AGI

DATA
SHEETS
FOR GEOLOGY IN THE FIELD,
LABORATORY, AND OFFICE
Third Edition

Compiled by
J.T. Dutro, Jr.
R.V. Dietrich
R. M. Foose

AMERICAN
GEOLOGICAL
INSTITUTE
Copyright @ 1965, 1982, 1989 by the American Geological Institute
4220 King St, Alexandria, VA 22302-1507

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electromc, mechanical, photoco-
pying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:

AGI data sheets: for geology in the field, laboratory, and office. Compiled by J.T. Dutro.
Jr., AV. Dietrich, A.M. Foose. 3rd ed. p. em
Includes selected, unchanged AGI data sheets from 1956-1984 set 1982 edi-
tion, as well as rev. and new sheets.
Bibliography: p.
ISBN 0-922152-Ql-2
I. Geology-Handbooks, manuals. elC. I. Dutro. J. Thomas, Jr., 1923-. II.
Dietrich, Richard Vincent, 1924-. Ill. Foose, Richard Martin, 1915- IV American
Geological Institute.
QE52.A36 1989
550-dc20
89-32B54
CIP

Design and production by MelOdy Oakes, Mark Schmidt, Bambi Setzer, Julie De Atley,
and Martin Communications, Inc.

Printed on Atlantic Ledger Greentone by United Book Pmss, Inc.

First Edition, 1965

Second Edition, 1982
Third Edition, 1989
Printed in the U.S.A.
 The Data Sheet series of the American Geologicallnslitute was conceived by
Robert C. Stephenson, a former executive director ol AGL In February of 1956,
the 1irst Data Sheet, "Geologic Map Symbols 1,"was published in the "Geo-
logical Newsletter" of AGI.
In July of 1957, Joseph L. Gillson, then president of AGI, appointed a Data
Sheet Committee with Richard M. Foose as chairman. The committee was
given the responsibility of developing a series of Data Sheets to be published
and distributed by AGL During the period 1957-1964, the Foose-chaired com-
mittee was responsible tor the preparation and publication of 47 sheets.
In 1978, in response to comments about the sheets as well as to continuing
demand for them, the AGI Publications Committee recommended that a new
subcommittee be fonmed and charged with reviewing the exiS1ing sheets and
developing a new set of Data Sheets. The following subcommittee prepared
the second edition: Richard V. Dietrich (chairman), Central Michigan University;
J. Thomas Dutro, Jr., United Slates Geological Survey; and Richard M. Foose,
Amherst College.
The second edition consisting of 61 AGI Data Sheets. included selected
sheets unchanged from the 1956-1964 set, sheets !hal combined and/or updated
information given on sheets of the original set, and new sheets. The solicitation
and collection of materials included in the second edition were greatly aided by
Thomas F. Ratter, Jr. (former director of publications of AGI) and his able assis
tant director, Nancy P. Dutro. The production of the second edition was under
the direction of Galen McKibben wh the assistance of Carolyn V. Ormes.
This third edition, likewise. contains some sheets unchanged from the first
two versions, but many are updated and revised, and new sheets are added.
The sheets represent the gracious and freely given efforts of the named
au1hors and compilers and of several unnamed reviewers, as well as of the sub-
committee members. The third edition was produced by Julia Jacl<.son, director of
publications, wijh the capable assistance ot associate editor Margaret Oosterman.
Additional sheets will be prepared for future publication and distribution.
Users are encouraged to submit suggestions for other sheets tor consideration
by the subcommittee.

December 1989
AGI Subcommtee on Data Sheets
J. Thomas Dutro, Jr. (chairman), United States Geological Survey
Richard M. Foose, Amherst College
Richard v. Dietrich, Central Michigan University
Contents

Preface iii
Major Geochrono!ogc and Chronostratigraphic Units 1.1
Precambrian T1me Scale 1.3
Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale 1.5
Late Cenozoic Polarity Time Scale 1.7
Standards for General Purpose Geologic Maps 2.1
Geologrc Map Symbols 3.1
Geologic Symbols 3.4
Fault Symbols 3.7
Symbols for Fluvial Nonmanne Sequences 4.1
U.S. Public Land Survey Grid 5.1
Stadia Tables 6.1
Trigonometric Formulas and Functions 7.1
Natural Functions 7.2
Correction for Drp 8.1
Dip, Depth, and Thickness of Inclined Strata 8.2
Conversion of Slape Angles 9.1
Contour Spacing from Slope Angles 9.2
Criteria lor Determining Top and Bottom of Beds 10.1
Folds 11.1
Joints and Faults 12.1
Mineral Hardness 13.1
Specrftc Gravity 13.2
Macroscopic Identification of Common Rock-forming Silicates 14.1
Data Pertaining to Important Nonsilicate Minerals 15.1
Separation Characteristics of Minerals 16.1
Gem Materials 17.1
Gemstone Durability 18.1
Gemstone Misnomers t8.2
Crystal Systems 19.1
Bravais Lattices 19.2
Structural Classification of Silicate Minerals 20.1
Field Classification for Igneous Rocks~Phanerites 21.1
Aphaniles 21.2
Textures of Igneous Rocks 22.1
Comparison Chart for Estimating Percentage Composition 23.1
Igneous Masses 24.1
Pyroclastic Sediments and Rocks 25.1
Characteristics of Fallout Tephra-Subaerial 26.1
Subaqueous 26.2
Volcanoes-Morphologic Types 27.1
Explosivily Versus Eruption Interval 27.2
Graph for Determintng the Size of Sedimentary Particles 28.1
Light Partrcles 28.2
Grain size Scales 29.1
Sieves for Detailed Size Analysis 29.3
Companson Chart for Estimating Roundness and Sphericity 30.1
Descriptive Terms for Megascopic Appearances of Rock and
Particle Surfaces 31.t
Names for Sedimentary Rocks 32.1
Contents

Names for Ltmestones 33,1

Classification of limestones According to Depos-Itional Texture 33.2
Descriptive Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 34.1
Metamorphic Facies 35,1
Pressure Temperature Diagram 35 4
Concept and Classification of So1ls 36.1
SoH Horizon Designations 36.2
American Soil Taxonomy 36.3
Checklist tor Field Descriptron of Soils 37.1
GUide for Textural C!assihcat1on 37.2
Unified Soil Classificatron System 38.1
Soil Plasticity Chart 38.2
Outline for Environmental Impact Statements 39.1
Checklist for a Mine Report 40.1
investigation at Seism1c Intensity 41.1
Sersmic Effects List 4L2
Modifred Mercalli Seismic Intensity Scale 41.4
Geologic Study of Earthquake EHects 42.1
Checklist tor Earthquake EHects 43.1
MaJor Pubhc Sources of Geolog1cal !niormat1on 44.1
International Geological Sur.~eys 44.7
State and Provincial Geological Maps 45.1
Geologicai Highway Maps 45.4
Map and Aenal Photograph Coverage of the United States 46.1
Bibliographies, Indexes, and Abstracts 47.1
Classrtications of Lrbrary Holdings 48,1
Powers at Ten 49 1
Electromagnetic Spectrum 501
Measurement Conversions-English to Metric 51.1
Metnc to English 51.3
Gemological We1ghts and Measures 52.1
Hydraulic Conversion Data 53.1
Energy Conversion Tables 54.1
Glossary of Statistical Terms Used rn Geology 55.1
Periodrc Table of the Elements 56.1
Abundance of Elements 57.1
Abundance of Elements rn Sedimentary Rocks 57.2
Crustal Abundance 58.1
Chemical Analyses of Cammon Rock Types~lgneaus Racks 59.1
Sedimentary and Metamorphtc Rocks 59,4
Gravimetric Conversion Factors 60.1
Geophysical Data 61.1
lUGS Classitrcatrons~Piutonic Rocks 62.1
Volcanic Rocks 62.3
Optical Determinations 63.1
An, Content of Plagioclase Feldspars 64.1
Calculatron of Norms~Rules tor Short Fonm of Barth Katanarm 65.1
Rules for Short Form of CIPW Norm 65.3
Data lor Norm Calculation 65.5
Sample Calculation of Short Form of Barth Katanorm 65 7
Sample Calculation at Short Form ot CIPW Norm 65.8

vi
Contents
----

Major Fossil Groups Used for Datlng and Correlation of

Phanerozoic Strata in North Amenca 66.1
Geologic Distnbution of L1fe Forms 67.1
Physical Propert1es of Recent Manne Sediments 68.1
Identification of M1nerais by Staimng-Carbonates. Gypsum,
and Anhydrite 69.1
Feldspar 69.3
Projection Nets~Equal Area 70.1
Equal Angle Wulff Net 10.2
ACF, AKF. and AFM Diagrams 71.1
Phase Equ1hbna Diagrams for Mineralogy and Petrology 72.1
Fau1t~plane Solutions of Earthquakes 73.1
Seismic Moment and Moment Magnitude 74.1
Calculating the Richter Magnitude of a Local Ea.1hqum<e 75 1
Application of Geophysical Methods 76.1
Geophys1cal Well Loggmg Techmques 77.1
Use ot Mohr's Circle in Geology 781
Physical Properties of Building Stones 791
Planets and Large Satellites 80.1
Oceans and Major Seas 81.1
Continents and Large Islands 812
Impact Craters 82,1
Pnndpal Mountams Peaks of the World 83.1
Notable Volcanoes of the World 84.1
Notable Volcanic Eropt1ons 84,3
Large R1vers of the World 85.1
Large Rivers of North America 85.2
Earthquakes 86.1
Proofreader Symbols 87.1
Preparing and Presenting a Slide Talk 88.1
State Boards and Offices Regulating the Practice of Geology 89.1
Index

vii
 AGI DATA SHEET 1.1
Major Geochronologic and Chronostratigraphic Units
U.S.G.S. Geologic Names Committee, 1980 edition

Subdl\liS IOns 10 us e by th e U S Geolog 1cal Su r\ley

Age eStima tes ' . of
boundanes1n
!an d th eH rnap sy mbotsl m1lhon yea rs lmy l

f - - - - - - - + - 0010 -

117 ll l -
Cenozoc
F rr~or

tr athem r----t--------t-14 1!3161-

1[171
38 134 381 -

r-------t-55 154 551-

f - - - - + - -- -L - - - - t - - - - - - - + - 63 163 661-
l aH! Fp orh or
Uope r Seues
Mesozo, c Crer aceuus P1~ r 1 o ~ f----- - - - - - t - 96 195 911 -
Phanernwr
:1 Sysn~m ' KI
F r ::~a r
Fan or
f ratt) em f---------------''-------~-138 1135 1411-
[onoth em
1\171
f - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - t - 105 11001 151 -

1 - - - - t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - -v 140 -

f-----..,.-;:--,---------::----,:------+- 190 119 0 3051-

IPen nsytvanar Per1od o
C%,o,~on;~~us f-;;'-'
IS Y.:..c''"=~---':..
IP I~---c-----t-"' J30 -
Pa lec!GIC Svo;t ems c1 1 IMIS SISSIPO an Pe r od or

t rno r
f - - - - - - - ' I--'SCI.:yscle;::.m_::
.::. M"'I-- - - - - - + - J60
1

1360 3651-
f rat>jem f-----------------~-410 1405415: -

f - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - + - 435 14]5 4401-

f - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - 500 1495 5101-

Cam br1an P!~no d or S~ s iPm , I
1

f----+--------'L---------------+-~ 570 -

Proterozo,c 1 - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - + - 800 -
Fonor PrrllerO lO IC Y IYI'
Fon orhem !et 1.600 -
1
Pri')!PIQ/CIC XIXI
f - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- ---+- !MC -
Arr.h ean
Eo nu1
Eon01 hen
IAI OIOeSI known oc ks 10 U S - t - 3.600 -
1
Ranges reflect un certamt 1es of IS Otopic and b10Strat1g raptuc age a11gnments Age or bo undar 1e s not cl osely br<1cket ed b)'
eA St lng data shown by -- Decay constan t~ and ISOtope rat::"l ernp loyed are c1ted tn Ste 1ger and Jager !1 977)
Rocks older than 570 m v also ca! 1ed Preca mbnan {pC). a ume te rm wi thou t sp ec drc rank
T1me terms Wltnout spec1hc 1ank.

Note
The 1983 edition by the U.S.G.S. Geologic Names Committee is essentially unchanged from
this version , except for incorporating the Precambrian Time Scale of Harrison and Peterman
(see Data Sheet 1.3).

AGI -DS-Jtd -89

AGI DATA SHEET 1.2
REFERENCES
Other geologic time scales, mciuding internationally accepted epoch and age
terms, and deta1ls on boundanes, geochronology, and correlations can be found
in the following publications.

AAPG. 1978: Stud1es in Geology 6. 388 p.

Berggren WA. 1972: Lethaia. v. 5. n 2. p 195215.

Evernden. J.F. Savage. D.E., Curtis, GH. and James. G T, 1964: Am. J Sc1.. v.
262, p. 1451 98.

Geol Soc. London, J .. v. 120S. 1964. 458 p

Harland, WB .. and others. 1982. A Geologic Time Scale. Cambndge University

Press. Cambridge. 131 p.

Lambert RS , 1971: Geoi. Soc. London. Special Publications 3. Part 1. p. 931.

Menning. M.. 1989: Ep1sodes, v. '2. no. 1, p. 35. char!

Palmer, A.R. 1983: Geology. v. 11, p. 503504.

Odin, G.S .. ed .. 1982. Numerical Dating m Straltgraphy. John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 2 volumes. 1040 p

Od,n, G.S, 1982: Episodes. v. 1982, n. 3, p. 39.

Ste>ger. R.H .. and Jager. E. 1977 Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. v. 36. p 359-362.

U.S. Geologic Names Committee. 1983. U.S.G.S. Bull. 1537-A. p. A1A4.

Age est:mates to the Phanerozoic are by GA lzett, MA Lanphere. M.E

Maclachlan, C.W. Naeser, J.D. ObraoovdL Z.E. Peterman, M. Rubrn, T W. Stern,
and R. E. Zartman at the request of the Geoiog>C Names Committee. Age
estimates for the Precambnan are by the International Unon of Geological SCI-
ences Working Group on the Precambrian for the United Sta1es and Mex1co. J.E
Harrison, chairman {see Dato Sheet 1 3).
 AGI DATA SHEET 1.3
Precambrian Time Scale
Jack E. Harrison and ZeU E. Peterman, U.S, Geotogic:al Survey

500~E_O~N-+---E_R.A__ -~-1570
LATE
PROTEROZOIC
900
1000
U MIDDLE
Q PROTEROZOIC

~
1500 ffi 1- 1600

b
8: EARLY
PROTEROZOIC
2000
(/)
II:
<[
UJ
>
z 2500 2500
0
:::i LATE ARCHEAN
-'
i z<[
3000 3000
UJ MIDD~E
:I: ARCHEAN
u
II: 3400
<[
3500
EARLY ARCHEAN

'-- .- --nsco?)-- . . . . _. .,
4ooo I

'-------~~------~4550
Source J.E. Harrison and Z.E. Peterman, 1982, North Amencar: Comrn.sson orr Strat:~
graph1c Nomenclature Report 9-Adopt!oll of Geochronarretr'ic Un:ts for Dtv:smns ol Pre-
cambrian T1ms: AAPG BulL v 66. p. 801-802

This time scale for 1he Precambrian is recommended for use by ti"Je lntema~
!tonal Union of Geological Sciences (lUGS) Working Group on the Precambnan tor
the Umted States and Mexico and by the Canad1an and United States groups
preparing reports on the Precambrian. The scale conforms in tirne Intervals with
those recommended tor the Proterozoic by the lUGS Subcomm1sswn on
Precambrian Stratigraphy {Sims. 1979) and sugges1s subdiv<sions tor the Archean,
Which has not yet been divided by the Subcommtssion,
AGI DATA SHEET 1.4

Formal names for eons and eras are shown on the diagram. Subdivision of
eras into periods may become appropriate as new geochronometric and geologic
data for North Amenca accumu\a1e. The term prc~Archcan is an mformal designa-
tion for rocks older than 3800 m.y.
These recommendations do not requ~ro abandoning terms such as Penokean
or Helikean, which are meaningful in some regions. Such 'erms can be related to
the Precambnan time scale by defining their time spans in years and by not1ng
whether they directly correspond with one of the standard time units or whether
they ovelap standard boundanes. Similarly, definmg and nam1ng local geochrono
metric units based on the special needs of an area is encouraged, providmg that
such units are expressed 1n terms of years and aro referenced to the standard
umts of the t1me scale. Such local geochronome1nc terms should not be extended
beyond the local areas where they have geologic applicability because such exten
sions could Vl1Jate benefits of a standard time scale and introduce ambiguity in
communication.

References
Harnsor. J E .. and Pelorman, Z E ; 980, Norlh Amercan COrlmiSSIOI" on Stra!.g~aphc
Nome11c!ature Note 52-A prelim,nary propcsal a chrononetnc lime scale for tfle Pre
carr.bna'l ofihe United Stales and Msx1cc Geo! Am BulL v 91. no 6. p 377-38\J

Jarres. H.L., 1971l Subclivlsmn ot the Precambnan~A bnef re11u~w and a report on rece'1t
dec1S1Crs by the Subcomrmss~on on Precarnbnan Stratigraphy Precambrial? Res .. \1 7. '1C
3, p. 193-204

S1ms, P.K .. 1979, Precarnbria'l sJbdiVIOed Geotlmes, 'W. 24. no. 12, p. 15.
 AGI DATA SHEET 1.5
GEOMAGNETIC POLARITY TIME SCALE

During periods marked in black, the Earth's north and south magnetic poles con-
formed to those at present, and during periods In while, the poles were reversed; num-
bers and letters identify magnetic intei"Ja.ls and reversals recorded by systematically
oriented magnetization of mineral grains in seafloor lava and mapped as magnetic linea
!Ions (after LaBrecque and others, 1977; Lanphere and .Iones, 1973; Larson and Hilde,
1975; and Van Hin\e, 19761.
__(}Witemary
Pliocene

Miocene

--
~

..c:- Oligocene
7A
9

11
30

~2 I-
~
........
1-
13 ~

a-
_
40
'l
18
'9
2C
Eocene
50
21

;
23
20

25 60
Paleocene 26

3<
Maestrichtian -70
References
LB. Elrecque, J.L., Kent, D.V.. and CarJde. S.C., 1977, nevi sed magne11c polaflty time scate for Late
Cretaceous E~nd Cenozoic ttme: Geology. v, 5. p. 330-335.
Lanphere, M.A. and Jonas, O.L 1 1973, Cretaceous time scale trom North America: Am. Assoc.
Petroleum Geol. Studies in GeoL, no, 6, p, 259-268,
larsen. Rl, and Hilde, T,WC, 1975, A reised lime scale of mognetic reversals for the E!lfly Cre
1aceous and late Jurassic; Jouc Geophys. Res . v 80. p, 2586,2594,
Van Hini:e, J.E., 1976a, A Jurassic tima scale: Amer. Assoc. Petro!e\.Jm Geologists Bull., v. 60,
p, 489-497
Van Hinte, J.E., 1976b, A Cretaceous time scale: A meL Assoc. Petrolet.~m Geologists Bvll., v. 60,
,, 498-516.
AGI DATA SHEET 1.6

Maestrichtian

Ill

..
0
::>
Campanian
80
~
~

.,....
(.)
CD

90

Cenomanian

100

Albian

.. Aptian
110

....
0
::> MO

~
"
(.) Barremian
:>o 120
~
w
Hauterivian

Valanginian
130

Berriasian

"
"iii
Ill
Tlthonl:r
~ I 140

..
~

....-;
Kimmeridgian

Oxfordian
------~~-

"
"iii
Ill
E Callovian
..,
..
:::1

'6
~~ --

"tl Bathonian
:i 160
 AGI DATA SHEET 1.7
LATE CENOZOIC POLARITY TIME SCALE

.,"'
ii

~f ~~
K-Ar
Age
(m.y.) ~~ ~

!J)
w
I

Jaramillo
1.0

2.0

"'::::>
!J)

J.O <
Cl

40

5.0
Reference
Mankinen, EA and Dalrymple, G.B., 1979, Revised geomagnetic polarity time scale ror the inter
val 0-5 m.y.B.P.: Jour. Geophys. Res., v. 84. p. 615-626.
 AGI DATA SHEET 2.1

Standardsfor General Purpose GeologJ!: Map_s__-----

u.s. Geological Survey, Revised Carlographlc Technical S1andards, 1978

A general purpose geologic nap portrays the distribUtion and structure of Earth
matena 1s in tt1e1r tr~_;e 'e!atmns to the configuration of the Earth's surface. Alt1ough the
map shows +eatures at or rear the surface, ttJe relationships porlrayed mal\e it poss1bie
to draw reasonable nferences about t1e geology at depth An acceptable general pur"
pose geologic map should meet the fo!low1rg cr1teria

i The map st"lould be on a base tha'! 11eets National Map Accuracy Standards. A
topograph:c base IS essent1al except 011 small-scale maps or n areas of such
low re!1ef tha: the absence a: contours does not hi~der geologic mtsrpretal!on

The completed map should be clearly readable and usable at pub!1cat1on sca!e"
All symbols on :he map should e11h.er be 1n co~rnon usage or be fuily explamed
m the marg1nal ma:eriaL T:w sources of geologiC data should be ndicated tor
all parts at the map, contacts nferrcd from geophysJcal, photogeologJc. or
remote sensng data should be idenflf1ed and explained

All geolog1ca!!y sigr11flcart ur~ts mappab:e at the scale should be shown, ana
geolog,c features should be depleted uniform!}' tr..roughout the area of t1e map.

4 Mines, prospects. quarnes. wells. and drill holes shou:d be shown il poss'ble at
!he map scale

Geo1og1c 1nterp(etatons snould be 1nternally cans:slent and plat..sible. Rela-

tiOns oi caf'tacts of geo:ogic ur;1ts to topography should be consiStent with rocK
at11tuaes. stral!graphy. and structure showr, on the IT'ap and 1r cross sect1ons.

Structure should bs adequately portrayed. Altitudes of sign1flcart structJral

tea:ures sho~ld be 'nd1cated wherever pract1cal. Structue sect1ons sho:.Jld be
mciuded 1f needea for clarity. and these should be consistent with re!at:ons
depleted an the map

St.,rtlclal un1ts snould be d st1ngu1shed and where poss.ble. s<JbdJVIded on the

basis at age, ong1n. rno~phomgy and:or lithology. l~ the map meets al: cnter.a
but lh1s. :t shouid be termed a bedrocK geologtc map. It 1t !T'eets t'11s cr.termn.
but does not po~tray the bedrock un1ts. tt shoJid be termed a s:..nflc:al geologic
map hi some cases, mors !han one map may be requned :a prov de adequate
genera Durpose coverage of an area.

Faults :hat d1splay mappable oHset at strat:graphtc or iltholog:c ;,tmts or that

d1sp'ay evtdence ot recent :novement ar are of some other spccta! signifi-
cance. should be rnappea and c!ass1t1ed as to type :normal, reverse. thrust
stnke-sl1p). and d;p ar:d d1recMn ol relal1ve r1ovement should be s1own wher-
ever poss1ble.

9. The ex:planarior should be conctse and reasonab:y def1n,1ive, ana should

express the d,s!1rctvs charactens!1cs and prmc1pal vanatlons m the map L..MS
Ma::: urJts (1ncludmg surltc,al urits) should be descnbed n terms of lithologic
charac!er. phys1cai properties, thtckness {where possible), econoouc signifi-
cance. geologic andior absolute age. and contact relat:ons. Stratigraphic
nomerclature should be consistent with the Code of Slrat1grapt>ic Nof'f!enclarJre,

AGI
 AGI DATA SHEET 3.1

revised by D.M. Kinney

This data sheet lists map symbols commonly used on geologic maps published by the
U.S. Geological Survey.

BEDDING

25~ EB
Strike and dip of beds Horizontal beds Approximate strike and dip

Strike of venical beds
Generalized strike and dip of
crumpled,
plicated,crenulated, or un-
dulating beds
25~
Strike and dip of beds where Strike and dip of overturned
top of beds can be beds
distinguished; used only m
areas of cog.;~l ~x overturned
1 9
Lfl5
./'"\ 50
Strike and dip of beds and Apparent dip
plunge of slickensides

FOLIATION AND CLEAVAGE*

Strike and dip of foliation

~
Strike and dip of cleavage Strike of ver1tcai foliation

Strike of 11erHcal cleavage +

Horizontal foliation Horizontal cleavage

/)/1 ) )
Altemattve symbols for other planar elements

+
JOINTS

60'\.
Strike and dip of Jomt
~0
Strike of vertical joint Horizontal joint

~75
Strikes and dips of multiple sys,ems

*The map explanation should always spec1ly the kind or cleavage mapped
AGI"DS"J\.d,99
AGI DATA SHEET 3.2

+
Ver11cal lineation
/
HonZDnta.l lineation

Double llneation
1125
Strike and dip of beds and
2S~
60
Strike and dip of foliation
IJiunge ol lineation and plunge ot hneation

;!20
Strike and diiJ of beds
6~
Strike and dip of
40/90
Vertlcal beds, showmg
showmg homontal lineation folfal!on showing plunge of lineation
hOtlzonial linea.tton

Vertical toliation, showmg Vertical foliation, showing

25,
Vertical beds, showtng
plunge of lineation honzontal lineation horizontal lineation

125
IS 60
Striko and dip of beds, Stnke .1nd dtp of foliation G~nerahzed suike: of folded
showtng rake of lmeation showmg ral\e at lineation beds or follation, showtng
p.unge of fold axes

CONTACTS

Approxtmalft contact Inferred contact

so 90
~
Concealed contact Conlact, showing dip Ve(tftal contact

-----------~-------

FOLOS

...1Q-f- ~~
40
Anticline, showing 0\ffHtumed anticline, show Minor anticline, showing
crestline and IJiunge ing trace of axial surtace, plunge
dip of limbs, and ptunge

Syncline, showing crostllne o ... ertumed syncline, show

~15
Minor syncline, showmg
alld plunge mg !face ol axial surlace plunge
and dip of limbs
 AGI DATA SHEET 3.3
FOLDS (continued)

--v- __,__
Approximate axes Inferred axes Concealed axes

Doubtful axes, dotted

where concealed
Horizontal fold axes
+Dome

~15
40
Fold with inclined axial plane, showing dip and
bearing of plane and plunge of axis

FAULTS

--rw-
Fault, snowing dip
90
__..+--
Vertical fault Approximate fault

.... -------
Inferred fault Concealed fault
,---?....... .
Doubtful fault, dotted where
concealed

u
~ D
Normal fault hachures on Fault, showing relative High angle fault.
dawn side movement movement-U (up) and D
(dawn)

~
Thrust or low-angle reverse
fault,s: T. upper plate
~
Normal fault, showing
~
+
Thrust or reverse fault,
bearing and plunge of barbs on side of upper plate
relative movement of
downthrown black

40
?-
Fault, showing bearing and
plunge of grooves,
striations, or slickensides
~
Reverse fault, shOwing Lineament
bearing and plunge of
relative movement of
downthrown block (D)

.r.:,-? ....... "

-/ :,--'~ 40 . : ..
Fault zone or shear zone. Fault breccia
showing dip

See Data Sheets 3.7 and 3.8 for additional fault symbols.
AGI DATA SHEET 3.4
Geologic Symbols
CAOSS SECTIONS

r
High angle faults

normal fault vertical fault reverse fault

L::>w angle faults

~ overthrust
~ underthrust

T
Fault, showing relative
lateral movement
A, away from observer
T, toward observer
-~
Klippe Fenster or window

OIL AND GAS WELLS

Oil well
0
Well location
~
Abandoned oi I well

Oil well, with show of gas

-<(
Dry hole

Abandoned oil well, with
show of gas

~
*
Oil and gas well

Gas well. with show of oil

Dry hole, with show of oil

Dry hole, with show of oil

*
Abandoned oil and gas well

Abandoned gas welL with

and gas show of oil

Gas well
1:1-
Dry hole, with show of gas Abandoned gas well

Shut in well
 AGI DATA SHEET 3.5
SURFACE OPENINGS
LARGE-SCALE MAPS

Vertical shaft Inclined shaft

~
Portal of tunnel or ad it

*CJ
Portal and open cut

Large open pit, quarry ,

Trench Small prospect pit or open cut

Dump
or glory hole

SMALL-SCALE MAPS

~ ~
Vertical shaft Inclined shaft Portal of tunnel or adit

;-
Trench
X
Prospect pit
"X'
Mine, quarry, glory hole,
or large open pit
X.
Sand , gravel, or clay pit

ORE BODIES AND DRILL HOLES

~
Vein, showing dip H<Gfl-gracreoc-e Altered wall rock, showing
intensity of alteration

----- ----
Stringers or vein lets
of mineralization
0
Low-grade mineralization Vertical drill hole

-.. t t I I =-A Xi x::;;oo:z.

Vein of high-grade
mineralized rock
50/
Inclined drill hole,
showing bearing, inclination,
----------~~ and position of bottom of hole
Vein of low-grade
mineralized rock
AGI DATA SHEET 3.6
UNDERGROUND WORKINGS
(horizontal line denotes water-filled)

Shaft at surface Shaft going above and below levels Bottom of shaft

~
v
v
\;:: Spacing of
chevrons can be Foot of raise or winze Head of raise or winze
used to indicate

~
V steepness
~ of workings
v
v
v
Inclined workings Raise or winze Ore chute
(chevrons point down) extending through level

Stapes

Cross sections
Sloped above
~

Stoped below

400
375
Elevation of roof Elevation of floor

OooOQoO

0000000
Lagging or cribbing along
drift
------l-----
----1-----
Caved or otherwise
inaccessible workings
----
~-~-~--
Filled workings

Use standard geological symbols for rock types, faults, folds, contacts, joints, lineations,
attitudes. etc.
 AGI DATA SHEET 3.7
Fault
by Mason L. Hill, consulting geologist

INTRODUCTION: The following fault symbols are designed to remove the ambiguity
resulting from failure of traditional symbols to distinguish between fault slip and fault
separation. Where a linear geologic element is displaced, the actual relative movement
(slip) can be determined (e.g., displaced intersection of dike and bed). Generally,
however, where a tabular geologic element is displaced, only apparent relative move-
ment (separation) can be determined. Thus, for example, these symbols provide for the
important distinction between normal fault (only separation known) and normal slip
fault (slip known). Refer to 'Dual Classification of Faults,' Mason L. Hill (1959), A.A.P.G.
Bull., v. 43, p. 217-21.

GENERAL SYMBOLS

Fault trace, lor maps and sections

Approximately located trace, for maps and sections

?--- Conjectural trace, for maps and sections

.... ? .. Concealed map trace; conjectural( .. ? .. )

Dip direction; amount (_j_Q__}, approximate amount

(_!_l.5__),conjectural direction Lj_7___).

SLIP SYMBOLS FOR MAPS

(Add direction and amount of dip, direction of relative slip, and slip plunge where known.)

Thrust slip fault. Sawteeth on relatively overthrust block; fault

dips< 45"

Reverse slip fault Rectangles on relatively e.levated hanging

wall block; fault drps > 45'. Dip d.rect1on IS rllustrated

Ill 65

Rightlateral slip fault. Arrows show relative movement of

block opposite the observer

Leftlateral slip fault. Fault dip and slip plunge are illustrated.
/35 It dip-slip and strike-slip components are nearly equal, the
name reverse left-lateral slip fault is appropriate

Note: Triangles, rectangles, and barbs may be shown as appropriate and convenient along the map
trace of the fault. However, none of these symbols should be used on maps unless some evidence
of at least the approximate orientation of slip is obtained.
AGI DATA SHEET 3.8
SLIP SYMBOLS FOR SECTIONS

Thrust slip fault. Arrow shows principal relative movement

component; fault dips< 45'

Reverse slip fault. Fault dips > 45'

Normal slip fault

Right-lateral slip fault. Principal relative movement component

of block toward observer is shown by the letter T

Leltlateral slip fault. Letter A (away) and arrow (downward)

show relative movement components. If these components are
nearly equal, the name normal left-lateral slip fault is used

Note: Single barb arrows and letters (T and A) may be shown on either side of the section trace of
the fault, as appropriate and convenient. However, none of these symbols should be used on sac
!Ions if only separation Is determined.

SEPARATION SYMBOLS FOR MAPS

(Add direction and amount of dip, if and where known)

Dip separation-apparent relative movement In fault dip;

D, downthrown or U, up!hrown. Normal fault has dip toward
downthrown block; reverse fault has >45' dip toward up
D +65 thrown block (illustrated); thrust fault nas < 45' dip toward
overthrown block

Strike separation apparent relative movement In fault strike

of block opposite the observer. R, right-lateral fault; L, left
lateral fault

Dip and strike separations nearly equal. (A normal left-lateral

fault is Illustrated)

Note: Letters indicating separation may be shown as appropriate and convenient on either side of
the fault trace. The symbols (+)and (-) may be substituted for U and D but none represents any
component of slip. Separation symbols are not needed for sections, and are only occasionally
necessary for maps because the displacement of tabular geologic units is usually obvious.

See Data Sheet 3.3 for additional fault symbols.

 AGI DATA SHEET 4.1
Symbols for Fluvial Nonmarine Sequences
Tor H. Nilsen, San Carlos, Ca!lfornla

~~~g~ Breccia Burrow, invertebrate

~Conglomerate,
Burrow, vertebrate
~J clast-supported
~ Conglomerate, Root cost
IIK::S matrix-supported
~ Rip-up clasts, Tree stump, in place
~ shale or mudstone
~ Rip-up clasts,
Tree stump, clast
[~_g sandstone

I:..<:<I Sandstone, massive Plant fossil

~ Sandstone. Vertebrate fossil

~ parallel-stratified
~ Sandstone, Invertebrate fossil
~ trough cross-stratified
~Sandstone Mudcracks
~ tabular cross-stratified
~ Sandstone, contorted :3) 0 Raindrop imprints
.:;:;
~ cross-stratification
~ Sandstone,
~ ripp le-marked df Flute cost

l'-%j Sandstone.
~:-:-o convoluted- lam inated I:XJ Load cost
~Sandstone,
~ para llel-laminated

I:=.. ~~ Siltstone
/ Paleocurrent azimuth
Mudstone or shale
////
//// Point bar sequence
~Carbonate

[]]JI] Paleosol (/ Fining-upward cycle

II! Carbonate concretions

Coo rsening-upwo rd
cycle
 AGI DATA SHEET 5.1

U.S. Public Land Grid

compiled by Andrew J. Mozola, Wayne State University

Townships are numbered north and south of the base line, and east and west of the prin
cipal meridian. Each township is a six mile square that is further subdivided into thirty
~~~h~7~ r;;'):ea~~~~~n c~i~~~- sections. The sections are numbered consecutively from
0

rowns!np .J Narttr
fiong~ 2 W11sf .J6sqm1

BASE LINE

1 5 11
St!ct 1 on 1 !8 9 10 i 11 l1z
Llh.!s ---~rr lfi 1~ IHII l13 ,_../~6'1~":_":;; 1
[ o ,, 22[2,_hli
~o_i 29 28 27: 215 !2~

I"[ .. '' "1"1"'

t
~
Special land survey systems are used in the original thirteen states and in Texas, Louisiana, and
Kentucky, among others. Details about these systems can be obtained from the geological
surveys of the respective states. The Universal Transverse Mercator (military) grid. shown on most
topographic maps, is explained in Thompson (1979). Some helpful references:
Haney, D.C., 1979, Carter Coordinate and Topographic Index Map of Kentucky: Kentucky Geol.
Survey, Series XI, scale 1:1,000,000.
Newton, M.B., Jr., 1972, Atlas of Louisiana, a guide lor students: Louisiana State Univ. School of
Geosciences Misc. Publ. 72-1.
Sewell, G., and Rogers, M.B., 1973, The History of Texas Public Lands: Texas General Lend Office,
Austin, Texas, 53 p.
Thompson, M.M., 1979, Maps for America: U.S. Gaol. Survey Spec. Publ. 265 p.
 AGI DATA SHEET 5.2
A section of land is one mile square containing 640 acres. In the following diagram,

PT. A= CTR., SW'!., SW1f<, NW'I<, of SEC. 24, T 1 S, R 2 E

PT. B = CTR., NE'I, NEV., NE%, of SEC. 24, T 1 S, R 2 E

Section 24

S[CTION

E C TfO"'' CORH(R 1/4 post 80 rods /0chams

1
I
NW 1/4 of .. I

40 ACRES I 20A
I

----- --N W.l4 1

Ul
w .. Ul
w
0::
u
I
N:E t- ....:..-=CL.-=""-1
O:
"
~
<I
N':w"~.f
af: ~ ! ~ <..)
<I
0
s-lJ-'f'!-O!c~ ~ ! ::"' I;)
I
Nl<'t/4of ' lt w
Ul
I ....
0

"' "' "' I

~I
si~-:-~~ ~~ 1
Jl 40 ACRES
Sl<'l/4of. .. : "'0 I ~I
OA : ~ N I
I
J
0
"""/4post :
[AST Orld WEST 1/4 LIN!':

SWir
160 ACRES

t,NI st"
SECT>ON

Measurements
One Link = 7.92 inches; 100 Links One Cham
One Rod =
16.5 feet; 25 Links
One Chain = 66 feet; 100 Links; 4 Rods
80 Chains =
5280 feet; One Mile; 320 Rods
One Acre = 43560 square feet; 160 square rods
A Side ol a Square Acre = 208.71 feel
One Arpent 2.9127 chains; 192.24 feet, or0.848398 of an acre

NOTE: In some places, lots were added to the north tier of sections 1n a township to
adjust ~rregularit1es in surveys Tracts (irregular surveys) are common in the West
along stream courses where homesteading preceded off1cai surveys, ownership
was fitted to the later surveys. In Canada. the sec~1on numbering system is the
reverse of that 1n the United States. and fract1onal sections are termed legal
subdivisions (lsd).
 AGI DATA SHEET 6.1
Stadia Tables
compiled by R. L. Threet, San Diego State College
COMPUTATION OF VERTICAL DISTANCE
Multiply the stadia table value (factor), for the measured vertical angle, by the full stadia
Intercept on a plumb rod.

