrication of the compressor expansion valve and associated seals must be sealed in
the system. The oil used is a special highly refined mineral oil free from wax, water and sulphur.
Always use the oil specified in the manufacturer maintenance manual for a specific system.
Whenever a Freon system is opened for maintenance, a portion of the Freon and oil will be
lost. Replenishment of the Freon and oil is a must for efficient system operation. This requires the use
of a special set of gages (manifold) and interconnected hoses.
Whenever a Freon system is to be opened for maintenance it is necessary to purge the system.
The manifold set is connected except the centre hose is not yet connected to the vacuum pump. Cover
the centre hose with clean shop towel, open both valves slowly. This will permit the gas the gas to
escape but will not blow the oil from the system. When both gases read zero, the system may be
opened.
Only few drops of moisture will contaminate and completely block and air-conditioning
system. If this moisture freezes in the expansion valve, the action stops. Water is removed from the
system by evacuation. Anytime the system has been opened it must be evacuated before recharging.
The compressor is a sealed unit in the refrigeration system. Any time the system is evacuated
the oil quantity must be checked. Remove the filler plug and using the proper type dip stick, check the
oil quantity. It should be maintained in the proper range using oil recommended by the manufacturer.
After adding oil, replace the filler plug and recharge the system.
INSPECTION AND CHEKCING:
INSPECTION:
Periodically inspect the system for component security and visible defects. Particular attention
should be paid to the heat exchangers for signs of structural fatigue adjacent to welds. The ducting