2" 3" 4' s

00 0,00 L74 JAS 5,23 6,96 8,68 IOAO 12,10 13,78
01 0,03 I 77 3,52 5 26 6.99 U! !0,42 12,12 13,81
()2 0,06 LBO 3,55 5,28 7.02 874 10.45 12.15 13.84
03 0.09 1.83 3,58 5.31 7.04 8.77 10.48 12.18 13.87
04 0.12 L86 3.60 5.34 7,07 8 ~0 10 51 12.21 13 ~9
05 0,!5 L89 3.63 5.37 7,JO &,83 10,54 12.24 13.92
06 0.17 1.92 3.66 5.40 7,13 8,85 !O.!i7 12,27 13,95
07 0.20 1.95 3.69 5.43 7,16 8,88 !0.39 12.29 13.98
08 0.23 I 98 3.72 5 46 7,19 8 91 10.62 12,32 IH!I
09 0.26 2.01 3.75 5.49 7.22 8.94 10.65 12.35 14.03

10 0.29 2.04 3.78 5 52 7 25 8 97 10.6& 12,38

II 032 2.06 3.81 5 54 7.28 9,00 HL7l 12.41
12 0,35 200 384 5.S7 7.30 9.03 10.74 12.43
13 0 3~ 2.12 3.86 5 60 7 .13 9.05 10.76 12.46
14 0 41 2.15 3 89 5.63 U6 9.08 1[;79 12 49
15 0 44 2.18 3 92 5 66 7.39 9.11 10.82 12 52
16 0.47 2.21 3.90 5 69 7 42 9.14 10 85 12 55
17 0.49 2 24 3.98 5.72 7.4.) 9.17 10.88 12.58
18 0.52 2.27 4 01 5.75 748 9 20 10.91 12.60
19 0.55 2.30 404 5.78 7.51 9 23 10.94 12.63

20 2.33 4.07 5.80 7.53 9.25 10.96 12.66 16.00

21 2.36 4.10 5.83 7.5fi 9.28 10 99 12.69 16 03
22 2.38 4.13 5.86 7 59 9 31 11 02 12.72
23 2 41 4.16 5 89 7.62 9 34 11.05 12.74
24 2.44 4.18 5.92 7 65 9.37 1108 12 77
25 2.47 4.21 5.95 7 68 9.40 1!.11 1<?.80
26 2 50 4.24 G 98 7.71 9.43 1113 12 83
27 2.53 4.27 6.01 7.74 9.46 1116 12 86
28 2.56 4.30 6 [14 7"76 9 48 11 19 12 88
29 2 59 4.33 6.06 n9 9.51 1 L22 12.91

30 4.36 609 782 9"54 1 I 25 12.94

31 4.39 6 12 7.85 9"57 11.28 12.97
-32 4.42 filii 7"88 9"60 11 30 13.00
33 4.44 6.1~ 7 91 9.63 !l:l3 13.02
34 4.47 6 21 7"94 9"65 1136 \.105
4..''>0 fl.24 7 97 9.68 II :!9 1.1.118
4 ;,3 f) 27 799 9"71 llA2 1311
4.56 6 30 ~.112 9.74 I L45 13.11
4.59 fi 32 8.1)5 9.77 1147 1:u7
4 6~ fi 35 ; 8 08 9"80 11 50 13.19

2 91 4.65 r, :l~ 8.11 9.83 11.53

2 94 1f.li 6 41 8.14 9.85 11 .)6
2 97 4.'i1 fill 8.17 9 88 11 !\9
3,00 4.73 6.47 8 20 9.91 11 62
3.02 4.76 6.50 ' 8.2'2 9.94 1!.64
3 or; 4.79 fi53 825 9"97 1!.67
308 4.82 6.56 8.28 10.00 1L70
3.11 4.85 6.58 8,31 10 03 11.7.1
3 14 4.88 6.fil 8.34 I 10.05 11 71;
3.17 4,91 6.64 8"37 10.08 11 79

6.67 8.40 HUl

6.70 8"42 10.14
6.73 8"4" 10.17
6.76 8.48 10.20
6.79 8"51 10"22
6.81 8"54 10.25
6.1!4 8.57 10.28
6.87 8.60 10"31
69() 8.62 10"34
693 8.65 10.37
AGI DATA SHEET 6.2

10 11" 12 13 14 15 16" 18 19

00 17.10 18.73 20.34 21.92 23.4 7 25.00 26.50 27.96 29.39 30.78
01 17.13 1o. 76 2u . .16 21.94 23.50 25.02 26.52 27.:llj 29.41 30.81
IJ2 17.16 1~. ";b 20.3~ 21.97 23.52 25.05 26.55 U.IJI 29.44 30.63
03 1<.11'1 1~.1:11 2U.42 22.00 23.55 25.08 26.57 2b.U3 29.46 30.81>
IJ4 17.21 hi.84 20.44 22.02 2:!.5h 25.10 26.59 28.06 29.48 30.87
()5 17.24 18.86 20.4 i 2l.05 z:u;o 25.13 26.62 2~.us 29.51 30.90
Oti 17.26 18.~9 20.50 22.08 23.63 25.15 26.64 211.10 29.53 30.92
u< I <.29 1~.92 20.52 22.10 23.65 25.li'l 26.67 2~.13 29.55 30.94
U8 17.32 18.95 20.55 22.13 23.61'1 25.20 26.69 21'1.15 29.58 30.97
09 17.35 18.97 20.58 22.15 23.70 25.23 26.72 28.18 29.60 30.99

10 I <.37 19.00 20.60 22.1~ z:L ~a 25.25 26.74 2g.2o 29.62 31.01
11 17.40 19.03 20.63 22.21 23.76 2.'i.28 26.17 28.22 29.65 31.03
12 17.43 19.05 20.66 22.23 23.78 25.30 26.79 21>.25 29.67 31.06
13 17.46 19.08 20.68 22.26 23.SI 25.33 26.82 2b.27 29.69 31.08
14 17.48 19.11 20.71 22.28 23.83 25.35 26.8~ 28.30 29.72 31.10
15 17.51 19.13 20.73 22.31 23.~6 25.38 26.1'17 28.32 29.H 31.13
16 1'i.54 19.16 20.76 22.34 23.88 25.40 26.89 28.34 29.76 31.15
17 17.56 19.19 2U.79 22.36 2l.9! 25.~3 26.91 2~.37 29.79 31.17
18 I 7.59 19.22 20.81 22.39 23.93 25.45 26.94 28.39 29.81 3l.l9
19 17.62 19.24 20.84 22.~1 23.96 25.48 26.96 28.42 29.~3 31.22
20 17.65 19.27 20.87 22.44 23.9~ 25.50 26.99 21'i.H 29.86 31.24
21 17.67 19.30 2tl.89 22.47 24.01 25.53 27.01 21'1.46 29.88 31.26
22 17.70 19.32 20.92 22.49 24.0~ 25.55 27.04 28.49 29.90 31.29
23 17.73 19.35 20.95 22.52 24.06 25.58 27.06 2~.51 29.93 31.31
2~ 17.76 19.38 20.97 22.54 24.09 25.60 27.09 28.54 29.95 31.33
25 17.78 19.40 21.00 22.57 24.11 25.63 27.11 28.56 29.97 31.35
26 17.81 19.43 21.03 22.60 24.H 25.65 27.13 28.56 30.0(J 31.38
27 17.84 I ~.46 21.05 22.62 2U6 25.68 27.16 28.61 30.02 3!.40
28 17.86 19.H 21.08 22.65 24.19 25.70 27.18 28.63 30.04 31.42
29 17.89 19.51 21.10 22.67 24,22 25.73 21.21 21'1.66 30.07 31.44

30 17.92 19.54 21.13 22.70 24.24 25.75 27.23 28.68 30.09 31.47
31 17.95 19.56 21.16 22.73 24.27 25.78 27.26 28.70 30.11 31.49
32 17.97 19.59 21.18 22.75 24.29 25.80 27.28 28.73 30.14 31.51
33 18.00 19.62 21.21 22.78 24.32 25.83 27.30 28.75 30.16 31.53
34 18.03 19.64 21.2~ 22.80 24.3~ 25.85 27.33 28.77 30.18 31.56
35 18.05 19.67 21.26 22.83 24.37 25.88 27.36 28.80 30.21 31.58
36 18.06 19.70 21.29 22.86 2~.39 25.90 27.38 28.82 30.23 3!.60
37 18.11 19.72 21.32 22.88 24.42 25.93 27.40 28.85 30.25 31.62
36 18.14 19.75 21.34 22.91 24.44 25.95 27.43 28.87 30.28 I 31.65
39 18.16 19.78 2!.37 22.93 24.47 25.98 27.45 28.89 30.30 31.67
40 18.19 19.80 21.39 22.96 24.49 26.00 27.48 28.92 30.32 31.69
41 18.22 19.83 21.42 22.98 24.52 26.03 27.50 28.94 30.35 31.71
42 18.2~ 19.86 21.45 23.01 24.54 l6.05 27.52 28.96 30.37 31.74
43 18.27 19.88 2U7 28.04 24.57 26.08 27.55 28.99 30.39 31.76
44 18.30 19.91 21.50 23.06 24.60 26.10 27.57 29.01 30.42 31.78
45 18.32 19.94 21.53 23.09 24.62 26.13 2< .60 29.04 30.44 31.60
46 18.35 19.96 21.55 23.11 24.65 26.15 27.62 29.06 30.46 3!.83
47 18.38 19.e9 21.58 23.14 24.67 26.17 27,65 29.08 30.48 31.85
48 18.41 20.02 21.60 23.17 24.7J 26.20 21.67 29.11 30.51 3!.87
49 18.43 20.04 21.63 23.19 24.72 26.22 27.69 29.13 30.53 31.89
50 18.~ 6 20.07 21.66 23.22 24.75 31.92
51 18.49 20.10 21.68 23.24 24.77 31.94
52 18.51 20.12 21.71 23.27 24.80 31.96
53 18.54 20.15 21.74 23.29 24.d2 3!.98
54 18.57 20.18 21.76 23.32 24.85 32.01
56 18.6U 20.20 21.79 23.34 24.87 32.03
56 18.62 20.23 21.81 23.37 24.90 32.05
57 18.65 20.26 21.84 23.40 24.92 32.08
58 18.68 20.28 21.87 23.12 21.95 32.10
59 18.70 20.3! 21.~9 23.45 24.98 92.12

aine 0.21 0.22 0.24

applicable for modern, interne focusing
ordinory work with older, external focusing instruments. For greater preci-
sion with ex.ternol focusing in.struments, add (I foot X sine vertical angle) to
total computed vertical distance.
 AGI DATA SHEET 7.1

Trigonometric Formulas and Functi~o~n~s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Compiled by R. V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University

On both diagrams and in the equations, lowercase Greek letters designate angles and upper
case Roman letters designate sides

RIGHT TRIANGLES

0
Sine= Ri~~:~~~~~e
Cosine=

Tangent=

Cotangent= ~g~;s~~~ ~::

Therefore: sin n cos a=!'! tan n and cot " = E:l etc.
c A
And: A=C sin a =B tan n Also: sin u =cos d ; tan u =cot ;1 ; etc.
B=C cos" =A cot Furthermore: C' = A2 + 8 2
C=-- =-B- And: rr + :3 = 90
sm n cos ct

OBLIQUE TRIANGLES

A B
sin,, sin ;i

Therefore: A = ~~~l

B =A sin J__
Sin a

etc.

A tabulation of numerical values of the functions is on the reverse side of this sheet Values
for fractions of angles-e.g., the sine for 256' ( =25 1/ 10 ")-may be calculated by interpola
tion. More extensive tables are given in several mathematics (trigonometry) and surveying books
and are available on appropriately keyed calculators.

AGI-DSrvd8.2
AGI DATA SHEET 7.2
NATURAL FUNCTIONS

Sine Tan. Cosine Cot an.

0.0000 0.0000 1.0000 lnfin. 90

0.0175 0.0175 0.9998 57.2900 89
0.0349 0.0349 0.9994 28.6363 88
0.0523 0.0524 0.9986 19.0811 87
0.0698 0.0699 0.9976 14.3007 86
0.0872 0.0875 0.9962 11.4301 85
0.1045 0.1051 0.9945 9.5144 84
0.1219 0.1228 0.9925 8.1443 83
0.1392 0.1405 0.9903 7.1154 82
0.1564 0.1584 0.9877 6.3138 81
10 0.1737 0.1763 0.9848 5.6713 80
11 0.1908 0.1944 0.9816 5.1446 79
12 0.2079 0.2126 0.9781 4.7046 78
13 0.2250 0.2309 0.9744 4.3315 77
14 0.2419 0.2493 0.9703 4.0108 76
15 0.2588 0.2679 0.9659 3.7321 75
16 0.2756 0.2867 0.9613 3.4874 74
17 02924 0.3057 0.9563 3.2709 73
18 0.3090 0.3249 0.9511 3.0777 72
19 0.3256 0.3443 0.9455 2.9042 71
20 0.3420 0.3640 0.9397 2.7475 70
21 0.3584 0.3839 0.9336 2.6051 69
22 0.3746 0.4040 0.9272 2.4751 68
23 0.3907 0.4245 0.9205 2.3559 67
24 0.4067 0.4452 0.9135 2.2460 66
25 0.4226 04663 0.9063 2.1445 65
26 0.4384 0.4877 0.8988 2.0503 64
27 0.4540 0.5095 08910 1.9626 63
28 0.4695 0.5317 0.8830 1.8807 62
29 0.4848 0 5543 0.8746 1.8041 61
30 0.5000 0.5774 0.8660 1.7321 60
31 0.5150 0.6009 0.8572 1.6643 59
32 0.5299 0.6249 0.8480 1.6003 58
33 0.5446 0.6494 0.8387 1.5399 57
34 0.5592 0.6745 0.8290 1.4826 56
35 0.5736 0.7002 0.8192 1.4281 55
36 05878 0.7265 0.8090 1.3764 54
37 0.6018 0.7536 0.7986 1.3270 53
38 0.6157 0.7813 0.7880 1.2799 52
39 0.6293 0.8098 0.7771 1.2349 51
40 0.6428 0.8391 0.7660 1.1918 50
41 0.6560 0.8693 0. 7547 1.1504 49
42 0.6691 0.9004 0.7431 1.1106 48
43 0.6820 0 9325 0.7314 1.0724 47
44 0 6947 0.9657 0.7193 1.0355 46
45 0.7071 1.0000 0.7071 1.0000 45

Cosine Cot an. Sine Tan.

-------
 AGI DATA SHEET 8.1
Correction for Dip

IAngle o f Anqle betwee n strike and direction of section

1u l l dip bo 75 ' 70 ~ 65 " I 6o ' 55" so ' 45
~
0
Jo" 9 51' 1 9" 4oJ 24' 1 3" 5'! b " 41'18" 13' 7 41' r 6'
15 14 " 47' \ 14 " 31' 14 ' 3',13 3J' I I3' 34' 112" 2b' II ' 36' 10' 4'
20 13 ' 43' 19 '' 23'118" 53' lb 15' ! 17"_ 30' ! 16" 36' 15' 35' 14 25'
[ 25" 24 ' 4b' 24 " 15' 123' 39' 22" 55' 1 22'' o' J20 54' 19 " 39' 18" IS'
30" i 29 ' 37' 29" 9',28 29' 27 37' 1 26 ' 34' 125 l b' 23 51 ' 22 12'
35 " : J~ ' 36' 34 " 4' 33 21' 32 24' 1 31 13' 29'' 50 ' 2!J 0
12' 26 20'
4 0 ! 39 " 34' 39 2' 38 15' 37" 15' 36' 0' 34 " 30' 32 ' 44 : 30 41'
45 : 44'' 34' 44" I' 43o 13' 142 11'[40 " 54' 39" 19' 37o 27' ! 35" 16'
50, 1
49 34' J49" I' 48o 14' 147 " 12',45 , 54 ' 44 17' 42, 23' 140" 7'
1
55 " [ 54 ' 35' ! 54 , 4' 53 ' 19' ' 52" ltl' 51 3' 49" 29' ; 47 35'[45" 17'
6o 159 37' i S9 " a ls 3 26')57 ' 30'156 19 ' ' 54 , 49'153 , 0' ' 50 " 46'
65 164 4o' i 64 " 14'i63" 36'162" 46161 " 42'16a o 21 sa" 4als6 " 36'
10 69 , 43' 69 ' 21'
1
!!:8
49' ,6 b" 7' 6r 12' l66" 8' 64 " 35' 62" 46'
75 . 174 ' 47' : 74 " 30'174 ' 5' In' 32'172' 4t: ' i71 53' 70" 43' 69 14'
oo ' ! 79 " 51' 79" 39' 179" 22' 7tl" 59' . 7!l" 29'
1

177 " 51' 77" 2' 76' a

3 5 ' i 64 56 I ' !l4 so I t 4 4 I ' 84 29 I I F4 I 4 I E-3 54 I b 3 29 I 8 2 s 7 I
113 job " 59 ' lot. ' Sb ' l!lb o 56' 188" 54' it!oo 51' 8!l" 47' 8!lo 42' b!lo 35'

Anq le bety.,een strike and direction of sect i on

i: iu 1 d; r 40 i 35 " w l 25 1 20, 15" 10 5' 1
I0 ~ 28 ' s 46' s 2'1 4" 15' 3 2/' 2 37' 1 45" o" 53'1 o' 1o
15 ~ 46' (j 44 ' r 3o:l 6 2t5 ' 5' 14' 3" 33' 2 40' 1 1 20'1 0 16'
2ll I3 I0 I II 40 . I 0 I 9 ' 10 4 5' 7" 6' 5 23' 3 37 '
0
I 49' I 0 2 2 '
25 ;6 1 ~1 14 5b ' l l3 7' I I' 9' ~ 3' 6 53' 4 " 37' 2 20' o o 2ti'
30
1
iO 21' I ~ 1~' 1 16 6' 13 " 43' II 10' ! b" 30 ' 5"44'
1
2" 53' 0" 35 '
35
1
2'- I.;' 21 53' 19' lb ' 16" 2~'[13 28' : 10" 16' I 6'' 56' 3" 30' 0 42'
40' 1 28 20 ' 25 42' 22 " 45' I~ ' 31 1!6 0' [12 , IS' ' b 0
17'1 4 o II' 0 ' SO'
4S.
;;:1 :: :::::: :::1:: :::1:: ::11::. ': 1,: :::j ::::: :: ,::,
5342'.133 ~: 178 .,1163~ ss:i
so :;

1
55 _42
1
33 ' 39 20' , 35 7'126 " 2' zoo 7" 6' 1' 26'
~ 0 .40 4' 47' 140 " u 14 '130 ' 29' 24 '' 44 0 35' 1 1' 44
fS Is' 2' : so 53' 146 s~0: 4 r 11 36 15'
1 2~ " 2' 120" 25' 10 , 35' 2'' 9'
70 lfo 73' 57 36 '; 53 ' 57' 14<:> 16' ; 43 ' 13' : 35 25' 25 " 30' 13' 2b'l2 ' 45'
75 !~7 22 ' I 64 5c' 4:1 ' 57 37 ' I 5 I 55 ' I 44 32 57 ' 3 44 '
0
I ' ' I t: I '

vO !74 4o' ! n 75' 34' 67'. 21.1 u 43' 55 '' 44' 44 33' 26 ' 1s1 s 31
bS b2 IS' ol 20' tlO 5 ' 7'o ' 19 ' 75 o 3~' 71 ' 20' 63 ' IS' 44 " 54' II ' 17'
1

89 !lt>o 27' 8b IS ' !ab' 0 ' u7 38' J 7- 5' l:l 6 9' 84 IS' 78' 41'144 I
This table has been adapted from Appendix 1, p. 128 in A.R. Dwerryhouse's Geological and
Topographical Maps, published by Messrs. Edward Arnold, London. Adaptation is reprinted from
F.H. Lahee's Field Geology, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
AGI-DS-65
 Depth

t I. 75 175 31 51 .so 60.09 61 87.46 180 40

2" 3.49 3.49 32 52.99 62.49 62' 88.29 188.07
3" 5. 23 s. 24 33" 54.46 64.94
63" o9. 10 196.26
4" 6.98 6. 99 34" 55.92 67 . 11S
64" 89.88 205. 03
s 8. 72 8. 75 35 57.36 70.02
65 90.63 214.45
6" 10.45 10.51 36" 224. 60
7 0 12. 19 12.28 37 60. 235.59
!:.;" 13.92 14. OS 38" 247 .s1
9. IS. 64 15.84 39" 260.51
40 274.75
IQ" 17 36 17.63
41 65.61 86.93
II 1:).08 19.44 71 94 55 290.42
42" 66.91 90.04 720 9?. 11 307.77
20.79 21 . 26
43" 68.20 93.25 7 3
13 22.50 23.09 95-63 327.09
44" 69.47 96.57 74" 96. 13 348.74
14" 24. 24.93
4s 70.71 100.00
IS" 25.88 26.79 75 96 59 373-21
16D 46" 71.93 I 03.55 76 97.03 401 .0!:)
27.56 2B 67
47 73.14 107.24 77" 97.44 433. 15
17" 29.24 30 57
4&0 74.31 Ill. 06 78 97.81 470.46
18" 30.90 32.49
49 75.47 115.04 79 98.16 514.46
32.56 34.43
50 c 76.60 119. 18 80" 98.45 567.13
20' ]4.iO 36.40
51 77.71 12].49 81 98.]7 631. 3~
21 35.84 ]8. 39
52 78.80 I 27.99 82 99.03
22 37.46 40.40
53" 79.86 I 32.70 o3 99.25
23 39.07 42.45
24 40.67 44.52 54 80.90 137 64 84 99.45

25 42.26 46.63 55 81.92 l42.81 ss 99.62

56. b2 .90 14b. 26 86 99.76
26 4].84 4b. 77
87 9:::1.56
27 45.40 50.95 sr d3 .87 153.99
Sb o o4.tlo 99.94
46.95 53. 17 160.03
99.98
46.48 55.43 85.72 166.43
so. 00 57.74 60 86.60 173.21

By permission from Field Geology, 5th Ed, by F.H. Lahee. Copyright (1952) McGraw-Hilt Book Co.

This table may be used lor determining the thickness ol inclined 5trata by the depth of a point In an
~~;~~~h~b~:JtRr~~~~~c~~ ~~ ~Qg ~~~ ~~g~~y :h~u~;~~t ~ t~~r~o,n~t!1n~u~~~~~~:n~~~~~i
0 0 8

depth) for the given dip,

 AGI DATA SHEET 9.1
Conversion of Slope

Conversion from per cent grade to vertical angles in degrees and minutes of arc
per cent
grade angIe
per cent
grade
vertical
angle
per cent;
grade ver~!~:l
an llpe;r~ent
ade
vertical
angle

1 0035' 26 1434' 51 2701' 76 37141

2 01 09 27 15 06 52 27 28
77 37 36
3 01 44 28 39 53 27 56 78 37 57
4 02 18 29 16 10 54 28 22
79 38 18
30 ,6 42 55 28 49
5 02 52 eo 38 39
31 17 13 55 29 15
6 03 26 81 39 00
32 17 44 57 29 41
7 04 00 82 39 21
33 18 16 58 30 07
8 04 35 83 39 41
34 18 46 59 30 33
9 05 09 lj 84 40 01
35 19 17 60 30 58
10 05 43 85 4o 22
36 19 48 61 31 23
II 06 17 86 40 42
62 31 48
12 o6 51 37 20 18 87 41 02
63 32 13
13 07 24 38 20 48 88 41 21
64 32 37
14 07 sa 39 21 IB 89 41 40
65 33 02
15 08 32 40 21 48 90 41 59
66 33 26
16 09 05 41 22 18 91 42 19
67 33 49
17 09 39 42 22 47 92 42 37
43 23 16 68 34 13
18 10 12 93 42 55
19 10 45 lj4 23 45 69 34 36 94 43 14
20 II 19 45 24 13 70 34 59 95 43 32
II 51 46 24 42 71 35 22 96 43 50
22 12 24 72 35 45 97 44 07
47 25 11
73 36 08 98 44 25
23 12 57 48 25 39 l
24 13 30 25 06 74 36 30 99 44 43
49
25 14 02 26 34 75 36 52 11'00 45 00
50

Conversion from degrees to per cent ot grade

per cent
grade

I. 7 14 24.9 27 5C.9 40 BJ .9
3.5 15 26' 8 28 53.2 41 86.9
5 2 16 28.7 29 55.4 42 90.0
7. 0 17 30.6 30 57.7 43 93 '2
8. 7 18 32.5 31 60.1 44 96.6
10' 5 19 )4.4 32 62.5 45 100.0
12.3 20 )6.4 33 64.9 46 IOJ. 5
14.0 21 38.4 34 6].4 47 107.2
15.8 22 40,4 35 70.0 48 I I
10 17.6 23 42.4 36 72' 6 49 115.5
II 19.4 24 44' 5 37 75.3 50 119.2
21.2 25 46.6 38 78. I
13 23. I 26 48.8 39 81.0
By permi&&ion from Field Geology, 5th Ed, by F.H. Lahee.
Copyright (1952) McGrawHill Book Co.

AGIDS-e5
AGI DATA SHEET 9.2
CONTOUR SPACING FROM SLOPE ANGLES
Contour Ft. = 10
1 2 5 20 25 50 1DO
i nterva 1
Slope or dip Contour spacing in feet on the ground
angle in degrees
1 57.3 104.6 286.4 573 1046 1432 2864 5729
2 28.6 56.3 143.2 286 563 716 1432 2864
3 19.1 38.2 95.4 191 382 477 954 1908
4 14.3 28.6 71.5 143 286 357 715 1430
5 II .4 22.9 57.1 114 229 285 571 1143
6 9. 5 19.0 47.5 95 190 237 475 951
7 8. I 16.3 40.7 81 163 203 407 814
8 7.1 14.2 35.5 71 142 177 355 711
9 6.3 12.6 31.5 63 126 157 315 631
10 5.6 11.3 28.3 57 113 141 283 567
II 5.1 10.3 25.71 51 103 128 257 514
12 4. 7 9.4 23.51 47 94 117 235 470
13 4.3 8. 7 21.6 43 87 I 08 216 433
14 4.0 8. 0 20.0 40 80 100 200 401
15 3.7 7.5 18.6 37 75 93 186 373
16 3.5 7.0 17.4 35 70 87 174 349
17 3.3 6. 5 16.3 33 66 81 163 327
18 3.1 6. 2 15.4 31 62 77 154 308
19 2.9 5.8 14.5 29 58 72 145 290.
20 2.7 5.5 13.7 27 55 68 137 270
21 2.6 5.2 13.0 26 52 65 130 260
22 2.5 4.9 12.3 25 49 62 123 247
23 2.3 4. 7 11.7 23 47 59 117 235
24 2.2 4.5 11.2 22 45 56 112 225
25 2.1 4.3 10.7 21 43 53 107 214
26 2.0 4.1 10.2 20 41 51 102 204
27 2.0 3.9 9.8 20 39 49 98 196
28 1.9 3.8 9.4 19 37 47 94 188
29 I .8 3.6 9.0 18 36 45 90 180
30 I 1.7 3.5 8.6 17 35 43 86 173
31 1.7 3.3 8. 3 16 33 41 83 166
32 1. 6 3.2 8.0 16 32 40 80 160
33
I

1.5 3.1 7.7 15 31 38 77 154

34 I 1.5 3.0 7.4 15 30 37 74 148
35 1.4 2.9 7.1 14 29 35 71 143
36 I .4 2.8 6.9 14 28 34 69 138
37 1.3 2.7 6. 6 13 27 33 66 133
38 1.3 2. 6 6.4 13 26 32 64 128
39 1.2 2.5 6. 1 12 25 31 61 123
40 1.2 2.4 5.9 12 24 30 59 119
41 1.1 2.3 5.7 II 23 29 57 115
42 1.1 2.2 5.5 II 22 28 55 Ill
43 1.1 2.1 5.3 II 21 27 53 107
44 1.0 2.0 5.1 10 20 26 51 103
45 1.0 2.0 5.0 10 20 25 50 100
To f1nd the contour spacing for a slope or dip angle of 24 degrees. with a contour interval of
20ft. locate line 24 in the left column and number 20 on the top line. At the intersection of these
two lines, read the proper value for the contour spacing, which is 45ft. One may interpolate
for values between those shown on the data sr,eet. For instance, a contour spacing of 96ft falls
m1dway between 27 and 28 degrees 1n the left column; hence. the slope angle is 27 1/2
degrees. For convers1on to meters. 1 ft = 0.3048 meter
 AGI DATA SHEET 10.1
Criteria for Determining Top and Bottom of Beds.
by Siemon W. Muller, Stanford University

PHYSICAL
Tracing of beds or recognition of a known normal sequence. The top and bottom of ver-
tical or steeply inclined beds may be determined by tracing to or correlating with the
known normal (upright) sequence (A) in the area where these strata are either only gent-
ly folded (at B) or not at all deformed (at A).

~~~~~1~~J~~i~~~~l-
Conglomerates. Basal and intraformational
conglomerates may contain pebbles and
boulders which can be recognized as hav-
ing been derived from the beds below.

~
~~a1
Graded bedding. In sediments with graded
bedding, the texture will grade from coarse
below to fine above. This often does not
hold true in current-bedded deposits.
Graded bedding may be present under
various current, including turbidity current,
conditions. However, it should be borne in
mind that under these conditions a grada-
tion in texture may be from coarse to fine as well as from fine to coarse. As originally de-
~~t~~ ~~~~~~~?':e~~l1n~e~~~ug~~s~g~~a~:tr;~~i~ttirld~t~::, ~:~;~!~~ ~~~~~~~;~o~~~~
rent bedding" which is produced by "resorting and redistribution of material."
Cross-bedding. in cross-bedding one set of
layers or laminae are truncated by overly-
ing layers, but away from this contact the
layers sweep along a concave curve to a
conformable contact with the underlying
layers. The concave side of cross-bedding
generally points toward the original upper
side. Individual cross-bedded laminae may
show a downward gradation in texture
from coarse to fine.
AGI DATA SHEET 10.2

Mud cracks. Mud cracks generally

decrease in width downward and may be
filled with material which composes the
overlying beds.

Ripple marks. In symmetrical ripple marks

the crests (tops) are sharper than the
troughs. Occasionally minor crests may be
present in troughs.

Sole marks. Small, wave or tongue-like

penetrations of a coarse clastic material
from above into a finer clastic material
below along minor surface irregularities on
a bedding plane. Some of these marks are
explained by deformation or flow of uncon
solidated (and diluted or water-saturated)
sediments by gravity sliding along a
primary incl ine of a bedding plane and
possibly triggered by earthquakes. These
features tend to develop along a contact of sand (now sandstone) overlying a clay (now
shale), but are rarely (if ever?) formed at the contact of clay overlying sand.
Fracture cleavage. In the upright section of
folded rocks, the fracture cleavage is
generally steeper than the bedding (a), but
when the beds are overturned the reverse
is true (b).

Curved fracture cleavage. Curved fracture

cleavage may be observed in deformed
beds where individual beds have a percep

--- '
I
tible gradation of texture from coarse
below to fine above (graded bedding). On ..,.. ......
the side with coarser texture (bottom) the
angle between the fracture and the bed
ding will be larger or more obtuse than on
/ "
the side with the finer texture (top or face
of the bed). The convex side of the cur
vature of the fracture cleavage will bow out .
toward the original top of the bed.

~~.
Pebble dents. When the matri x is bulged
around an imbedded pebble on one side
only, this side is the original bottom (a). Ap

~~
parent denting of laminated sediments
above and below an embedded pebble may
result from the subsequent compaction or
compression of sediments (b). b

Reference
Shrock . R.R., 1948 Sequence in Layered Rocks. McGraw-Hill Book Co, Inc .,
New York-Toronto-London, 507p .. 397 figs .
 AGI DATA SHEET 10.3
PALEONTOLOGICAL

Bryozoa. Shells of invertebrate organisms

or other solid objects lying with their
longer axes In the plane of stratification
may be encrusted by bryozoans on the up-
per side.

Brachiopods. Crania-like brachiopods oc-

cur cemented on other shells or on sub-
I~ I
strata with their convex, conical valves '
pointing upward . ~

Pelecypods. a)Shellsof Schizothaerus(Ter-

tiary) and Pholadomya (Mesozoic) are not
uncommonly found in their original buried
position, "standing on end" with their
posterior (siphonal) end pointing upward.

b) Rudists and rudist-like aberrant pele-

cypods are occasionally found in their
original upright position with the free valve
at the top.

c) Disjointed or spread-out open valves

of convex pelecypods are generally
brought to rest by wave action or by cur-
rents with their convex side up. Exceptions
to this rule are not uncommon. Observa-
t ions based on a single shell or only a few
shells are not completely reliable.

d) lnequivalved pelecypods if buried

alive will have their more convex valve
point downward.

e) Shells of marine organisms or other

solid objects on the substrate may be en-
crusted on their free, upper surface with
cemented forms such as oysters, barna-
cles, or other sessile organisms.

Worm trails. Worm trails and trails of prob-

lematical organisms generally leave
grooves on the face of the bed. Worms
grubbing near the surface of the substrate
will leave raised, flattened ridges with a
barely perceptible groove in the middle,
presumably due to the "caving" of the
grubbing "tunnel" after the organism
passed through the tunnel.
AGI DATA SHEET 10.4
Gastropods. In vermetids and similar
worm-gastropods the final feeding tube(as
~~~~~:~Ps;!:J d~fri~~riKe ~~f~g~Nh~e:~~~(

Corals. SOlitary corals cemented to the

substrate are normally oriented with their
narrow end down, widening (and branch
in't!~~~i~ldcoralsmay be preserved in their
original position with their calyxes point
:~~g~P~~~~d~to~~ ~~~;.~9-e~tc~~~j~ r:;!~
cling to the side or even the bottom of a
protruding edge and have their calyxes
point downward.
Colonial corals (and calcareous algae) of
biscuit or bun shape normally grow and
become buried with their convex side up.
Echlnolds. Sea urchins when found in
large numbers are commonly oriented with
flat ventral (oral) side down and convex dor
sal side up.

PHYSICAL CRITERIA FOR IGNEOUS ROCKS

Lava flows. Tops of interbedded lava flows
generally are more vesicular. In lavas
which contain branching tubules the direc
:~en ~~r~~r;~~~~ 'iu~~l~~~ 1~e ~!~~ ~~~
1

original top of the lava flow.

A more or less perceptible contact meta-
morphism (brickred burned soil) may be
present in the rocks below the bottom of
the lava flow, but no metamorphism and a
depositional contact will mark the top of
the lava flow.
Crests of wrinkles The crests or tops of
wrinkles on the surfaces of lava are gener
ally smoother and more broadly curved
than the spaces between the wrinkles.
Pillow lavas. In pillow lavas the following
features indicate the top of the flow;
a) Upper surfaces of pillows are moder-
ately or gently convex and relatively
smooth.
b) Bottoms of pillows commonly have
cusps pointing down into the lnterspaces
between the underlying pillows.
c) Pillows are generally more vesicular
near the top than near the bottom.
d) Small-scale columnar jointing may be
more or less well developed around the up-
per periphery. Columnar jointing is poorly
developed or is altogether absent on the
bottom side of the pillow.
e) Pillows extruded upon unconsoli
dated sediments are likely to ruffle and
crumple these underlying sediments and
may have enough heat to bake these con
torted sediments.
f) The top of the pillow lava flow general
ly shows no heat effect on the overlying
sediments. The "pillowy" surface of the
flow is gradually effaced or leveled by the
overlying sediments, which tend to fill the depressed area more rapidly.
 AGI DATA SHEET 11.1
Folds
Richard M. Foose, Amherst College
Folds in rocks of the Earth's crust are created in response to various forces
that result in compressive, tensile, and shearing stresses. Various components of
folds may be measured by geologists, providing an opportunity to "reconstruct"
the nature, causes, and physical attitude of both the stresses and the forces.
For example, each fold has two limbs and an "imaginary" plane that bisects the
angle made by the two limbs (the axial plane, or AP). By measuring them, the
geologist may "map" and describe the fold.
Anticline and syncline are general terms that describe folds. An anticline is
generally convex upwards, and its core ccntains the stratigraphically older rocks.
A syncline is generally concave upwards, and its core contains the stratigraphi-
cally younger rocks. Figure 1(A) shows a syncline in the center and an anticline
on either side.
Antiform (limbs close upwards) and synform (limbs close downwards)
describe folds in strata for which the stratigraphic sequence is unknown.
Folds may be classified by different systems. The most important follow:
Geometrical (descriptive). This is most commonly used.
Morphological. Based on large-scale shape of folds, mainly at depth.
Mechanical (kinematic). Based upon mechanisms that occur in the rocks
when folding occurs.
Tectonic. Based upon the location and position of folds in the continental tec-
tonic framework.

Wut East

Wnt

Figure 1. Some varieties of folds. AP, axial plane. (A) Symmetrical (upright) folds.
(B) Asymmetrical folds. (C) Overturned folds (overfolds). (D) Recumbent folds.

Geometrical (Figure 1). Based on appearance of folds in cross-sectional view.

1. Symmetrical fold. Limbs dip the same. AP is vertical.
2. Asymmetrical fold. Limbs dip at different angles. AP is inclined.
3. Overturned fold. Limbs dip in same direction but not same amount. AP is
inclined.
4. Recumbent fold. AP is nearly horizontal.
5. Isoclinal fold (Figure 2). Limbs are parallel. AP may have any orientation.
6. Chevron fold (Figure 3). Limbs make sharp, V-shaped juncture at crest
and trough of fold.
7. Box fold (Figure 3). Limbs make box-like shape.
AGI-DS-nnf-69
AGI DATA SHEET 11.2

8. Monocline (Figure 4) . Single limb dips in one direction but with differing
amount of dip.
9. Structural terrace (Figure 4) . Single limb nearly flat , bounded by two
monoclines.
10. Homocline. A homocline is a monocline in which the dip is constant or at
least without significant variation in amount.
11 . Fan fold (Figure 5) . Crest and trough flare out at AP.
12. Open fold (Figure 6) . During the folding there has been no "flowage ,"
even in soft, incompetent beds .
13. Closed (tight) fold (Figure 6). During the folding there has been
"flowage," and the incompetent beds thicken and thin .

~;"-.
~
c
Figure 2. Isoclinal folds. AP, axial planes. (A) Vertical isoclinal folds. (B) Inclined

..
isoclinal folds. (C) Recumbent isoclinal folds .

A a
Figure 3. Some varieties of folds . AP, axial plane. (A) Chevron fold. (B) Box fold .

A a
Figure 4. Monocline and terrace. (A) Monocline. (B) Structural terrace .

/ ....

\ ( --..i ;

a
Figure 5. Some varieties of folds . AP, axial plane. (A) Fan fold. (B) Kink bands.
A fracture may separate the kink band from the rest of beds.
 AGI DATA SHEET 11.3

A B

Figure 6. Open and closed folds . (A) Open folds. (B) Closed folds .

Morphological. Based on changes in fold shape with depth.

1. Similar fold (Figure 7). Folds that do not increase in size upwards or
downwards but maintain a similar shape. Individual beds in these folds
thicken at their crest and thin on their limbs.
2. Concentric (parallel or competent) fold (Figure 7). A fold in which the
thickness of all beds remains constant with depth, resulting in individual
folds that increase or decrease in size upwards and downwards.
3. Disharmonic fold (Figure 8). Folds in which the individual beds thicken
or thin indiscriminately and not in harmony with each other.
4. Supratenuous (compaction) fold (Figure 9). A fold in which the individual
beds are thinner above a central fulcrum-such as an irregularity in the
basement-and thicken away from the fulcrum .

Figure 7. Types of folding. (A) Similar folding. (B) Concentric folding.

 p101 snonu&lBJdns s aJn61:l
("uouea "H"N JBUif) sp;o~aJ IIIJP uo paseq ll!O~ 10 spaq lU<JsaJda; saun ue~
OJS"Ino peu1w uaaq aAE4 1241 12"~ JO speq lUBS9JdaJ SBUII PIIOS nlul>Ap\suuad
jO U!Sll8 9li!>2Jli)Uif UJ<>41JON aljl W SP!O! :>!UOWJ114S!P jO SUO!I::!!IS SSOJC) 8 aJn~:l
 AGI DATA SHEET 11.5

Mechanical (kinematic). Based on the mechanisms by which actual folding

occurs and is also related to depth in the crust.
1. Flexural-slip fold>ng (Figure 10). The individual beds slip past one another,
outward from synclinal (trough) axes and inward toward anticlinal (crest)
axes
2. Shear (slip) folds (Figure 11). These folds result from differential shear
along many fractures (cleavage), creating anticlinal and synclinal shapes
without actual folding of individual beds. Typically, these folds occur at
greater depth than those of flexural slip.
3. Flow folds (Figure 12). These folds are produced at great depth and
result from extreme flowage of rock beds, particularly in soft, incompetent
rocks, like shale or limestone.