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
should be securely attached and adequately supported. Insulating blankets must be in good repair and
secured around the ducting.
CHEKCING:
Two operational checks can be performed on a cabin air conditioning and pressurization
system.
1. A general operational check of the complete system, designed to ensure the proper
operation of each major system component as well as the complete system.
2. A cabin pressurization check designed to check the cabin for air-tightness.
To operationally check the air-conditioning system, either operate the engines or provide the
necessary ground support equipment recommended by the aircraft manufacturer.
With system controls positioned to provide cold air ensure that cold air is flowing from the cabin
distribution outlets. Position the system controls to provide heated air and check to see that there is an
increase in the temperature of the airflow from the distribution outlets.
1. A check of pressure regulator operation
2. A check of pressure relief and dump valve operation
3. A cabin static pressure test, and
4. A cabin dynamic pressure test.
To check the pressure regulator, connect an air test stand and a monometer (a gauge for
measuring pressure, usually inches of Hg) to the appropriate test adapter fittings. With an external
source electrical power connected, position the system controls as required. Then pressurize the cabin
to 7.13 in.Hg, which is equivalent to 3.5 p.s.i. The pressurization settings and tolerances presented
here are for illustrative purposes only. Consult the applicable maintenance manual the settings for a
particular make and model aircraft. Continue to pressurize the cabin, checking to see that the cabin
pressure regulator maintains this pressure.
The complete check of this pressure relief and dump valve consists of three individual checks.
First with the air test stand connected to pressurize the cabin, position the cabin pressure selector
switch to dump the cabin air. If cabin pressure decreases to less than 0.3 in.Hg (0.15 psi) through both
the pressure relief and dump valves, the valves are dumping pressure properly. Second, using the air
test stand, re-pressurize the cabin. Then position the manual dump valve to dump. A lowering of the
cabin pressure to 0.3 in.Hg (0.15 psi) and airflow through the pressure relief and dump valve indicate
that the manual dumping function of this valve is satisfactory. Third, position the master pressure
regulator shutoff valve to all off. Operation of the pressure relief and dump valves to maintain this
pressure indicates that the relief function of the cabin pressure relief and dump valves is satisfactory.
The cabin static pressure test checks the fuselage for structural integrity. To perform this test,
connect the air test stand and pressurize the fuselage to 10.20 in.Hg. Check the aircraft skin exterior
for cracks, distortion, bulging and river condition.
Pressure checking the fuselage for air leakage is called a cabin pressure dynamic pressure test.
This check consists of pressurizing the cabin to a specific pressure using an air test stand. Then with a
monometer, determine the rate of air pressure leakage within a certain time limit specified in the
aircraft maintenance manual. If leakage is excessive, large leaks can be located by sound or by feel.
Small leaks can be detected using a bubble solution or a cabin leakage tester.
A careful observation of the fuselage exterior, prior to its being washed, may also reveal
small leaks around rivets, seams, or minute skin cracks. A telltale stain will be at the leak area.
6. Write short notes on : (1) Maintenance of aircraft hydraulic system (8)
(2) Maintenance of oil system (8) (APRIL/MAY 2010)
Ans: (1) Maintenance of aircraft hydraulic system:
Maintenance consists of inspections, minor repairs, replacement of component parts, and
testing
The maintenance of hydraulic systems should be performed at the intervals in accordance with
the aircraft manufacturers manual. The following are the general practices followed when dealing
with hydraulic systems.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
1. When servicing the hydraulic reservoir the technician must make certain to use the correct
type of fluid.
2. Hydraulic fluid type can be identified by colour and smell: however it is good practice to
take fluid from an original marked container and then to check the fluid by colour and
smell for verification.
3. Fluid container should always be closed except when fluid is being removed. This practice
reduces the possibility of contamination
4. When the system has lost substantial amount of fluid and air has entered the system it is
necessary to fill the reservoir purge the system of air then add fluid to full mark on the
reservoir
5. When the cleaning filters or replacing filter elements be sure there is no pressure on the
filter
6. When changing hydraulic filters, wear the appropriate protective clothing and use face
shield as necessary to prevent fluid from contracting the eye.
7. After filters have been cleaned or replaced the system may have to be pressure checked to
locate any leaks in the filter assembly.
8. Hydraulic fluid leaks are readily apparent because of the appearance of fluid.
9. When inspection of hydraulic filters indicates that the fluid is contaminated flushing the
system is necessary.
10. There is an element of danger in maintaining accumulators. Therefore, proper precautions
must be strictly observed to prevent injury and damage.
11. BEFORE DISASSEMBLING ANY ACCUMULATOR MAKE SURE THAT ALL
PERLOAD AIR OR NITROGEN PRESSURE HAS BEEN DISCHARGED
12. Failure to release the air could result in serious injury to the mechanic. (Before making this
check, however be certain to know the type of high pressure air valve used)
13. When all air pressure has been removed, go ahead and take the unit apart.
14. Hydraulic systems are inspected for leakage worn or damaged tubing, worn or damaged
hoses, wear of moving parts, security mounting for all units, safe-tying and any other
conditions specified by the maintenance manual.
15. An operational check of the system can be performed using the engine driven pump, an
electrically operated auxiliary pump if such a pump is included in the system or a ground
test unit.
16. The entire system or each sub system should be checked for smooth operations, unusual
noises and speed of operations for each time.
17. The pressure section of the system should be checked with no sub systems to see that
pressure holds for the required time without the pump supplying the system.
18. System pressure should be observed during operation of each subsystem to see that the
engine driven pump will maintain the required pressure.
(2) Maintenance of oil system:
The engine oil system performs several important functions, including:
1. Lubrication of the engine's moving parts.
2. Cooling of the engine by reducing friction.
3. Removing heat from the cylinders.
4. Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons.
5. Carrying away contaminants.
Reciprocating engines use either a wet-sump or dry-sump oil system. In a dry-sump system,
the oil is contained in a separate tank, and circulated through the engine by pumps. In a wet-sump
system, the oil is located in a sump, which is an integral part of the engine.
The main component of a wet-sump system is the oil pump, which draws oil from the sump
and routes it to the engine.
After the oil passes through the engine, it returns to the sump. In some engines, additional
lubrication is supplied by the rotating crankshaft, which splashes oil onto portions of the engine.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
An oil pump also supplies oil pressure in a dry-sump system, but the source of the oil is a
separate oil tank, located external to the engine. After oil is routed through the engine, it is pumped
from the various locations in the engine back to the oil tank by scavenge pumps.
Dry sump systems allow for a greater volume of oil to be supplied to the engine, which makes
them more suitable for very large reciprocating engines.
The oil pressure gauge provides a direct indication of the oil system operation. It measures the
pressure in pounds per square inch (p.s.i.) of the oil supplied to the engine. Green indicates the normal
operating range, while red indicates the minimum and maximum pressures.
There should be an indication of oil pressure during engine start. Refer to the AFM/POH for
manufacturer limitations.
The oil temperature gauge measures the temperature of oil. A green area shows the normal
operating range and the red line indicates the maximum allowable temperature. Unlike oil pressure,
changes in oil temperature occur more slowly.
This is particularly noticeable after starting a cold engine, when it may take several minutes or
longer for the gauge to show any increase in oil temperature.
Check oil temperature periodically during flight especially when operating in high or low
ambient air temperature. High temperature indications may indicate a plugged oil line, a low oil
quantity, a blocked oil cooler, or a defective temperature gauge.
Low temperature indications may indicate improper oil viscosity during cold weather
operations.
The oil filler cap and dipstick (for measuring the oil quantity) are usually accessible through a
panel in the engine cowling.
If the quantity does not meet the manufacturer's recommended operating levels, oil should be
added.
The AFM, POH, or placards near the access panel provide information about the correct oil
type and weight, as well as the minimum and maximum oil quantity.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
UNIT III
PART A
1. Define maintenance safety. (APRIL/MAY 2008)
What is meant by maintenance safety? (NOV/DEC 2010)
Ans:
Good housekeeping in hangars, shops, and on the flight line is essential to safety and efficient
maintenance. The highest standards of orderly work arrangements and cleanliness should be observed
during the maintenance of aircraft. Where continuous work shifts are established, the outgoing shift
should remove and properly store personal tools, rollaway boxes, all work stands, maintenance stands,
hoses, eIectrica1 cords, hoists, crates, and boxes that are superfluous to the work to be accomplished.
2. Enumerate the safety precautions while handling compressed air system. (APR/MAY 2008)
Ans:
Compressed air is like electricity-an excellent tool as long as it is under control.
Safety Precautions While Handling Compressed Air System:
1. Air hoses should be inspected frequently for breaks and worn spots. Unsafe hose should be
replaced immediately.
2. All connections should be kept in a no leak condition.
3. In line oilers, if installed, should be maintained in operating condition.
4. The system should have water sumps installed and they should be drained at regular
intervals.
5. Air used for paint spraying should be filtered to remove oil and water.
6. Never use compressed air to clean hands or clothing. Pressure can force debris into the flesh
leading to infection.
7. Never use compressed air for horse play.
8. Air hoses should be straightened, coiled, and properly stored when not in use.
3. What is meant by SHOP SAFETY? (NOV/DEC 2008)
What is shop safety? (APRIL/MAY 2010)
Ans:
1. Keeping hangars, shop and the flight line orderly clean is safety.
2. The shift personnel should store personal tools, rollaway boxes, all work stands, hoses,
electrical cords Hoists crates and boxes.
3. Signings should be posted at critical points indicating dangerous equipment.
4. Safety lanes, walkways and fire lanes should be painted.
5. SAFETY MEASURES TO PREVENT ACCIDENT.
4. Enumerate the safety precautions to be followed while performing welding operation in a
serviceable aircraft. (NOV/DEC 2008)
Ans:
Welding on an aircraft should be performed outside if possible. If welding in the hangar is
necessary, these precautions should be observed:
1. No open fuel tanks or work on fuel systems should be in progress.
2. No painting in progress.
3. No aircraft within 35 feet.
4. Immaculate housekeeping should prevail around the welding area.
5. Only qualified welders should be permitted to do the work.
6. The area should be roped off and placard.
7. Fire extinguishing equipment of a minimum rating of 20B should be in the immediate area
with 80B rated equipment as a backup.
8. There should be trained fire watches in attendance at the above equipment.
9. Aircraft should be in towable condition, with a tug attached, aircraft brakes off, and a
qualified operator on the tug with mechanics available to assist in the towing operation.
10. Hangar doors should be opened.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
5. List out the six precautionary measures to be followed for Oxygen Service Safety.
(MAY/JUNE 2007)
Ans:
Before servicing any aircraft oxygen system,
1. Consult the specific aircraft maintenance manual to determine the proper type of servicing
equipment to be used.
2. Two persons are required to service an aircraft with gaseous oxygen.
3. One man should be stationed at the control valves of the servicing equipment and one man
stationed where he can observe the pressure in the aircraft system.
4. Communication between the two men is required in case of an emergency.
5. Aircraft should not be serviced, with oxygen during fuelling, defueling, or other
maintenance work which could provide a source of ignition.
6. Oxygen servicing of aircraft should be accomplished outside hangars.
6. Explain about Oxygen Hazards in environmental cleanliness. (MAY/JUNE 2007)
Ans:
Oxygen Hazards:
Gaseous oxygen is chemically stable and is non-flammable. However, combustible materials ignite
more rapidly and burn with greater intensity in an oxygen rich atmosphere. In addition, oxygen
7. State the precautions to be taken before starting electrical work in an aircraft.
(April/MAY 2010)
Ans:
When electricity is applied to human body, it can create severe burns.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BEFORE STARTING ELECTRICAL WORK IN AN
AIRCRAFT:
1. Electrician should wear proper safety Equipment to protect him.
2. The use of rubber cloves, safety glasses, Rubber or grounded safety mats contribute
to physiological safety.
3. OVERCONFIDENCE SHOULD BE AVOIDED.
4. SHOULD HAVE ADEQUATE KNOWLEDGE.
PART B
1. Discuss in brief about shop safety precautions? (April /May 2004)

State the precautions undertaken for maintaining an aero workshop. (NOV/DEC 2008)
Describe the safety aspects of the aero workshop? (April /May 2010)
Ans:
Shop Safety precautions:
1. Keeping hangars, shop and the flight line orderly clean is safety.
2. The shift personnel should store personal tools, rollaway boxes, all work stands, hoses,
electrical cords Hoists crates and boxes.
3. Signings should be posted at critical points indicating dangerous equipment.
4. Safety lanes, walkways and fire lanes should be painted.
5. SAFETY MEASURES TO PREVENT ACCIDENT
Keeping hangars, shop, and the flight line orderly and clean is essential to safety and efficient
maintenance.
The highest standards of orderly work arrangements and cleanliness should be observed during
the maintenance of aircraft.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Where continuous work shifts are established, the outgoing shift should remove and properly
store personal tools, rollaway boxes, all work stands, maintenance stands, hoses, electrical cords,
hoists, crates, and boxes that were needed for the work to be accomplished.
Signs should be posted to indicate dangerous equipment or hazardous conditions. There should
also be signs that provide the location of first aid and fire equipment.
Safety lanes, pedestrian walkways, and fire lanes should be painted around the perimeter inside
the hangars. This is a safety measure to prevent accidents and to keep pedestrian traffic out of work
areas. Safety is everyones business, and communication is key to ensuring everyones safety.
Technicians and supervisors should watch for their own safety and for the safety of others working
around them. If other personnel are conducting their actions in an unsafe manner, communicate with
them, reminding them of their safety and that of others around them.
Electrical Safety
Physiological Safety
Working with electrical equipment poses certain physiological safety hazards. It is known that
when electricity is applied to the human body, it can create severe burns in the area of entrance to and
at the point of exit from the body. In addition, the nervous system is affected and can be damaged or
destroyed.
To safely deal with electricity, the technician must have a working knowledge of the principles
of electricity, and a healthy respect for its capability to do both work and damage.
Wearing or use of proper safety equipment can provide a psychological assurance at the same
time it physically protects the user. The use of rubber gloves, safety glasses, rubber or grounded safety
mats, and other safety equipment contributes to the physiological safety of the technician working on
or with electrical equipment.
Two factors that affect safety when dealing with electricity are fear and overconfidence. These
two factors are major causes of accidents involving electricity.
While both a certain amount of respect for electrical equipment is healthy and a certain level of
confidence is necessary, extremes of either can be deadly.
Overconfidence leads to risk taking. The technician who does not respect the capabilities of
electricity will, sooner or later, become a victim of electricitys awesome power.
Fire Safety
Anytime current flows, whether during generation or transmission, a byproduct of that flow is
heat. The greater the current flow, the greater the amount of heat created. When this heat becomes too
great, protective coatings on wiring and other electrical devices can melt, causing shorting, which
leads to more current flow and greater heat. This heat can become so great that metals can melt,
liquids vaporize, and flammable substances ignite.
An important factor in preventing electrical fires is to keep the area around electrical work or
electrical equipment clean, uncluttered, and free of all unnecessary flammable substances.
Ensure that all power cords, wires, and lines are free of kinks and bends which can damage the
wire.
Safety around Compressed Gases
Compressed air, like electricity, is an excellent tool as long as it is under control. A typical
nitrogen bottle set.
Safety around Hazardous Materials
Material safety diamonds are very important with regard to shop safety. These forms and
labels are a simple and quick way to determine the risk and, if used properly with the tags, will
indicate what personal safety equipment to use with the hazardous material.
Safety around Machine Tools
Hazards in a shops operation increase when the operation of lathes, drill presses, grinders, and
other types of machines are used. Each machine has its own set of safety practices. The following
discussions regarding precautions should be followed to avoid injury.
2. How oxygen fires or explosions are prevented? Explain the precautionary measures
followed during maintenance and inspection of oxygen system. (April /May 2004)
Ans:

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
ignite more rapidly and burn with greater intensity in an oxygen-rich atmosphere. In addition, oxygen
In addition to aggravating the fire hazard, because of its low temperature (it boils at 297 F),
liquid oxygen causes severe burns (frostbite) if it comes in contact with the skin.
Before servicing any aircraft oxygen system, consult the specific aircraft maintenance manual to
determine the proper type of servicing equipment to be used.
PREVENTION OF OXYGEN FIRES OR EXPLOSIONS as follows:
Many materials particularly oils, grease, and non metallic materials are likely to burn when
exposed to oxygen under pressure. To avoid fire or an explosion it is essential that all oxygen
equipment be kept be clean and free from oil or grease.
An oxygen fire or explosion depends on a combination of oxygen, a combustible material and
heat. The danger of ignition is in direct ratio to the concentration of oxygen and the temperature of the
oxygen and material. Oxygen itself does not burn but it supports and intensifies a fire with any
combustible material.
When working on an oxygen system it is essential that the warnings and precautions given in the
aircraft maintenance manual be carefully observed. In general, before any work is attempted on an
oxygen system the following fire precautions should be taken:
1. Provide adequate fire fighting equipment.
2. Display No Smoking placards.
3. Avoid checking aircraft radio or electrical system.
4. Keep all tools and oxygen servicing equipment free from oil or grease.
15. Maintain at least 2 inches clearance between oxygen lines and all moving equipment/parts
with in the aircraft to prevent the possibility of wearing oxygen lines.
aircraft.
17. Provide adequate clearance between oxygen lines and all hot ducts, conduits and equipment
to prevent heating of the oxygen system
18. Maintain at least 2 inches clearance between oxygen lines and all oil, fuel, hydraulic or other
fluid lines to prevent contamination.
maintenance.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
3. How many persons are required for servicing the oxygen system in an aircraft? State the
procedures and precautions to be followed while servicing? (April /May 2004)
Ans:
4. Discuss in detail the servicing of oxygen system (Nov /Dec 2010)
Ans:
Before servicing any aircraft oxygen system, consult the specific aircraft maintenance manual
to determine the proper type of servicing equipment to be used.
4. Aircraft should not be serviced, with oxygen during fuelling, de-fuelling, or other
PREVENTION OF OXYGEN FIRES OR EXPLOSIONS as follows:
5. Maintain at least 2 inches clearance between oxygen lines and all moving
equipment/parts with in the aircraft to prevent the possibility of wearing oxygen lines.
aircraft.
7. Provide adequate clearance between oxygen lines and all hot ducts, conduits and
equipment to prevent heating of the oxygen system
8. Maintain at least 2 inches clearance between oxygen lines and all oil, fuel, hydraulic or
other fluid lines to prevent contamination.
maintenance.
Gaseous oxygen servicing trailers:
Even though several types of servicing trailers are in use, each recharging system contains
supply cylinders, various types of valves, and a manifold that connects the high pressure cylinders to a
purifier assembly. In the purifier assembly, moisture is removed from the oxygen. Coarse particles are
trapped in the filter before reaching a reducing valve. The reducing valve has two gauges which are