A B
Figure 10. Cross sections illustrating flexure folding. (A) Anticline. (B) Syncline.

Figure 11. Cross sections illustrating shear folding. Heavy black line, xz, is a
bedding plane. Inclined light lines are fractures. (A) Before displacement on frac-
tures. (B) After displacement. (C) Because of friction, beds tend to parallel the
fractures. (D) Fold results if bed maintains continuity.
AGI DATA SHEET 11.6

If a= 85:
d = 2.2
t'= 0.09 w

Figure 12. Bed deformed by shear or flow folding. The maximum thickness of
the bed is at the hinge; the thickness is greatly reduced on the limbs

Tectonic
1. Folds of the outer lore/and. Because the outer foreland is at the greatest
distance tram the forces of deformation, the folds all tend to be simple,
symmetrical, open, parallel, flexural slip folds.
2. Folds of the inner /oreland. These folds, located closer to the forces of
deformation, tend to be asymmetnc or overturned, tight, similar, and
shear or flowage folds.
3. Folds of the disturbed belt, or core, located in the zone of maximum tec-
tonic forces and stress. These folds include very tight, isoclinal shear
and flow folds, and disharmonic folds.

References
Billings, Marland P., 1972. Structural Geology, 3ro ed. p. 50,53,54,55,56, 120,121,
124. Figures are reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey.

Darton, N.H., 1940, Some structural features of the Northern Anthracite Coal Basin,
Pennsylvania, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 193, p. 69-81.
 AGI DATA SHEET 12.1
Joints and Faults
Complied by R. V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University

JOINTS
A joint is a fracture along which there has been only separation - i.e., the
only movement has been perpendicular to the break. A group of essentially
parallel joints is called a joint set. Two or more sets of joints that intersect so that it
appears they were formed as a result of the same group of stresses are called a
joint system. Many of these fractures may have been healed - i.e., filled with
minerals deposited by. lor example, ground water or hydrothermal solutions - and
now are veins.
In the field, the strikes and dips of joints are usually recorded. For reports, the
orientations of joints are often shown on maps and/or diagrams.

FAULTS
A fault is a fracture along which the rocks on one side of the break have
moved with respect to the rocks on the other side of the break - i.e., there has
been displacement of the blocks parallel to the fracture. Although some fault
zones have essentially vertical or horizontal dips, most do not. Figures 1 and 2
illustrate typical fault orientations. For example, based on the relative movements
of their two blocks, normal faults (Figure 2A) are those whose hanging-walt blocks
have moved downward with respect to their footwall blocks. In addition, faults with
strike-slip movements are often called right-lateral or /eft-lateral - if one stands
on one block, faces the other block and sees that it has moved to the right, then it
is right-lateral. The same relation is seen from either block.

HANGING- WALL
FOOTWALL
BLOCK BLOCK

Figure 1. Nomenclature of faults. This is a normal fault with an oblique slip- i.e.,
the displacement had both strike-slip and dip-slip components. The strike-slip
displacement is such that the fault is left-lateral.
!::; 1-
...I
:::1 :::1
<1: <1:
l.r. l.r.
...I 1.11
<1: 11.1
0::
~ w
0:: >
0 1.11
z 0::
1.11 1.11
:::1 :::1
0 \ 0
:::; :::;
II) II)
0 0

ti u
+ +
<( al

1-
...I
:::1
1- <1: 1-
...I
...I l.r.
:::1 1:1. :::1
:::; <1:
~ 11.1
l.r.
1.11
...I
<1:
t.U 11.1
::..! 0::
~ ;:c 1.11
0:: 1- >
w
0 11.1
z 0::

-i. u al

Figure 2. Types of faults. Of the faults shown. C. A+C, and B+C are also left-lateral
faults. (Modified and redrawn after W.B. Clark and C.J. Hauge, California Division
of Mines and Geology, Special Publication 39, 1973.)
 AGI DATA SHEET 12.3

Low-angle faults- i.e., those with dips of less than about 30 degrees are
usually called thrust faults. In some places, one or more parts of the overthrust
plates (i.e., the hanging-wall block rocks) have been isolated as a result of
erosion. Elsewhere, erosion has led to exposures of footwall block rocks that are
surrounded by rocks of the overthrust plate. The isolated masses are called
klippen (singular, klippe); the exposures of the footwall rocks are called fensters
or windows. See Figure 3.

Klippe Fenster

[ill Footwall block rocks

r-=1 Hanging-wall block rocks

-
~ Fault zone (arrows indicate relative movements)

Figure 3. Eroded thrust fault.

 AGI DATA SHEET 13.1
Mineral Hardness and Specific Gravity
R.V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University
Mineral hardness, an often determined property, is usually defined as the
resistance to scratching. For brittle minerals, it is a measurement of the stress
required to initiate rupture; for ductile minerals, it is a measurement of plastic
deformation. The scale most widely used for measuring relative degree of
hardness was proposed by Friedrich Mohs in 1824. It follows, with talc (1) the
softest and diamond ( 1O) the hardest.
Mohs' Mineral Common Object
Scale for Comparison
1 talc
2 gypsum
fingernail (2.2)
3 calcite
copper coin (3.5)
4 fluorite
5 apatite
geological hammer (5.1)
pocketknife (5.2)
window glass (5.5)
6 feldspar
7 quartz
a topaz
9 corundum
10 diamond
Hardness is frequently used as a diagnostic property, especially for identi-
fying the common rock-forming and ore minerals. With a little practice, one can
estimate the hardness of minerals with hardnesses up to and including 5 by
using only a pocketknife and noting how easily it abrades the mineral. Harder
minerals scratch the knife blade or geological hammer.
Two precautions must be taken:
1. Check only fresh (not weathered or otherwise altered) surfaces.
2. Use only single grains because granular masses can often be disag-
gregated and thus appear to have been scratched.
To overcome the second difficulty, a good procedure is to try the scratch
test in both directions-that is, try scratching the steel tool with the mineral as
well as scratching the mineral with the tool. A few minerals-for example,
kyanite-have different hardnesses in different crystallographic directions; this
property in itself is a valuable diagnostic property.
Procedures have been devised for determining hardness quantitatively.
The most widely known methods are the Brinell, Knoop. Rockwell, and Vickers
procedures. Each involves determining the effects on a test material of a
plunger loaded with a tip of particularly shaped diamond or other hard material.
The test material bears the weight of the loaded plunger for a precise length of
time. The indentation formed is carefully measured, and calculations are made
to convert the measurements to the appropriate quantities (see, for example,
Eisenstadt, 1971 ).
None of these procedures, however, has been used widely in the study of
minerals; probably the most noteworthy are the Vickers hardness data that are
available for some of the opaque minerals. Thus, the Mohs' scale remains as
the mineralogist's, as well as the field geologist's, standard for comparison.
Raference
Eisenstadt, M.M .. 1971. Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Materials. Macmillan
Publishing Co., New York.
AGI DATA SHEET 13.2

Specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of its density to the density of

water. That is, it is the number of times heavier or lighter that a given volume
of a material is than an equal volume of water. This property serves as a sim-
ply applied, nondestructive test to help identify minerals and is also useful in
certain petrographic studies.
Several apparatuses, including simple spring balances and specially fabri-
cated devices, have been used to measure specific gravity, and gemologists
and others often use heavy liquids of known densities to determine the specific
gravity of specimens. Good results can usually be obtained by using a typical
laboratory balance, a vessel large enough to hold water and the specimen to
be checked, and some wire or thread to support the specimen.

Specific gravity measurement. Figure is modified.

Four steps are required :

1. The balance with the support wire (SW) is balanced with the counter-
weight (CW) at 0.
2. The specimen (Sample) is placed on the support wire and weighed in air.
3. The water-containing vessel-e.g., beaker-is raised to immerse the
specimen, which is then weighed in water.
4. The appropriate values are substituted in the following formula :

weight in air
specific gravity
weight in air - weight in water
 AGI DATA SHEET 14.1
Macroscopic Identification of Common Rock-forming Silicates
Compiled by David B. Jorgenson; updated and revised by KwoLing Chyl,
Central Michigan University
The following table, which lists only the common silicate minerals, is intended as a
guide to the rapid identification of these minerals in rocks. More detailed descriptions
can be found in a number of books, a few of which are listed below.
Major divisions are by color, cleavage, and hardness. "Dark-colored" and "U!i!ht
colored" are relative terms, and some minerals have been classified In both cate~nes.
~~~e;~~~ :~~J~~~ri~p~~n~r?.~a~~~ ~~~~ t~r~~~~~;al~~[~7b~e~rk~~alr,a?: :-;w~~::
pink, light gray, orange, yellow, light green, light blue, or a pastel color, and impart a
"light" color to a rock.
There are two subdivisions based on cleavage: "Cleavage Generally Conspicuous,"
and "Cleavage Absent or Inconspicuous." A mineral that typically displays at least one
well-developed cleavage direction will be classified as having generally conspicuous
cleavage. Some mineral species are listed in both cleavage categories.
Hardness is subdivided roughly on the basis of the hardnesses of common objects:
H < 3 (fingernail H = 2.5), 3 s H < 5 (glass H = 5; knifeblade "" 5.5), 5 s H < 7 (quartz H
~, 7), 7s H. Some minerals are given in more than one of the hardness categories.

References
Berry, L.G., Mason, B., and Dietrich, R.V., 1983. Mineralogy, 2nd ed. W.H. Freeman
and Co., San Francisco, 561 p.

Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., and Zussman, J., 1966. An Introduction to the Rock Forming
Minerals. Longman Group Ltd., London, 528 p.

Dietrich, R.V., and Skinner, B.J., 1979. Rocks and Rock Minerals. John Wiley and
Sons. New York, 319 p.

Fleischer, Michael, 1987. Glossary of Mineral Species, 5th ed. Mineralogical Record,
Tucson, 227 p. plus appendix.

Klein, C., and Hurlbut, C.S., Jr., 1985. Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 596 p.
I. DARK COLORED
A. Cleavage
1
a.~
Mineral Name-Composilion
Color
Luster
)>
!2
Generally 2~ Hardness c
~
Conspicuous CJ!8. Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Species Common Occurrence
H<3 Biotite K(Mg,Fe)3(AI,Fe)Si301o(OH,F)2
CJJ
:I:
Monoclinic Brn, blk, dark grn Micaceous cleavage; Phlogopite is general and m
Splendent dark color; elastic ly lighter colored; rocks; m
2 1/2-3 folia chlorite is inelastic -1
2.8-3.2 .....
Chlorite (Mg,Fe) (Si,AI) 4o 10(0H) (Mg,Fe)3(0H)
3 2 6
""'
;.,
Monoclinic or Varieties of grn Micaceous cleavage, Biotite is elastic Metamorphic rocks
tric!imc polytypes Vitreous to pearly green color; (diagnostic mineral of
2-2Y2 inelastic folia greenschist facies);
2.6-3.3 igneous as alteration
product.

5~H<7 Epidote Ca (AI,Fe)AI 0(Si0 )(Si 0 )(0H)

2 2 4 2 7
..,
,0
a
Monoclinic Yel-grn to blk
Vitreous
Pistachio green color;
one perfect cleavage
Complete series be-
tween epidote
Metamorphic rocks
(found commonly with
UJ
6-7 =
(AI: Fe +3 2:1) and actinolite, albite, and
3.25-3.45 clinozoisite (3:0), chlorite in greenschists);
which is lighter igneous as alteration
colored product.

Augite (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,AI,Ti)(Si,AI)206

~ Monoclinic Blk, dark grn Imperfect prismatic Chemically more Most common pyrox-
~ Vitreous
5-6
cleavage at near 90 ';
stubby prismatic
complex, but related
to dlopside. Horn-
ene. Dark-colored lg-
neous rocks; with
~ 3.2-3.3 crystals; dark color blende has similar olivine, Ca-
~ colors plagioclase,
hypersthene. Some
.
.., metamorphic rocks .

~0 Diopside CaMgSi 2o6

Monoclinic Wt to light grn One of the end Metamorphic rocks;
~ Vitreous members of the with forsterite,
5-6 pyroxene group enstatite, calcite.
3.2-3.3
 )
Mineral Name-ComposHion
I. DARK COLORED Color
A. Cleavage Luster
Generally Hardness
Conspicuous Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Species Common Occurrence
5~H < 7 Enstatite Mg2Si206
Bronzite (Mg,Fe)2Si206
Hypersthene (Mg,Fe)2Si206
Orthorhombic Grayish, yellowish, Prismatic habit and Complete series be- Igneous rocks,
grn-wt, olive-grn, brn cleavage at - 90 tween MgSi03 and especially peridotites,
Vitreous to pearly; angles; color; pearly FeSi0 3 . Enstatite may pyroxenites, gabbros,
bronzite: submetallic luster on cleavage contain lrom 0 to basalts. Also high
luster planes
~f~~ ~~?~~~~~-nzite,
grade metamorphic
5112 -6 rocks. Fe-rich
3.2-3.6 sthene, 30 to so-,.. varieties found in
More Fe-rich species metamorphic iron for-
are not common . mations. Commonly
associated with
clinopyroxene.

Dark grn to blk Prismatic habit and Augite has similar Igneous and
Monoclinic colors but different metamorphic rocks.
Vitreous cleavage at - 56 and
5-6 124; dark color ; cleavage angles. Widely distributed.
3.0-3.4 crystals elongate. Other amphiboles,
sometimes fibrous especially actinolite,
may resemble horn-
blende.

):1>
Monoclinic Grn Slender prisms, Hornblende is usually Metamorphic rocks;
Vitreous prismatic cleavage darker colored. characteristic of 9
5-6
3.0-3.3
(120.); green color greenschist facies
metamorphism.
c
~
Monoclinic Blue, lavender-blue Color; fibrous habit
Partial series be- Only in metamorphic ~
m
~~~Reg~~~~~~~~~
Vitreous rocks. With jadeite
6
and lawsonite it m
increasing Fe. reflects low temperature -1
3.1-3.4 Crossite is in
termediate member. ~~ra~~~s~~~- f
 Mineral Name-Composition
I. DARK COLORED Color
A. Cleavage Luster
Generally Hardness
Conspicuous Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Featuras Similar Species Common Occurrence
5~H<7 Cummingtonite (Mg,Fe)7Si o22 (0H) 2
8
Monoclinic Light brn Needlelike, commonly Complete series be- Metamorphic rocks,
Silky; fibrous radiating; color tween cummingtonite commonly with horn-
51/2-6 (Mg>Fe) and grunerite blende or actinolite.
3.1-3.6 (Fe>Mg). Anthophyllite
and gedrite are similar
to cummingtonite.

Titanite CaTiSi05
Monoclinic Gray, brn, grn, blk, yel Luster, and wedge- Common accessory in
Resinous shaped crystals igneous rocks; larger
5-51/2 crystals in some
3.4-3.55 gneisses, schists,
marbles.
B. Cleavage Absent
or Inconspicuous
H<3 Chrysocolla (Cu,AI)2H2Si205(0H)4nH20
(Undefined) Grn to grn-blue Color; conchoidal Dioptase appears Oxidized zones of
Vitreous to earthy fracture; low hard- similar, but forms copper deposits; with
2-4 ness rhombohedral malachite, azurite,
2.0-2.4 crystals cuprite.

3~H<5 Serpentine Mg 3Si 20 5(0H)4

Monoclinic or Variegated grn Color, luster; fibrous Antigorite is the platy Occurs as alteration
orthorhombic Greasy, silky habit is common variety, chrysolite is of Mg-silicates,
polytypes 3-5 the fibrous variety. especially olivine.
2.5-2.6 Softer than fibrous Associated with
amphiboles. magnetite, chromite.
5:::H<7 Olivine (Mg,Fe) 2Si0 4

Orthorhombic Pale yel-grn to olive- Glassy luster, con- Mafic igneous rocks
grn choidal fracture. especially peridotite,
Vitreous Color gabbro, and basalt.
61/2-7 Associated with
3.27-4.37 pyroxenes. Common-
ly altered to serpentine.
 )
Mineral Name-Composition
Color
I. DARK COLORED Luster
B. Cleavage Absent Hardness
or Inconspicuous Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Species Common Occurrence
5:SH<7 Titanite CaTiSi0 5

Monoclinic Gray. brn, grn, blk, yel Luster, and wedge- Common accessory
Resinous shaped crystals in igneous rocks;
5-5V2 larger crystals in
3.4-3.55 some gneisses,
schists, marbles.
Chondrodite (Mg,Fe)s(Si0 4 )2(F.OH)2
Monoclinic ~il~r~~~;1 1'g ;:~nous Color; occurrence in
marbles
Other members of
the group are humite,
Metamorphosed
dolomitic limestones.
6-6 112 cllnohumite, and Associated with
3.1-3.2 norbergite, which are phlogopite, spinel,
megascopically in- pyrrhotite, and
distlngulshable from graphite. Commonly
chon<frodite. altered to serpentine.

7~H Almandine Fe Ai Si o
3 2 3 12
Isometric Deep-red to Color; Isometric Mg and Mn substitute Almandine is the
brownish-red crystal habit; hard- freely for Fe. Mg end most common garnet,
Vitreous to resinous ness member is pyrope, being widely
6V2-7 112 Mn end member is distributed in
3.5-4.3 spessartine. Ca- metamorphic rocks;
bearing garnets are also as a detrital
grossular, andradite, mineral. Pyrope oc-
and uvarovite. curs in ultrabasic ig-
neous rocks.
Andalusite AI Si0
2 5
Orthorhombic Flesh-red, reddish- Nearly square prism Variety chiastolite Metamorphic rocks ,
brn, olive-grn habit; color; hardness has colored carbon- especially argil-
Vitreous aceous inclusions ar- laceous, often found
7V2 ranQed in cruciform with cordierite; can
3.16-3.20 des1gns. Other occur with kyanite or
AI2Si05 polymorphs sillimanite.
are sillimanite and
kyanite.
 Mlnarel Nama-Composition
Color
I. DARK COLORED Luster
B. Cleavage Absent Hardness
or Inconspicuous Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Species Common Occurrence
7~H Staurolite (Fe,Mg,Zn)2Aig(Si,AI)4022(0H)2

Monoclinic Red-brn to brn-blk Distinct prismatic Regionally metamor-

Resinous to vitreous habit, often with phosed Al-rich rocks.
when fresh; dull or cruciform twins. Un-
earthy when altered. twinned crystals are
7-7V> distinguished from
3.65-3.75 andalusite by their
obtuse prism shape

Zircon ZrSiO 4

Tetragonal Brn Prismatic habit; color, Accessory mineral In

Adamantine I uster, hardness, high igneous rocks, espec-
71/-z specific gravity ially high silica ones.
4.68 Also in detrital
sediments. Some
metamorphic rocks.

Tourmaline (Na,Ca)(Fe.Mg,AIILi,Mn, ... )(AI,Fe,Cr,Mg)6(803lJ(Si60t8HOH,FJ4

Hexagonal Blk, dark brn Prismatic habit, with The black, Fa-bearing Granite pegmatites.
Vitreous to resinous rounded, triangular variety, shorl, is most Also as an accessory
7-71h. cross sections. Color, common. Other var- in many igneous and
3.0-3.25 hardness ieties are dravite, metamorphic rocks.
elbaite, verdelite,
rubellite, indicolite,
achroite.

,.-------
Beryl Be 3AI 2(Si 6o 18)

Hexagonal Bluish grn or light yel Hexagonal prism Varieties of gem beryl Granitic rocks and
Vitreous form; color are distinguished by pegmatites. Some
7V>-8 color: aquamarine, mica schists.
2.65-2.8 morganite, golden
beryl, emerald.
 Mineral Name-Composition Color
II. LIGHT COLORED
A. CleaYaga Lualer
GeneraBy Hardness
Con.IJ)Icuous Crystal System Speelllc Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Speclas Common Occurrence
H<3 Muscovite KAI2(AISI301 o)(OH,F)2 Granites, pegmatites,
May be confused metamorphic rocks,
Monoclinic Colorless; yel, pale Micaceous especially schists.
brn light color; with phlogopile or Fine-grained fibrous
Vitreous to pearly folia lepidolite; biotite is variety Is sericite,
2-2112 the dark mica common as hydro-
2.76-2.88 thermal alteration
product or retrograde
metamorphism. Also
forms detrital rains
Talc Mg SI 4o
3 10(0H) 2
Monoclinic Apple-grn, gray, wt Distinguished from
Pearly to greasy clay minerals by its
1 occurrence
2.7-2.8
talc

3SH<5 Natrolite Na2AI 2Si;p 10 2 H20

Orthorhombic Colorless or wt Typically acicular; Other zeolites are Lining cavities in
Vitreous radiating habit similar in appearance basalt; with other
5-51/z and occurrence zeolites. calcite
2.25

wt, tan, Pseudo-orthorhombic other zeolites are Cavities in basalt;

Monoclinic or diamond-shaped similar in appearance with other zeolites
pearly on prismatic habit; one and occurrence and calcite
perfect cleavage with
pearly luster

Stllbite NaCa 2AI 5Si 13 0 3s14H20

Wt Tabular habit; com- other zeolites are Cavities In basalt;
Monoclinic Vitreous; pearly on monly sheaflike ag similar In appearance with other zeolites
cleavage gregates; pearly and occurrence and calcite
3Y;~-4 luster on one perfect
2.1-2.2 cleavage
 COLORED~-~
Mineral Name-CGmpoeiUon
II. LIGHT
A. Cleavage !i j
Generally 2 5
_c_on_s...:pt_c_u_ou_s_~~-+CJ_!!!
S!':H<7 ,.

!I
Wt, gray; colorless Prismatic cleavage
Vitreous to pearly near 90': commonly
e shows polysynthetic
2.Ei2-2~7Ei twinning that appears
as striations

Wt to pale yel, rarely Prismatic cleavage Polymorphous with Abundant in granites.

red or grn near oo: color; hard orthoclase lrom syenites; gneiss;
Vitreous ness. Nearly all deep which it is pegmatites
e green feldspars are megascopically In
I
: .: ~_!~ ~~~---~~------~:~~-,g--:-~:-~~fle-s~h-red~.--~~~~=:~~~~~:~~~::~~-ag_e_a~t---d~;o~~~-~:-:-:~~:-:-:-ew~i ~th----~~~---------
1

.:
1
:
1 Ort~:~~:~~n':':'ISI:Pa Vitreous to pearly
~.57
oo;
color; hardness microcline from
~~~~~~~~~s'l,a;~~a~~
hand sample.

As phenocrysts in ex
trusive Igneous rocks,
especially rhyolites
and trachytes.
 Mineral Name-Composition
II. LIGHT COLORED Color
A Cleavage Luster
Generally Hardness
Conspicuous Crystal System Sileclflc Gravity Diagnostic Features Similar Species Common OccurTence
5:5H<7 Diopside
Enstatite
These minerals most commonly appear as dark colored and
Bronzite uVl~l.r~ole>>::ooe>L'" are described under that heading in this table. In some in-
Hypersthene , Mul.r"''""''~'--"' } stances, however, they appear relatively light colored; this war-
rants their mention here.
Actinolite ca (Mg,Fe)5Si8o 22(0HJ2
2
Amphibole! Glaucophane Na2(Mg,Fe)3AI2Sis022(0H)2
Sillimanite A1 Si0 5 Polymorphous with
2
Orthorhombic kyanite and an-
daluslte.

B. Cleavage Absent
01 Inconspicuous
3~H<5 Rhombohedral crystal
habit: lack of
cleavage; occurrence

5:5H<7 Trapezohedral form,

pseudo-Isometric in
"Q appearance; occur-
rence
'15
z:.
!
"Qr-----------~~---------------------------------=---~-------------
: Nepheline (Na,KJAISIO 4 Colorless, wt, The common massive cancrinite is a rarer Silica-deficient in-
Hexagonal ~1t';~~;ht~~reasy ~~~~e~r;;etgreasy, ~;~~~~~n~.milar to ~~~~~~;~~c~~:rusive
5Yz--6 greenish or reddish
2.60-2.65 color
 li Mineral Name-Composition ~
II. LIGHT COLORED g-~ Color
Luster ~
o.n c
e
B. Cleavage Absent ~:I Hardness
or Inconspicuous CJ!!!. Crystal System Specific Gravity Diagnostic Features Slmlrar Species Common Occurrence
s-:::H<7 Sodalite Na (AISi0 ) CI Blue; rarely wt,
8 46 2 Color, massive habit; Silica-deficient ex- en
J,~ Isometric gray, grn occurrence trusive and intrusive :I:
~i m
Vitreous igneous rocks.
5 112-6 Relatively rare m
2.15-2.3 -1
.....
Analcime NaAISi o H o Colorless, wt, Luster; freegrowing Similar in appearance In cavities in basalt;
Isometric
2 6 2
orange trapezohedral crystals to leucite, but as primary consti- ""'
:...
0
Vitreous analcime is typically tuent of some ig-
5-5 112 freegrowing in cavi- neous rocks
2.27 ties and leucite is
found embedded in
rock matrix
Prehnite Ca2AI2Si301 o(OH)2 Light grn to wt Color; tabular Secondary mineral
crystalline aggre-
Orthohombic Vitreous
6-6 112 gates in reniform ~~~na?t;c~~t~~s ~?th
2.8-2.95 habit zeolites, calcite.
7:SH Quartz Si0
2 Colorless, wt, gray Luster, conchoidal Many varietal names Ubiquitous
Hexagonal Vitreous fracture, hardness; based on grain size,
7 trace impurities may form, and color.
2.65 produce almost any Chalcedony is the
color in quartz. common crypto-
Prismatic crystals are crystalline variety
common
Beryl Be AI (Si o )
3 2 6 18
Hexagonal Bluish-grn or Hexagonal prism Varieties of gem beryl Granitic rocks and
light-yel form; color are distinguished by pegmatites. Some
Vitreous color; aquamarine, mica schists
7V2-8 morganite, golden
2.65-2.8 beryl, emerald
Cordierite (Mg,Fe) AI Si o nH o
2 4 5 18 2 Resembles quartz; Contact and regional-
Orthorhombic Blue to bluish-gray short prismatic, ly metamorphosed
Vitreous pseudo-hexagonal argillaceous rocks.
7-7111. twinned crystals.
2.60-2.66 Pleochroic
 AGI DATA SHEET 15.1
Data Pertaining to Important Nonsillcate Minerals
Prepared by Yngvar W. lsachsen, New York State Geological Survey
ABBREVIATIONS: S&H, crystal system or division and maximum hardness; Cleavage:
010, 110, etc.; Color: bl, blk, br, grn, ~y, or, pnk, purp, r, w, y; Luster: ad, met, submet, res,
~~~~~~f~~gfr'a~?~;:;g;~~i~,a~~li~ ~:~~:~~ J~.~~~~~~~7f,P~f1:~~:~s~ tt~ ~~~~~;~~~;n~~;
1 1 1

flame test; fus, fusibility; h, hardness; It, light; mag, magnetic; prtg, parting; rad, radioac-
tive; sg, specific gravity; stl, steel; strk, streak; tab, tabular; tarn, tarnish; transp,
transparent; wk, weak(ly); xis, crystals.
Mineral Composition S&H S.G. Distinguishing Features
NATIVE ELEMENTS
Gold ................. Au ............................. l 3 19.3 met,y,malleable,sg
Silver ............... Ag ............................. l 3 10.5 Ag-w ,malleable,sg
Copper ............ Cu ..............................l 3 8.95 met,r,malleable,sg
Platinum ......... Pt .............................. J 4112 19. stl-gy ,sg,h
Sulfur .............. S ................................0 2112 2.07 y,res,burns
Diamond ......... C ................................I 10 3.53 ad,h,111,1T1
Graphite .......... c ................................H 2 2.23 blk to gy ,greasy
SULFIDES

~~~~~~~~e::::::~~:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::.b2%2
7.4 sectile,met,dk-gy ,sg
5.8 sectile,Pb-gy
Bornite ............ cu~FeS ..................... I 3 5.08 met,br-bronze,purp-bl tarn
Galena ............ PbS ........................... I 2112 7.58 100,Pb-gy,sg,h
Sphalerite ....... ZnS ........................... I 4 4.1 res,110
Chalcopyrite ... CuFeS2 ..................... T 4 4.3 brass-y,h
Stannite .......... Cu2FeSnS ................ T 4 4.5 stl-gy to Fe-blk,fus 1 V2
Greenockite .... CdS ........................... H 31/2 4.9 y,vit
Pyrrhotite ........ Fe,xS ........................ H 4 4.65 bronze,massive,mag
Nickeline ........ NiAs .......................... H 51/2 7.78 Cu-r,h
Millerite .......... NiS ............................ R 3 112 5.5 pale brass y ,cap xis
Pentlandite ..... (Fe,Ni)9Sa .................. l 4 5.0 bronze,lll prtg,non-mag
Covellite ......... Cus ........................... H 2 4.76 indigo-bi,0001 _

~~~lit~::::::::: !~~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::9 ~
112 8.09 r,sg,scarlet strk,1010
3.48 r,res,01 O,h
3.49 y,res,010,h
Stibnite ........... Sb2SJ ........................ 0 2 4.62 Pb-gy,bladed,010,fus 1
Bismuthinite ... Bi.S3 .......................... 0 2 6.78 Pb-gy,010,fus 1
Pyrite .............. FeS2 .......................... 1 61/2 5.02 pale brassy
Cobaltite ......... CoAsS ...................... I 51/2 6.33 Ag-w,100
Marcasite ........ FeS2 .......................... 0 61!2 4.89 pale y,"cockscomb" xis
Arsenopyrite ... FeAsS ....................... M 6 6.22 Ag-w,cf. smaltite
Molybdenite ... MoS2 ......................... H 1112 4.73 Pb-gy,bl tone,0001
Calaverite ....... AuTe2 ........................ M 3 9.44 brass y to Agw,sg
Sylvanite ......... (Au,Ag)2Te ................ M 2 8.16 Agw,sg,010
Smaltite .......... (Co,Ni)ASJx ............... l 6 6.9 Ag-w,cf.arsenopyrite,Co test
SULFOSALTS
Polybasite ....... (Ag,Cu).6Sb~s~~ ........ M 3 6.2 short"hex"prisms,stl-gy to blk
Pyrargyrite ...... Ag,SbS, .................... R 2 112 5.85 deep-r,ad,10'f1
Proustite ......... Ag,AsS, .................... R 2112 5.57 rubyr,ad,1011
Tetrahedrite .... (Cu,Fe)~<Sb.s,, ......... 1 4 5.1 tetrahedrons,gy to blk
Tennantite ...... (Cu,Fe)~<As.s~, ......... 1 41/2 4.6 tetrahedrons,gy-blk to blk
Enargite .......... Cu,AsS ..................... 0 3 4.50 gy-blk to Feblk
Bournonite ..... PbCuSbS, ................. 0 3 5.86 stl-gy to blk, xis
Jamesonite ..... Pb.FeSb.s, .............. M 2112 5.63 gy-blk,acicular to fibrous

AGI-DSJidBn
AGI DATA SHEET 15.2
Mineral Composition S&H S.G. Distinguishing Features
SIMPLE OXIDES
Cuprite ............ cu.o ....................... l 4 6.14 r,ad,xls
Zincite ............. ZnO ......................... H 4 5.68 deep-r to or-y _
Corundum ...... AI.OJ ....................... A 9 4.1 h,sg,prtg 0001 and 1011
Hematite ........ Fe>Ol ...................... A 6 5.26 r-br to blk; r strk
Ilmenite .......... FeTiOJ ..................... R 6 4.76 Fe-blk,strk blk to br-r
Rutile .............. TiO .......................... T 61J2 4.25 ad,r to r-br to blk
Pyrolusite ....... MnO ........................ T 61!2 5.08 blk,blk strk
Cassiterite ...... SnO ......................... T 7 6.99 ad,br to blk,lt strk,sg
Anatase .......... TiO .......................... T 6 3.90 ad.rbr to blk,001,011
Brookite .......... TiO .......................... 0 6 4.20 met,ad,br to Fe-blk
Uraninite ......... uo ........................... l 6 10.63 blk,submet to dull,sg,rad
HYDROXIDES AND OXIDES CONTAINING HYDROXOL
Brucite ............ Mg(OH)................... H21J2 2.40 0001,pearly,w,gy,lt-grn
Boehmite ........ AIO(OH) .................. 0 3.1 01 O,in bauxite
Gibbsite .......... AI(OH)l .................... M31J2 2.42 001,pearly,in bauxite
"Psilomelane"BaMnMnaO,a(OH) .. 0 6 4.72 blk,submet,strk br-blk
MULTIPLE OXIDES
Diaspore ......... HAIO ....................... O 7 3.5 010,bladed,h,in bauxite
Goethite .......... HFeO ...................... 0 5 1/2 4.29 y-br to dk-br,strk y-br
Spinei... ........... MgAbO................... I 8 4.0 h,octahedrons,vit
Magnetite ....... Fe(FeO.).................. I 61!2 5.18 Fe-blk,blk strk,mg
Franklinite ...... Zn(FeO.).................. I 61!2 5.22 Fe-blk,dk-br strk,wk mag
Chromite ......... FeCr.o .................... l 51!2 4.8 submet,strk dk-br,Fe-blk
Chrysoberyi. ... BeAI.O .................... O 81!2 3.85 h,grn,br,y
Columbite ....... (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta).Oa ... O 6 5.25 Fe-blk,strk submet
HALIDES
Halite .............. NaCI ........................ I 2 2.17 100,salty taste
Sylvite ............. KCI. .......................... I 2 1.99 1OO,bitter taste
Cerargyrite ..... AgCI ........................ I 21J2 5.56 sectile, waxlike
Fluorite ........... CaF ......................... ! 4 3.18 111 ,cubes,h
Carnallite ........ KMgCb6H,O ......... O 21J2 1.60 deliq,no cl
Cryolite ........... NalAIFo ................... M 21J2 2.98 vit to greasy,"cubic" prtg
CARBONATES
Calcite ............ caco, ..................... R 3 2.71 h, 101\vit,HCI test
Magnesite ...... MgCO, .................... A 4 3.02 w,!Ilassive or 1011,sg,h
Siderite .......... Feco, ..................... R 4 3.97 1010,1t to dk-br,sg
Rhodochrosite Mnco, .................. R 4 3.70 pnk,10lO,h
Smithsonite ... Znco, ..................... R 41J2 4.44 eft in cld HCI,h,sg
Aragonite ....... CaCOJ ..................... 0 4 2.95 columnar xls,h,sg
Witherite ........ BaCO, ..................... 0 31J2 4.29 sg,eff in cld HCI
Strontianite .... Srco, ...................... o 31!2 3.78 sg,eff in cld HCI, Sr flm
Cerussite ....... PbCO, ..................... 0 31J2 6.57 sg,ad,h
Dolomite ........ CaMg(CO,) ............. A 4 2.86 curved rhombic xls,HCI test
Ankerite ........ Ca(Fe,Mg,Mn)(COa) A 4 3.02 like dolomite but y-br to br
Malachite ....... cu.(CO,)(OH)2 ......... M 4 4.07 brt-grn,eff in cld HCI
Azurite ............ cu,(CO,).(OH) ........ M 4 3.78 azurebl,eff in cld HCI
 AGI DATA SHEET 15.3
Mineral Composition S&H S.G. Distinguishing Features
NITRATES AND BORATES
Nitratite ......... NaNO ............................ R 2 2.27 1011,cool taste,deliq
Niter ............... KNO ............................... O 2 2.11 011 ,cool taste,non-deliq
Kernite ........... Na2BOs(OH)2 8H20 ..... M 2112 1.91 001,1 OO,splintery cl,sg
Borax ............. Na2B.Os(OHJ 8H20..... M 2112 1.72 100,sweet alk taste,xls
Ulexite ........... NaCaBsO.(OH)65H20..Tr 2112 1.96 "cottonballs",h,tasteless
Colemanite .... Ca28e0,,5H20 .............. M 4V2 2.43 010,exfoliates if heated
Boracite ......... MgJBrO,JCI .................... O 7V2 3.1 11,isometric xis
SULFATES
Barite ............. BaSO ............................. o 3 112 4.50 sg,001, 110, tab xis
Celestite ........ srso .............................. o 31!2 3.98 sg,001,110,tab xis
Anglesite ....... PbSO ............................. 0 :: 6.39 sg,ad,concl1
Anl1ydrite ....... caso .............................. o 31f2 2.98 100,010,00.J
Gypsum ......... CaS0.2H20 .................. M 2 2.32 h,010,100,111
Chalcantl1ite .. cuso. SH20................. .Tr 2112 2.29 azure-bl,met taste
Melanterite .... FeSO. 7H20 .................. M 2 1.90 cap agg,met taste
Epsomite ....... MgS0.7H20 .................0 2112 1.68 cap agg,bitter taste
Antlerite ......... CUJ(SO.)(OH) ................ 0 3112 3.88 grn,010,non-eff in cld HCI
Alunite ........... KAb(S0.)2(0H)e ............. .R 4 2.9 massive,w,gy or reddish
Jarosite .......... KFeJ(SO.).(OH)e ............. R 3 112 3.26 y to br,strk pale-y

PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, AND VANADATES

Monazite ........ (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO .......... M 5V2 5.4 res,y to r-br,001 prtg
Apatite ........... Cae(PO.)l(F,CI,OH) ........ H 5 3.20 prisms,h,grn,br,bl,purp,c
Pyromorphite Pb5(PO.,As0.)3CI. ......... H 4 7.08 res to ad,sg,grn,br,y,gy,w
Turquoise ...... CuAie(PO.).(OH)s SH20 T 6 2.8 bl,bl-grn,grn,h
Wavellite ........ Ab(P0.)2(0H,F)J SH20. 0 4 2.33 radiating globular agg
Torbernite ...... Cu(U02):(P0.)2nH20 ... T 2112 3.2 pale to dk-grn,rad,001
Autunite ......... Ca(UQ.)l(P0.)2nH.O ... T 2112 3.2 y to grn,rad,fl y-gr,001

VANADIUM OXYSALTS
Carnotite ........ K2(U02)2V20a 8H20 .... M 2 5 y to grn-y,rad,001
Tyuyamunite. Ca(U02)2V.Oa nH20 ... 0 2 3.62 y,rad,turns grn in sun,001

MOLYBDATES AND TUNGSTATES

Huebnerite .... Mnwo ........................... M 4 7.2 res,sg,010,transp
Wolframite ..... (Fe,Mn)WO .................... M 4'12 7.4 brn-blk to Fe-blk,met-ad,
sg,010
Ferberite ........ FeWO ............................ M 4'12 7.51 blk,met-ad,sg,010
Scheelite ....... CaWO ............................ T 5 6.12 vit,sg,fl blw,101
Wulfenite ....... PbMoQ .......................... T 3 7.0 tab xls,vit,y,or,r,gy,w,h

REFERENCE: Fleiacher, Michael, 1987. Glossary of Mineral Species. 5th ed. Mineralogical Record.
Tuscon. 234 p.
 AGI DATA SHEET 15.1

Non-Conductors (high l<>nsion pinned)

Weakly Non Specific

Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic Gravity

Ovec
8.0

80

75

7.0

6.5

Scheehtfl ! 60

5.5

Mora.ztte
Bastnaesite
5.C
Z1rcon
Xenot me Banle
4.5

Game: Corundum 4.0

Sidente Celestite
Perovskte
Stauro1i:e
Epidote KyaMe i 35
0 11VIn8 Topaz
Apatlle Sphene
Hornblende S11!imanHe
rourrT~al.ne Flucrte 30
Anhydrtle
M1ca (Statile) Mica {Muscav:te)
El<!ryl 2.5
Fe!cspars
Calcite
Quartz
Gypsu:n 2.0
Chrysott!e
Sulphur

Under
J 20

See notes on Data Sheel 16.3

AGI DATA SHEET 16.2

ConduciOrs (high lenslon lhrown)

~-----,-.Weakly~~ Specific
Mugnetlc ' Mag netic Gruvlty
--~-~~.
Over
8.0

80

Galena 7.5
Ferbsrlte Wolframite
Cassiterite

7.0

6.5

Columbite~
Tantalite 6.0

5.5

Magnetite Samarskite
Euxenite
i Pyrite 5.0
llmemte-
ltmenite Hematite
; (high iron)
Davidite Chromite
I Molybdenile
4.5
I Rutile
Chalcopyrite
Brockite 4.0
' Limonite
:
Diamond 3.5

I 3.0

2.5

, Graphite
2.0
 AGI DATA SHEET 16.3

Notes
Starting with a mixture of any of the minerals listed, it may be determined
whether or not they can be separated by high tension, magnetic, or gravity
methods and whether any one or a combination of methods is required. If the
minerals appear in different columns, they may be separated by high tension
and/or magnetic methods alone. Two or more minerals appearing in the same
column can be separated by gravity concentration if they have sufficient
difference in gravity (usually a difference of approximately 1.0).
It should be noted that grain shape and/or size may alter separation
characteristics. This is sometimes a detriment and other times useful. As an
example, mica and quartz may in some cases be separated by high tension due
to their grain shape.
Mineral-behavior characteristics shown are from tests made in Carpco's
laboratories rather than from results of theoretical analyses. Mineral
characteristics and behaviors sometimes differ from one deposit to another. The
behavior of minerals not shown can usually be predicted by the behavior of
similar minerals in the above table.
Reprinted, by permission of Carpco, Inc., Jacksonville, Florida, Copyright
1954. Carpco, Inc., now publishes an expanded version of this table titled
"Electrostatic and Magnetic Separation Characteristics of Selected Minerals."
 AGI DATA SHEET 17.1
Gem Materials
J.l. Kolvula and R.C. Kammerllng, Gemological Institute ot America

Phenomena a. Other
Distinctive Vlaual
Chal'llderlstlc:s

. $YN.AunLE Etnt-~(-3301;
..llll.... dour>ling
~.1118-
2.903
287 OR
~
u . 4.28 .03 ........
-manlioelu-; 2417 SA 3.52.01
DIAIIONO 10

-
- .... dioponion (.00.) Cubic

STRONTIUM 2409 SA s 13 .0:!

\Wytlrong~(.11!01
TITANATE Cubic

cz
.,...c.-z-.., Strong dioponion (.080) 2.150 . 030 SA
Cubic
&.80.20 .....
QQQ(Qiodolllllum
loloder... ditpnion (.DoiS) 1.970 .080 SA
705:~ .....
--~
Cubic

1~-
C(r.,);S.-.m&nlne 000- DA U+
470~: e-m
. 1)40
ZIRCON -;mod.~(.038) 1.1114 -.14S 059 Tel<llgONI

ANDRADITE C(..,.); V.r. Dem-: 1.818 +.007 SA 3.84.03 IV.-7

a..- t~rongdioponion (.057) -033 Cubic

YAO~ 1.833 .010 SA

4.SS .05 11<1
-~~(.028)
~a.-) Cubic

........,_,.
SPUSAATITE Cotor concaintl some OJIU"'QQI 1.810 +.004
-020
SA
Cubic 41&:: 7-7Yo

AUIANOITE
~a..-
A
Oll.n cl8tk '" tone
1.790 t030 SA
Cubic 405:~ 7-71'1

CORUNOUIIIII A.CC;C(r.,.)
1.182-
1.770
+.009
-.005
008-
010
OR
Heugonat
U-
400~_:,g
SYN. COAUNDUfll A, CC. C (rorw): S111r 1.782- +.005
ooe OR u- 4.00 .03
~FJM~e'-1 cu.-tg.-honbode 1.770 -.003 Heqgonat

,,,,..,
SYN. CORUNDUM 1782-
1.770 ooe OR
~
u- 4.00 .03

AHOOOUTE 010 SA
a..- PurpleiDpUrpliohr8Cicolot ueo -.020 Cubic
3.84 .10 7-7Yo

CHRYSOBERYL c.cc 1.7..... +004

1 75S -006
008-
010
OR B+
Orthorhombic
3 73 .02 .....
P'tAOPE
378~~
Often vary Clark 1n tone 1.74& + 010 SA 7-71'1
a..- - 026 Cubic

GROSSULAAITE
~a..-
1 740 +"020
-.010
SA
Cuboc 361~~ 7-71,',

a... c..,...,
HYDIIOOROSSUI..A. 1720
+ 010
- 030
AGG
Cuboc 347~:
CC; Colo<Ma.ltgtn ~
SYN.SPINEL II'"" light 10 dorl< bluo
common
1728 +.01Z
- ooe
SA
CubiC 364~ \'i
~
CC:A(..,.) + 017 SA
SPINEl, 1718 360:
Colo~often"""Hiurat""' -008 Cubic

C(ro,.) 1.691- 008- DRO<AGGIB

ZOISITE very tllrong ploOI:hr<>om 1100 .005
013 Orlh"""'""'IC 335: ~ 8-7

1660- 005 014- DA 8

SPODUMENE 1676 31U 03 6Vt-7

-
016 Wonochr'IIC
1660-
JADEITE
Oftwn g...-y"' ,."Y l u - 1.680 t
.1.66
ooe AGG
MonoclinJC 334::: &n-7

AGI-DSrvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 17.2

Phenomena & Other

Distinctive VIsual
Characteristics

PERIDOT I 654-
t 020 035- DR 8+ 3 3A + 14 6 1h-7
OII\Oine I 690 038 O~norhomooc - 01

I 634- 001- DRorAGG/8-

ANOALUSITE \lory slrong pleOChrOism t 005 317<04 7-7 1h
I 643 013 O~norhomOoc

I 624- 018- DR U-
TOURMALINE
C.CC (rare)
Strong dtehrosm I 644
+ 011
- 009 040 Hexagonal 3os:~ 7-7 1/<z

I 619- 008- DR 8+
TOMZ t 010 353t 04
I 627 010 OnhorhombiC

I 610-
AGG
~

-
TURQUOISE Matmc poss1bie I 650
Tnchmc 276: 5-6
~ 61

NEP'HRITE 1 - - + 009 AGG

Otten greasy to waxy lustttr I 632 2 95 + 15 8-6~
-.006 Monochn1c - 05
161

BERYL C. A(rare)
I 577-
t 011 005- DR U- 272 + 18 7 1/z-8
I 583 009 Hexagonal - 05

SYN. EMERALD Syn. May fluoresce red to vsble 1588- + 008 005- DR U- 268t 03 71fz-8
a..yi[~IIIJ loghl I 573 ~ooa. 007 Hexagonal

SYN. EMERALD May nuoresce red to vsble I 561-

+ 010
003- DR u- 266+ 03 71fz-8
Syn. a..yt [FiuJ loghl I 564 008 Hexagonal - 01

SERPENTINE
Waxy to greasy luster. often I 580- + 004 AGG 2 57+ 23 2-6
resembles I 570 - 070 Monoclnc - 13

QUARTZ A,/lri,C.I
I 544-
I 553
t 000 009
DRorAGG/U +
Hexagonal 2 66: g~

IOUTE A, /lri and C (rare) I 542- + .a.s 008- DR 8- 2 61 t 05 7-7'1-l

(Cordlerile) Strong lnchrotsm I 551 - 011 012 Or1horhombiC

IVORY Engine-turned eftect. 1 est 1s 2'h

1540 -.005 AGG
[lleplwll] greasy to dulllusrer

AMBER Resn'IOuS luster I 540

+ 005
-.001
SR
Amorphous
I os:~ 2-2'h

CHALCEDONY 1 535- 000- AGG 260+ 10 6 1h-7

~...., 1 539 004 Hexagonal - 05

PEARL 0 1 530-
155 AGG 2 70 + 15 2 1h-4
~-eullurecl] Dull to submetalhc luster I 685 -09

......_
ORTHOCLASE A,A<I.C
Vtreous to pearly luster
I 518-
I 526
+ 010
005-
008
DR 8-
Monochn1c
2 58 t 03 6-6 1h

I 670. 275 t 25
LAPIS LAZULI 1500
SR AGG 5-6

P: A, C (rare). May or may SR

215~:
+ .020
OML 1 450 S-6 1h
no4h... play-ol~010r - oeo Amorphous
 AGI DATA SHEET 18.1
Gemstone Durability
J.l. Kolvula and R.C. Kammerling, Gemological Institute of America

Definitions
Hardness Res>stancetoscratch>ng
Toughness ReSJStancetobreak>ng,chrppmg,orcracklng
Durabrlity Overallwearabht(

[!tMSTONE HARO~lSS TOUGHNESS ADDITIONAL COMME~TS

Amber Poor Scratches very easrly

Andalusrte faH!oGood Goodduf!brllly
Beryl
AQuamanne Good Gooddurabrlity
Golden Goad Good durability
Morganrte Good Good durabllity
EmErald FarrtoPoor Farrdurabrlrly
Chzl~o,~~Ji,,. Goodtobcellent Excellenldurabrhty
Cal"seye Good to Elcellent Excellentdurabllrty
Chalcedony Quarll Good Gooddurabrl1ty
Coral Poor Scralcheseaslly
Corundum
Ruby 9 Excellent Excellentdurabrhty
Sapphrre 9 Excellent hcellentdurabrlty
Otamand 10 Good Excellent durability
Feldspar
Moonstone 6 ~ 6 112 Poor Drstmct cleavage
Garnet
Atmandrte
~o~~e~~[~~~h~ha;~de~e~ay
FarrtoGood
Demant01d FarrtoGood
Grossularrte Farr to Good causefcacturrng
Farr to Good
~hro Jo1rte
0
Fan to Good
Spessarll\e FarrtoGood
Iaiiie 7-7112 Fa~r Farrdurabrhty
Jade
Jadede 0"112 7 hceptronal Excellentdurabrhty
Nephrrte 6 ~ 6 112 Exceptronal Excell'"t durabrhty
Laprslazulr 5-6 Fa" Fa<rdurab1hty
Malachite J-!/2 ~ Poor Scratcheseasrly
Opal 5 61/i Very Poor to faH Very lraglle
Pearl
(Cultred) 2112 4 Often Good, qwte Very thrn nacre may crack
variable or wear through readrly Very
sensrtrvetohealandall
acrds,mcludmgskrnacods
and perfumes
Perrdot 6112-7 farrtoGood Farrdurabilrly
Quartz
Amelhysl Good Good durabllrly, Extreme
Crtrrne Good heatmayallercolor
Smoky Good
1rger'seye Good
Spmel Good Very good durabrlrly
Spodumene
Kunzrle 6 ~ 7 Poor Farr durabdrly Has drslmcl
cleavage
Topaz Poor Farrdurabllrty,Hasdrstmct
cleavage
Tourmalrce 7- 7 1/2 Fatr Gooddurabrlrly,
Turquorse Poor to Good Farrdurabrlity
Zrrcon Poortofalf Farrdurabrlity
Abrades eas1ly
Zorsrle
Tanzanne 6112-7 PoortoFarr farrdurabrlrty

AGI-DS~t"'dB9
AGI DATA SHEET 18.2
Gemstone Misnomers
J.l. Kolvula and R.C. Kemmerling, Gemological Institute of America

GEMSTONE MISNOMERS
MlSND.MfB CORRECT NOMENCLATURE
'Mexican Jade" Dyed Green Marble Calcite
"Mexican Onyx (or onyx") Onyxmarble Calcite
"Aiexandrite" (or syn. Alexandrite") Synthetic Alexa ndritelike Sapphire
"Colorado Jade" (or "Pike's Peak Jade") Amazon Microcline Feldspar
colorado Ruby" (or "Arizona Ruby") Pyrope Garnet
"Transvaal Jade" (or "South African Jade") Translucent Grossularite Garnet
"Black Pearl" (or "Alaskan Black Diamond") Hematite
"Topaz Quartz" (or "Spanish Topaz") Citrine Quartz
'Herkimer Diamond" (or "Arkansas Diamond") Rock Crystal Quartz
'Smoky Topaz (or 'Scotch Topaz") Smoky Quartz
'Indian Jade" Aventurine Quartz
"Queensland Jade" Chrysoprase Chalcedony
"Chalcedony Moonstone White Chalcedony (or Milky Chalcedony)
"Swiss Lapis" (or "German Lapis") Dyed Blue Jasper Chalcedony
"Blue Onyx Translucent Dyed Blue Chalcedony
"Green Onyx (or "Chrysoprase') Translucent Dyed Green Chalcedony
"Korean Jade" (or 'New Jade") Bowenite Serpentine

AGIDS-rvd-89
 AGI DATA SHEET 19.1
Crystal Systems and Bravais Lattices

THE 6 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

Crystallographic axes for the six crystal systems Axes labeled a 11 , are all the same
length within any given system; axes with different teller labels are different lengths. Thus, in
the isometric system a, = a2 a3 , whereas in the hexagonal system a, = a2 a 3 ~ c, and in
the orthorhombic system a ~ b ,. c. In the isometric, tetragonal, and orthorhombic systems,
the angles between axes are 90"; in the hexagonal system, the angles between the a, axes
are 120", and the angle between the c axis and the plane of the a, axes is 90; in the mono
clinic system, the angle designated j3 is greater than 90', and the other angles are equal to
90; in the triclinic system, none of the designated angles is equal to 90'.
A typical crystal of a common mineral that crystallizes in each system is shown as an
example of how the axes relate to crystals.

ISOMETRIC TETRAGONAL HEXAGONAL

(=CUBIC)

Garnet Zircon Apatite

ORTHORHOMBIC MoNoCLINIC TRICLINIC

Oli'w'ine Hombiende Albite

AGlOS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 19.2

THE 14 BRAVAIS LATTICES

Each lattice can be described on the basis of points, each of which has identical sur-
roundings. Notice that i and i' are different expressions of the same lattice.

rJ]JffJQ
(B)
a
TMclinic
lil~b~C~B
a~f3~r~90
(b)
a
Monoclinic
a"'b"'c"'e
b

(J .. 900
(c) Monoclinic
(end-centered)

[]' a
(d) Orthorhombic
B~b"'C"'B
b
l
(e) Orthorhombic
(endcentered)
(f) Orthorhombic
(body-centered)
(g) Orthorhombic
(face-centered)

(h) HeKagonal fi) Rhombohedral (i') Rhombohedral (j) Tetragonal

B .. C 8 .. c
" 60'

(k) Tetragonal flI Isometric (m) Isometric (n) Isometric

(body-centered) (cubic) (body-centered) (lace-centered)
 Silica tetrahedra can, by sharing one or more oxygens, polymerize to form larger complex anions. For the tetrahedra
shown, the oxygens would be at each apex and a silicon would be ln each center. The diagrams are as viewed from
above with the solid lines on or above the plane of the paper and the dashed lines below that plane.

Revised after Berry, LG., and Mason, B., 1983. Mineralogy: Concepts, Descriptions, Determinations, 2nd edition
revised by R.V. Dietrich. W.H. Freeman and Co., New York, 561 p.

Formula of
Complex
Classification Structural Arrangement' Anion Si:O Example
4
Nesosilicates Independent tetrahedra rsio.J- 1:4 Forsterite, Mg2 (Si04)

~
Sorosilicates Two tetrahedra sharing one (Si207l- 6 2:7 Hemimorphite, Zn. (Sb07) (OHh H20
oxygen
~
Cyclosilicates Closed rings of tetrahedra,
each sharing two oxygens

A (Si.09)-" 1:3 Benitoite, BaTi(Si,09)

------
6
(Si.Otzl- Axinite, Ca1Ab (B01) (Si.Oul (OH)
----- --------
(Si.;Otul- 6 Beryl, Be1Ab(Si 6 0,8)
lnosilicates Continuous chainsb of 1:3
tetrahedra
Single chain, each tetrahedron (Si03);;,2
and
4:11 Enstatite, Mg 2(Si0Jh
e
c
sharing two oxygens
~
~-
,------- r-- - - - ------ en
::t
6 m
Double chain, alternate tetra- (Si40,,),;; Anthophyllite, Mg7 (Si4011 h (OH) 2 m
-t
hedra sharing two and three N
0
oxygens ;..,

- -~-
---- - ---- 1- -----
J; 4
-(- (Sip
8
Jimthompsonite (Mg.Fe) (Si 0
5
) (0Hl
3 82 2

Triple chain

Phyllosilicates Continuous sheets of tetrahedra, (Sb0,).;; 2 2:5 Kaolinite, Al4 (Si20sh (OH)s
each sharing three oxygens

-~ j.

Tektosilicates Three-dimensional framework of (Si02l 0 1:2 Quartz, Si02

tetrahedra, each sharing all
four oxyens
 AGI DATA SHEET 21.1

~i!!d~Ciassifica~~n~ lgneou~~~cks_
lUGS Preliminary classificalion for plulonic rocks'

THE PHANERITES'
a-quartz
A-alkali feldspar'
P-plagioclase
F-"foid"'
Px-pyroxene
He-hornblende
01-olivine
b

a. General classification.
b. Ultramafic and gabbroic rocks, and anorthosites.
c. Ultramafic rocks.
I, granitoids; II, syenitoids; Ill, dlorltoids; IV, gabbroids; V, fold syenitoids; VI, foid dioritoids and
gabbroids; VII, foidolites; VIII, anorthosites; IX, peridotites; X, pyroxenites: XI, hornblendites;
II-IV, qualifier told-bearing" if folds are present; IX-XI, ultramafic rocks.

In order to plot a rock's composition in the appropriate triangle on "a", the three com-
ponents alkali feldspar (A), plagioclase feldspar (P), and quartz (Q) or the fold minerals
(F) are equated to 100 percent-i.e., the other components are subtracted from the total
mode and the remaining QAP or FAP percentages are normalized to 100 percent ... etc.
(lor "b" and "c").
Diagrams for the general nomenclature are presented on Daia Sheet 62. Addi-
tional diagrams outlining suggested use of prefixes leuco- and mela and giving
nomenclature for less common phanerites such as carbonatites and lamprophyres may
be found in the following references:
Dietrich. R.V. and Skinner, RJ., 1979, Rocks and Rock Minerals: Wiley, N.Y., 369p.
lUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks, 1973, Classification and
nomenclature of plutonic rocks: Geotimes, v. 18, n. 10 (Oct.), p. 26-30.
Streckeisen, A., 1976, To each plutonic rock its proper name: Earth Science Rev., v.
12, p. 1-33.
LIn the lUGS scheme, 'plutonic rock", which refers to phaneritic rocks, is not assumed tore-
quire an igneous orig1n
2. Alkali feldspar includes potassium feldspars, perthite (including its plagioclase component),
and anorthoclase
3. "foid" includes the fetdspathoids-leuctle and pseudoleucite, nepheline. sodalite, nosean,
hauyne. cancnmte, analc1me. etc

AGIC5-rvd 89
AGI DATA SHEET 21.2
lUGS Group name classification lor volcanic rocks

THE APHANITES'
I rhyolitoids
a II
Ill
dacitoids
trachytoids
IV andesitoids, basaltoids
V phonolitoids
VI tephritoids
VII foiditoids
VIII uitramafitites

F
Q-quartz; A-alkali feldspar (including orthoclase, sanidine, perthite, and anortho
clase); P-plagioclase; F-feldspathoids; Mel-melilite; 01-olivine; Px-pyroxene;
M-mafic minerals.
Most true aphanites cannot be named without knowledge of their mineral com
ponents, which requires employment of nonmegascopic procedures. Many aphanitic
rocks, however, are porphyritic and for those, the group names may be applied tentative
ly by estimating the overall percentages of the component minerals on the basis of the
assumption that the compositions of the phenocrysts reflect the bulk mineral composi
lion of the rocks.
A diagram for the lUGS general nomenclature scheme for volcanic rocks is given on
Data Sheet 62. Additional information and suggestions for naming aphanites and por
phyries may be found in the following references:
Dietrich, R.V. and Skinner, B.J., 1979, Rocks and Rock Minerals: Wiley, N.Y., 369p.
Streckeisen, A., 1978, Classification and nomenclature of volcanic rocks. .:N. Jb.
Min. Abh., v. 134, p. 1-14.
Streckeisen, A., 1979, Classification and nomenclature of volcanic rocks ... of the
lUGS Subcommission ... :Geology, v. 7, p. 331-335.
1. Under the lUGS scheme, these rocks are termed volcanic rocks.
 AGI DATA SHEET 22.1
Textures of Igneous Rocks
Compiled by R.V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University

For many igneous rocks , texture is the chief clue used to interpret their consolida-
tion - especially their crystallization - histories . Texture depends upon such interre-
lated variables as the bulk chemistry of the magma (including the volatile-content), rate
of cooling, and the relative powers of crystallization of diverse minerals.

Terms that are frequently used to describe igneous rock textures are outlined below:

Crystallinity
Holocrystalline - 100 percent minerals
Hypocrystalline- minerals and glass
Holohyaline- 100 percent glass

Granularity
Grain size
Phaneritic- grains are visible with the unaided eye or with 1Ox magnification
Aphanitic- grains are not discernible with 1Ox magnification
(Glassy- does not consist of grains)
Grain equality
Equigranular- grains of main constituents are the same general size
(see Figure 1)
Porphyritic- large grains (phenocrysts) of one or more minerals that occur
in a matrix (groundmass) of the same mineral or other minerals or both
(see Figure 2)
Fabric- arrangement and interrelationships of constituent minerals
(see Figure 3)
Euhedral, idiomorphic, automorphic- all crystal faces developed
Subhedral , hypidiomorphic, hyautomorphic- some crystal faces developed
Anhedral , allotriomorphic, xenomorphic- no crystal faces developed

Figure 1. Equigranular rock. Figure 2. A porphyry.

AGI DS-rvd -8S

AGI DATA SHEET 22.2

Figure 3. Fabric terms

Crystal Faces A B c
all euhedral idiomorphic automorphic
some subhedral hypidiomorphic hyautomorphic
none anhedral allotriomorphic xenomorphic

A: Terms introduced by Cross et al. (1906) ; originally suggested for use in descriptions
of igneous rocks but now widely applied in descriptions of all kinds of rocks .

8: Terms introduced by Rosenbusch (1887) ; frequently used in America in descriptions

of igneous rocks .

C: Terms introduced by Rohrbach ( 1885) ; used by many European geologists but sel -
dom used in America .

References
Cross, W., Iddings, J.P., Pirsson, L.V. , and Washington, H.S., 1906. The texture of igneous
rocks : J. Geol., v. 14, p. 692-707.

Rohrbach, C.E.M. , 1885. Ueber die Eruptivgesteine im Gebiete dar schlesischmahrischen

Kreideformation : Tschermdk's Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen, N.F., Bd .
7, part 1: p. 1-63 (not seen).

Rosenbusch , H., 1887. Mi;.roskopische Physiographie der Mineralien und Gesteine, Bd. 2.
Schweizerbart'sche Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart (E. Koch) , 877 p.
 AGI DATA SHEET 23.1
Comparison Chart lor Estimating Percentage Composition
Prepared by Richard D. Terry and George V. Chllingar, Allen Hancock Foundation, Los
Angeles. Reprinted from Journal of Sedimentary Petrography, v. 25, n. 3, p. 229-234,
Sept. 1955.

1% 3% 7%

2% 5% 10%
AGI DATA SHEET 23.2

15% 25% 40%

20% 30% 50%

 AGI DATA SHEET 24.1
Masses
Compiled by R.V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University
Masses of igneous rocks that have consolidated from magma beneath the Earth's
surface are usually termed intrusive or called plutons. Masses of igneous rocks that
have been formed from magma (lava and/or pyroclastic fragments) on or above the
surface are usually termed extrusive or volcanic.
Several bodies of each of these kinds of igneous rocks have been given names.
The list below briefly describes named bodies according to a classification revised
after Daly (1933). Masses listed with an asterisk after the name are shown on the
diagrams. If known, the name of the person who originated the designation and the
date of introduction are given in parentheses directly following the term.
Three-dimensional information relating to overall shape and relations with surround-
ing rocks (i.e., concordance) are required to name most of the masses, and addi-
tional data (e.g., time of formation as related to tectonism) are required for a couple
of them. Shapes, sizes, and other features may differ for masses that could be given
the same name; some masses essentially defy naming with any of these designa-
tions. This last statement, in particular, supports-at least permissively-the com-
piler's viewpoint that a name should never be substituted for a good description.

SUBJACENT MASSES
Subjacent masses have no known floor. They enlarge downward and apparently
merge into subjacent crust.
Abyssolith (A.A. Daly, 1933) A "bottomless mass" that hypothetically passes
downward into the "vitreous substratum."
Batholith* (E. Suess, 1885) A mass with no known bottom and an outcrop area of
greater than 40 square miles (100 km'). It is typically discordant but may be partly
concordant. Also spelled bathylith, batho/ite, batholyte, and batho/yth.
Boss A stock with a roughly circular outcrop area.
Stock* A mass with the characteristics of a batholith but with an outcrop area of less
than 40 square miles (100 km'). Depth of erosion may control naming a mass a
stock rather than a batholith.

INJECTED MASSES
Injected masses have all three dimensions known or inferred. A few petrologists
call these masses irruptive.
Akmolith (O.H. Erdmannsdorffer, 1923) A largely concordant mass, typically with many
apophyses, emplaced largely within the antiforms of decollements during folding.
Also spelled acmolith.
Apophysis* An irregular tongue-shaped mass, typically discordant, that is an off-
shoot from a larger intrusion. Also called tongue.
Asthenolith (B. Willis, 1938) A magma body formed by melting in response to heat
generated by radioactive disintegration. This can be either a subjacent or an in-
jected mass.
Bell-jar intrusion A bysmalith around which the adjacent strata have been domed
and fractured.
Bysmalith (J.P. Iddings, 1899) A roughly cylindrical, laccomorphic mass bounded by
faults.
Cactolith (C.B. Hunt et al., 1953) "A quasi-horizontal chonolith composed of
anastomosing ductoliths whose distal ends curl like a harpolith, thin like a
sphenolith, or bulge discordantly like an akmolith or ethmolith." (The compiler
presumes that this descriptio.n was made, at least in part, in jest and/or contempt.)

AGIDSrvd-1!9
AGI DATA SHEET 24.2

Chonolith (RA Daly, 1905) A "sack name" for any mass with a shape so irregular
that it cannot be called a dike, a sill, a laccolith, or other recognized body. Originally
spelled chonolite.
Dike A tabular mass discordant with either bedding or foliation of surrounding country
rocks. Some geologists, especially Europeans, apply the name only if the mass
is vertical or steep-dipping. Also spelled dyke.
Ring dikes and cone sheets have the overall configurations of walls of hollow
cylinders and hollow cones, respectively.
Ductolith A more or less horizontal igneous intrusion that is tear-drop shaped in cross
section.
Epiphysis An apophysis detached from its sovereign mass.
Ethmolith (W. Salomon, 1899) A discordant mass that is funnel-shaped in cross
section.
Globulith (A. Berthelsen, 1970) An intrusive mass or a group of spatially associated
masses with a globular or botryoidal shape and almost concordant contacts.
Harpolith (H. Cloos, 1921) A sickle-shaped mass: essentially a phacolith with aver-
tical or steeply plunging axis.
lnterformational sheet A tabular mass emplaced along an unconformity.
Laccolith (GK Gilbert, 1877) A concordant, floored. mushroom-shaped mass.
Originally called laccolite.
Lopollth (F. F. Grout, 1918) A large concordant, basin-shaped mass. The constituent
rocks are typically layered.
Phacolith (A. Harker, 1909) A concordant, lenticular (concavo-convex) mass em-
placed during the folding of surrounding country rock.
Pluton A general term for any igneous intrusion.
Ribbon injection A nail-sized sill, typically injected along a cleavage plane of a foliated
rock.
Sheet A general term for a tabular mass such as a dike, a sill, an interformational
sheet, or a sole injection.
Sill* A tabular mass concordant w1th the bedding or foliation of surrounding country
rock. Some geologists, especially Europeans, apply the name only if the mass is
horizontal or low-dipping.
Sole injection A tabular mass emplaced along a thrust-fault plane (zone).
Sphenolith (C. Burckhardt, 1906) A partly concordant, partly discordant mass that
pushed (wedged) the surrounding country rock aside, in some places overturning
the beds.
Stromatollth (J.C. Faye, 1916) A mass comprising tabular injections interfingered with
sedimentary strata.
Stromoconolith (S.I. Tomkeieff, 1961) A layered intrusion that is either conical or
funnel-shaped
Tongue See Apophysis.

'Shown on the diagrams that follow

 AGI DATA SHEET 24.3

TRANSITIONAL MASSES
Transitional masses bridge the gap between intrusive masses and volcanics. They
comprise both subsurface and supracrustal igneous rocks.
Diatreme A volcanic pipe consisting largely of breccia.
Neck* The mass that plugs the conduit of a former volcanic vent. The term is most
often applied to erosional remnants of such masses. Also called pipe or plug.

EXTRUSIVE MASSES
Extrusive masses are largely igneous and pyroclastic rocks that have formed at
or above the Earth's surface. Some geologists call these rocks eruptive.
Ash flow A deposit produced by gas-charged volcanic ash. Also called pyroclastic
flow.
Bedded volcano See Composite cone.
Bulbous dome See Lava dome.
Cinder cone A conical vent formed by the accumulation of cinders and other
vesicular ejecta, typically basaltic to andesitic in composition. Also called pyroclastic
cone.
Composite cone* A volcanic cone that consists of both lava flow and pyroclastic
materials. Also called strata-cone, stratovolcano, or less often, bedded volcano.
Cumulo-dome A seldom-used name for lava dome.
Fissure flow A lava flow formed as the result of an eruption from a fissure.
Lava cone A volcanic vent consisting largely of lava flow material. Also called shield
volcano.
Lava dome Another name for lava cone, especially one with a domical shape. Also
called bulbous dome.
Lava flow A mass of rock consolidated from lava that flowed from a volcanic vent
or fissure.
Maar* A low-relief explosion crater the walls of which consist largely or entirely of
loose fragments of country rock and possibly some magmatic ejecta. These ap-
parently volcanism-associated features are not, in the opinion of some geologists,
igneous in origin. Also called embryo volcano or explosion pit.
Plateau eruption An accumulation of successive lava flows that covers a vast area-
for example, a plateau basalt.
Pyroclastic cone See Cinder cone.
Pyroclastic flow See Ash flow.
Shield volcano A cone consisting wholly or largely of lava flow material. Also called
lava cone.
Strata-cone See Composite cone.
Stratovolcano See Composite cone.
Taphrolith (J.J. Sederholm, 1902) A trough-shaped mass at least part of which
flowed out along boundary faults into a trough or graben.
Volcanic cone A general term that includes cinder cones, lava cones and domes,
and composite (strata) cones.
Volcano A typically conical edifice, produced by extruded lava and/or pyroclastic
materials.

'Shown on the diagrams that follow.

AGI DATA SHEET 24.4

The following schematic diagrams show relations of a few of the masses de-
scribed: A, modified after R.G. Schmidt and H.R. Shaw (1971); B, redrawn after A.F.
Buddington (1929); C, based on descriptions.

Cinder

~Country
~Granite
~ ~Rock
 AGI DATA SHEET 24.5

~Intruded
~~ Lopolith ~ country rock

References
Berthelsen, A., 1970, Globulith : A new type of intrusive structure, exemplified by
IT)etabasic bodies in the Moss Area, SE Norway: Norges Geologiske UndersrJkelse
(Arbok, 1969), no. 266, p. 70-83.
Buddington, A.F., 1929, Granite phacoliths and their contact zones in the Northwest
Adirondacks: New York State Museum Bulletin, no. 281, p. 51 -107.
Daly, A.A., 1933. 1gneous Rocks and the Depths of the Earth. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York.
Faye, J.C. , 1916, Are the " batholiths" of the Halliburton-Bancroft area, Ont., correctly
named?: J. Geol., v. 24, p. 783-791 .
Hunt, C.B., Averitt, P., and Miller, R.L., 1953, Geology and geography of the Henry
Mountains region, Utah: U.S. Gaol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 228.
Schmidt, R.G ., and Shaw, H. A., 1971, Atlas of Volcanic Phenomena : U.S. Geol. Surv. ,
20 sheets.
Tomkeieff, S.l., 1961, Alkalic ultrabasic rocks and carbonatites of the U.S.S.R.:
International Geology Review, v. 3, p. 739-758.
Willis, B., 1938, Asthenolith (melting spot) theory. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., v. 49, p. 603-614.
 AGI DATA SHEET 25.1
Pyroclastic Sediments and Rocks
Richard V. Fisher, Department of Geological Sciences, University of California,
Santa Barbara
The term pyroclastic is commonly used to refer to volcanic materials ejected
from a volcanic vent. There are two main causes of explosive activity: (1) internal
gas expansion from within a magma body, and (2) magma-water interactions that
cause steam explosions. Type 1 activity produces particles known as pyroclasts;
type 2 activity produces hydroclasts. Volcaniclastic has a broader meaning and
applies to clastic deposits with particles of volcanic composition irrespective of
origin. Volcaniclastic particles are created in the following ways.
Pyroclastic particles (pyroclasts) form by disintegration of magma, as gases
are released by decompression and then ejected from a volcanic vent.
Hydroclasts form by magma-water interactions in two major ways. Explosive
fragmentation of magma and ejection through vents occur when magma and
water (such as ground water) come into contact and steam is generated in
confined spaces. Nonexplosive thermal contraction and granulation produces
particles when magma interacts with water in unconfined spaces.
Autoclastic fragments form by mechanical friction during movement of lava
and breakage of cool brittle outer margins, or gravity crumbling of spines and domes.
Alloclastic fragments form by disruption of pre-existing volcanic rocks by
igneous processes beneath the Earth's surface.
Reworking of the above fragment types by rivers, wind, turbidity currents, and
other agents results in reworked pyroclastic deposits.
Epiclasts are lithic clasts and minerals (usually silicates) released by ordinary
weathering processes from pre-existing consolidated rocks. Volcanic epiclasts are
clasts of volcanic composition derived from erosion of volcanoes or ancient
volcanic terrane with no volcanic edifice.
To interpret pyroclastic sediments and rocks, it is advisable to distinguish
between epiclasts and other volcaniclastic fragments so as to determine
contemporaneity of volcanism and sedimentation. Terms such as pyroclastic,
hydroclastic, and epiclastic also refer to the processes by which the fragments
originate. Thus, a pyroclast cannot be transformed into an epiclast merely by
reworking by water. wind, glacial action, etc. Recognizing the differences in these
materials and processes is important, because sediment supply rates commonly
differ by orders of magnitude between degrading ejecta piles and eroding
epiclastic terrains.

FRAGMENT NAMES
Blocks. Angular to subangular; cognate or accidental origin; size >64 mm.
Bombs. Fluidal shapes; shaped by aerodynamic drag of atmosphere on fluid clots
of lava; size >64 mm.
Spatter. Nearly molten bombs, usually basaltic, that readily weld upon impact to
form agglutinate.
Pumice. Highly vesicular glass; usually floats; commonly felsic; no size limitations.
Scoria. Less vesicular than pumice; sinks in water; more mafic than pumice; no
size limitations.
Accretionary lapil/i. Lapillus-size particles formed by concentric accretion of ash.

AGIDS!'I.'dB9
AGI DATA SHEET 25.2

WAYS TO CLASSIFY PYROCLASTIC DEPOSITS AND ROCKS

GRAIN SIZE
Consolidated
Clast Unconsolidated pyroclastic
slze(mm) Pyroclast tephra rock

Bomb, block Agglomerate Agglomerate, pyroclastic

breccia
64 mm--
Lapillus Layer, bed of lapilli Lapillistone
(lapilli tephra)
2mm
Coarse ash Coarse ash Coarse tuff
1/16mm
Fine ash Fine ash Fine tuff

GRAIN SIZE MIXTURE

BLOCKS AND BOMBS

l.AI'ILLI 75
PERCENTAGE OF l.AI'ILU AND ASH

COMPONENTS
 AGI DATA SHEET 25.3

SOURCE OF FRAGMENTS
Essential (juvenile). Particles (crystal, lithic, vitric) derived from new magma.
Accessory (cognate). Particles derived from earlier eruptions at same
volcanic center.
Accidental. Particles of any origin or composition from rocks through which
the vent penetrates.

MANNER OF TRANSPORT
Pyroclastic fall. Particles derived from ejection of ballistic fragments and
eruption plumes that fall from the atmosphere onto land or into water.

0 (km')

F% is weight per cent of deposit finer than 1 mm along dispersal axis where
it is crossed by isopach line that is 10% of the maximum thickness (0.1 Tmaxl
isopach line. D is area of dispersal.

Pyroclastic flow. Hot, essentially nonturbulent, gaseous sediment gravity

flow; emplaced at high velocities on low slopes, filling in low topographic
irregularities.

Eruptive
mechanism Pyroclastic flow Deposit Characteristic fragment

Eruption Pumice flow, Ignimbrite, Pumice*

column ash flow pumice flow
collapse deposit,
ash-flow tuff

Scoria flow Scoria flow Scoria*

deposit

Lava dome Block and ash Block and Dense lava*

collapse flow (nuee ash-flow
(explosive ardente) deposit
and gravita-
tional)

upward decrease of density of juvenile clasts.

AGI DATA SHEET 25.4

Pyroclastic surge. Hot, expanded, turbulent, gaseous sediment gravity flow;

more dilute than pyroclastic flow; emplaced at high velocities over topographic
irregularities, thickening in valleys and thinning on hilltops.

Eruptive Type of pyro- Temperature, Types of

mechanism clastic surge moisture fragments

Phreatomag- Base surge Relatively cool, Juvenile,

mafic wet accessory
(column lithics (poorly
collapse) vesicular)

Accompanying Ground surge Hot, dry Juvenile

pyroclastic
flows
Ash-cloud surge Hot, dry Juvenile

From lateral Blast surge Hot, dry to wet Juvenile lithics

blasts (micro-
vesicular)

Lahar. Flow is a high concentration mixture of volcanic clasts and water;

deposit is composed of clasts of volcanic composition. Same word is used for
flow and deposit. Lahars originate in the following ways:
Directly by eruptions. Through crater lakes, snow or ice, or heavy rains
falling during or immediately after an eruption; by mixing of pyroclastic surges
with water in rivers; by dewatering of volcanic avalanches.
Indirectly due to eruptions. Triggering of loose saturated debris by
earthquake activity, rapid drainage of lakes dammed by erupted products, or
remobilization of loose volcanic debris on steep volcano slopes by melting snow
or heavy rains shortly after eruptions.
Indirectly due to processes not related to eruptions. Erosion of old
volcanoes or volcanic terrane with no volcano edifices that leads to debris flow action.
 AGI DATA SHEET 25.5

MIXTURES WITH NONVOLCANIC PARTICLES

Epiclastic
TuHites (mixed (volcanic
pyroclastic and/or non- Clast size
Pyroclastic eplclastic) volcanic) limits(mm)

Agglomerate, Tuffaceous Conglomerate, 64

agglutinate, conglomerate, breccia
pyroclastic tuffaceous breccia,
breccia
Lapillistone
Tuff coarse Tuffaceous sandstone Sandstone
fine Tuffaceous siltstone Siltstone 1/16
Tuffaceous mudstone, Mudstone, 1/256
shale shale

100% 75% 25% 0% by volume of

pyroclasts

References
Cas, R.A.F., and Wright, J.V., 1987. Volcanic Rocks: Modem and Ancient. Allen
and Unwin, Winchester, Massachusetts, 528 p.