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
used to monitor inlet and outlet pressures respectively. The reading valve also has an adjusting screw
for regulating the out let pressure. This pressure is discharged into flexible hose which connects to the
charging valve and adapter. The charging valve controls, oxygen flowing away from the servicing
trailer and the adapter connects the recharging equipment to the aircraft filler valve.
On many aircraft a chart is located adjacent to the filler valve which shows the safe maximum
charging pressure for the ambient temperature. This must be observed when charging the system.
Leak testing gaseous oxygen system:
This is performed at differential times, depending on the inspection requirements for the
particular type of aircraft. The system is allowed to cool usually one hour after filling before the
pressures and temperatures are recorded. After several hours have elapsed they are recorded again.
Some manufacturers recommend a six hour wait others 24 hrs wait. The recorded pressures are then
corrected for any change in temperature since filling. The figure shows here is typical of the graphs
provided in the aircraft maintenance manual to aid in making pressure/temperature corrections.
As an example for using the chart assume that the oxygen system was recently charged. An
hour later, the oxygen pressure gauge read 425 psi. at a temperature of 72F. When the pressure gauge
was read 6 hrs later the pressure was 430 psi with the temperature of 79F.
When oxygen is being lost from a system through leakage the gauge reading will be less than
shown on the pressure/temperature correction chart. Leakage can often be detected by listening for the
distinct hissing sound of escaping gas. If the leak cannot be located by listening, it will be necessary
to soap test all lines and connections with a castile soap and water solution or specially compounded
leak test material. To make this check, apply the test solution to areas suspected of leakage. Watch for
bubbles. Make the solution thick enough to adhere to the contours of the fittings.
Any leak no matter how small must be found and repaired. A small leak may not cause trouble
but if leak continues over a period of time, the surroundings and atmosphere become saturated. Such
conditions are especially dangerous because personnel may not be aware that oxygen enrichment
exists. Oxygen enriched conditions are almost always present in poorly ventilated areas.
NO ATTEMPT SHOULD BE MADE TO TIGHTEN A LEAKING FITTING WHILE THE
SYSTEM IS CHARGED.
Draining the oxygen system:

When it is necessary to drain the system, it can be done by inserting a filler adapter into the
filler valve and opening the shut off valves. Do not drain the system too rapidly as this will cause
condensation within the system. An alternate method of draining the system is opening the
emergency valve one the demand oxygen regulator. Perform this job in a well ventilated area and
observe all fire precautions.
PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Cleaning the oxygen system:
Always keep the external surfaces of the components of the oxygen system, such as lines,
connections and mounting brackets, clean and free of corrosion and contamination with oil or grease.
As a cleaning agent, use anhydrous (waterless) ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol (anti icing fluid) or
any other approved cleaner. If mask to regulator hoses are contaminated with oil or grease, the hoses
should be replaced.
Purging the oxygen system:
An oxygen system need to be purged if:
4. It has been depleted and not recharged with in 2 hrs
5. If any line or component is replaced requiring the draining or opening ot the
system for more than 2 hrs or
6. It is suspected that the system has been contaminated.
The main cause of contamination in the system is moisture. Moisture in the system may be due to
damp charging equipment. In very cold weather the small amount of moisture contained in breathing
oxygen can cause contamination, due to repeated charging.
5. State the precautionary measures followed to maintain the safety of oxygen service. How
do you carryout the following: 1) leak testing the gaseous oxygen systems, 2) draining the
oxygen system 3) cleaning the oxygen system. (MAY/JUNE 2007)
Ans:
aircraft.
maintenance.
Leak testing gaseous oxygen system:
This is performed at differential times, depending on the inspection requirements for the
particular type of aircraft. The system is allowed to cool usually one hour after filling before the
pressures and temperatures are recorded. After several hours have elapsed they are recorded again.
Some manufacturers recommend a six hour wait others 24 hrs wait. The recorded pressures are then
corrected for any change in temperature since filling. The figure shows here is typical of the graphs
provided in the aircraft maintenance manual to aid in making pressure/temperature corrections.
As an example for using the chart assume that the oxygen system was recently charged. An
hour later, the oxygen pressure gauge read 425 psi. at a temperature of 72F. When the pressure gauge
was read 6 hrs later the pressure was 430 psi with the temperature of 79F.
When oxygen is being lost from a system through leakage the gauge reading will be less than
shown on the pressure/temperature correction chart. Leakage can often be detected by listening for the
distinct hissing sound of escaping gas. If the leak cannot be located by listening, it will be necessary
to soap test all lines and connections with a castile soap and water solution or specially compounded
leak test material. To make this check, apply the test solution to areas suspected of leakage. Watch for
bubbles. Make the solution thick enough to adhere to the contours of the fittings.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Any leak no matter how small must be found and repaired. A small leak may not cause trouble
but if leak continues over a period of time, the surroundings and atmosphere become saturated. Such
conditions are especially dangerous because personnel may not be aware that oxygen enrichment
exists. Oxygen enriched conditions are almost always present in poorly ventilated areas.
NO ATTEMPT SHOULD BE MADE TO TIGHTEN A LEAKING FITTING WHILE THE
SYSTEM IS CHARGED.
Draining the oxygen system:
When it is necessary to drain the system, it can be done by inserting a filler adapter into the filler
valve and opening the shut off valves. Do not drain the system too rapidly as this will cause
condensation within the system. An alternate method of draining the system is opening the
emergency valve one the demand oxygen regulator. Perform this job in a well ventilated area and
observe all fire precautions.
Cleaning the oxygen system:
Always keep the external surfaces of the components of the oxygen system, such as lines,
connections and mounting brackets, clean and free of corrosion and contamination with oil or grease.
As a cleaning agent, use anhydrous (waterless) ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol (anti icing fluid) or
any other approved cleaner. If mask to regulator hoses are contaminated with oil or grease, the hoses
should be replaced.
6. Explain the term Maintenance Safety and state the precautions taken while handling the
power cards, compress air system and during operation of welding on an aircraft.
(MAY/JUNE 2007) (Nov /Dec 2010)
Ans:
Aircraft maintenance work includes inspection and repair of aircraft structures, coatings, and
systems in hangars and on the air field. Good training and work practices ensure Aircraft and Worker
Safety.
MAINTENANCE SAFETY
Good housekeeping in hangars, shops, and on the flight line is essential to safety and
efficient maintenance.
The highest standards of orderly work arrangements and cleanliness should be
observed during the maintenance of aircraft.
Where continuous work shifts are established, the outgoing shift should remove and
properly store personal tools, rollaway boxes, all work stands, maintenance stands, hoses,
eIectrica1 cords, hoists, crates, and boxes that are superfluous to the work to be accomplished
PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Power Cords
1. Power cords should be heavy industrial types which are able to resist abrasion and impact.
2. Power cords should not be run over by any equipment.
3. Lights should be explosion proof.
4. Connections should be locking type to prevent accidental disconnection.
5. All lights or equipment should be switched OF, to prevent arching before connecting or
disconnecting.
6. Power cords should be straightened, coiled, and properly stored when not in use.
Disregard of the above suggestions may result in explosions and fires with damage into
millions of dollars and loss of life.
Compressed Air System
1. Air hoses should be inspected frequently for breaks and worn spots. Unsafe hose should
be replaced immediately.
intervals.
5. Air used for paint spraying should he filtered to remove oil and water.
6. Never use compressed air to clean hands or clothing. Pressure can force debris into the
flesh leading to infection.
Welding
Welding should not be performed except in designated areas. Any part to be welded should be
removed from the aircraft, if possible. Repair would then be accomplished in the welding shop under
controlled environment. A welding shop should be equipped with proper tables, ventilation, tool
storage, and fire prevention and extinguishing equipment.
6. The area should be roped off and placarded.
9. Aircraft should be in tow able condition, with a tug attached, aircraft brakes off, and a
qualified operator on the tug with mechanics available to assist in the towing operation. Hangar
doors should be opened.
7. Discuss the factors having impact on environmental effects on maintenance. Explain the
precautions observed for the cleanliness and safety of environment of aircraft maintenance
hangar under the following conditions: 1) shop floors spilled with oil and grease, 2) while
servicing aircraft oxygen systems. (MAY/JUNE 2007)
Ans:
Factors having impact on environmental effects on maintenance:
Environmental systems are those aircraft systems used to make the interior environment of the
aircraft comfortable and/or habitable for human beings.
Depending on the type of aircraft and altitude of operation this may involve only
supplying a flow of fresh air through the cabin by using air vents and scoops.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
If the temperature must be adjusted for crew and passenger comfort, some method of
heating or cooling the cabin interior is required.
If the aircraft is to be operated at high altitude, pressurization is necessary to make the
environment acceptable to the occupants of the aircraft.
Emergency oxygen systems are required on pressurized aircraft.
This emergency oxygen supply is necessary to prevent injury to passengers and crew
members if the cabin should lose pressurization and as a result go to a high altitude environment.
Shop floor Spilled Oil and Grease
Oil, grease, and other substances spilled on hangar or shop floors should be immediately
cleaned or covered with an absorbent material to prevent fire or personal injury. Drip pans should be
placed beneath engines and engine parts wherever dripping exists. Waste oil and dirty cleaning fluid
should be stored in containers for future salvage. Under no circumstances should oil or cleaning fluid
be emptied into floor drains. Fumes from this type disposal may be ignited and cause severe
property damage.
While Servicing Aircraft Oxygen Systems
5. Oxygen servicing of aircraft should be accomplished outside hangars
Oxygen hazard
PREVENTION OF OXYGEN FIRES OR EXPLOSIONS AS FOLLOWS:

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
aircraft.
maintenance.
8. Describe the inspections and servicing carried out on air conditioning and pressurization
system during aircraft maintenance(APRIL/MAY 2008)
Ans:
INSPECTIONS:
Periodically inspect the system for component security and visible defects. Particular attention
should be paid to the heat exchangers for signs of structural fatigue adjacent to welds. To ducting
should be securely attached and adequately supported. Insulating blankets must be in good repair and
secured around the ducting.
SERVICING:
Each refrigeration unit contains Freon for absorbing heat, plus oil mixed with the Freon for
lubricating the compressor motor bearings. If there is insufficient Freon in the unit, it is incapable of
absorbing heat from the air going to the cabin. If there is insufficient oil, the motor bearings will
overheat and eventually cause unsatisfactory compressor operation. It is important that sufficient
amounts of Freon and oil be in the unit at all times.
In contrast to hydraulic system where the circuits consist of closed loops containing fluid at all
times, a Freon loop contains quantities of both liquid and vapour. This in addition to the fact that it is
unpredictable exactly where in the system the liquid will be at any one instant, makes it difficult to
check the quantity of Freon in the system.
Regardless of the amount of Freon in the complete system, the liquid level can vary significantly
depending on the operating conditions. For this reason a standard set of conditions should be obtained
when checking the Freon level. These conditions are specified by manufacturer and as mentioned
previously, vary from aircraft to aircraft.
To check the Freon level, it is necessary to operate the refrigeration unit for approximately 5
min. to reach a stable condition. If the system uses a sight glass, observe the flow of Freon through
sight glass. A steady flow indicates that a sufficient charge is present. If the Freon charge is low
bubbles will appear in the sight glass.
When adding Freon to a system, add as much oil as is felt was lost with the Freon being replaced.
It is impossible to determine accurately the amount of oil left in a Freon system after partial or
complete loss of the Freon charge. However, based on experience most manufacturers have
established procedures for adding oil. The amount of oil to be added is governed by:
1. The amount of Freon to be added
2. Whether the system has lost of all of its charge and has been purged and evacuated,
3. Whether a topping charge is to be added or
4. Whether major components of the system have been changed.
Usually one forth ounce of oil is added for each pound of Freon added to the system. When
changing a component an additional amount of oil is added to replace that which is trapped in the
replace component.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
Oil for lubrication of the compressor expansion valve, and associated seals must be sealed in the
system. The oil used is a special highly refined mineral oil free from wax, water and sulphur. Always
use the oil specified in the manufacturers maintenance manual for a specific system.
9. Discuss the environmental cleanliness of aircraft maintenance safety. (NOV/DEC 2008)
(April /May 2010) OR
Discuss in depth the environmental cleanliness followed in the aircraft maintenance
workshop? (Nov /Dec 2010) OR
Discuss in detail the importance of environmental cleanliness in aircraft maintenance
(APRIL/MAY 2008)
Ans:
MAINTENANCE SAFETY
Good housekeeping in hangars, shops, and on the flight line is essential to safety and
efficient maintenance.
The highest standards of orderly work arrangements and cleanliness should be
observed during the maintenance of aircraft.
Where continuous work shifts are established, the outgoing shift should remove and
properly store personal tools, rollaway boxes, all work stands, maintenance stands, hoses,
eIectrica1 cords, hoists, crates, and boxes that are superfluous to the work to be accomplished
Factors having impact on environmental effects on maintenance:
Environmental systems are those aircraft systems used to make the interior environment of the
aircraft comfortable and/or habitable for human beings.
Depending on the type of aircraft and altitude of operation this may involve only
supplying a flow of fresh air through the cabin by using air vents and scoops.
If the temperature must be adjusted for crew and passenger comfort, some method of
heating or cooling the cabin interior is required.
If the aircraft is to be operated at high altitude, pressurization is necessary to make the
environment acceptable to the occupants of the aircraft.
Emergency oxygen systems are required on pressurized aircraft.
This emergency oxygen supply is necessary to prevent injury to passengers and crew
members if the cabin should lose pressurization and as a result go to a high altitude environment.
Shop floor Spilled Oil and Grease
Oil, grease, and other substances spilled on hangar or shop floors should be immediately
cleaned or covered with an absorbent material to prevent fire or personal injury. Drip pans should be
placed beneath engines and engine parts wherever dripping exists. Waste oil and dirty cleaning fluid
should be stored in containers for future salvage. Under no circumstances should oil or cleaning fluid
be emptied into floor drains. Fumes from this type disposal may be ignited and cause severe
property damage.
Power Cords
1. Power cords should be heavy industrial types which are able to resist abrasion and impact.
2. Power cords should not be run over by any equipment.
3. Lights should be explosion proof.
4. Connections should be locking type to prevent accidental disconnection.
5. All lights or equipment should be switched OF, to prevent arching before connecting or
disconnecting.
6. Power cords should be straightened, coiled, and properly stored when not in use.
Disregard of the above suggestions may result in explosions and fires with damage into
millions of dollars and loss of life.
Compressed Air System
1. Air hoses should be inspected frequently for breaks and worn spots. Unsafe hose should
be replaced immediately.