Fisher, R.V., and Schmincke, H.-U .. 1984. Pyroclastic Rocks. Springer-Verlag,

New York, 472 p.

Heiken, G., and Wohletz, K.H., 1985. Volcanic Ash. University of California Press,
Berkeley, 246 p.
 AGI DATA SHEET 26.1
Characteristics of Fallout
After Fisher and Schmincke, 1984

SUBAERIAL TEPHRA
Distribution (Fallout Pattern) and Thickness
Distribution is circular or fan-shaped (regular to irregular) with respect to source.
Secondary thickness maxima may occur far downwind.
There are flat wedges that systematically decrease in thickness along fan axes.
Some have displaced or multiple thickness maxima.
Thickness may be skewed to one side, perpendicular to fan axis.
Azimuth of fan axis may change with distance from source.
Apex of fan axis may not be on volcano (e.g., Mount St. Helens).
Structures
Plane parallel beds drape over gentle topography and minor surface irregularities.
Ash layers wedge out against steep slopes (> 35 or 40).
Laminations and thicker beds reflect compositional changes or textural changes;
either of these may cause overall color changes.
Minor lenticularity may occur close to source.
Grading may be normal or reverse in various combinations depending upon varia-
tions in wind and/or eruption energy. vent radius, or eruption column density.
Reverse grading in beds on cinder cones and on other steep slopes commonly
develops by downslope rolling or sliding of dry granular material.
Fabric in beds is typically isotropic because elongate fragments are uncommon.
Exceptions: phenocrysts such as biotite, amphibole, etc., and platy shards.
Bedding planes may be sharp if there are abrupt changes in eruptive conditions,
wind energy, or directions, or in composition.
Bedding planes are distinct if deposits are on weathered or erosional surfaces, or
on different rock types. They may be gradational if deposition is slow by small incre
ments so that bioturbation, wind reworking, or other soil-forming processes dominate.
Textures
Size and sorting parameters vary geometrically with distance to source. Spread of
values is greater in proximal areas than in distal areas.
Sorting: moderate to good. Inman sorting parameters, <T<j>, 1.0 to 2.0, are most
common. This applies to relatively coarse-grained as well as to fine-grained tephra.
Median diameter, Mdg,: highly variable; coarser close to source than farther away.
Mdq, IS commonly -1.0 to -3.0<h (2 mm to 8 mm) or smaller (phi values) close to
source. Farther from source, Mi::fd> may vary from O.Od> (1 mm) to 3.0q, ('/ mm) or
more.
Composition
Subaerial tephra composition is mafic to silicic, calc-alkaline to alkaline, etc. Silicic
or intermediate fallout is more widespread than mafic fallout because of usually
greater explosivity and volume of the eruptions.
Intermediate composition is commonly associated with large composite volcanoes.
Mafic composition is commonly associated with cinder cones and extensive lava
flows.
Bulk composition generally becomes slightly more silicic away from source due to
eolian fractionation.
Rock Associations and Facies
Close to source (within vent or on steep volcano slopes): lava flows, pyroclastic
flows. domes, pyroclastic tuff breccias. avalanche deposits, and debris flows.
Intermediate distance to source: coarse-grained tephra, some lava flows, pyroclas
tic flows, ash falls, and reworked fluvial deposits The coarser-grained pyroclastic
deposits gradually decrease, and reworked pyroclastic deposits gradually increase
away from source.
Far from source: airfall tephra, most easily recognized in marshy, lacustrine, wind
blown environments. Rock associations depend on environment of deposition There
are no related lava flows or coarse-grained volcaniclastics.
AGI-DS-...,_Il9
AGI DATA SHEET 26.2

SUBAQUEOUS TEPHRA
Distribution and Thickness
Distribution of airfall pattern may be modified by water currents -most often to
an irregular fan shape close to source. Distribution tends to become thicker toward
source but may be highly irregular.
Thickness of single layers is commonly < 50 em unless augmented by currents
in low places. Thick layers with many thin laminae may be multiple fall units.
Structures
Plane parallel beds extend over hundreds of km2. Normal grading is from crystal
and lithicrich bases to shard-rich tops.
Basal contacts are sharp; upper contacts diffuse due to reworking by burrowing
animals.
Structures may be inversely graded if pumice is present. Presence of abundant
pumice suggests restricted circulation and is more common in lacustrine than in
marine environments.
Structures on land-based outcrops may include post-depositional thickening,
thinning, and flow structures, especially if diagenetically altered, or they may include
water-escape structures and load or slump structures.
Textures
Size and sorting parameters vary irregularly with distance from source but over-
all, size tends to decrease.
Sorting: good to poor depending upon amount of bioturbation. Inman sorting
parameters, (J <b generally > 1.0"' and < 2.5!1>.
Median diameter, Mdq,: commonly > 3.0q,- fine-grained sand size and smaller.
Composition
Subaqueous tephra compositions range from mafic to silicic, with silicic ash
most widespread.
Composition is generally related to composition of nearest volcanic sources.
The Si02 content of glass shards may range 10 per cent within a single layer.
Bulk samples are more Si0 2-rich near top than bottom of single layers because
ot grading.
Ancient layers in terrestrial geologic settings are typically altered to clays (domi-
nantly montmorillonite) and zeolites and are commonly known as bentonite (ton-
stein in Europe).
Rock Associations and Facies
Tephra is commonly interbedded with pelagic calcareous or siliceous oozes, or
with terrigenous muds and silts depending upon proximity to land. Terrigenous
materials are commonly turbidites.
Ancient tephra layers on land are commonly interbedded with non-volcanic or
tuffaceous shale or siltstone.

Reference
Fisher, R.V., and Schmincke. H.-U., 1984. Pyroclastic Rocks. Springer-Verlag, New
York, 472 p.
 _____._........_ il:'tl
Oiil
:rJ"CC
'tiiD
5i
r-a-
~
n
I
::I
0

COMPOUND VOLC.O.NO STUTO-VOLC.O.NO

0'<
Cle>
m
COMPLEX VOLC.O.NO (COMPOSITE VOLC.O.NO) oo
-ja'
<!!.
a Os
SOMM.O. VOLCANO C.o.LDHA
'tl<
mo
enr;
Ill
:I
iii'
3
'tl
0
co
iil
~
SHIELD VOLC.O.NO en
3;::;:

-
::r
UJ
... 0
:I
m-
LAV.O. DOME CRATER ROW CINDER CONE TUFF CONE TUFF RING :I
FISSURE VENT SCORI.O. CONE :i l>
PUMICE CONE !!! ~
PYROCLASTIC CONES-
~
c;
c
:I ~
Schematic profiles (vertically exaggerated-2:1 shaded and 4:1 dark) from the data of R.J. Pike en
(1978, Proc. 9th Lunar Planet. Sci. Cont., p. 3239-3273). Shapes and relative sizes are only J:
m
approximate, as dimensions vary within each group. Illustration from Smithsonian publication !!I
Volcanoes of th8 World, 1981, Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa., 240 pp. More volcano data !\)
appears on Data Sheets 84.1-84.4. ~
 VEl 6
5~ IL__:~~~----~(H~IG~H~LY~E=X~PL~O~S~I~VE:l
60 II FATAL
______JIIIIIIIII.. 111111111111 ,rm
)(
)>
E2
0
0
<~
en

.....
VEl 5
.... 5~ I =i en

L---~--------~-----
18 II FATAL
< ::E:
m
Vl:::> <
m -1m
zo
Oa< VEl A :II N
en .....
5~ I
--------~-----
~C)
31 !1 FATAL c: ;.,
en
=>>- m
....0<1--> 50
L__
VEl_3_ _. . . . :II
,
c:

______...._________
ll !I fATAL
0;;; " -1
g 5z
Z"-
0~ s; I
VE I 2 z-1

-----------~---
Jll FATAL
m
~J: :II
ou
.... -t ;;r
VEl I
O"" s~ I 2!1 FATAL
::::!
VEl 0 (NON-EXPLOSIVE)
5~ I l !1 FATAL

-----
0
- INTERVAL
------L-------------
10

BETWEEN ERUPTIONS
100

(YEARS)
1000 10,000

Increased explosivity occurs with longer eruption intervals. Data for histograms are from 4320 historic eruptions in which the time
interval from the start of the previous eruption is known. These are grouped by Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEl, see Data Sheet
84.2). For each group, the percentage of historic eruptions that have caused fatalities is also shown. Illustration from Smithsonian
publication Volcanoes of the World, 1981, Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa., 240 pp.
 AGI DATA SHEET 28.1
Graph for Determining the Size of Sedimentary Particles
Data Sheet Committee, aided by George v. Chlllngar

DARK PARTICLES

I
d.= 10 mm d. = 15 mm

Place sand grains or rock particles in the central part of the circle. Compare the size of the par
ticles with those on the graph with the aid of a magnifying glass. Record the corresponding
number (1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. 8) in notebook. For samples with particles of varying sizes, record the
most common size first .

Note: A comparator is available to make size comparisons in the field and laboratory
from Edmund Scientific Company, Barrington , New Jersey .

AGI Os-&5
AGI DATA SHEET 28.2
LIGHT PARTICLES

References: (1) George V. Chilingar, 1956, Soviet classification of sedimentary particles and
Vasil'evskiy graph: AAPG Bull., v. 40, no. 7. p. 1714. (2) M.S. Shvetsov, 1948, Petrography of
sedimentary rocks, 2nd ed. , 387 p. Gosgeolizdat, MoscowLeningrad
 AGI DATA SHEET 29.1

Grain-size Scales
By Roy L. Ingram, University of North Carolina
GRAINSIZE SCALE USED BY AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS
Modified Wentworth Scale - after Lane, et al., 1947, Trans. American Geophysical
Union, v. 28, p. 936-938

GRADE LIMITS GRADE NA'v1E

phi mm mches
---------
-12 4096 161.3
very large
-11 2048 80.6
large
- 10 1024 40.3 BoLiders
medium
-9 512 20.2
small
256 10.1
large
-7 128 5.0 Cobbles
small GRAVEL
-6 64 2.52 63mm
very coarse
32 1.26 3L5mm
coarse
-4 16 0.63 16mm
medium Pebbles
0 32 8rnm
fine
0.16 No.5
very fine
-1 0.08 No. 10
very coarse
0.04 No. 18

+1 li2 0.500 No. 35

rned~um Sand SAND
+2 1/4 0.250 No. 60
fine
+3 liB 0.125 No. 120
very f1ne
+4 1/16 0.062 No. 230
coarse
+5 1/32 0.031
medium
+6 1164 0.016 Si't
fine
+7 1/228 0.008
very f1ne
+8 l/256 0.004 MUD
coarse
+9 1!512 0.002
med.um
+10 1/1024 0.001 - Clay size
tine
+11 1/2048 0.0005
very fine

AGIDS,....d-82
AGI DATA SHEET 29.2
GRAINSIZE SCALE USED BY ENGINEERS
(A.S.T.M. Standards D422-6_3_;D_64_3_-_78-'-)_ _ __
GRADE Ll MITS GRADE NAME

Boulders
305 12.0
Cobbles
76.2 3.0 3.0 in.~---
Gravel
4.75 0.19-- No.4
coarse
2.00 0.08 No. 10
medium Sand
0.425 No.40
fine
-0.074 No. 200
Silt
0.005 .. ~-~~---------

GRAINSIZE SCALE USED BY SOILS SCIENTISTS

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Agriculture HandbOok No. 436 (1975)
-------
GRADE LIMITS
GRADE NAME

Gravel
2.0 0.08 No. 10 ~-

very coarse
1.0 0.04 No. 18
coarse
0.500- No.35
medium Sand
0.250- No.60
tine
0.100- No. 140
very fine
0.050 No.270
Silt
--0.002
 AGI DATA SHEET 29.3

SIEVES FOR DETAILED SIZE ANALYSIS

\V2Scale U.S. Standard Sieves

No.

-4.0 16.000 16.0

-3.75 13.454 13.2
-3.50 11.314 11.2
-3.25 9.514 9 5
-3.00 8.00 8.0
-2.75 6.727 6.7
-2.50 5.657 5.6 31/2
-2.25 4.757 4.75
-2.00 4.000 4.00
-1.75 3.364 3.35 6
-1.50 2.828 2.80 7
-1.25 2.378 2.36 8
-1.00 2.000 2 00 10
-0.75 1.682 1.70 12
-0.50 1.414 1.40 14
-0.25 1.189 1.18 16
0.00 1.000 1.00 18
0.25 0.841 0.850 20
0.50 0.707 0 710 25
0.75 0.595 0.600 30
1.00 0.500 0.500 35
1.25 0.420 0.425 40
1.50 0.354 0.355 45
1.75 0 297 0.300 50
2.00 0 250 0.250 60
2.25 0.210 0.212 70
2.50 0.177 0.180 80
2.75 0.149 0.150 100
3.00 0.125 0.125 120
3.25 0.105 0.106 140
3.50 0.088 0.090 170
3.75 0.074 0.075 200
4.00 0.062 0.063 230
4.25 0.053 0.053 270
4.50 0.044 0.045 325
4.75 0.037 0.038 400
 AGI DATA SHEET 30.1
Comparison Chart for Estimating Roundness and Sphericity
Maurice C. Powers, Elizabeth City State University

This sheet showing both sphericity and roundness suggests that particle shapes that
initially break out or weather from parent rocks tend to be either discoidal, rodlike
(prismatic), or spheroidal. It further suggests that as the particles are reduced in size by
abrasion and/or chemical weathering they tend to assume more nearly spherical
shapes. This , of course, is not invariably true, but it is the evolutionary process to be ex
peeled.
The chart below incorporates median rho values for roundness and sphericity, as sug-
gested by Folk (1955), because of the ease of handling these values statistically, and be
cause they represent midpoints of each roundness and sphericity class. After determining
frequency and cumulative percents for roundness and sphericity classes, each may be plot-
ted as histograms or as cumulative curves on probability paper. Such plots give a visual
reference for samples under examination and afford an opportunity to carry out statistical
nrocedures.

TtlliOJSJa 1't'JUI3HdS lYQIOWSUid

ans ans

AGI-OS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 30.2

This chart has the following advantages over other charts such as the one given on
the 1953 AGI Data Sheet:
1. Most sedimentary particles between sand and cobble size will appear similar to
one of the particles illustrated.
2. When a "match" or near match has been found, the investigator has simultaneously
determined the roundness, the sphericity, and the general shape term that describe
the particle.
3. ~~~u~r~~~s:,f,s~~~f~~~ ~~a~ ~~~~~~~s~na~~t ~hr::~f~~~ig~~b~~~Ys~~~~r~~h~~rrr;:l~tf~~:
~~Wer?ci~~~i~s ~~~h ~~~e~~et~~~S:S ~s~~:~~~~)Pdc:fs~ ~~~d~o~fsi~~ud~~~b~t~nd
11 1

4. Relationships between roundness and sphericity populations and the fluid

dynamics or aerodynamics of a transporting medium may be investigated.
Experience indicates that at least fifty grains from a sample should be examined in
order to arrive at valid average values.
Although the fluid dynamics involving particles of different shapes and varying parti
cle size is rather complex, it appears to blend for sizes smaller than 2 phi, even if they
have different shapes.

co~~ gr::~~r~le ptrri:~~~~~~~~~h1e~~s~~~er! it~r~~~e;~h~~:;h~,;'~ ~~!~~~~f~in~e~~~~

1

abraded to more nearly spherical forms.Excellent examples of highly spherical tour

malines and zircons can be found in the Carmel formation of southeastern Utah.
With the exception of certain phyllosilicates that tend to retain their discoidal shapes
even as extremely smallsized particles, discoidal-shaped mineral grains may follow a
similar sequential shapinl;l, thus also eventually becoming spheroidal. It is noteworthy
In this respect that fine micas as well as clay minerals (both groups are phyllosilicates)
commonly form "fine partings" in shales and even in fine sandstones and siltstones.
For particles larger than 2 phi, the effect of grain shape on fluid dynamics or
aerodynamics is more complicated. Although discoidal shapes have greater surface
area per unit volume than other shapes, they tend to be imbricated on sediment floors,
an arrangement which effectively streamlines the particles and makes them relatively
stable with respect to current action. Rods have less surface area per unit volume than
discs, but tend to roll rather easily with their long axes essentially perpendicular to cur-
rents. Spheres have less surface area than other shapes and roll easily on plain Sllr
faces; spheres, however, are rather easily entrapped in pockets and other irregularities
on sediment surfaces and thus may be removed from the transport load.
References
Barrett, P.J., 1980, The shape of rock particles, a critical review: Sedimentology, v. 27, p.
291303.

Dobkins, J.E., and Folk, R.L, 1970, Shape development on Tahiti-nul: J. Sediment. Pet., v.
40, p. 1156-1203.

Doyle, LJ., Carder, KL, and Steward, R.G., 1983, The hydraulic equivalence of mica: J.
Sediment. Pet., v. 53, p. 643-648.

Els, B.G., 1988, Pebble morphology of an ancient conglomerate: the Middelvlei gold plac
er, Witwatersrand, South Africa: J. Sediment. Pet., v. 58, p. 894-901.

Folk, A.L., 1955, Student operator error in determination of roundness, sphericity and grain
size: J. Sediment. Pet., v. 25, p. 297-301.

Komar, P.D., Baba, J., and Cui. B., 1984, Grain-size analyses of mica within sediments and
the hydraulic equivalence of mica and quartz: J. Sediment. Pet., v. 54, p. 13791391.

Krumbein, W.C., 1941, Measurements and geologic significance of shape and roundness
of sedimentary particles: J. Sediment. Pet., v. 11, p. 64-72.

Landon, R.E., 1930, An analysis of beach pebble abrasion and transportation: J. Geol., v.
38, p. 437-446.
 AGI DATA SHEET 30.3

McBride, E.F., and Picard, M.D., 1987, Downstream changes in sand composition, round-
ness, and gravel size in a shan-headed, high gradient stream, Nonhwest Italy: J. Sediment.
Pet, v. 57, p. 1018-1026.

Mills, H.H., 1979, Downstream rounding of pebbles a quantitative review; J. Sediment.

Pet. v. 49, p. 295-302.

Powers, M.C., 1953, A new roundness scale for sedimentary panicles: J. Sediment. Pet., v.
23, p. 117-119.

Sneed, E.D., and Folk, R.L, 1958, Pebbles in the lower Colorado River, Texas, a study in
panicle morphogenesis: J. Geol., v. 66, p. 114-150

Visher, G.S., 1969, Grain size distributions and depositional processes: J. Sediment. Pet., v.
39, p.1074-1106.

Waag, C.J., and Ogren, D.E., 1984, Shape evolution and fabric in a boulder beach, Monu-
ment Cove, Maine: J. Sediment. Per., v. 54, p. 98-102.
 AGI DATA SHEET 31.1
Descriptive Terms for Megascopic Appearances of Rock
and Particle Surfaces
Compiled by Meurice C. Powers, Elizabeth Cily State University
[Most definitions are slightly revised versions of those in the A.G.I. '"Glossary of
Geology" (2nd ed.)]
Burnished surface-Megascopically indistinguishable from polished and some var-
nished surfaces. Polished surfaces are marked by extremely fine scratches formed
by surface abrasion whereas burnished surfaces result from more nearly random
removal of multi-molecular sized pieces to form a nearly flat surface.
Chattermark-One of a series of small, closely spaced, short curved scars or cracks
~:Jrn~fo~~:=~~e~r~~P~~~eo~f~f~\~c~~~ brittle rock surface by rock fragments car
Crescentic gouge-A crescentic mark in the form of a groove or channel with a some-
what rounded bottom; it is formed by the removal of rock material from between two
fractures; it is concave toward the direction from which the ice moved (i.e., its
"horns" point in the direction of ice movement).
Desert varnish-A thin dark shiny film or coating, composed of iron oxide commonly
accompanied by traces of manganese oxide and silica, formed on the surfaces of
pebbles, boulders, and other rock fragments in, for example, desert regions after
long exposure. It is believed to be caused by exudation of mineralized solutions from
within and deposition by evaporation on the surface. A similar appearance produced
by wind abrasion is known as desert polish. Syn: desert patina; desert lacquer; desert
crust; desert rind; varnish.

Dr~~=~~dg:s~~~~~b~~~~~ ~~~~~a~:ah~~~R ~~~~ curved faces intersecting in three

Dull luster-The luster of a mineral or rock surface that diffuses rather than reflects
light, even though the surface may appear smooth (c. f. frosted surface, matte sur
face).
Einkanter-A ventifact having only one face or a single sharp edge.
Etched-A naturally corroded surface of a mineral or rock with the crystal or structural
pattern enhanced for observation because of differences in relief.
Facet-A nearly plane surface produced on a rock fragment by abrasion, as by wind
sandblasting, by the grinding action of a glacier, or by a stream that differentially
removes material from the upstream side of a boulder or pebble.
Frosted surface-A lusterless ground-glass-like surface on rounded mineral grains,
especially of quartz. It may result from innumerable impacts of other grains during
wind action, from chemical action, or from deposition of many microscopic crystals,
for example, of fine silica secondarily deposited on quartz grains (c.f. matted sur-
face).
Groove-A low area between two ridges; a linear depression of which the length greatly
exceeds the width. A groove is larger than a striation.
Matte(d) surface-An evenly roughened surface (c.f. frosted surface).
Percussion mark-A crescentic scar produced on a hard, dense rock (e.g., chert or
quartzite) by a sharp blow, as by the violent collision of a cobble with a boulder in a
streambed.
Pitted surface-Marked concavities not related to the composition or texture of the
rock on which they appear. The depressions range in size from minute pits caused by
dust particles to those that are a few centimeters across and a few centimeters deep.
Polished surface-Characterized by high luster and strong reflected light. II may be pro
duced by various agents, e.g., desert varnish or abrasion by glacial flour (c.l. bur
nished surface).
Scored surface-Parallel scratches, striae, or grooves on a bedrock surface caused by
the abrasion action of rock fragments transported by, for example, a moving glacier.
Scratch-See groove, scored surface, and striated surface.
Striated surface-Surface marked by fine lines or scratches, generally parallel or sub
parallel to each other.
Surface luster- The appearance of a surface in reflected light, generally described by
its quality and/or intensity. For example, metallic versus nonmetallic and bright ver
sus dull.
Varnish-See desert varnish.
AGIDSNd82
 AGI DATA SHEET 32.1
Names for Sedimentary Rocks
Condensed by R.R. Compton lrom Manual of Field Geology, John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1956

"'
"'
N ~~
Oci
j!!U
;:;u
~~
0~
.,E
.5 ~
~Li:
~~
~6
Cllii\

~-~
-~LL

g~
.g~
~t_
0~

~g
~~
u;v-
'i:ll
~.._.~

~
(3
~j
.,t:~

"'"'
"' ~~
u; ~~
0
"0
c:O
.,,_
"'
"'"'0
lg
0
~~
~ 0.5
~-:::
~~
-~a
::;_
~~
-u
a:l<u
~~
<:>
~
o"'
<t::::l:

Arenite: relatively well sorted sandstone.

Wacke: sandstone so poorly sorted as to include more than 20 percent of silt or clay.
Graywacke: strongly indurated dark-colored wacke.
Shale: siltstone (silty shale) or claystone (clay shale) with prominent bedding cleavage (flssllity).
Mudstone: mixture of silt and clay wilh blocky or spheroidal fracture.
Argillite: ~~gg~ra!nf~~~~!~t\llenerally recrystallized) claystones or siltstones that break into hard,
AGI DATA SHEET 32.2
Quartz. quarlllle
and chert grams

wacke

Rocks tn th1s general

area are Chiefly volcanic
sandstones. formed by
d1rect r~work1ng of
pyroclastiC matenals

Feldspar Unstable f1ne-gramed

gra1ns rock fragments

Names for Sandstones, Based an Composition. To name a rock: (1) determine the amounts a! the Yariaus
mineral and rock grains, (2) sum these amounts into the three groups shown at the earners af the triangle,
and {3) using the proportions between the groups. estimate a point in the triangle. A poorly sorted sand-
stone with equal amounts of quartz, feldspar, and slate grains. far example. would fall at point x (a
lithic, feldspathic wacke). Other detrital minerals that farm mare than 10 percent of the sand may be
used as adjectives in the name, as biatitic. From a diagram supplied by C. M. Gilbert.

Sandy M~ddy
congwmerate conglomerate
or brecc1a or brecc1a

Sand 9 1 l 1 Soli and clay

Rat1o of sand to 511! plus clay-s,ze matemls

Names for Sedimentary Rocks Containing Gravel-Size Fragments

 AGI DATA SHEET 33.1
Names for Limestones
GRADE SIZE SCALES

0.004 0.03 0.06 0.12 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 B.O(mm}

I

calcilutite calcirudite

calcisi ltite calcarenite

CLASTIC LIMESTONE CLASSIFICATION

Modified after R.L. Folk, 1959.(With permission of the American Association of Petro-
leum Geologists.)
ALLOCHEMICAL ROCKS ORTHOCHEMICAL ROCKS
allochems > 10%
sparry calcite microcrystalline
> calcite
microcystalline >
calcite sparry calcite

'"'~''"''~ ~~~ k i l~~IM

Fo"il' m intrasparite

biosparite
intramicrite

(:;~;
b1om1cnte
micrite

~~ ~lif~.
dismicrite

~
AUTOCHTHONOUS
REEF ROCKS
Ooliths

~ oosparite

biolithite
Pellets

pelsparite pelmicrite

AGI-DS-jtd-82
AGI DATA SHEET 33.2
CLASSIFICATION OF LIMESTONES ACCORDING TO DEPOSITIONAL TEXTURE
Modified after R. J. Dunham, 1962.
(With permission of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists.)
Depositional
Depositional Texture Recognizable Texture Not
Recognizable

Original
components
were bound
Original components were not bound together together during
during deposition deposition
Contains mud J Lacks mud

Mud-supported Grain-supported

I
Less than 10, More than 10
percent grains percent grains
MUDSTONE WACKESTONE PACKSTONE I GRAINSTONE BOUNDSTONE
g~~~gNL.!-+~~
Particles of clay and fine silt size .
b To be subdivided according to classifications designed to bear on physical texture or diagenesis.

~ [\~~;!-~~
mudstone wackestone

boundstone crystalline
carbonate
The fine stipple represents mud matrix

References
Dunham, A. J ., 1962. Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture. In
Classification of carbonate rocks, W. E. Ham (ed.), 108-21. Amer. Assoc . Petrol. Geol. Mem. 1.
Folk, A. L., 1959. Practical petrographic classification of limestones. Amer. Assoc . Petroi.Geol.
Bull. 43, 1-38.
Greensmith, J. T., 1978. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks (Sixth Edition), p. 124-132. London:
George Allen & Unwin.
 AGI DATA SHEET 34.1
Descriptive Classification of Metamorphic Rocks*
by Robert R. Compton, Stanford University

In this binomial system for naming metamorphic rocks, the main rock name is based on
~~dW;:~~e ndu~hs~ ~sc~~ a~~tW;.f~~rt~P!~~i~tm~~ a~ 9~~~i~;~o~~~;;i~~s ~~~n~~~~~dT~
6 1

names are meant to be applied on a descriptive basis; a schistose rock, for example,
should not be called a hornfels just because it Is found in a contact aureole.