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
intervals.
5. Air used for paint spraying should he filtered to remove oil and water.
6. Never use compressed air to clean hands or clothing. Pressure can force debris into the
flesh leading to infection.
Welding
6. The area should be roped off and placarded.
Oxygen hazard
In addition to aggravating the fire hazard, because of its low temperature (it boils at 297 F), liquid
oxygen causes severe burns (frostbite) if it comes in contact with the skin.
10. Describe the safety precautions observed during welding and while servicing aircraft
oxygen system (APRIL/MAY 2008)
Ans:
Welding

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
6. The area should be roped off and placard.
Oxygen hazard
PREVENTION OF OXYGEN FIRES OR EXPLOSIONS AS FOLLOWS:

PROF.G PRABHAKARAN
4. Do not use masking tape to seal openings: use caps or plugs designed for that
purpose
6. Maintain at least 2 inches clearance between oxygen lines and all electrical wiring in
the aircraft.
8. Maintain at least 2 inches clearance between oxygen lines and all oil, fuel, hydraulic
or other fluid lines to prevent contamination.
maintenance.

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UNIT I AIRCRAFT GROUND HANDLING AND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT 10

UNIT II GROUND SERVICING OF VARIOUS SUB SYSTEMS 8

UNIT III MAINTENANCE OF SAFETY 5

Shop safety Environmental cleanliness Precautions

UNIT V AIRCRAFT HARDWARE, MATERIALS, SYSTEM PROCESSES 12

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 1

2. Enumerate the various ground power units used in aircraft maintenance?

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 3

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 6

NB: You can answer this way also:

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 9

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 10

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 11

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 12

Hydraulic Ground Power Units

Ground Air Heating and Air Conditioning

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 13

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 14

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 15

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 16

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 17

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 18

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 19

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 20

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 21

S.No. Possible Cause Isolation Procedure Correction

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 22

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 23

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 24

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 25

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 26

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 27

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 28

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 29

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 30

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 31

1. Discuss in brief about shop safety precautions? (April /May 2004)

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 32

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 33

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 34

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 35

Draining the oxygen system:

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 37

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 39

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 40

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 41

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 42

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 43

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 44

AE 2022 Aircraft General Engineering And Maintenance Practices 45

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