TEXTURES
Schistose-grains platy or elongate and oriented parallel or subparalleL Foliated (lepidoblastic) if
fabric is planar, 1/neated (nematoblastic) if linear.
Granoblastlc-grains approximately equldlmenslonal; platy and linear grains oriented randomly or
so subordinate that foliation is not developed.

~~~~~~r~:g~~~:s.ir~rng9ut~; h~~~~~r~~~?~~:~~g~1~e;~!~t:;;~c~~s~ 1~p~~: r:;~B~i~~ ~~~~e11~n~

~Y
freshly broken surfaces show a sugary coating that will not rub off (formed rending of interlock
lng grains).
Semlschlstose (gnelsslc)-platy or linear grains subparallel but so subordinate or so unevenly
distributed that rock has only a crude foliation; especially common in metamorphosed granular
rocks, such as sandstones and Igneous rocks.
Cataclastlc-clastic textures resulting from breaking and grinding with little It any recrystalliza-
tion; characterized by angular, lensoid, or rounded fragments (porphyroclasts) in a fine-grained and
commonly streaked or layered groundmass. Morrar structure applies to nonorlented arrangements,
and phacoidal, /laser, and augen structure apply to lenticular arrangements.

ROCK NAMES
SCHISTOSE ROCKS
Schist-grains can be seen without using a microscope.
Phyllite-all (or almost all) grains of groundmass are microscopic, but cleavage surfaces have
sheen caused by reflections from platy or linear minerals; commonly corrugated.
Slate-grains are microscopic; very cleavable; surfaces dull; tougher than shale and cleavage com
manly oblique to bedding.
Phyllonlte-appearance like phyllite but formed by cataclasis (see mylonite) and recrystallization
commonly of coarser-grained rocks, as Indicated by relict rock slices, slip folds, and
porphyroclasts.

GRANOBLASTIC ROCKS
Granulite or granofels-granoblastlc rocks, Irrespective of mineral composition; because granulite
can connote special compositions and conditions of origin, granolels may be preferred.
Quartzite, marble, and amphibolite-compositional names that generally connote granoblastic
texture; exceptions should be modified for clarity, as schistose quartzite or plagioclase horn
b!ende schist
Tactile (skarn)- heterogeneous calc-silicate metasomatic rocks of uneven grain. Common usage
implies a contact metasomatic origin.

HORNFELSIC ROCKS
All called hornfels, or, if relict features are clear, hornfelsic may be used with the original rock
name (as hom/elsie andesite).

SEMISCHISTOSE (GNEISSIC) ROCKS

Semlschlsl-fine-grained (typically less than 114 mm) so that individual platy or lineate grains are
indistinct; relict features often common.

~e~~~:i;Pe~~';;:, 61.::~~~~ !~:'e~~~inmo~h:~s~~~nag~~~~~~~c~. ~\~~~ ~~ ~~~~!{! ~(~~fu~~~m~~~

11

be distributed evenly through the rock or may be concentrated locally so that some layers or
lenses are granoblastic or schistose (banded gneiss).

Modified after Data Sheet 27,1965, which was condensed from Manual of field geology, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1962
AGI DATA SHEET 34.2

CATACLASTIC ROCKS

~,7:~7a~~~~i~~!~~~~r~a~f;~~~~~:~:l1~~~~~d~}';h~~f,~~e can be modified by suitable adjectives (as

Cataclasite - a rock containing angular fragments that have been produced by the crushing and
fracturing of preexisting rocks as a result of mechanical forces.

Mylonite- foliated, lineated rock. commonly with ribbons of quanz and lenticular porphyroclasts.

Ultramylonite, pseudotachylyte-Aphanitic to nearly vitreous-appearing dark rock commonly in

jecled as dikes mto adjoinmg rocks.

RELICT AND SPECIAL TEXTURES AND STRUCTURES

If textures of lowwade metamorphic rocks are dominantly relict, original rock names may be
modified (as mass1ve metabasalt, sam/schistose meta-andesite). It hydrothermal alteration has
produced prominent new minerals, names such as c;h/oritized diorite and sericitized granite can be
used.
Strongly metasomatized rocks with coarse or unusual textures may require special names such as
greisen, quartzschorl rock, and corundum-mica rock.
Mlgmatlte-a composite rock composed of igneous or igneous-appearing and/or metamorphic
materials that are generally distinguishable megascoplcally.
 AGI DATA SHEET 35.1

Bernard W. Evans, University ol Washington

A metamorphic facies has been defined (Turner, 1968) as: a set of metamorphic mineral
assemblages, repeatedly associated in space and time, such that there is a constant and
therefore predictable relation between mineral composition and chemical composition." Points
to note are (1) the concept is petrographic, or field-oriented, (2) any one facies encompasses
all possible rock compositions, (3) facies are not defined in terms of pressure and temperature,
nor in terms of mode of occurrence, (4) facies are defined in terms of sets of mineral assem-
blages, ideally set out in a sequence of (triangular) paragenetic diagrams, showing changing
mineral compatibilities across the facies boundaries.

of~fssb~~:g~~~f~c~ii~~~~~s~t:~co;po~~~~=c~~i~~~~~?!~~~~~~~e~~:v:;~,l~~~=.n~~~:~
more, few metamorphic rocks can be satisfactorily depicted in triangular, three-eomponent
(for example, ACF) diagrams, or in projection onto triangular diagrams.
The accompanying tables show the characteristic mineral assemblages for eight widely
recognized metamorphic facies, keyed to bulk rock composition. For each facies, the upper
row gives the typical mineral assemblage, and the lower row ( ) lists possible additional min-
erals. Minerals in the latter may not necessarily occur throughout the facies, may be restricted
to fairly specific bulk compositions, and may be incompatible with others in the list. For exam-
ple, kaolinite and paragonite occur In highly aluminous petites in the zeolite facies, and should
not be accompanied by Kfeldspar. Rocks of basic (basaltic) composition provide the assem-
blage diagnostic of each facies (capitalized), with the possible exception of the sanidinite facies.
Assemblages in other bulk compositions may, in a few cases, be diagnostic of a specific facies,
for example, staurolite+ muscovite+ quartz (amphibolite facies). Individual minerals seldom
serve this purpose; for example, neither glaucophane nor lawsonite is restricted to the blueschist
facies. Accessory minerals have only been included where they are specifically known to char-
acterize a metamorphic facies.
The inferred pressure-temperature relationships of the faci~;~s are based on a combination
of field observations and experimental reversals of reactions. Although most of these reaction
boundaries are a function of PH,o in addition to Pso~ids and T, it appears in practice that there
is a sufficiently close relationship between the two pressure terms lor the metamorphic facies
to be interpreted in terms of Piithostatic and T. Possible exceptions, notably the granulite and
eclogite facies, are still a subject of debate among petrologists.
Reference
Turner, F. J. (1968) Metamorphic Petrology, Mineralogical and Field Aspects, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 403 p.

Facies Pelitic
illite+ phengite +chlorite+
quat'lz
Zeolite
kaolinite, paragonite,
phe ngite +chlorite +
quar1z
Prel>nlle-pumpettylle/
Pumpellyite-actinolite
pyrophyllite, paragonite,
K-feldspar, stilpnomelane,
hematite, lawsonite
phengite +chlorite+ quartz
Bluescl'list
albite, jadeite, lawsonite,
almandine, chloritoid,
paragonite
phengte +almandine+ quartz OMPHACITE +GARNET+
Eclogite
kyanite, jadeite, omphacite
>
Basic Ultrabaslc ~
c
~
CA-ZEOLITE +CHLORITE+ lizardite + chrysotile + brucite+
QUARTZ+ ALBITE magnetite+ chlorite
(/.1
prehnite, analcime, adularia, carbonate ::r::
pumpellyite m
m
....
PREHNITE or ACTINOLITE+ lizardite + chrysotile +magnetite !.)
PUMPELLYITE+ ALBITE+ + brucite+ chlorite Cll
CHLORITE+ QUARTZ
;.,
lawsonite, stilpnomelane antigorite, carbonate, talc,
diopside
GLAUCOPHANE/CROSSITE + antigorite+ olivine+ magnetite+
LAWSONITE or EPIDOTE chlorite
pumpellyite, chlorite, garnet, brucite, talc, dtopside
albite, omphacite, aragonite,
phengite, paragonite, chloritoid
olivine
RUTILE+ i<:yanite
glaucophane, barroisite, horn- talc. diopside, antigorite,
blende, epidote, muscovite, chlorite, garnet (pyropic)
paragonite, hypersthene
Facies Pelitic
muscovite (or phengite) +
chlorite+ albite+ quartz
Greenschist
chloritoid, biotite, K-
feldspar, spessantne,
stilpnomelane, paragonite
muscovite + biotite +-
plagioclase ( > An17) +
Amphibolite quartz
(Incl. Hornblende
hornfels) almandine~ staurolite,
kyanite, sillimanite,
andalusite, cordierile, Mg-
chlorite, paragonite,
K-leldspar
sillimanite+ K-fefdspar
+plagioclase+ quartz
Granulite
(Incl. Pyroxene
hornfels) biotite, almandine,
cordierite, hypersthene,
kyanite, osumilite, spinel,
corundum
glass
Sanldlnlte
cordierite, hypersthene,
spinel, corundum, mullite,
sanidine
Calcareous Basic Ultrabasic
calcite+ dolomite+ quartz CHLORITE+ EPIDOTE+ antigorite+ chlorite+
ALBITE +calcite diopside + m agnelite
talc, actinolite. K-feldspar actinolite (or hornblende), olivine, brucite,
biotite carbonate, talc
calcite +dolomite HORNBLENDE+ olivtne +chlorite+
PLAGIOCLASE (>Ant?) tremolite + Cr-spinel
diopside, tremolite, epidote, clinopyro)(ene, antigorite, talc,
torsterite, phlogopite, garnet, cummingtonite, anthophyllite,
epidote, grossular, biotite cummingtonite, enstat:te
chlorite. spinel, clino-
humite, scapofite,
vesuvianile
calcite+ dolomite ORTHOPYROXENE+ oltvine + diopside +
CLINOPYROXENE enstatite+ spinel
diopside, forsterite, plagioclase, hornblende, plagioclase, hornblende,
wollastonite, humite, garnet, scapolite sapphirine
scapolite, monticellite,
periclase, spinel,
grossular
)lo
calcite pigeonite +augite olivine+ diopside +
ec
enstatite
~
)lo
dolomite, monticellite, plagioclase. olivine, plagioclase
melilite, periclase, orthopyroxene en
tilleyite, spurrite %
m
m
-4
Co>
Ul
c.,
AGI DATA SHEET 35.4
PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM

(sJa}aWOI!>t) .ndaa
It)
It)
0
I()
It)
'lit
0
'lit ,., ,
In 0 It)
N
0
N !!! 2 It) 0
0
I I I I I I I
' I I I
2

\
--
Q)

c
-
"'0
0
0
~

r- \
c
0 - 00 CD
en
\
0
- 0
......

0
- 0
'lit

.........
\
-'
0
Q)
,
0
\
- \ 0
Q)
-
0
0
N C\1

I I I J I I . 0
2
N 0
 AGI DATA SHEET 36.1
And Classification Of Soils
Roy W. Simonson
DEFINITION: Soil is a natural, historical body with an internal organization reflected in
the profile and its horizons, consisting of weathered rock materials and organic matter
with the former usually predominant, and formed as a continuum at the land surface
largely within the rooting zones of plants.
HYPOTHETICAL SOIL PROFILE:
with notations for master horizons
pre-1980 current
nomenclatura nomenclatura

j
01 loose leaves and organic debris, largely undecomposed.
Oe Organic debris, partially decomposed.
A dark-colored horizon of mixed mineral and organic
A matter and with much biological activity.
A light-colored horizon of maximum eluviatlon; promi-
A2 nent In some soils but absent In others.
Transitional to B but more like A (or E) than B; may be
EB absent.
Transitional to A (or E) but more like B than A (or E);
BE may be absent.
Maximum accumulation of silicate clay minerals or of
82 sesQuloxides and or~anlc matter; maximum expression
of blocky or prismatic structure; or both.

~
BC Transitional to C but more like B than C; may be absent.
Weathered parent material, occasionally absent; forma
c tion of horizons may follow weathering so closely that
the A or B horizon rests on consolidated rock.
layer of consolidated rock beneath the soil.

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM: The system is described, and classes in the upper lour
categories are defined in U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 436 (1 975). Guides
are also included for defining classes in the tilth category (families). Changes since
1 975 are recorded in Soil Management Support Services Monograph 6, "Keys to Soil
Taxonomy: (Soil Management Support Services are in the Soil Conservation Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.)
The system consists of six categories. They are listed in descending sequence with
approximate numbers of classes in each (as of 1988): orders (1 0). suborders (50), great
groups (250), subgroups (1 ,550), families (5,500), and series (12,000). Numbers of fam-
Ilies and series are for the United States only.
The nomenclature of the system is systematic except for the series category. The
name of each class identifies the category to which it belongs. The name of each class
from families to orders identifies all parent classes of higher rank. Thus, the name of
each family includes all or parts of the names of the parent subgroup, great group, sub-
order, and order.
Names of soil groups used In the past-e.g., laterite, latentic soil, podzol, and cher-
nozem-are not used in the system. The term laterite has been restricted to sesquiox-
ide-rich materials that are hard or that harden upon exposure when they are wet and
then dry. Names such as podzols and chernozems and the phrase lateritic soils were
used for assortments of soils that are now classified under other orders of the system.
Further information about the classification system is given on Data Sheets 36.3
and 36.4.
AGI DATA SHEET 36.2
SOIL HORIZON DESIGNATIONS
Roy W. Simonson. Principal source is Guthrie and Witty, Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
J., v. 46, p. 443, 1982.

A. Capital letters, lowercase letters, and Arabic numerals are all used to form hori
zon designations. In addition, prime notations are used to make some distinctions.
1. Capital letters, singly or in pairs, identify master horizons, shown in the
hypothetical soil profile on Data Sheet 36.1.
2. Lowercase letters are used as suffixes with the capital letters to indicate
subordinate features of master horizons.
3. Arabic numerals are used in two ways: First, they are used as suffixes to
indicate vertical subdivisions of horizons. Second, they are used as pre-
fixes with the capital letters to indicate lithologic discontinuities within
profiles.
4. Prime notations are used to distinguish two or more horizons within a pro-
file that are separated by another horizon but have the same designation.
When two separated horizons have the same designation, the prime
notation is used for the deeper one, e.g., E and E'. If three separated hori
zons have the same designation, a double prime is used for the deepest
one, e.g., E, E', and E".

B. A list of the lowercase letters used to identify subordinate features of master

horizons is given below. Opposite the letters in current use are those that were
replaced in 1982. Brief explanations are given for the current letter suffixes.

Old New Features Represented

a Highly decomposed organic matter
b Buried
en c Concretionary or nodular
e Moderately decomposed organic matter
f Frozen
g g Markedly reduced, expressed in low chromas, etc.
h h llluvial accumulation of organic matter
Slightly decomposed organic matter
ca Accumulation of carbonates
m m Strongly cemented
sa n Accumulation of sodium
0 Residual accumulation of sesquioxides
p Disturbed, as by plowing
si q Accumulation of silica
r Soft bedrock
ir llluvial accumulation of sesquioxides
I Accumulation of clay
v Plinthitic
w ForB horizons only, set off by color or structure or both
X Having fragipan features
cs Accumulation of gypsum
sa Accumulation of salts
 AGI DATA SHEET 36.3
AMERICAN SOIL TAXONOMY: PART I
Roy W. Simonson. Principal sources are U.S. Department of Agriculture Hand-
book 436 (1975) and Soil Management Support Services Monograph 6 (1987).
CLASS CRITERIA: Classes are distinguished in all six categories of the sys-
tem on the basis of diagnostic features, chiefly kinds of horizons. Six surface
horizons, labeled epipedons, are diagnostic, with one, the mollie epipedon, of
special importance. Sixteen subsurface horizons serve as criteria, with nine
widely used and seven not. More than 20 features other than horizons are
used as class criteria - for example, moisture regimes, temperature regimes,
and evidence of cracking and churning.
Principal features for setting apart the 10 soil orders are gross composition
of the soil (mineral versus organic). diagnostic horizons, distinctness of hori-
zons, and base saturation.
Principal features for distinguishing suborders within orders are moisture
regimes. temperature regimes, mineralogy, argillic horizons, and composition
of horizons.
Principal features for distinguishing great groups within suborders are
presence or absence of certain diagnostic horizons and the occurrence of hori-
zons extra to the definitive sequence for a suborder.
For subgroups, a norm is first selected for the great group as a whole. This
is meant to typify or epitomize the great group. Soils that fit the norm form a
subgroup. Additional soils of the great group are then set apart based on the
properties shared with other great groups. For example, certain soils are
selected as the norm for the great group of Hapludalfs and labeled Typic Hap-
ludalls. Other soils in the great group on the wet side but not wet enough to be
Aqualfs are then set apart as Aquic Hapludalls.

Soil Orders Names and Major Features

Alfisols Soils with subsurface horizons of silicate clay accumulation and

moderate to high base status. Formative element: alt.
Aridisols Soils with very dry moisture regimes, little organic matter, and
some diagnostic features. Formative element: id.
Entisols Soils with little or no horizonation. Formative element: ent.
Histosols Soils consisting largely of organic matter. Formative element: ist.
lnceptisols Soils with some diagnostic horizon or horizons, poorly
expressed. Formative element: ept.
Mollisols Soils with thick, dark surface horizons, moderate to high in
organic matter, and well supplied with divalent bases. Formative
element: off.
Oxisols Soils with few weather able minerals, very low supplies of bases,
and poorly expressed horizons. Formative element: ox.
Spodosols Soils with subsurface horizons of amorphous accumulations or
of cementation with iron oxides. Formative element: od.
Ultisols Soils with subsurface horizons of silicate clay accumulation and
low to very low base status. Formative element: ult.
Vertisols Soils moderate to high in clay and with evidence of cracking
and churning. Formative element: err.
AGI DATA SHEET 36.4
AMERICAN SOIL TAXONOMY: PART II
Roy W. Simonson. Principal sources are U.S. Department of Agriculture
Handbook 436 (1975) and So// Management Support Services Monograph 6
(1987).

NOMENCLATURE: All names of classes in a single category have the same

form. Names are also distinctive for every category. The names of the soil
orders have three or four syllables and end in sol. One syllable of the name of
each order is used as the final syllable in constructing the names of suborders,
great groups, subgroups, and families. The names of suborders consist of two
syllables, a prefix plus the element from the name of the parent order. The
names of great groups consist of a prefix plus the name of the parent suborder.
The names of subgroups are binomials, with the name of the parent great
group as the second word. The names of families consist of the names of the
parent subgroups preceded by several modifiers based on particle size distri-
bution. mineralogy, and temperature. The syllables used as prefixes in the
names of suborders and of great groups are chiefly of Greek and Latin origin.
A few are from other languages.

Examples of syllables used as prefixes to construct names of suborders

with formative elements from names of orders:
and J .. Ando, dark soil For soils with much amorphous material.
aqu L., aqua, water For soils wet to various degrees.
arg L., argilla, clay For soils with argillic horizons (clay accumulations).
bar Gr., boreas, cool For soils with relatively low temperatures.
!err L., ferrum, iron For soils with iron-cemented horizons.
fluv L., fluvius, river For soils formed in recent alluvium.
psamm Gr., psammos. sand For soils high in sand.
ud L., udus, humid For soils with moderately high moisture.
ust L., ustus, burnt For soils with somewhat restricted moisture.

Examples of names of suborders are Borolls for cold Mollisols in North

Dakota and Psamments for sandy soils in Florida.

Examples of syllables used as prefixes to construct names of great groups

from names of suborders:
alb L., a/bus, white For soils with albic (pale) horizons.
calc L., calcis, lime For soils with calcic horizons.
cry Gr .. Kryos. icy cold For soils that are very cold.
trag L., tragi/is, brittle For soils with fragipans.
hap I Gr., haplous, simple For soils with no extra features.
natr L., natrium, sodium For soils with natric horizons (high in Na).
sal L., sal, salt For soils with salic horizons, high in salts.
trap Fr., tropikos, of the For soils that are moist and always warm.
solstice
verm L., vermes, worm For soils with much evidence of faunal mixing.

Examples of the names of great groups are Natriborolls for cold Mollisols
with natric horizons high in sodium in North Dakota and Ouartzipsamments for
sandy soils high in quartz in Florida.
Examples of the names of subdivisions of a soil order in progressively
lower categor1es for the Mohave series of the southwestern United States are
the following: Aridisol, Argid, Haplargid, Typic Haplargid, fine-loamy, mixed,
thermic Typic Haplargid, and Mohave series. Aridisols constitute the great bulk
of soils in the deserts of the world.
 AGI DATA SHEET 37.1

Checklist for Field Descriptions of So_il_s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Roy W. Simonson. Principal sources are U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbooks
18 and 436.

GENERAL INFORMATION AND SETTING

IDENTIFICATION: Name of soil series or broader class, as specific as feasible.
PHYSIOGRAPHY: Such as till plain, high terrace, flood plain.
UNDERLYING MATERIALS: General nature, such as calcareous clayey till or residuum from
granite.
SLOPE: Approximate gradient.
PLANT COVER: Vegetation at site, such as oak-hickory forest, corn, pasture.
MOISTURE STATUS: Conditions at the time, such as wet, moist, dry.
REMARKS: other features such as stoniness, salinity, or depth to ground water; not ap
plicable or observable everywhere.

DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL HORIZONS

DESIGNATION: See hypothetical soil profile, Data Sheet 36.
DEPTH: em (or inches) from top of A horizon and from surface of organic soil.
THICKNESS: Average, such as 15 em, plus range, such as 10-20 em.
BOUNDARY: Lower one, as to distinctness: abrupt, clear, gradual, or diffuse; and as to
topography: smooth, wavy, irregular, or broken.
COLOR: Record colors of both wet and dry specimens if possible, but always for wet conditions.
Use number-letter notations from Munsell Soil Color charts, e.g., 1OYR 5/4. Record mottles
(patches of one color in matrix of another color) as to abundance: few, common, many; as
to size: fine, medium, coarse; and as to contrast: faint, distinct, prominent.

T~fa~g~f~rC~~:~ss~~~~gs~:;~~~~~~f;of~~!~~~o~.the separates sand, silt, and clay. See

STRUCTURE: Describe natural units as to grade (distinctness): weak, moderate, strong; as to
size: very fine, fine, medium, coarse, very coarse; and as to type: platy, prismatic, blocky,
granular. Without peds, horizon can be either single-grained or massive.
CONSISTENCE: Cohesion, adhesion, and resistance of specimens to deformation and rupture.
When wet: nonsticky, slightly sticky, sticky, or very sticky; also: nonplastic, slightly plastic,
plastic, or very plastic. When moist: loose, very triable, friable, firm, very firm, or extremely
firm. When dry: loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard, or extremely hard.
ROOTS: Numbers of observable roots: few, common, or many; and dimensions: fine, medium,
or coarse.
PORES: Numbers of field-observable pores: few, common, or many; dimensions: very fine,
fine, medium, or coarse; and shapes: irregular, tubular, or vesicular.
REACTION: pH as measured with field kit.
ADDITIONAL FEATURES: Other features if present, such as iron or carbonate concretions
(use same abundance and dimension classes as for roots), effervescence with dilute HCI,
krotovinas (filled animal burrows), cementation (weakly, strongly, indurated), and stone lines.
AGI DATA SHEET 37.2
GUIDE FOR TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION

U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service

May 1, 1950

percent sand

Names and sizes of classes of soil separates or "fine earth" fo rming ba ses for
texture determinations.

NAME SIZE RANGES - mm

Ve ry coar se sand 1.0-2.0
Coarse sand 0.5- 1.0
Medium sand 0.25-0.5
Fine sand 0.1-0.25
Very fine sand 0.05-0.1
Si lt 0.002-0 .05
Clay 0.002
 AGI DATA SHEET 38.1

Unified Soil Classification

Compiled by B. W. Pipkin, University of Southern Calilornia

0
w
z ~
< "'
<..9d ~
O:Cil

~5l
0:
< ~
0
u
*
E

~ ell

~ 5
u
@
z
<
0:
(.9
uJ
z
u:

NOTES:
1. Boundary Classification: Soils possessing characteristics of two groups are designated by com-
binations of group symbols. For example. GW-GC. well-graded gravel-sand mixture with clay binder
2. All sieve s1zes on this chart are U.S. Standard.
3. The terms "silt" and "clay: are used respectively to distinguish materials exhibiting tower plasticity
from those With higher plast1c1ty. Tne minus no. 200 s1eve material Is s1lt 1f the liquid 11m it and plast1c1ty
index plot below the "A" line on the plasticity chart (next page), and Is clay lithe liquid limit and plasticity
index plot above the "A" line on the chan.
4. For a complete description of the Unified Soil Classification System. see "Technical Memorandum
No. 3-3.57," prepared tor Office, Chief of Engineers, by Waterways Equipment Station, Vicksburg. Mis
s1ssipp1, March 1953 (See also Data Sheet 29.)

First published by GSA Engineering Geology Division.

AGI-OS-rvd82
 AGI DATA SHEET 39.1
Outline for Environmental Impact Statements
Revised after O.B. Jorgenson, Las Vegas, Nevada
(Adapted from guidelines prepared by NEPA, HUD, and James A. Roberts Associates, Inc., Sacramento,
California. Summarized in: Burchell, R. W., and Listokin, 0., 1975: The Environmer.tallmpact Hand-
boo!<. Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, New Jersey.)
NOTE: Different lists might be prepared, but they should include the following:
I. Proposed project (e.g., construction, park site, mineral exploration, or development)
A. Purpose of project
B. Status of project
C. Location
D. Ownership and legal description of area and site
II. Current environment of area and site
A. Physical features and processes
1. Materials (e.g., water, soil, surficial rocks)
2. Processes (e.g., erosion, mass-wasting)
3. Rate and recurrence of processes
4. Topography and geomorphology
B. Vegefalion and biota
C. Wetlands (location, shape, and size)
D. Social or cultural characteristics
E. Archaeological features
F. Aesthetic nature
Ill. lmpacf of the environment on:
A. The project and its design
B. Project's inhabitants
C. Project's users
IV. Impact of proposed project on environment
A. The natural environment
1. Is the project controversial?
2. In what ways might it alter the patterns of behavior for mammals?
for fish? for amphibians? for reptiles? lor insects?
3. In what ways might it a~er the breedin~. nesting, or feeding grounds of birds?
4. How might the project affect existing b1ota and vegetation?
5. In what ways might it change water or air?
6. How might the water table be affected in the area?
7. How might the stability of the soils or the geology of the area be affected?
B. The cultural environment
1. Will the project produce changes in traffic?
2. Will it affect the aesthetics of the area?
3. Will it divide or disrupt existing land uses?
4. Will it affect current recreational uses?
5. Will it affect areas of unique interest or beauty, including those relating to geology,
paleontology, archaeology, anthropology, or history?
V Alternatives to the proposed action
A. Possibility of restricted or reduced development and construction
B. Use of alternative development or construction
C. Possibility of construction on another site
D. Other alternatives
VI. Anticipated adverse environmental effects, if any
A. Adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided within the proposed plan
B. Those which could be avoided by adopting alternative actions
C. Those which could not be avoided by any alternative actions
D. Those which will be avoided by choosing the recommended action
E. Actions taken by developer to mitigate environmental damage
VII. Description of relationship between short-term and long-term uses of the environment
A. Effects during construction
B. Short-term impacts
C. Long-term impacts
VIII. Description of irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resources which would be made
if proposal were implemented
Name - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - D a t e - - - - - - - -
Professional A f f i l i a t i o n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
License or Certification

AGIOS~r m1-B9
 AGI DATA SHEET 40.1

Checklist for a Mine

John Eliot Allen, Ponland (Ore.) State University

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Qualifications of writer
Nama ol proper!)', origin and purpose of report, and lima spent on survey
Conclusion
Recommendations
Signature and certification
PROPERTY
Name of properly and principal ore
Mining area or district
County and state
Old name or names
OWNERSHIP AND HISTORY
Operator lessee and address
Present owner or owners and addresses
Status of title: history of claims, how ownad, stock ownership, corporate structure, etc.
Previous owners
Past mining methods
Record of production
LOCATION
Latitude and longitude
Magnetic declination
'lo section. section, township, range, base. and meridian
Natural landmarks
Distances to shipping points, power lines
Name of and distance to nearest town
Type of claim; map of claims (A) (Use bar scales on all maps)
GENERAL INFORMATION
Geography, topography, relief, elevation, climate, rainfall, snowfall, length of open season
Water: supply, right, disposal problems
Labor: supply, unionization, taxes
Literature references, bibliography
List of previous repons, maps, shipping records, assay records, etc.
Names and address of informants
Photographs of property (B)
GEOLOGY (with par1icul11r attention to the features that bear on the deposit)
Map of areal geology and structure (C)
(Somettmes combined with developmenl map)
General
Hand-lens description of rock outcrops and wall rocks
Percentage of outcrops versus overburden
Topographic relations
Geologic age and stratigraphic position of rocks
Rock specimens (D)
Stratigraphic, long, t;md cross-sections (E)
Structures (note kind, attitude, spacing, and relationship to ore)
Formational or intrusive contacts, unconformities, relationships
Bedrock structures (bedding, jointing, and cleavage, etc.)
Faults and fault systems
Lodes
Altitude, shape and size of vein, lode, blanket, bed, altered zone, etc.
Kind, size, and amount of minerals in wall rock, gangues, and ore
Localization of ore and possoble causes
Classification (i.e .. primary, secondary, replaced; relationships)
Assay values; assay map (F), ore specimens or samples (G)
Placer, quarry, pot
~r~~ ~~~~~~!\~t, hillside, etc.)
Shape
Areal extent
Depth to bedrock
Thickness of overburden
Composition & size range of gravels
Presence of clay, boulders, etc.
Value per yard
Distribution of values

A.G!-OS-rmi-69
AGI DATA SHEET 40.2

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT (See Data Sheet 39)

Cultural features which might affect operation on property (waste disposal, fish damage, air pollution,
government restrictions, etc.)
DEVELOPMENT WORK (complete description, including as much as possible of the following)
Sketch map or maps of development (H)
Number, name if any, dimensions and elevations of all surface cuts, pits, trenches, portals, shalt collars
Same as above lor all underground drifts, crosscuts, raises, wlnzes. and shafts
Areas of ground mined out and those Indicated as possible or blocked-out ore
Location and direction of drill holes, and analytical work done on cores (/)
MINING AND BENEFICIATION
Description of mining and milling practice
Method of mining, moving, and treating ore
Costs known or estimated of treatment
List of mining equlpmenl
Description of plant
List of equipment
Condition of buildings
Kind and amount of power available
Flow sheet and mine maps (J)
ECONOMICS (these notes often confidential)
Costs of mining, milling, shipping, etc.
Tonnage or yardage reserves (measured, indicated, and inferred)
Estimated life of operation
Drawbacks to property
Reasons for present or possible success or failure
Owner's plans for the future
Recommendations
A to J: Supplementary exhibits

NAME of examiner _ _ _ _ __

DATE of examination:_

WORK DONE AND TIME SPENT in examination: _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - -

 AGI DATA SHEET 41.1
Investigation of Seismic Intensity
Robert Nason, U.S. Geological Survey

Seismic intensity is a measure of the local disturbance caused by the shaking of an earth
quake. Seismic intensity differs from earthquake magnitude in that the strength of seismic shak-
ing differs from place to place, whereas magnitude is an absolute measure of the size of the
earthquake. Seismic-intensity studies indicate the geographic pattern of the earthquake dis
turbance (isoseismal maps) and the relation of the shaking to local or regional geologic con-
ditions.
The seismic-intensity rating is estimated from the amount of disturbance and local damage

~~=r~~~~ee~~7~~~~;:eai~~~f~,~e~~~~n~~~~~;~~fes~e~~~~~~~ ~~~a~fh~~!~:
may be misplaced as indicators of strength of shaking, particularly the ground failure effects
(Nason and Espinosa, 1977).
Intensity investigations should focus on accurate description of the earthquake disturbances
studied, so that accurate intensity ratings can be assigned later. The following compilation
lists most of the common effects of earthquake shaking.
Many seismic-intensity scales have been constructed and used in different parts of the world,
Wood (1911) describes early intensity scales and Barash (1969) lists different modern scales.
The 12-level Modified Mercalli (MM) scale of Wood and Neumann (1931) and Richter (1958)
is widely used in the United States and is similar to the scales used elsewhere in the wol1d
(except in Japan). Richter's (1958) version of the MM scale is listed here, with asterisks to mark
criteria that may be misleading as indicators of shaking.

References
Barosh, PJ., 1969, Use of seismic intensrty data to predict the effects of earthquakes and under-
ground nuclear explosions in various geologic settings: U.S. Geological Survey, Bull. 1279, 93 p.
Nason, R., 1982, Seismic Intensity studies in the Imperial Valley: in The Imperial Valley. Califoniia,
earthquake of October 15, 1979, U.S. Geologrcal Survey, Prof. Paper 1254
Nason, R .. and Espinosa, A.F., 1977, Proposed revision of the Modified Mercalli intensity scale (abs.)
Geol. Soc. Amer. Abstr., V. 9, n. 4, p. 473
Richter, C. F, 1958, Elementary seismology: W.H. Freeman Co., San Francisco, 738 p.
Wood. H 0 , 1911, The observalion of earthquakes: Seismol. Soc. Amer. Bull., v, 1, p 46-62
Woo<!, H.O, and Neumann, F.. 1931. Modified Mercalli intensity scale of 1931; Seismol. Soc. Amer
Bull.. v. 21, p 277-283.
AGI DATA SHEET 41.2
SEISMIC EFFECTS LIST

A. Description of shaking
Felt by: few, many, most, or all persons.
Felt outdoors: sitting only, standing, moving.
Felt indoors: sining only, standing, moving; on ground floor, upper floors, tall buildings only.
Type of shaking: weak, strong; rolling, sharp, episodic; what duration, what direction.
Disturbance of people
Sleepers awakened: none, few, many, most, all; beds moved, people thrown out of bed.
People standing: no problem, diHiculties, fall down.
Animals standing: no problem, difficulties, fall down.
People effects: nausea, dizziness, uncertainty.
Noises
Ground noises: none, rumbling, sharp (what direction).
Building noises: none, some, much (type of building).
Other noises: windows, doors, dishes, trees.
Other disturbances
Trees shaken, bent, branches/trunk broken.
Liquids moved, thrown from container.
Ringing of large/small bells.
Overhead wires vibrate, tighten, break.
Waves seen in ground: size, shape, direction, speed.
B. Disturbances In houses (type of building)
Small objects: unmoved, rocked, shifted, fallen; some, many.
Kitchen objects: unmoved, rocked, shifted, fallen.
Books on shelves: unmoved, shifted, fallen.
Fumhure
Light furniture: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Heavy furniture: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Tall objects: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Heavy appliances: unmoved, shifted (how much), broken (type).
Type of floor: carpet, wood, linoleum, cement.
Other
Hanging lamps: unmoved, swing, hit ceiling.
Hanging pictures: unmoved, shifted, turned, fallen.
Pendulum clocks: unchanged, stopped, started, lost time.
Water spilt: fish tanks, toilet tanks.
C. Disturbances in stores
Items fallen, shelves shifted.
Type of store, type of floor.
Furniture stores (small, medium, large, warehouse)
Shelf items: unmoved, shifted (how much), fallen (how many).
Tall items: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Heavy furniture: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned
Type of floor: carpet, linoleum, wood, concrete.
Food stores (small, large, supermarket)
Fall of shelf items: none, some, many, aisles blocked; wall shelves, central shelves.
Central shelves: unmoved, shifted (how much), overturned.
Bookstores, libraries (ground floor, upper floor)
Books: unmoved, shifted, fall (direction of shelves).
Shelves: unmoved, shifted, collapsed (anchored?).
 AGI DATA SHEET 41.3

D. Building damage
Type: house, store, factory; one-story, multi-story; wood, brick, stone (type), concrete, adobe,
other.
Age: pre-1900, pre-1935, pre-1965, post-1965.
Damage: none, some, twisted, tilted, fallen walls, collapsed.
Brick/masonry walls: uncracked, cracked, fallen (how much); parapet, upper wall below para-
pet, whole wall.
Chimneys: uncracked, cracked, shifted, bricks thrown, fallen.
Foundation damage: slab, wall, pillar; concrete, brick, wood; no damage, cracked, shifted,
(how much), overturned.
Inside plaster: uncracked, cracked, fissured, fallen.
Outside plaster/stucco: uncracked, cracked, fallan.
House or store windows: uncracked, cracked, broken.
Root tiles: unmoved, shifted, fallen.
Air cooler: unmoved, shifted/rotated, fallen.
E. Other disturbances
Factory smokestacks: cracked, shifted, top fallen, fallen.
Heavy machinery: shifted, anchors broken, overturned.
Statues, cemetery monuments: unmoved, shifted/rotated, fallen; none, lew, many, most, all.
Water tanks: unmoved, shifted, fallen; water spilt; ground level, elevated, type of support, size.
Outdoor walls: loose stone, shaped stone, brick, concrete; undamaged, cracked, shifted, fal-
len (how much).
Parked cars: unmoved, rocked, shifted, rolled.
Moving cars: shaking not noticed, like flat tire, hard to control.
Railroad engines/cars (s1anding/moving): rolled, overturned.
F. Ground disturbance
Type of ground: rock, soil, clay/mud, wet/dry; level, sloped, cut-slope, fill, valley bonom.
Cracks: none, small, large (what size), ground shifted; panern, relation to topography.
Landslides: slight, minor, major (what size).
Rockfalls: single rock, many rocks (about how many).
River banks shifted; river bonom uplifted.
Fault cracks: primary, secondary, amount of offset.
Liquefaction effects: fountains, sand boils, land spreading.
Ground senlement: wavy surface, irregularities, grabens.
Escape of gas: flow, odor, flame.
Boulder movement in soil: deformed soil, shifted position, thrown.
Railroad tracks: straight, bent (how much), senled.
Streets/highways: cracked, broken-up, shifted, senled.
Underground pipes: size, type; leak, broken, shifted.
Bridges: twisted, compressed, piers shifted, span fallen.
Water springs: changed flow, dried-up, muddied, temperature change.
Water wells: changed flow, muddied, sanded, collapsed.
Dust rises:from fractures, from ground.
G. Distant effects
Oscillation of lakes, canals, rivers.
Changes in springs, water wells.
Motion of hanging objects.
Nausea, dizziness of people.
H. Aftershock information
Number, time, description of disturbance.
AGI DATA SHEET 41.4
MODIFIED MERCALLI SEISMIC INTENSITY SCALE
From Richter, 1958

I. Not felt. Marginal and long-period effects of large earthquakes.

II. Felt by persons at rest, on upper floors, or favorably placed.
Ill. Felt indoors. Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of light trucks. Duration esti
mated. May not be recognized as an earthquake.

a ~~a~a~~:~Iri~~~~~~es;~~~.' ~i~~~1~; ~~~tr~~~~n~~h0f~~:~~~~~~;ed~~~~~~a~~!~~~:

clink. Crockery clashes. Wooden walls and frame creak.
V. Felt outdoors; direction estimated. Sleepers wakened. Liquids disturbed, some spilled.
Small unstable objects displaced or upset. Doors swing, close, open. Shutters, pictures move.
Pendulum clocks stop, start, change rate.
VI. Felt by all. Many frightened and run outdoors. People walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes,
glassware broken. Knickknacks, books, etc., off shelves. Pictures off walls. Furniture moved
or overturned. Weak plaster and masonry D (weak masonry) cracked. Small bells ring (church,
school). Trees, bushes shaken visibly, or heard to rustle.
VII. Difficult to stand. Noticed by drivers of motor cars. Hanging objects quiver. Furniture
broken. Damage to masonry D, including cracks. Weak chimneys broken at roof line. Fall of
plaster, loose bricks, stones, tiles, cornices, unbraced parapets, and architectural ornaments.
Some cracks in masonry C (ordinary masonry). Waves on ponds; water turbid with mud. Small
slides and caving in along sand or gravel banks. Large bells ring. Concrete irrigation ditches
damaged.*
VIII. Steering of motor cars affected. Damage to masonry C; partial collapse of masonry D.
Some damage to masonry B (good masonry); none to masonry A (excellent masonry). Fall
of stucco and some masonry walls. Twistinq. fall of chimnevs. factory smokestacks, monuments,
towers, elevated tanks. Frame houses moved on foundations if not bolted down; loose panel
walls thrown out. Decayed piling broken off. Branches broken from trees. Changes in flow
or temperature of springs and wells. Cracks in wet ground and on steep slopes.
IX. General panic. Masonry D destroyed; masonry C heavily damaged, sometimes with
complete collapse; masonry B seriously damaged. General damage to foundations. Frame
structures shifted off foundations, if not bolted. Frames racked. Serious damage to reservoirs.
,Underground pipes broken. Conspicuous cracks in ground. In alluviated areas sand and
mud ejected, earthquake fountains, sand craters.
X. Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with their foundations. Some well-built
wooden structures and bridges destroyed. Serious damage to dams, dikes, embankments.
Large landslides. Water thrown on banks of canals, rivers, lakes, etc. Sand and mud shifted
horizontally on beaches and flat lands. Rails bent slightly.
XI. Rails bent greatly. Underground pipelines completely out of service.
XII. Damage nearly total. Large rock masses displaced. Lines of sight and level distorted.
Objects thrown into the air.

*These criteria may be misleading as a measure of the strength of shaking.

 AGI DATA SHEET 42.1
Geologic Study of Earthquake Effects
--------
by M. G. Bonilla and E. H. Bailey, U.S. Ger:ogical Survey
This check list suggests desirable geologic observations of surface changes that accompany
moderate to large earthquakes_ Other AGI Data sheets deal with engineering and seismological
observations pertaining to earthquakes that may or may not have surface effects_
Field study is effectively begun by low-altitude aerial reconnaissance for landslides and major
faulting, combined with ground investigation of all known and suspected faults near the epi
center. Places where paved roads cross faults are particularly informative. Study first those
features that may be modified or destroyed in a few hours or days, leaving those of greater
permanence until later. Carefully search beyond the apparent ends of fault ruptures to be sure
that the full length of the faulting is mapped, and look lor subsidiary faulting outside the main
fault zone. Question local residents, who are often aware of earthquake-related geological
phenomena. as a supplement to reconnaissance. Record and report the route followed and
the time, so that others know what area was examined and when. Plot data on aerial photos
or large-scale maps, or locate relative to stable landmarks, to geographic coordinates, or to
numbered stations on maps.
One should decide and report whether observed effects are the direct result of tectonic move-
mentor are secondary, as this action often leads to recording pertinent evidence that other-
wise would be missed. In areas of non tectonic failure, record the nature of the rock, uncon-
solidated deposit, or artificial fill, and if possible get the depth to the water table_
Much data of geologic implication can be learned from the displacement of canals, tunnels,
and other artificial structures. If the geologist can work closely with an engineer the result will
be a better mutual understanding of the relations between geologic processes or geologic condi-
tions and specific kinds of structural damage.

FAULTS
Position: Map as accurately as possible_ Show dip.
Displacement: Normal, reverse, right- or left-slip. or combination?
Measure slip (magnitude and direction) at intervals along fault. II separation is mea-
sured, record enough data so that slip can be calculated. Give opinion as to whether
the series of measured slips probably includes the largest that occurred anywhere
on the fault
Identify measurement locations and remeasure displacements later to detect alterslip_
Note evidence of compression or extension.
Is apparent displacement distorted by horizontal or vertical drag or elastic rebound?
Measure change in displacement with increase of distance from fault.
Record length, orientation, and number of fractures within rupture zone.
Measure width of fractured or distorted zone at intervals along fault.
Material: Rock or unconsolidated deposit? Describe.
Effect of movement on material: gouge, breccia, slickensides, mylonite, other?
Relation to: Topographic features? Older fault? Zone of alteration?
Other faults of same age to form en echelon or other pattern. or horst and graben?
Cracks, pressure ridges, furrows, etc.?
Have strong or weak rock masses deflected trace of fault?
SCARPS
Position: Show on map and indicate upthrown side.
Record height of scarp; also vertical component of fault movement if possible.
Attitude: Record dip of scarp lace and, it exposed, of related fault_
Change in dip related to different material cut?
Relation to: Topography? Other scarps? Graben at their base? Earthquake fault, other fault, or
landslide?
Origin: Faulting, landsliding, lurching, liquefaction, compaction, other?
Elfects on: Drainage, streams, shorelines, structures, others?
FISSURES
Position: Map. If too numerous, record spacing, pattern, and orientatiOn. Relation to steep
slopes, faults, or landslides?
Dimensions: Width? length?
Attitude: Dip of walls? Relative movement of wails?
Material: Rock, sand, silt, or clay? At surlace; at depth? In place?
Origin: Faulting, landsliding, lurching, liquefaction, compaction, other?
Enlarged by runoff?
Time of opening relative to earthquake and rainfall?

AGI DS-rmt-82
AGI DATA SHEET 42.2
~~~~------~----------~----------~---
DISTORTION OF LINEAR OR PLANAR ELEMENTS
Position: Show on map; give amount.
Kind: Horizontal or vertical?
Related to drag, elastic rebound, or other processes?
Material: Rock or unconsolidated deposits? Kind? In place?
Ellects: Mole tracks and pressure ridges; relation to active fault?
Uplift, submergence, or tilting of shore lines? Amount?
Diverted, ponded, or distorted drainage?
Decreased slope stability causing slides, turbidity currents?
Deformation of artificial structures?
LANDSLIDES (includes rockfalls)
Position: Show location and size on map. Show scarps, slide mass, direction of movemant.
Relation to earthquake fault, other faults, older landslide?
Attitude: Inclination and orientation of original slope; of sliding surface?
Material: Rock or unconsolidated deposit? Kind? Wet or dry? Springs?
Are cohesive deposits soft or stiff?
Are noncohesive deposits loose or -:lense?
Thickness of slide material?
Movement: Amount?
By falling, toppling, flowing, spreading, sliding, or combination?
Broken into few or many parts? Did parts rotate? Time of movement relative to earth-
quakes?
Kind: Use classification of Transportation Research Board (Varnes, t978).
Effects: Production of scarps and fissures?
Diversion or damming of drainage? Production of waves in water?
Trees down or tilted? Other effects?
SUBSIDENCES
Position: Show amount and areal limits on map.
Material: Unconsolidated deposit or rock? Describe in same detail as for landslides.
Kind: Warp caused by tectonics, compaction, liquefaction, or other process?
Graben? Collapsed cavern? Lateral or vertical flow of underlying material?
Effects on: Surface, topography, drainage, etc?
Shorelines? Water table and springs? Artificial structures?
DISCHARGES OF WATER AND UNCONSOLIDATED MATERIALS
Position: Show on map by appropriate symbols.
Kind: Sand boil, sand mound, mud volcano, clastic dike, spring?
Earthquake fountains observed? Time relative to earthquake?
Height, duration, and time of How relative to strong shaking?
Material: Sand, silt, clay; water; other?
G1ve dimensions and grain sizes of deposits.
Source of material? Depth to source?
Relation to: Area of subsidence? Compaction? Trace of fault?
Changed water levels in wells? Changed or new springs?
MISCELLANEOUS EFFECTS
Tsunamis, Location of shores affected and direction of wave movement?
Seiches, Height reached? Time of arrival? Number and periodicity of waves?
and Local Modification of landforms?
Waves: Transported objects: material, size, weight, distance moved?
Streams and Record changes in discharge, turbidity, temperature, etc. and relate to t1me of earth
Springs: quake.
Turbidity Starting time relative to main or subsequent eanhquakes?
currents: Size, speed, distance travelled?
Material and topographic setting at source; at site at deposition?
Position of source relative to earthquake fault or epicenter?
Boulders: Nests enlarged by rocking? Chipped by mutual impact? Thrown from nest? Rolled
from nest? Direction of movement? Boulder trails? Give size range of boulders that
moved vs. those that did not.
Trees: Record location, size, and direction of fall or tilt of trees affected by earthquake.
Glaciers: Advance, retreat, or no change? Note large avalanches onto glaciers.
Volcanic Describe, if seemingly related to the earthquake.
activity:
Reference
Varnes, D. J., 1978. Slope movement types and processes, In Schuster, R. L, and Krizak, R. J .. eds.
Landslides, analysis and control: National Research Council, Transportation Research Board Special
Report 176, p. 11-33.
 AGI DATA SHEET 43.1
Checklist for Earthquake Effects
devised by Kart Steinbrugge
More complete checklists are in "Learning from Earthquakes," Oakland, California, Earthquake
Engineering Research Institute, 1977, 200p.

Earthquake lime: ~-------Date:---------~- ..- -

Type of etructure or I n s t a l l a t i o n : _ - - - - - - - -

Brief description: ____________ .. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Location; _ _ _ _ __

Date of i n s p e c t i o n : - - - - - -

(1) Observed damage (4) Effects at aile during shock

None D Severe D Observed D
Slight D Leaning D Reported by others D
Considerable D Collapse D (a) Motion
(a) Non-structural elements Fast D Rolling D
Plaster D Cracked D Slow D Jarring D
Tile D Fallen D Estimated duration _______ seconds.
Brick D Inside D (b) Shifting, fall of small objects, heavy objects
Ornamentation D Outside D Yes D NoD
(b) Structural elements
(5) Remarks and diagrams: _
Foundation 0 Bracing D
Solid walls 0 Cracked D
Frame D Fallen D
(2) Observed repairs
None D Wall damage D
Painting 0 Other _ _...._ _
Plastering 0
(3) Ground data
(a) Ground under structure
Rock D Compact D
Soil D Marshy D
Loose D Other-...- -.. -
Filled, with _.. _ _ __
Cut C Sloping D Person making inspection: __.. _ _ __
Natural D Steep D Name _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Level 0 Other-------
(b) Ground cracks Sliding Address
None D None D
Few D Local D
Many D General D Please mail copy to:
Branch of Global Seismology
Subsidence or Heaving U.S. Geological Survey
None D Local D General D Denver Federal Center
(c) Signs of foundation movement or rocking? Denver CO 60225
Yes D NoD
 AGI DATA SHEET 44.1
Major Public Sources of Geological Information
The following lists give addresses of organizations in the United States, Canada,
and member countries of the International Union of Geological Sciences (lUGS) that
provide general and basic information on geology. In addition, in the United States,
other state agencies are concerned with regulation or control of mineral industries
in the particular state involved, and there are offices of the U.S. Geological Survey
devoted to mineral leasing and management of public domain, and district offices
of a specialized nature concerned with water resources, topographic mapping, etc.
Information on the location and function of these specialized agencies may be ob-
tained in each state from the offices listed below.
U.S. STATE SURVEYS
Alabama Colorado Hawaii
Geological Survey of Geological Survey Division of Water &
Alabama 1313 Sherman St., Land Development
Box 0 Room 715 Box 373
Tuscaloosa, Ala. Denver, Colo. B0203 Honolulu, Hawaii
354B6-97BO (303) B66-2611 96B09
(205) 349-2B52 (BOB) 54B-7533
Connecticut
Alaska Natural Resources Idaho
Division of Geological Center Geological Survey
& Geophysical Department of En- University of Idaho
Surveys vironmental Morrill Hall, Room 332
794 University Ave., Protection Moscow, Idaho B3B43
Suite 200 State Office Building (20B) BB57991 or
Fairbanks, Alaska 165 Capitol Ave., Room BB5-6195
99709 553
Illinois
(907) 479-7625 Hartford, Conn. 06106
State Geological
(203) 566-3540
Arizona Survey
Geological Survey Delaware Natural Resources
Branch Geological Survey Building
B45 N. Park Ave., Suite University of Delaware 615 E. Peabody Drive,
100 Newark, Del. 19716 Room 121
Tucson, Ariz. B5719 (302) 451-2B33 Champaign, Ill. 61B20
(602) 621-7906 (217) 333-5111 or
Florida
333-4747
Arkansas Bureau of Geology
Geological Commission Department of Natural Indiana
Vardelle Parham Resources Geological Survey
Geology Center 903 W. Tennessee St. 611 N. Walnut Grove
3B15 W. Roosevelt Tallahassee, Fla. Bloomington, Ind.
Road 32304-7795 47405
Little Rock, Ark. 72204 (904) 488-4191 (B12) 335-2B62
(501) 371-14BB
Georgia Iowa
California Geologic Survey Geological Survey
Department of Department of Natural Bureau
Conservation Resources, Room Department of Natural
Division of Mines & 400 Resources
Geology 19 Martin Luther King, 123 N. Capitol St.
1416 Ninth St., Room Jr., Drive, S.W. Iowa City, Iowa 52242
1341 Atlanta, Ga. 30334 (319) 335-1575
Sacramento, Calif. (404) 656-3214
95B14
(916) 445-1923

AGI-DS-jtd-B9
AGI DATA SHEET 44.2

Kansas Mississippi New Mexico

Geological Survey Bureau of Geology Bureau of Mines &
1930 Constant Ave., Department of Natural Mineral Resources
West Campus Resources Campus Station
University of Kansas Box 5348 Socorro, N.M. 87801
Lawrence, Kan. 66046 Jackson, Miss. 39216 (505) 835-5420
(913) 864-3965 (601) 354-6228
New York
Kentucky Missouri State Geological
Geological Survey Department of Natural Survey
University of Kentucky Resources 3136 Cultural Educa-
228 Mining & Mineral Division of Geology & tion Center
Resources Building Land Survey Empire State Plaza
Lexington, Ky. 111 Fairgrounds Road Albany, N.Y. 12230
40506-0107 Box 250 (518) 474-5816
(606) 257-5500 Rolla, Mo. 65401
North Carolina
(314) 364-1752
Louisiana Department of Natural
Geological Survey Montana Resources & Com-
Box G Bureau of Mines & munity Development
Baton Rouge, La. Geology Division of Land
70893 Montana College of Resources
(504) 388-5320 Mineral Science & Box 27687
Technology Raleigh, N.C. 27611
Maine
Geological Survey Butte, Mont. 59701 (919) 733-3833
Department of (406) 496-4180 North Dakota
Conservation Nebraska Geological Survey
State House, Station Conservation & Survey University Station
22 Division Grand Forks, N.D.
Augusta, Maine 04333 Institute of Agriculture 58202-8156
(207) 289-2801 & Natural Resources (701) 777-2231
113 Nebraska Hall
Maryland Ohio
University of Nebraska
Geological Survey Department of Natural
Lincoln, Neb.
2300 St. Paul St. Resources
Baltimore, Md. 21218 68588-0517 Division of Geological
(301) 554-5503 (402) 472-3471 Survey
Massachusetts
Nevada Fountain Square,
Bureau of Mines & Building B
Executive Office of En-
Geology Columbus, Ohio 43224
vironmental Affairs
100 Cambridge St., University of (614) 265-6605
20th Floor Nevada-Reno
Oklahoma
Boston, Mass. 02202 Reno, Nev. 89557-0088 Geological Survey
(617) 727-9800 (702) 784-6691
University of Oklahoma
Michigan
New Hampshire 830 Van Vleet Oval,
Geological Survey Department of En- Room 163
Division vironmental Services Norman, Okla. 73019
Department of Natural 117 James Hall (405) 325-3031
University of New
Resources Oregon
Box 30028 Hampshire
Department of Geology
Durham, N.H. 03824
Lansing, Mich. 48909 & Mineral Industries
(517) 334-6923 (603) 862-3160 910 State Office
Minnesota
New Jersey Building
Geological Survey 1400 S.W. Fifth Ave.
Geological Survey
2642 University Ave. Division of Water Portland, Ore.
St. Paul, Minn. Resources, CN-029 97201-5528
55114-1057 Trenton, N.J. 08625 (503) 229-5580
(612) 627-4780 (609) 292-1185
 AGI DATA SHEET 44.3
Pennsylvania Tennessee Virginia
Bureau of Topographic Department of Division of Mineral
& Geologic Survey Conservation Resources
Department of En- Division of Geology Box 3667
vi ron mental Customs House, 701 Charlottesville, Va.
Resources Broadway 22903
Box 2357 Nashville, Tenn. (804) 293-5121
Harrisburg, Pa. 17120 37219-5237
Washington
(717) 787-2169 (615) 742-6691
Geology & Earth
Puerto Rico Texas Resources Division
Servicio Geologico de Bureau of Economic Department of Natural
Puerto Rico Geology Resources
Departmento de Recur- University of Texas at Olympia, Wash. 98504
sos Naturales Austin (206) 459-6372
Apartado 5887 University Station, Box X West Virginia
Puerta de Tierra Austin, Texas
Geological & Economic
San Juan, Puerto Rico 78713-7508
Survey
00906 (512) 471-1534
Mont Chateau
(809) 724-8774 U.S. Virgin Islands Research Center
Rhode Island Caribbean Research Box 879
Department of Geology Institute Morgantown, W.Va.
Green Hall College of the Virgin 26507-0879
University of Rhode Islands (304) 594-2331
Island St. Thomas, United
Wisconsin
Kingston, R.I. 02881 States
Geological & Natural
(401) 792-2265 Virgin Islands 00801
History Survey
South Carolina (809) 774-9200 University of Wisconsin
Geological Survey Utah 3817 Mineral Point
Harbison Forest Road Geological & Mineral Road
Columbia, S.C. 29210 Survey Madison, Wis. 53705
(803) 737-9440 606 Black Hawk Way (608) 263-7384 or
Salt Lake City, Utah 262-1705
South Dakota
84108-1280
Geological Survey Wyoming
(801) 581-6831
Department of Water & Geological Survey of
Natural Resources Vermont Wyoming
Science Center Office of the State Box 3008
University of South Geologist University Station
Dakota 103 S. Main St. University of Wyoming
Vermillion, S.D. Center Building Laramie, Wyo. 82071
57069-2390 Waterbury, Vt. 05676 (307) 742-2054 or
(605) 677-5227 (802) 244-5164 721-3920
AGI DATA SHEET 44.4
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Headquarters USGS USGS
USGS National Earthquake In- Hydrologic Information
12201 Sunrise Valley formation Center Unit
Drive MS 967, Box 25046 419 National Center
Reston, Va. 22092 Denver Federal Center Reston, Va. 22092
(703) 648-4000 Denver, Colo. 80225 (703) 648-6817
(303) 236-1500
Alaska USGS
USGS Hawaii Geologic Inquiries
4230 University Drive, USGS Group
Suite 201 Hawaiian Volcano 907 National Center
Anchorage, Alaska Observatory Reston, Va. 22092
99508-4664 Box 51 (703) 648-4383
(907) 271-4138 Hawaii National Park,
Department of Interior
Hawaii 96718-0051 Minerals Management
USGS (808) 967-7328
Alaska Distribution Services
Section Massachusetts 381 Elden St., MS 634
101 12th Ave., Box 12 USGS Herndon, Va.
Fairbanks, Alaska Branch of Atlantic 22070-4817
99701 Marine Geology (703) 787-1414
(907) 452-1951 Quissett Campus
Washington
Woods Hole, Mass.
Arizona USGS
02543
USGS Office of Mineral
(508) 548-8700
2255 N. Gemini Drive Resources
Flagstaff, Ariz. 86001 Nevada Spokane Field Office,
(602) 527-7150 USGS Room 656
Office of Mineral U.S. Courthouse
California Resources Spokane, Wash. 99201
USGS Reno Field Office (509) 353-2642
345 Middlefield Road Mackay School of
Menlo Park, Calif. USGS
Mines
94025 Cascades Volcano
University of
(415) 329-4000 Observatory
Nevada-Reno
5400 MacArthur Blvd.
Colorado Reno, Nev. 89557-0047
Vancouver, Wash.
USGS (702) 784-5574
98661
Denver Federal Center Puerto Rico (206) 696-7860
MS 911, Box 25046 USGS
Denver, Colo. Washington, D.C.
Marine Geology
80225-0046 USGS
Division
(303) 236-5438 Earth Science lnforma-
Box 5917, Puerta de
tion Center
USGS Tierra Station
18th and C streets,
Distribution Branch San Juan, Puerto Rico
N.W.
Building 810 00906
Washington, D.C.
Denver Federal Center (809) 729-6935
20240
Box 25286 South Dakota (202) 343-8073
Denver, Colo. 80225 USGS
(303) 236-5900 USGS and Bureau of
EROS Data Center
Mines
USGS Sioux Falls, S.D. 57198 Minerals Information
Books and Open-File (605) 594-6151 Office
Reports Section Virginia 18th and C streets,
Federal Center USGS N.W.
Box 25425 Earth Science lnforma- Washington, D.C.
Denver, Colo. 80225 tion Center 20240
(303) 236-7476 507 National Center (202) 343-2647
Reston, Va. 22092
(703) 684-5920
 AGI DATA SHEET 44.5
CANADIAN PROVINCIAL SURVEYS
Alberta Newfoundland Prince Edward Island
Alberta Geological Government of New- Energy and Minerals
Survey foundland and Branch
Alberta Research Labrador Department of Energy
Council Department of Mines and Forestry
Box 8330, Postal Sta- and Energy Box 2000
tion F Geological Survey Charlottetown, Prince
Edmonton, Alberta T6H Branch Edward Island C1A
5X2 Box 8700 7N8
(403) 438-7555 St. John's, New- (902) 368-5010
foundland A1B 4J6
British Columbia Quebec
(709) 576-2301
Geological Survey Exploration geologique
Branch Northwest Territories et mineral (Mines)
Mineral Resources Geology Division Ministers de I'Energie
Division Northern Affairs Pro- et des Ressources
Ministry of Energy, gram, INAC Gouvernement du
Mines and Box 1500 Quebec
Petroleum Yellowknife, Northwest 1620, boulevard de
Resources Territories X1A 2R3 I' Entente
Parliament Buildings (403) 920-8212 Quebec, (Quebec) G1S
Victoria, British Colum- 4N6
Nova Scotia
bia V8V 1X4 (418) 643-4617
Nova Scotia Depart-
(604) 387-0688
ment of Mines and Saskatchewan
Manitoba Energy Geology and Mines
Geological Services Box 1087 Division
Branch Halifax, Nova Scotia Saskatchewan Energy
Mineral Resources B3J 2X1 and Mines
Division (902) 4244161 Toronto Dominion Bank
Department of Energy Building
Ontario
and Mines 1914 Hamilton St.
Ontario Geological
Eaton Place Regina, Saskatchewan
Survey
535-330 Graham Ave. Mines and Minerals S4P 4V4
Winnipeg, Manitoba Division (306) 787-2560
R3C 4E3
Ministry of Northern Yukon Territory
(204) 945-6569
Development and Exploration and
New Brunswick Mines Geological Services
Geological Surveys 77 Grenville St., West, Division
Branch Room 1121 Indian and Northern
New Brunswick Depart- Toronto, Ontario M7A Affairs, Canada
ment of Natural 1W4 200 Range Road
Resources and (416) 9651283 Whitehorse, Yukon Ter-
Energy ritory Y1A 3V1
Box 6000 (403) 667-3201
Fredericton, New
Brunswick E3B 5H1
(506) 453-3687
AGI DATA SHEET 44.6
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA
Headquarters Continental Geo Atlantic Geoscience
601 Booth St. science and Centre
Ottawa, Ontario K1A Mineral Resources Bedford Institute of
OE8 Branch Oceanography
(613) 996-3919 601 Booth St., Room Box 1006
GSC Sector 213 Dartmouth, Nova
580 Booth St., Room Ottawa, Ontario K1A Scotia B2Y 4A2
2064 OE8 (902) 4263448
Ottawa, Ontario K1A (613) 995-4093
Cordilleran Division
OE4 Lithosphere and 100 W. Pender St.
(613) 992-5910 Canadian Shield Vancouver, British Col-
Programs, Planning Division umbia V6B 1R8
and Services 601 Booth St., Room (604) 666-0529
459
Branch Pacific Geoscience
580 Booth St., Room Ottawa, Ontario K1A
Centre
2064 OE8
Box 6000
Ottawa, Ontario K1A (613) 995-4314
9860 W. Saanich Road
OE4 Mineral Resources Sidney, British Colum-
(613) 995-4482 Division bia V8L 4B2
Program Coordination 601 Booth St., Room (604) 356-6433
and Planning 665
Geophysics and Ter
Ottawa, Ontario K1A
Division rain Sciences
601 Booth St., Room OE8
Branch
212 (613) 9969223
601 Booth St., Room
Ottawa, Ontario K1A Sedimentary and 227
OEB Marine Geoscience Ottawa, Ontario K1A
(613) 995-5937 Branch OE8
Geoscience lnforma- 580 Booth St., Room (613) 995-0623
tion Division 2054
Geophysics Division
601 Booth St., Room Ottawa, Ontario K1A
1 Observatory Crescent
263 OE4
Ottawa, Ontario K1A
Ottawa, Ontario K1A (613) 9925265 OY3
OE8 Institute of Sedimen (613) 995-5484
(613) 995-4089 tary and Petroleum
Terrain Sciences
Polar Continental Geology Division
Shelf Project 3303-33rd St. N.W.
601 Booth St., Room
344 Wellington St., Calgary, Alberta T2L
361
2A7
Room 6137 Ottawa, Ontario K1A
Ottawa, Ontario K1A (403) 284-0345
OE8
OE4 (613) 995-4938
(613) 990-6987
 AGI DATA SHEET 44.7
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS
Algeria Bolivia Chile
Direction des Mines et Servicio Geologico de Servicio Nacional de
de Ia Geologie Bolivia (GEOBOL) Geologia y Minerla
Ministere de !'Industria Federico Zuazo, Esq. (SERNAGEOMIN)
Lourde Reyes Ortiz Teatinos 120, Piso 9
Rue Ahmed Bey de Casilla de Correos 2729 Santiago
Constantine La Paz CHILE
lmmeuble "Le BOLIVIA
China
Colysee''
Botswana Ministry of Geology
Algiers
Geological Survey and Mineral
ALGERIA
Department Resources
Angola Ministry of Mineral 64 Fucheng Mennei
Direcqao de ~ervic;:os Resources and Street
de Geologia e Minas Water Affairs Beijing 00812
Caixa Postal 1260-C Private Bag 14 CHINA
Luanda Lobatse
Colombia
ANGOLA BOTSWANA
Institute Nacional de
Argentina Brazil Investigaciones
Servicio Geologico Rio Doce Geologica e Geologico Mineras
Nacional Mineracao S/A (INGEOMINAS)
Secretaria de Estado (DOCEGEO) Diagonal 53 no. 34-53
de Mineria Companhia Vale do Apartado Aereo 4865
Avenida Santa Fe 1548 Rio Doce (CVRD) Bogota, D.E.
1060 Buenos Aires Av. Presidente Wilson COLOMBIA
ARGENTINA 210, 11" Andar
Cuba
22030 Rio de Janeiro, RJ
Australia Institute de Geologia
BRAZIL
Bureau of Mineral Academia de Ciencias
Resources, Geology, Bulgaria de Cuba
and Geophysics Geological Institute Ave. Van-Troi no. 17203
P.O. Box378 Acad. G. Bonchev Rancho Boyeros-
Canberra City Street, Block 24 Apartado Postal 10
A.C.T. 2601 Sofia 1113 La Habana
AUSTRALIA BULGARIA CUBA
Austria Burkina Faso Cyprus
Geologische Bureau Voltaique de Ia Geological Survey
Bundesanstalt Geologie et des Department
Rasumofskygasse 23 Mines Ministry of Agriculture
A-1031 Vienna B.P. 601 and Natural
AUSTRIA Ouagadougou Resources
BURKINA FASO Nicosia
Bangladesh
CYPRUS
Geological Survey of Burundi
Bangladesh Ministere de I'Energie Czechoslovakia
153 Pioneer Road et des Mines Ustfedni ustav
Shegunbagicha B.P. 745 geologicky
Dhaka-1000 Bujumbura Malostranske namesti 19
BANGLADESH BURUNDI 118 21 Praha 1-Mala
Belgium Cameroon Strana
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Service Geologique de lnstitut de Recherches
Belgique Geologiques et Denmark
13 Rue Jenner Minieres Geological Survey of
1040 Brussels B.P. 4110 Denmark
BELGIUM Yaounde Thoravej 8
CAMEROON DK-2400 Copenhagen
NV
DENMARK
AGI DATA SHEET 44.8

Ecuador Ghana India

Direccion General de Geological Survey of Geological Survey of
Geologia y Minas Ghana India
Ministerio de Recursos P.O. Box M 80 27 Jawaharlal Nehru
Naturales y Accra Road
Energeticos GHANA Calcutta 700016
Carrion no. 1016 y INDIA
Greece
Paez
Institute of Geological Indonesia
Quito
and Mining Directorate General for
ECUADOR
Research (IGMR) Geological and
Egypt 70 Mesogion Street Mineral Resources
Geological Survey and GR-115 27 Athens Department of Mines
Mining Authority GREECE and Energy AI
4 Salah Salem Road Jl. Jen. Gatot Soebroto
Greenland
Abbassia Kav 49
Gr~nlands Geologiske
Cairo Jakarta Selatan
Unders~gelser
EGYPT INDONESIA
Ostervoldgade 10, Tr.
Finland KL Iran
Geological Survey of DK-1350 Copenhagen Geological and Mineral
Finland K Survey of Iran
Betonimiehenkuja 4 DENMARK Ministry of Industry and
02150 Espoo Mines
Guatemala
FINLAND P.O. Box 1964
Division de Geologia
Tehran
France Avenida las Americas
IRAN
Bureau de Recherches 5-76, Zona 13
Geologiques et Guatemala, C.A. Iraq
Minieres (BRGM) GUATEMALA State Establishment for
B.P. 6009 Geological Survey
Guyana
45060 Orleans Cedex and Mineral
Geology and Mines
FRANCE Investigation
Commission
German Democratic 68 Brickdam Ministry of Industry and
Military
Republic Georgetown
Gesellschaf1 fUr GUYANA Industrialization
Geologische P.O. Box 2330 and
Hungary 2730
Wissenschaften d.
Ki:izponti Fi:ildtani Baghdad
DDR
Hivatal [Central Of- IRAQ
lnvalidenstrasse 43
lice of Geology[
1040 Berlin Ireland
H-1011 Budapest, I.
GERMAN Geological Survey of
lskola u. 19-27
DEMOCRATIC Ireland
HUNGARY
REPUBLIC Beggard Bush
Iceland Haddington Road
Germany, Federal
Division of Geology Dublin 4
Republic ol and Geography
Bundesanstalt fur IRELAND
Museum of Natural
Geowissenschaf1en Israel
History
und Rohstoffe (BGR) Laugavegi 105 and Geological Survey of
(Geobund) Hveriisgi:ita 116 Israel
Alfred-Bentz-Haus P.O. Box 5320 30 Malkhei Israel
Postfach 510153 Street
105 Reykjavf k
Stilleweg 2 Jerusalem 95501
ICELAND
3000 Hannover 51 ISRAEL
FEDERAL REPUBLIC
OF GERMANY
 AGI DATA SHEET 44.9
Italy Korea, South Morocco
Comitate Nazionale per National Geography Ministere de I'Energie
le Scienze Institute et des Mines
Geologiche e Ministry of Direction de Ia
Minerarie Construction Geologie
Consiglio Nazionale 111, Wonchon-dong, Quartier Administratif
delle Ricerche Kwonso-ku Rabat
Piazzale Aida Mora 7 Suwon City, Kyonggido MOROCCO
00185 Roma SOUTH KOREA
Namibia (Southwest
ITALY
Libya Africa)
Ivory Coast Geological Research Geological Survey
Direction de Ia and Mining P.O. Box 2168
Geologie Department Windhoek
Ministere des Mines Industrial Research NAMIBIA
B.P. V 28 Center
Nepal
Abidjan P.O Box 3633
Department of Mines
IVORY COAST Tripoli
and Geology
Jamaica LIBYA
Ministry of Industry
Geological Survey Luxembourg Lainchaur
Division Service Geologique Kathmandu
Ministry of Mining and Pants et Chaussees NEPAL
Natural Resources 43. Bd. G.D.-Charlotte
Netherlands, The
Hope Gardens Luxembourg
Rijks Geologische
Kingston 6 LUXEMBOURG
Dienst
JAMAICA
Madagascar Spaarne 17, P.B. Box 157
Japan Direction des Mines et 2000 AD Haarlem
Geological Survey of de Ia Geologie THE NETHERLANDS
Japan, Ministry of B.P. 280
New Zealand
International Trade 101 Antananarivo
New Zealand
and MADAGASCAR
Geological Survey
Industry (MITI) Malawi Department of Scien-
11-3 Higashi, Tsukuba
Geological Survey tific and Industrial
lbaraki 305 Department Research
JAPAN Ministry of Natural P.O. Box 30-368
Kenya Resources Lower Hull
Geological Survey of P.O. Box 27, Liwonde NEW ZEAlAND
Kenya Road Niger
Mines and Geological Zomba Direction des Mines et
Department MALAWI
de Ia Geologie
Ministry of Natural
Malaysia Ministere des Mines et
Resources Geological Survey de I'Hydraulique
Madini House, BIP. 257
Department
Machakos Road Bangunan Ukor, 2d Niamey
P.O Box 30009
Floor NIGER
Nairobi Jalan Gurney
KENYA Nigeria
Kuala Lumpur
Geological Survey
Korea, North MALAYSIA Department of
Geology and Mexico Nigeria
Geography Institute de Geologia Ministry of Mines and
Research Institute
Universidad Nacional Power
Academy of Sciences Aut6noma de Mex- P.M.B. 2007
Mammoon-dong, Cen- icc (UNAM) Kaduna South, Kaduna
tral District
Cuidad Universitaria State
P'yongyang
Mexico 20, D.F. NIGERIA
NORTH KOREA
MEXICO
AGI DATA SHEET 44.10

Norway Philippines, The Somalia

Norges Geologiske Mines and Geo- Geological Survey
Unders0kelse sciences Bureau Department
Leiv Erikssons Vei 39 2nd Floor, J. Fer- Ministry of Minerals
P.B. 300 nandez Building and Water
7001 Trondheim Petrolab compound, Resources
NORWAY North Avenue P.O. Box 744
Pakistan
1100 Quezon City Mogadishu
THE PHILIPPINES SOMALIA
Geological Survey of
Pakistan (GSP} Poland South Africa
Sariab Road Centralny Urzad Geological Survey
P.O. Box 15 Geologii 280 Pretoria Street
Ouetta ul. Jasna 6 Silverton
PAKISTAN 00-013 Warszawa 0184
Panama POLAND (Private Bag X112,
Direccion General de Portugal
Pretoria, 0001)
Recursos Minerales SOUTH AFRICA
Servic;os Geologicos
Ministerio de Comercio de Portugal Soviet Union
e Industria (MICI) Rua da Academia das Department of
Apartado Postal 8515 Ciencias, 19-2 Geology,
Panama 5, Republica 1200 Lisboa Geophysics, and
de Panama PORTUGAL Geochemistry
PANAMA Akademiya Nauk USSR
Romania
Papua New Guinea
117901 GSP-1 Moscow
Ministerul Geologie!
V-71
Geological Survey Str. Mendeleev no. 3638
Division Bucharest Leninskiy Prospekt 14
SOVIET UNION
Office of Minerals and ROMANIA
Energy Spain
Saudi Arabia
Box 778 Servicio Geologico
Ministry of Petroleum
Port Moresby Ministerio de Obras
and Mineral
PAPUA NEW GUINEA Publicas y
Resources
Paraguay
Urbanismo
Directorate General of
Direccion de Desarrollo Mineral Resources Avenida de Portugal, 81
de Recursos P.O. Box 2880 28071 Madrid
Minerales SPAIN
Jeddah
Ministeno de Obras SAUDI ARABIA Sri Lanka
Publicas y Geological Survey
Senegal
Comunicaciones DejJartment
Direction des Mines et
Calle Olivil y Alberdi 48 Sri Jinaratna Road
de Ia Geologie
Asuncion Colombo 2
Ministere du
PARAGUAY SRI LANKA
Developpement
Peru Industrial Sudan
lnslltuto Geologico Route de Ouakam Geological and Mineral
Minero y Metalurgico B.P. 1238 Resources
(lNG EMMET) Dakar Ministry of Energy and
Pablo Bermudez 211 SENEGAL Mining
Apartado 889 Geological Survey
Sierra Leone
Lima Department
Geological Survey
PERU Division P.O. Box 410
Khartoum
Ministry of Lands,
Mines, and Labor SUDAN
New England,
Freetown
SIERRA LEONE
 AGI DATA SHEET 44.11
Suriname Togo Yugoslavia
Geologisch Mi- Direction Generals des lnstitut za geoloska,
jnbouwkundige Mines, de Ia geoficicka i rudarska
Dienst Geologie et du istrazivanja nuklear-
Kleine Waterstraat 26 Bureau National de nih i drugih
Paramaribo Recherches mineralnih sirovina
SURINAME Minieres (GEOINSTITUT) [In-
Swaziland B.P. 356 stitute for
Geological Survey and Lome Geological,
Mines Department "TOGO Geophysical and
P.O. Box 9 Mining Exploration
Tunisia
Mbabane of Nuclear and other
Office National des
SWAZILAND Mines Mineral Resources]
Departement de 12, Rovinjska
Sweden 11000 Belgrade
Sveriges Geologiska Geologie
95 Avenue Mohamed V YUGOSLAVIA
Undersokning (SGU)
[Geological Survey Tunis Zaire
of Sweden) TUNISIA Service Geologique du
Box 670 TUrkey Zaire
S-751 28 Uppsala Maden Tetkik ve Arama Ministry of Mines and
SWEDEN Energy
Enstitusu (Mineral
B.P. 898
Switzerland Research and Ex-
44 Avenue des
Geologisches lnstitut ploration Institute)
Huileries
Eidgen6ssische Eskisehir Yolu
Ustu-Ankara Kinshasa
Technische ZAIRE
Hochschule TURKEY
ETH-Zentrum Uganda Zambia
8092 Zurich Geological Survey and Geological Survey
SWITZERLAND Mines Department Department
Ministry ot Mines
Syria P.O. Box 9
Entebbe P.O. Box 50135
General Establishment Lusaka
of Geology and UGANDA
ZAMBIA
Mineral Resources United Kingdom
Ministry of Petroleum British Geological Zimbabwe
P.O. Box 7645 Survey Department of
Khatib Street, Adawi Geological Survey
Nicker Hill
Damascus Keyworth Ministry of Mines
SYRIA Nottingham NG12 5GG P.O. Box 8039,
UNITED KINGDOM Causeway
Tanzania Harare
Geology Uruguay ZIMBABWE
Ministry of Minerals Institute Geologico del
P.O. Box 903 Uruguay Taiwan
Dodoma Hervidero 2853 Institute of Geology
TANZANIA Montevideo National Taiwan
URUGUAY University
Thailand 1 Roosevelt Road,
Geological Survey Venezuela Section 4
Division Direccion de Geologia Taipei
Department of Mineral Direccion General Sec- TAIWAN
Resources torial de Minas y
Rama VI Road Geologia
Bangkok 10600 Ministerio de Energla y
THAILAND Minas
Torre Oeste, Piso 4
Parque Central
Caracas
VENEZUELA
AGI DATA SHEET 44.12

References
Directory of Geoscience Departments, 1989. American Geological Institute, Alexan-
dria, Virginia. 384 p. Updated annually.
Directory of geoscience organizations: Geotimes, October 1989, p. 16-25. American
Geological Institute, Alexandria, Virginia. Updated annually. Each issue includes a
column on new geologic maps.
Episodes, quarterly publication of the International Union of Geological Sciences
(lUGS). Address inquiries to Editor, P.O. Box 919, Herndon, Virginia 22070. Episodes
lists lUGS member countries and publishes a column on geologic maps available
from other countries.
Guide to Obtaining USGS Information, Kurt Dodd et al., compilers: U.S. Geo/. Surv.
Circ. 900, 34 p., 1989.
 AGI DATA SHEET 45.1
State and Provincial Geological Maps
STATE GEOLOGICAL MAPS

State Title Date Scale Sheets

Alabama Geologic Map of Alabama 1988 250,000

Alaska 1. Geologic Map of Alaska 1980 2,500,000

2. Surficial Geology of Alaska 1964 1,584,000

Arizona Geologic Map of Arizona 1988 1,000,000

Arkansas Geologic Map of Arkansas 1976 500,000

California Geologic Map of California 1977 750,000

Colorado Geologic Map of Colorado 1980 500,000

Connecticut 1. Bedrock Geological Map of Connecticut 1985 125,000

2. Glacial Geol09ic Map of Connecticut 1929 125,000

Delaware Generalized Geologic Map of Delaware 1976 576,000

Florida Geo1og'1c and Physi09raphic Maps of Florida 1982 500,000

Georgia Geologic Map of Georgia 1976 500,000

Idaho Geologic Map of Idaho 1978 500,000

Illinois 1. Geologic Map of Illinois 1967 500,000

2. Quaternary Deposits of Illinois 1979 500,000

Indiana 1. Bedrock Geologic Map of Indiana 1987 500,000

2. Glacial Geology of Indiana (Atlas. map 1 0) 1958 1,000,000

Iowa 1. Geological Map of Iowa 1969 500,000

2. 'Quaternary Map'-Surlicial 1969 1,900,800

Kansas Geologic Map of Kansas 1964 500,000

Kentucky Geologic Map of Kentucky 1981 250.000

Louisiana Geologic Map of Louisiana 1984 500,000

Maine 1. Bedrock Geologic Map of Maine 1985 500,000

2. Suriicial Geologic Map of Maine 1985 500,000

Maryland Geologic Map of Maryland 1968 250,000

Massachusetts Bedrock Geologic Map of Massachusetts 1983 250,000

Michigan 1. Bedrock Geology of Michigan 1987 500,000

2. Quaternary Geology of Michigan 1982 500,000

Minnesota 1. Geologic Map of Minnesota 1970 1,000,000

2. Quaternary Geology Map 1982 500,000

Mlsslnlppl Geologic Map of Mississippi 1969 500,000

Missouri Geologic Map of Missouri 1979 500,000

Montana Geologic Map of Montana 1955 500,000

AGIDSitd89
AGI DATA SHEET 45.2

State Title Date Scale Sheets

Nebraska Geologic Bedrock Map of Nebraska 1986 1,000,000

Nevada Geologic Map of Nevada 1978 500,000

New Hampshire 1. Bedrock Geology of New Hampshire 1955 250,000

2. Surficial Geology of New Hampshire 1950 250.000

New Jersey Geologic Map of New Jersey 1950 250,000

New Mexico 1. Geologic Map of New Mexico 1965 500,000

2. Surface Deposits of New Mexico 1978 500,000

New York 1. Geologic Map of New York, Series 15 1970 250,000

North Carolina Geologic Map of North Carolina 1985 500.000

North Dakota Geologic Map of North Dakota 1980 500,000

Ohio 1. Geologic Map of Ohio 1947 500.000

2. Glacial Map of Ohio 1967 500,000
Oklahoma f. Geologic Map of Oklahoma 1954 500,000
2. Geologic Atlas of Oklahoma 1969-1983 250,000
OGS (HA 19) covers all but panhandle

Oregon 1. Geologic Map, Oregon, West- 1961 500,000

2. Geologic Map, Oregon, East- 1977 500,000
(of 121st Meridian)

Pennsylvania Geologic Map of Pennsylvania 1980 250,000

Rhode Island Bedrock Geologic Map of Rhode Island 1971 125,000

South Carolina 1. Geologic Map of Crystalline Rocks 1965 250,000

of South Carolina
2. Geologic Map of the Cretaceous & Tertiary 1936 500.000
Formations of South Carolina

South Dakota Geologic Map of South Dakota 1951 500,000

Tennessee Geologic Map of Tennessee 1966 250,000

Texas 1. Geologic Map of Texas 1937 500,000 4

2. Geologic Atlas of Texas 1965-1988 250,000 38
Utah Geologic Map of Utah 1981 500,000

Vermont 1. Centennial Geologic Map of Vermont 1961 250,000

2. Surficial Geologic Map of Vermont 1970 250,000
Virginia Geologic Map of Virginia 1963 500,000

Washington 1. Geologic Map of Washington 1961 500,000

2. Geologic Map (southwest quadrant) 1987 250,000
(Three Other Sheets in Preparation)
West Virginia Geologic Map of West Virginia 1986 250,000

Wisconsin 1. Bedrock Geologic Map of Wisconsin 1982 1,000,000

2. Glacial Deposits of Wisconsin; 1976 500.000
Sand & Gravel Resource Potential
Wyoming Geologic Map of Wyom1ng 1986 500,000

Puerto Rica Provisional Geologic Map of Puerto Rico & 1964 240,000
Adjacent Islands. USGS Map 1-392

NOTE: For other general state maps, see Data Sheet 45.4.
 AGI DATA SHEET 45.3

PROVINCIAL GEOLOGICAL MAPS

Province Title Date Scale Sheets

Alberta Geological Map of Alberta 1972 167,200

British Columbia British Columbia Geologic Highway Map 1963 1,250,000

Maoltoba 1. Geological Map of Manitoba 1979 1,000,000

2. Mineral Deposits Map of Manitoba 1960 1,000,000
3. Surficial Geological Map of Manitoba 1981 1,000,000

New Brunswick Geological Map of New Brunswick 1979 500,000

Newfoundland 1. Geological Map of Newfoundland 1983 1,000,000

2. Geological Map of Labrador 1972 1,000,000

Northwest Territories Geology, Yukon Territory and 1963 3,000,000

Northwest Territories

Nova Scotia 1. Geological Map of Nova Scotia 1979 500,000

2. Tectonic Map of Nova Scotia 1972 500,000

Ontario 1. West-Central 1975 1,013,760

2. Northeast 1971 1,013,760
3. Northwest 1971 1,013,760
4. Southern 1979 t ,013,760
5. East-Central 1979 1,013,760
E~planatory Notes and Sheets 1979 n/a

Prince Edward Island Surficial Deposits at Prince Edward 1973 126,720

Island

Quebec La carte geologique du Quebec 1969 1,013,760

Sukatchewan Geological Map of Saskatchewan 1960 1,000,000

Yukon Territory 1. Geology, Yukon Territory and 1963 3,000,000

Northwest Territories
2. Macmillan River 1980 1,000,000

NOTE: Many other kinds of state and provincial maps (topographiC, geophysical, satellite image,
geothermal resources, mineral resources, etc.) are available. Contact the pertinent federal, state or
provincial survey for information. See Data Sheets 44 and 46
AGI DATA SHEET 45.4

STATE GEOLOGICAL HIGHWAY MAPS

Title Date Scale Sheets

Colorado 1985 1,000,000

Kansas 1988 1.000,000

New Mexico 1982 1,000,000

North Dakota 1977 1.000,000

Texas (see AAPG entry)

Utah 1975 1.000,000

Wyoming 1986 1,000,000

PROVINCIAL GEOLOGICAL HIGHWAY MAPS

Alberta 1975 1.600,000

British Columbia 1983 1,250,000

New Brunswick 1985 638,000

Nova Scotia 1980 640,000

Ontario (southern) 1978 800,000

Ontario (northern) 1986 1.000,000

AAPG GEOLOGICAL HIGHWAY MAPS

Set of 12 maps shows geology, underlying structure, stratigraphic columns, and block diagrams
and includes a discussion of evolution of terrain. Scale is approximately 2,000.000. Each map is fold-
ed to a handy pocket size.

Northeastern Region 1976

Mid-Atlantic Region 1970

Southeastern Region 1975

Great Lakes Region 1978

Northern Plains Region 1984

Mid-Continent Region 1986

Texas 1973

Northern Rocky Mountain Region 1972

Southern Rocky Mountain Region 1967

Pacific Northwest Region 1973

Pacific Southwest Region 1968

Alaska-Hawaii 1974
 AGI DATA SHEET 46.1
Map and Aerial Photograph Coverage of the United States
Compiled by David D. Ginsburg, Central Michigan University

MAPS
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SERIES

U.S. (from International Map of the

World Series) 1: 1,000,000
State maps 1: 500,000
U.S. 1ox 2 quadrangles 1:250,000
U.S. intermediate scale quadrangles 1:100,000
County series 1: 100,000 and 1: 50,000
15 minute quadrangles 1: 62,500 and 1: 63,360
7112 minute quadrangles 1:24,000, 1:25,000, and 1:20,000
U.S. Geological Survey, Distribution Branch, P.O. Box 25286, Denver Federal
Center, Denver, Colo. 80225.

Soil Surveys 1: 20,000 or 1: 15,840

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Cartographic Division,
501 Felix St., FWFC Building 23, Ft. Worth, Texas 76115.

National Forest Maps

U.S. Forest Service, Office of Information, P.O. Box 96090, Washington, D.C.
20090-6090.

CHARTS
Nautical charts o,ooo to 1: 600,000
1: 1

National Ocean Service, Distribution Branch N/CG33, National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration, Riverdale, Md. 20852.

World 1: 1,000,000 to 1:22,000,000

Defense Mapping Agency HTC, Public Affairs, 6500 Brooks Lane, Washington,
D.C. 20315-0030.

PHOTOS AND IMAGERY

Aerial photographs
Landsat 1, 2, and 3, and Skylab 2, 3, and 4 imagery
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service, Aerial Photography Field
Office, P.O. Box 30010, Salt Lake City, Utah 84125.

Landsat and other satellite imagery

Earth Resources Observation Systems, EROS Data Center, User Services Unit,
U.S. Geological Survey, Sioux Falls, S.D. 57198.
AGI DATA SHEET 46.2
Some data for the agencies listed below are held and reproduced by the EROS
Data Center.
Air Force (USAF) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Army (USA) National Aeronautics and Space
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Administration (NASA)
Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Navy (USN)
Bureau of Reclamation (BOA) U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
Corps of Engineers (COE)

Requests for information or reproduction can be filled by calling 1-800-USA-

MAPS or contacting any of the following U.S. Geological Survey Earth Science
Information Centers:
Reston-ESIC Menlo Park-ESIC Stennis Space Center-
507 National Center Building 3, MS 532 ESIC
Reston, Va. 22092 345 Middlefield Road Building 31 01
(703) 860-6045 Menlo Park, Calif. 94025 Stennis Space Center
(415) 329-4309 Miss. 39529
Washington, D.C.-ESIC (601) 688-3544
Department of the Interior San Francisco-ESIC
Building 504 Custom House Rolla-ESIC
18th and C streets, N.W. 555 Battery St. 1400 Independence
Room 2650 San Francisco, Calif. Road, MS 231
Washington, D.C. 20240 94111 Rolla, Mo. 65401
(202) 343-8073 (415) 556-5627 (314) 341-0851

Anchorage-ESIC Denver-ESIC Salt Lake City-ESIC

4230 University Drive 169 Federal Building 8105 Federal Building
Room 101 1961 Stout St. 125 S. State St.
Anchorage, Alaska Denver, Colo. 80294 Sail Lake City, Utah
99508-4664 (303) 844-4169 84138
(907) 561-5555 (80 1) 524-5652
Lakewood-ESIC
Los Angeles-ESIC Box 25046 Spokane-ESIC
Federal Building Federal Center, MS 504 678 U.S. Courthouse
Room 7638 Denver, Colo. 80225- W. 920 Riverside Ave.
300 N. Los Angeles St. 0046 Spokane, Wash. 99201
Los Angeles, Calif. (303) 236-5829 (509) 353-2524
90012
(213) 894-2850

See also Thompson, M., 1988. Maps for America, 3rd ed. U.S. Geological Survey,
Reston. Virginia. Makower. J., 1986. The Map Catalog: Every Kind of Map and
Chart on Earth and Even Some Above ft. Vintage Books and Modern Library
(Random House), New York.
 AGI DATA SHEET 47.1
Bibliographies, Indexes, and Abstracts
Compiled by David D. Ginsburg, Central Michigan University
Most of these bibliographies, indexes, and abstracts are also accessible
online for computerized searching, although in some cases the online database
may include only the last few years. Most notable is the GeoRef database, pro
duced by the American Geological Institute and available online through three
worldwide search services: DIALOG, Maxwell Online, and STN. In Canada, the
GeoRef database is also available through CAN/OLE.
The GeoRef database includes records from the full files of the Bibliography
of North American Geology (17851970), the Bibliography and Index of Geology
Exclusive of North America (1933-1968), the Bibliography and Index of Geology
(1969-), as well as other sources. Consult your librarian for further information.
Abstracts of North American Geology. U.S. Geological Survey, 1966-1971. For-
merly Geological Abstracts (1953-1958) and GeoScience Abstracts (1959-
1966).
Annotated Bibliography of Economic Geology. Economic Geology Publishing Co.,
1928-1965.
Applied Science and Technology Index. H.W. Wilson Co., 1958-. Monthly with
annual cumulations.
Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts, Part 2: Ocean Technology, Policy and
Non-living Resources. Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 1971-. Monthly.
Astronomy and Astrophysics Abstracts. Springer-Verlag, 1969-. Semiannually.
Bibliography and Index of Geology. Geological Society of America and American
Geological Institute, 1969-1978. American Geological Institute, 1979-. Month-
ly with annual cumulations.
Bibliography and Index of Geology Exclusive of North America. Geological Soci-
ety of America, 1933-1968. Continued by Bibliography and Index of Geology.
Bibliography and Index of Micropaleontology. American Museum of Natural Histo-
ry, 1972-. Monthly with annual indexes.
Bibliography of North American Geology. U.S. Geological Survey, 1732-1970.
Issued in the U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin series. See below for publica-
tion details. Continued by Bibliography and Index of Geology.
Publication details of Bibliography of North American Geology
Years U.S.G.S. Year of
covered Title Bulletin number publication
1732-1891 Catalog and lnde~ of Contributions to 127 1896
North American Geology
1785-1918 Geologic Literature on North America
Part 1: Bibliography 746 1923
Part II: Index 747 1924
1919-1928 823 1931
1929-1939 937 1944
1940-1949 1049 (2 vols.) 1957
1950-1959 1195 (4 vols.) 1965
1960 1196 1964
1961 1197 1965
1962 1232 1966
1963 1233 1968
1964 1234 1966
1965 1235 1969
1966 1266 1970
1967 1267 1970
1968 1268 1971
1969 1269 1972
1970 1370 1973

AGJ-DS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 47.2

Bibliography of Theses in Geology. American Geological Institute and Geological

Society of America, 1958-1970 (1 964 in GeoScience Abstracts)
Biological Abstracts. BioSciences Information Service, 1926-. Semimonthly with
semiannual indexes.
Biological Abstracts!RRM (Reports, Reviews, Meetings). BioSciences Information
Service, 1980-. Semimonthly with semiannual indexes. Formerly BioRe-
search Index, 1965-1979.
Catalogue of Scientific Publications, 1800-1900. Continued by International Cata-
logue of Scientific Literature, 1901-1914; Part G-Mineralogy, Part H-Geolo-
gy, Part K-Paleontology. Royal Society of London.
Chemical Abstracts. American Chemical Society, 1907-. Weekly with semiannual
indexes. Section on Mineralogical and Geological Chemistry is biweekly.
Chemical Abstracts, Collective Indexes. American Chemical Society, 1907-1956,
decennial; 1957-, quinquennial.
Conference Papers Index. Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 1973-. Bimonthly. For-
merly Current Programs.
Current Physics Index. American Institute of Physics, 1975--. Quarterly with annual
indexes.
Dissertation Abstracts International, Section B: The Sciences and Engineering.
University Microfilms International, 1938-. Monthly.
Energy Abstracts. Engineering Index, 1974-. Monthly.
Energy Index. Environment Information Center, 1973-. Annually.
Energy Information Abstracts. Environment Information Center, 1976-. Monthly.
Energy Research Abstracts. U.S. Department of Energy, 1976-. Semimonthly.
General Science Index. H.W. Wilson Co., 1978-. Monthly with annual cumulations.
Geographical Abstracts. A-Landforms and Quaternary; B-Ciimatology and
Hydrology; C-Economic Geography; D-Social and Historical Geography;
E-Sedimentology; F-Regional and Community Planning; G-Remote Sens-
ing, Photogrammetry, and Cartography. GeoAbstracts (Norwich, England),
196Q-. Bimonthly. Formerly GeoAbstracts.
Geological Abstracts. Four parts: Economic Geology, Paleontology and Stratigra-
phy, Sedimentary Geology, 1986-; Geophysics and Tectonics, 1977-.
GeoAbstracts (Norwich, England). Bimonthly. Formerly Geophysical Abstracts.
Geophysical Abstracts. U.S. Geological Survey, 1929-1971.
Geotitles. Geosystems (London). 1969-. Monthly. Formerly Geotitles Weekly.
Government Reports Announcements and Index. National Technical Information
Service, 1946-. Semimonthly. Under various titles, 1946-1975.
Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings. Institute lor Scientific Information,
1978-. Monthly with semiannual cumulations.
Index to Scientific Reviews. Institute for Scientific Information. 1974-. Semiannu-
ally with annual cumulations.
Meteorological and Geoastrophysical Abstracts. American Meteorological Society,
195Q-. Monthly. Formerly Meteorological Abstracts and Bibliography.
Mineralogical Abstracts. Mineralogical Society, 1920-. Quarterly with annual index-
es. Before 1959 issued as supplement to Mineralogical Magazine.
Oceanic Abstracts. Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 1964-. Bimonthly. Formerly
Oceanic Index, Oceanic Citation Journal with Abstracts, and Oceanic
Abstracts with Indexes.
Petroleum Abstracts. University of Tulsa, 1961-. Monthly.
 AGI DATA SHEET 47.3

Physics Abstracts. Institute of Electrical Engineers, 1903-. Semimonthly. Formerly

Science Abstracts: Section A
Pollution Abstracts. Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, 197o-. Monthly.
Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Geological Survey, 1879--. Annual
ly. Supplemented by New Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey. Monthly.
Science Citation Index. Institute for Scientific Information, 1964-. Bimonthly with
annual cumulations.
Selected Water Resources Abstracts. U.S. Department of Interior, Water
Resources Scientific Information Center, 1968-. Monthly.

Notes
Some professional journals, e.g., Economic Geology and Gems and Gemology,
have abstracts of current articles of interest.
See also Ward. D.C.; Wheeler, M.W.; and Bier, RA Geologic Reference Sources,
Scarecrow Press, 1981.
 AGI DATA SHEET 48.1
Classifications of

This data sheet has been compiled to help those who now and then visit unfamiliar libraries
mainly to browse. It should not be considered a substitute lor any library's card catalog or for
directions one might get from, for example, a reference librarian. In most libraries, periodicals
are classified under Library of Congress or Dewey Decimal systems. In some libraries, periodi-
cals are incorporated in the book collection; in others, they are housed separately.
The following lists give many of the more appropriate designations in the 1) Library of Con-
gress Classification, 2) Dewey Decimal system, and 3) U.S. Superintendent of Documents
Classification. Attention is also directed to Data Sheet 47. "Bibliographies. Indexes, and
Abstracts."
1) LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION:
G 1000-3100 Atlases
3190-9980 Maps-generally housed separately
GB Physical Geography
400-649 Geomorphology
651-2998 Hydrology
651-2400 Ground and surface waters
2401-2598 Glaciers
5000-5030 Natural disasters
GC Oceanography
83-87.6 Submarine topography
377-399 Marine sediments
1000-1023 Marine resources
0 Science
QA Mathematics
76-76.8 Computer science
QB Astronomy
275-343 Geodesy
981-991 Cosmology
QC Physics
170-197 Atomic physics
310.15-319 Thermodynamics
350-467 Optics
450-467 Spectroscopy
770-798 Nuclear physics
794.95-798 Radioactivity
801-809 Geophysics
811-849 Geomagnetism
851-999 Meteorology, Climatology
QD Chemistry
450-731 Physical and Theoretical Chemistry
901-999 Crystallography

QE GEOLOGY
1-350 General geology
351-399.2 Mineralogy (including meteorites and tektites)
420-499 Petrology
500-625 Dynamic and structural geology
515-551 515-516 Geochemistry
521-545 Volcanoes and earthquakes
640-699 Stratigraphy
701-996.5 Paleontology (including paleobotany)
761-899 Paleozoology

QH Natural history (general), Biology (general)

QK Botany
QL Zoology
S Agriculture
59 t -599 Soils
AGI DATA SHEET 48.2
TA Engineering, general and civil
705-710.5 Engineering geclogy and soil mechanics
TC Hydraulic engineering
TD Environmental technology and sanitary engineering
201-205 Water supply
420--427 Water pollution
TE Highway engineering
200-205 Materials for roadmaking
TG Bridge engineering
TK Electrical engineering, electronics, nuclear engineering
TN Mining engineering and metallurgy
263-271 Prospecting (including geophysical and oil)
400-580 Ore deposits
600-799 Metallurgy
799.5--948 Nonmetallic minerals
950-997 Building and ornamental stones
TP Chemical Technology
315-360 Fuel
690-692 Petroleum refining and products
751-762 Gas
785-669 Clay industries
2) DEWEY DECIMAL SYSTEM:
500 Pure Sciences 600 Technology (applied sciences)
510 Mathematics 620 Engineering
520 Astronomy and allied sciences 630 Agriculture
530 Physics 650 Business
540 Chemistry and allied sciences 660 Chemical technology
550 EARTH SCIENCES 660 Assembled and final products.
560 PALEONTOLOGY
570 Anthropology and biological sciences
560 Botanical sciences
590 Zoological sciences
3) SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS CLASSIFICATION:
19.3 Bulletins of USGS
19.4 Circulars of USGS
19.13 Water Supply Papers
19.16 USGS Professional Papers
19.43 Geophysical Abstracts
19.61 USGS Journal of Research
22.37 Minerals Yearbook (U.S. Bureau of Mines)
In some libraries, government documents (United Nations, U.S., State, and foreign) are incor-
porated in the collections under their appropriate classification category; in other libraries, all
or some of these publications may be housed in separate collections using different classifica-
tion systems. For example, several libraries classify their federal government publications under
the Superintendent of Documents Classification scheme. That overall classification is based
on issuing agencies and Includes publications of the U.S. Geological Survey and the
u.s. BureauoT MineS.
 AGI DATA SHEET 49.1
Powers of Ten

Sl UNIT PREFIXES
1
Pretlx Symbol Multiplication factor
18
E 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 10
p 15
peta 1 000 000 000 000 000 10

tera T 1 000 000 000 000 10'2

giga 2 G 1 000 000 000 10 9

mega M 1 000 000 106

kilo 1 000 10 3

hecto 100 2
10
deka da 10 10
deci 0.1 10''

centi 0.01 102

milli m 0.001 10-3

micro 0.000 001 1 o 6

3
nano 0.000 000 001 10'9

pi.CO ' 0.000 000 000 001 10' 12

femto 0.000 000 000 000 001 10-15

alto 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 10-18

Source: National Bureau ol Standards Special Publication 330.

1
The first syllable of each prefix is accented when pronounced.
2
Pronounced as jig' a.
3
Pronounced as nan'oh (an as in animal).
4
Pronounced as peek' oh.- --

AG1DS-jtd-89
 AGI DATA SHEET 50.1
Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is on the right. The expanded portion of the spectrum
that includes visible light is on the left; the ranges of wavelengths are indicated for each
color.

10

39ooA
Newton's seven
primary colors
(Wavelength limits)

1- 4000 GAMMA RAYS

I
Violet

4460 4500
Indigo
4640
Blue
5000 5000
Q)

Green
1- 5500
E~
Dl(f)
=u
5760
Q)

~-g
<!)
~
Yellow
5920 - 6000
(J) ttl iii
Orange 1- >~ 10 5 s
<!)
6200
0,
cQ)
1- 6500
~ttl
:s:
I
Red
- 7000
SHORT
RADIO WAVES
- 7500 10>0
nooA

BROADCAST BAND
I

LONG RADIO WAVES

r10"
 AGI DATA SHEET 51.1
Measurement Conversions
ENGLISH TO METRIC

Known

inches (in or") 2.54 X 1()4 micron (1'-)

I= 10,000 Angstrom units (A))
inches (In or") 25-4 millimeters (mm)
teet (It or 'I 30.48 centimeters (em)
feet (ft or') 0.3048 meters (m)
yards (yd) 0.9144 meters (m)
miles (statute) (mi) L6093 kilometers (km)
nautical miles (nmi) 1.85 kilometers (km)

square inches 6.4516 square centimeters

square feet 0.0929 square meters
square yards 0.8361 square meters
square miles (mi2) 2.5900 square kilometers
(1 square mile =640 acres)
acres _(~c!_ 0.405 hectares
VOLUME
cubic inches (m3) 16,3871 cubic centimeters (cm 3 )
cubic teet (It") 002832 cubic meters (m3)
cubic yards (yd 3 ) 0.7646 cubic meters (m3)
cubic miles (mP) 4.1684 cubic kilometers (km 3 )
quarts (U.S liquid) (Ql) 0.9463 liters (I)
(= 1000 cm3)
gallons (U.S. liquid) (gal) 3.7854 liters (I)
( = o 8327 Imperial gal)
barrels (bbl) 0.159 cubic meters (m3)
barrels 32API (bbl) 0.137 metric tons (MT)
(For other densities, see table on next page,)
barrels (bbl) 158.9828 liters (I)
(petroleum -1 bbl = 42 gal)
1233.5019 cubic meters
gal)

(OZ) 283495 grams (g)

ounces (avdp.)
1 troy oz.=0.083 lb)
pounds (avdp.) (I b) 0.4536 kilograms (kg)
short tons 09072 (Mg)
(2000 lb) tons)
long tons 1 0160 megagrams (Mg)
{2240 lbJ
(c) grams {9)

(ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meters per second (m3/s)

cubic teet per second (ft3/s) 28.3161 cubic decimeters per {dm3/s)
second ( = liters per second)
cubic feet per minute (ft3/min) 0.47195 liters per second (1/s)
(=7.48 gall min)
gallons per minute (gat/min) 0.06309 liters per second (lis)
barrels per day (bblld) 0.00184 liters per second (lis)
(petro~E~um -1 obi= 42 gal)
AGIDS!\<d-89
AGI DATA SHEET 51.2

PRESSURE
pound (force)
per square inch (lb-flin2) kilopascal (kPa)
(=PSI) 6.8948 }

(1 Pascal= Lf'.leWll:ln
atm>Jsphere (atm) 101.325 m2
(=14.6960 PSI=1.01325 bars)
=~~~ec2)
bar 100.0
_( = 14.5038 PSI= 0.9869 al_rTJL_
TEMPERATURE---------

temperature, degrees temperature, degrees (oC)

Fahrenheit (oF) 519 (after Celsius
subtracting 32)
temperature, degrees 519 (after temperature Kelvin (K)
Fahrenheit adding 459.67)
temperature, degrees (oC) add 273.15 temperature Kelvin (K)
Celsius

Degrees Specific Metric ton

API gravity per barrel"
26 0.898 0.142
28 0.887 0.140
30 0.876 0.139
32 0.865 0.137
34 0.855 0.135
36 0.845 0.134
38 0.835 0.132
40 0.825 0.130
42 0.816 0.129
Note: Approximate ligures 60F.
"Interpolate linearly for intermediate API's.

Additional conversions may be found, for example, in the annual editions of the Handbook
of Chemistry and Physics and on Data Sheets 53 and 54.

inches 1 2 3

ll'jll1"'" 1 11
111~ 111 1 ' 11
I I I
I I
I
em
J

2 3
I I
4 5 6 7 8
 AGI DATA SHEET 51.3
METRIC TO ENGLISH

Known ~(~~~~~L Multiplier Product (symb~)

LENGTH
micron (IL) 3.9370 inches (in or")
( = 10,000 Angstrom units) X 10-5

millimeters (mm) 0.03937 inches (in or")

centimeters (em) 0.0328 feet (It or')
meters (m) 3.2808 feet (ftor')
meters (m) 1.0936 yards (yd)
kilometers (km) 0.6214 miles (statute) (mi)
kilometers . (km) 0.54 nautical miles (nmi)
AREA
square centimeters (em') 0.1550 square inches (in')
square meters (m') 10.7639 square feet (II')
square meters (m') 1.1960 square yards (yd')
square kilometers (km') 0.3861 square miles (mi2)
( 1 square mile= 640 acres)
hectares (hal 2.471 acres (ac)_
VOLUME
cubic centimeters (em') 0.06102 cubic inches (in')
cubic meters (m') 35.3146 cubic feet (tl')
cubic meters (m') 1.3079 cubic yards (yd')
cubic kilometers (km 3 ) 0.2399 cubic miles (mi 3 )
liters (I) 1.0567 quans (qt)
(= 1000 cm 3 ) (U.S. liquid)
liters {I) 0.2642 gallons (gal)
(U S. liquid)
liters (I) 0.006290 barrels (bbl)
(1 bbl =42 gal)
cubic meters (m') 6.29 barrels (bbl)
metric tons 32API (MT) 728 barrels (bbl)
(For other densities, see table on next page.)
cubic meters (m') 0.0008107 acre-fee! (acre-It)
_( = 4~.~~0 II'= 3.259 x 105 gal)
MASS
grams (g) 5.0000 carats (gems) (c)
grams (g) 0.03527 ounces (avdp.) (oz)
kilograms (kg) 2.2046 pounds (avdp.) (lb)
megagrams (Mg) 1.t023 shon tons
(=metric tons) (2000 lb)
megagrams (Mg) 0.9842 long tons
(2240 lb)
VOLUME PER UNIT TIME
cubic meters per second (m'/s) 35.3107 cubic teet per second (tt3 /s)
(=448.83 gal/min)
cubiC decimeters per (dm 3 /s) 0.03532 cubic teet per second (ft'ls)
second (liters per second)
liters per second (lis) 2.1188 cubic feet per minute (tt>/min)
liters per second (lis) 15.8503 gallons per minute (gal/min)
Iite rs per second (lis) 543.478 barrels per day (bblld)
~e~~~_l!l11_- t bbl =i2.JJ<I~- __
AGI DATA SHEET 51 A

PRESSURE
kilopascal (kPa) pound (force) per square (lb-f/in 2)
ir1ch (=PSI)
( 1 Pascal= 1 Newtor1 ::::69 atmosphere (aim)
m' - ( = 14.6960 PSI)
{
=kg m/sec') 0.01 bar
m' (:'~~38 PSI) -~
TEMPERATURE
temperature, degrees (DC) 9/5 (then temperature, degrees (OF)
Celsius add 32) Fahrer1heit
temperature Kelvirl (K) 9/5 (therl temperature, degrees (oF)
subtract Fahrenheit
45967
temperature Kelvin (K) subtract temperaiure, degrees ("C)
273.15 Celsius
THERMAL GRADIENT
1"c11 oo m = o.55F/1 oo ft = 29F/mi
CRUDE OIL VOLUME PER METRIC TON
Degrees Specific Barrels per
API gravity metric ton*
26 0.898 7.02
28 0.887 7.10
30 0.876 7.19
32 0.865 7.28
34 0.855 7.37
36 0.845 7.46
38 0.835 7.55
40 0.825 7.64
42 0.816 7.73
Note: Approximate figures 60F.
*Interpolate linearly for intermediate API's.

Additional conversions may be found, for example, in the annual editions of the Handbook
of Chemistry and Physics and on Data Sheets 53 and 54.

em 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

l I I J ' I IIIllI' I II1

f""t"I' I I I I II I I
inches
I 'I 2 3
 AGI DATA SHEET 52.1
Gemological Weights and Measures
J.l. Koivula and R.C. Kemmerling, Gemologlcallnstltule of America

TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

CARAT WEIGHT
1 Carat (c1) 115 gram (g) 25 Pomts 0.25 ( 1/4) carat
1 Carat 100 "points" 50 Points 0.50 ( 112) carat
1 Carat 4 pearl gra10s
1 Pearl Grain - 0.25 (114) carat TO CDNVERr
1 Point ~ 0.01 (11100) carat
Carats to Grams Carats x 0.2 = Grams

TROY WEIGHT
1 Grain (gr) = 0.0020833 ounces (oz t.) 0.0648 grams (g)
24 Grams (gr) = 1 pennyweight (dwl) 1.5552 grams
20 Pennyweights = 1 ounce (oz t.) 31.1035 grams
12 Ounces (troy)(\) 1 pound (lb t) 373.2417 grams
1 Pound (troy) (t.) 0.622857 pounds avoirdupois
1 Ounce (troy)(!.) 1.09714 ounces avoirdupois
TO CONVERT
Pennyweight to Grams Pennyweight x 1.5552 ~Grams
Ounces (1.) to Grams: Ounces (I) x 31.1 035 =Grams
Grams to Pennyweights Grams x 0.6430 Pennyweights
Grams to Dunces (L) Grams x 0.0322 Dunces (I)

GOLD CONTENT AND NOTATION

DEFINITIONS
Karataggjystem A system of measurement based on 24 karats= fine (pure) gold.
1 karat 1124 fine gold by weight.
Europ~ystem A system of measurement based on a fraction ol1,000, i.e., the
number of grams of gold rn 1 kilogram, or 1,000 grams, of alloy

KARAT PARTS GOLD PERCENTAGE GOLD NORMAL EUROPEAN STAMPING

g kt 9/24 37.50% 375
10 kt 10124 41 67% 416
12 kt 12124 50.00% 500
14 kl 14/24 58.33% 583 or 585
18 kt 18/24 75.00% 750
22 kt 22124 91.67% 917
24 kt 24/24 9999% 999 (or 99999)

AGI-DS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 52.2

DIAMOND WEIGHT ESTIMATION FORMULAS

(All measuremenls lo be 10 mrllrmelers)
ROUND BRILLIAN T: Average Drameler1x Depth> .0061

~t.)}
BRILLIANT: Averaoe Drameler 2 x Oeplh x .0062
n
!r;;

\J
Nole : Add rength and wrdlh . diirde sum by 2 IO determme 'Average Drameler"
olanoval slone

ltUIII SHAPE BRILLIANT Length x W1dth x Depth x.0059

.q;
lhead1uslmenttactor used mlhelollowinglormulaslsbasedonthe length to wrdlh
ra 110 ot the dramond For eample. a stone w1lh a length of 9.00 mrlhmeters and
a wrdth ol6.00 mllhmelers would have a lenglh IOwrdlh ralro ol 1.50:1
Adtustmenl Lengthto.W1dth
__iillQ_r_ __R_alr_o_
EMERAlO CUT LengthxWrdthxOeplh .008 1.00:1.00
.0092 1.50:1.00

0
MARQUISE CUT Lenglh Wrdth x Depth x
.010
.0106
.00565
2.00:t.OO
2.50:1.00
1.50:1.00
.0058 2.00:1.00

0
PEAR SHAPE Lenglh x W1dlh x Oeplh x
.00585
.00595
.006 15
2.50:1.00
3.00:1.00
1.25: 1.00
~ .0060 1.50:1.00
.0059 1.66:1.00
~f .00575 2.00:1.00
All formulas are based on slones w1th mediUm grr dles. Ad1us1 werghr as follo ws tor
s1onesw1thth1Ckergrrdles
Shght1yTh1ck add2%
lh1ckto Exlremelylh1ck add41ol0%
A tO% correctron rs rare

COLORED STONE WEIGHT FORMULAE

t RoundFaceted Stone s
Dramerer1x depth xS.G. x.OOt8 - carat we1ghl
2 Oval Fa ceted Stones: (Average length & wrdth to oblarn
drameter)
Orameler lx depth x S G. x.0020- carat we1ght
3 Emerald Cut Faceted Stones
Leng th xwrdth x depth xS G x.0025 - caral we1ght
(Add 515% lor bulge ta clor)
4 RectangularFaceled Stones
Length x w1dth xdeplh x S.G x.0026 - carat we1ght
5 Square Faceted Stones
Length xw1dlh xdepth xS.G. x.002 3- caral we1ghl
6 Navette or Boai-Shaped Stones
length x wrdlh x deplh x S.G x .00t6 - caral werght
7 Pear shaped or leardrop shaped Stones
Lenglh xw1dth x deplh x S G .00t 75- carat we1ght
8Cabochons
lenglh x wrdlh x depth xS.G x.0026- caral werghl
(.0029 rfveryllator shallow domed)
1 cubic It 7.4805 U.S. gallons 6.2321. Imperial gallons 28.317 liters
1 U.S. gallon 0.13368 cubic It 0.83271 imperial gallon 3. 7854 liters
1 imperial gallon 0.16046 cubic It 1.2009 U.S. gallons 4.5437 liters
1 liter 0.035315 cubic tt 0.26417 U.S. gallon 0.22009 imperial gallon

1 cubic It 0.028317 cubic meter 0.000022957 acrefl

1 cubic meter = 35.315 cubic It 0.00081071 acre-It
1 acre-It = 43,560 cubic It 1,233.5 cubic meters

1 cubic mile = 3.3792 million acre-It

1 cfs<lay = 86,400 cubic It 1 cubic ft per second for 24 hr

Volume Conversion Factors

Initial Coefficient (multiplier) to obtain:

Unit Cfs<lays Mil. cu. It Mil. gat. Acre-It ln. per sq mi. Mil. cu. meters

Cls<lays 0.086400 0.64632 1.9835 0.037190 .0024466

Mil. cu. It 11.574 7.4805 22.957 .43044 .028317
Mil. gal. 1.5472 .13368 3.0689 .057542 .0037854
Acre-It .50417 .043560 .32585 .018750 .0012335
ln. per sq. mi. 26.689 2.3232 17.379 53.333 .005785
Mil. cu. meters 408.73 35.314 264.17 810.70 15.201

Velocity Pressure (O C =32

................. -------------------

1 mile per hr 1.467 It per sec 1 It ol head, fresh water 0.433 lb per sq in, pressure
1 mile per hr 68 It per min 1 lb per sq in, pressure 2.31 It of head, fresh water
1 It per sec 0.662 mile per hr 1 meter of head, lresh water 1.42 lb per sq in, pressure
1 It per min 0.0114 mile per hr 1 lb per sq in, pressure 0.704 meter of head
1 It per sec 0.3048 meter per sec 1 atmosphere (m.s.l.) 33.907 It of water
1 meter per sec 3.281 II per sec

Weight
-----------------------------------
1 cubic II of fresh water 62.41b 28.3 kg
1 cubic It of sea water 64.11b 29.1 kg
1 cubic meter of fresh water 1000 kg 1 metric ton
Rates of Flow
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------- ------
1 cubic ft per sec 448.83 U.S. gallons per min = 646,317 U.S. gallons per day .026317 cu meter per sec
1 cubic It per min 7.4805 U.S. gallons per min = 10,772 U.S. gallons per day .00047195 cu meter per sec
1 U.S. gallon per min 0.002228 cubic It per sec 0.13368 cubic It per min 1440 U.S. gallons per day =
.000063090 cu meter per sec
1 U.S. gallon per day .000093 cubic It per min .0006944 U.S. gallon per min
1 cubic ft per sec 1.9835 acrefl per day 723.97 acre-fl per year
1 acre-It per day 0.~17 cubic It per sec 36
~.~~~1 /c~~Jte~~r day
1 .014276 cu meter per sec
1 acre-It per year 0_00138 cubic It per sec
1 inch per hr on 1 acre 1 cubic It per sec (approx.)
1 inch per hr on 1 sq mi 645.33 cubic It per sec

Rate Conversion Factors

Inches per day Cu meters

per sq ml per sec

Cu It per sec (cfs) 448.83 0.64632 1.9835 0.037190 .028317

Gal per min (gpm) 0.0022280 .0014400 .0044192 .00008286 .000063090
Mil gal per day (mgd) 1.5472 694.44 3.0689 .057542 .043813
Acre-It per day .50417 226.29 .32585 .01850 .014276
Inches per day per sq mi 26.889 12,069 17.379 53.333 .76140
Cu meters per sec 35.314 15,850 22.834 70.045 1.3134

Miner's Inch is a rate of discharge that has been fixed by statute in most of the western states:

1 cubic It per sec 50 miner's in (Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota)
1 cubic It per sec 40 miner's in (Arizona, California, Montana, Oregon)
1 cubic It per sec 38.4 miner's in (Colorado)
1 miner's inch .02 cubic It per sac (Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota)
1 miner's inch .025 cubic It per sec (Arizona, California, Montana, Oregon)
1 miner's inch .026 cubic It per sec (Colorado)
 AGI DATA SHEET 54.1
Tables
Compiled by Judith L. Pluenneke

Conversion Table for Common Energy Units

1 joule (work) = 10 million ergs (work)
= 0. 74 toot-pounds (work)
= 3. 74 x 10-7 horsepower hours (work)
= 1 watt second (electrical energy)
= 6 x 1oa electron volts
1 large Calorie
(heat) =1000 small calories (heat)
=3.968 British thermal units (Btu, heat)
= 4168 joules (work)
= 3090 toot-pounds (work)
= 0.00116 kilowatt hours (electrical energy)
1 kilowatt hour
(kWh, electrical) = 2.656 million foot-pounds (work)
= 1.341 horsepower hours (work)
= 860 large Calories (heat)
=3413 Btu (heat)

Conversion Table for Power Units

1 horsepower= 746 watts= 0.746 kilowatts= 550 toot-pounds per second.
~ ~~~;ag~~ri~4~e~t~e~~~~eco~d61g~~~;e~~~r<:a~o;~~ fif~~~~~.nd.
Energy Conversion Factors
Crude Oil
Equiv., British Thermal Kilowatt-Hours
Ene_r(!Y <:;ontent o_f_f"lj~~- Barrels Un~EituL -~_lk'l'\lh)
Anthracite coal, short ton 4.38 25,400,000 7440.0
Bituminous coal, short ton 4.24 24,580,000 7240.0
Average coal, short ton 24,020,000 7040.0
Automotive gasoline, gallon 0.0216 125,000 36.6
Aviation gasoline, gallon 0.0216 125.000 36.6
Jet fuel kerosene type, gallon 0.0234 135,000 39.5
Jet fuel naphtha type, gallon 0.0219 127,000 37.2
Kerosene, gallon 0.0234 135,000 39.5
Diesel oil, gallon 0.0239 138,700 40.7
Distillate fuel oil (#2), gallon 0.0239 138,700 40.7
Dislillate fuel oil (#2), barrel 1.004 5,825,000 1,707.0
Residual fuel oil, gallon 0.0258 149,700 43.9
Residual fuel oil, barrel 1.084 6,287,000 1,843.0
Natural gas, standard cubic foot (SCF) 0.000178 1,031 0.302
Liquified petroleum gas, SCF 2,522
(Including propane and butane)
Electricity, Btu of fuel consumed at power 0.0020 11,600 3.40
plant per kWh delivered to consumer
(assume 10,536 Btu/kWh station heat
rate for all stations 9% line loss as
reported for 1971 by Edison Electric
Institute)
Steam, Btu of fuel consumed at boiler 0.000196 1,390 0.407
plant per pound of steam delivered to
consumer (assume 1000 Btu/lb of steam
generated, 82% boiler efficiency, and
12% line loss)
1 kWh = 3.600x100 joules (J) = 859.9 kilocalories (kcal) = 3412 Btu
1 horsepower-hour (hp-hr) = 0.746 kWh = 2545 Btu
1J =2.778x10-7kWh .2388 cal =9.478x10-4 Btu
1 Btu = 1.055xto J = 2.931x10- kWh = .2520 kcal
AGI DATA SHEET 54.2

FUEL AND COMMON MEASURES-BTU's

Crude Oil-Barrel (bbl) ..... . .5,800,000
Natural Gas-Cubic Foot (ft') .. '' .. ' ....... '' ... 1,032
Coal- Ton ................ . . 24,000,000 to 28,000,000
Electricity-Kilowatt Hour (kWh). .3,412
Two trillion Btu's per year are approximately equal to 1,000 barrels per day of crude oil.

APPROXIMATE CALORIFIC EQUIVALENTS OF OIL

One million tons of oil equals approximately-
Heat Units:
41 Million million Btu
415 million therms
10,500 Teracalories
Solid Fuels:
1 .5 million tons of coal
4.9 million tons of lignite
3.3 million tons of peat
Natural Gas (1 cu. fl. equals 1,000 Btu , 1 cu. rr,eter equals 4,200 kcal ):
2.5 thousand million cubic meters
88.3 thousand million cubic feet
242 million cubic feet/day for a year
Electricity (1 kWh equals 3,412 Btu, 1 kWh equals 860 kcal):
12 thousand million kWh

Reference
Energy Reference Handbook, Second Edition, Government Institutes, Inc., 1977
 AGI DATA SHEET 55.1
Glossary of Statistical Terms Used in Geology
J.J. Connor, U.S. Geological Survey and D. F. Merriam, Wichita State University

Most of this list is based on terms appearing in the Glossary of Geology (1972, 1980,
1987), and is given here for quick reference by interested readers. The list is intended pri-
marily as a dictionary aid in the perusal of the geostatistical literature by readers unfamiliar
with or inexperienced in statistics. The list contains principally univariate terms, but some of
the more common multivariate terms are also given. Where appropriate, conventional sta-
tistical symbols are given in brackets following some of the terms. In this symbology, Greek
letters represent for the most part parameters (or summary properties) of a population, and
Roman letters represent statistics, which are estimates of the parameters. For mathemati-
cal definitions or equations, and descriptions of usage, the interested reader should consult
the following texts, all written by geological scientists for use in geological studies. The text
by Davis is a particularly good introduction to multivariate analysis; the text by Clark is a
particularly good introduction to the field of geostatistics.

Cheaney, R.F., 1983. Statistical Methods in Geology. George Allen and Unwin, Lon-
don, 169 p.

Clark, 1., 1979. Practical Geostatistics. Applied Science Publ., Ltd., London, 129 p.

Cubitt, J.M., and Henley, S., 1978. Statistical Analysis in Geology. Dowden, Hutchin-
son and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, 340 p.

Davis, J.C., 1983. Statistics and Data Analysis in Geology, 2nd ed. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 646 p.

Griffiths, J.C., 1967. Scientific Method in Analysis of Sediments. McGraw-Hill Book

Co., New York, 508 p.

Koch, G.S., Jr., and Link, R.F., 1970. Statistical Analysis of Geological Data, Vol. 1.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 375 p.

Koch, G.S., Jr., and Link, R.F., 1971. Statistical Analysis of Geological Data, Vol. 2.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 438 p.

Krumbein, W.C., and Graybill, FA, 1965. An Introduction to Statistical Models in Geol-
ogy. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 475 p.

Marsal, D., 1987. Statistics for Geoscientists. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 176 p.

Till, R., 1974. Statisticaf Methods for the Earth Scientist, An Introduction. John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 153 p.

Accuracy Degree of closeness to a true, and knowledge of constraints on the estimate.

generally unknown. value (see Precision).
Bias A systematic distortion in measurement
Analysis of variance (also ANO/, ANOIA) 1) a or calculation; lack of accuracy.
procedure used to partition the variance of a
set of data 1nto components, each of which is
Bimodal distribution A frequency distribution
attributable to a different source of variation;
with two modes (see Polymodal dlstnbution).
commonly, one oi these sources is experimen-
tal error; 2) the procedure IS widely applied in
testing tor significant differences among a Binomial distribution A discrete frequency
group of means using the F-ratio. distribution of Independent occurrences, each
of wh1ch has only two possible outcomes, such
Arithmetic mean see Mean. as success and failure or presence and
absence.
Bayesian statistics A procedure for statisti-
cal estimation taking into account prior Bivariate analysis Statistical examination of

AGIDS-NdB9
AGI DATA SHEET 55.2
two variables simultaneously (see Mult1vanate
analysis)
canonical correlation A multivariate proce
dure in which the assoc1ation between two
sets of variables is examined .
canonical variate analysis see Discriminant
function analysis.
Chi square [x2 ] 1) a family of frequency distri-
butions representing the sum of squares of
data drawn from a normal distribution of mean
0 and variance l; 2l a test statistic used in
comparing differences in the sum of squares
from two populat1ons (commonly used m
goodness of fill ' }.
Cluster anal~s A rrultiV3 te procedure m
which 1tems are gro.,ped occording to their
mutual simi lanties.
Coefficient of variation [CV] The standard de-
VIation of a set of data div1ded by the arithme-
tic mean.
Confidence interval (CI] The range of data
which has a given probability of containmg a
population parameter; this range is bounded
by the lower and upper Confidence 11m its (see
Student's t)
Correlation coefficient (ft,r] A measure of the
degree of linear assoc1at1on between two vari -
ables; the coefficient ranges from - 1.0 (per-
fect inverse association), th rough 0 .0 (no
association), to + 1.0 (perfect d1rect associa-
tion); the Multiple correlat1on coefficient (R]
measures this association between one varia-
ble and a set of other variables.
Cumulative frequency (c.f.] Commonly . a
graph showmg the proportion of occurrences in
a data set that 1s less than a given value .
Degrees of freedom (d.f., also tj The number
of independent data values used in computing
a test statistic; commonly defined as n- 1
where n 1s the number of items used to com-
pute the stat 1st1c
Dendogram A treelike correlation diagram
depicting the degree of similarity between
and within groups of items.
Deterministic model see Mathematical model.
Deviation [ d] The difference between a data
value and the mean of a data set contain1ng
the value (see Standard deviation).
Discriminant function analysis (also Canomcal
vaflate analysis) A multivanate procedure 1n
which equat1ons are devel~ed for assigning
items to known groups.
Dispersion The scatter of values about a mean
(see Standard deviation)
Eigenvalues (.>.] The characteristic roots of a
square matrix , commonly used in assessing
the mm1mum number of factors to be as-
sumed in a factor analysis problem; an eigen-
value is the variance of a principal component.
Error (E,e] l) the difference between a meas-
urement and the known (or unknown) correct
value; 2) random fluctuations in measurement
(contrast with Type I and Type II errors).
Expected value The mean value of a statistic
observed 1n a large number of sampling trials.
F-distribution A family of continuous fre-
quency distributions representing the ratio of
the variance of two random samples drawn
from a normally distnbuted population ; the F-
ratio [F] is commonly used to test for signifi-
cant differences among a group of means.
F-ratio see F-distribut1on.
Factor analysis A multivariate procedure 1n
which some mimmum number of influences
("factors" ) thought to account for a reasonably
large part of the variance of a data set are iden-
tified (see Q-mode , R-mode).
Fourier analysis A procedure used to exam1ne
periodic or cyclical data using equations
based on the sum of sines and cosines; com-
monly used in trend-surface and time-series
analysis.
Frequency distribution Commonly, a graph
showmg the frequency of occurrence of differ-
ent values in a data set; a theoretical frequency
distribution 1s a mathematical model which
defines those frequenc1es of occurrence (see
Histogram).
Gaussian distribution see Normal distribution .
Geometric mean see Mean.
Geostatlstlcs 1) Usually, the use of statisti-
cal analysis in geological studies: 2) a set
of procedures for examining fluctuations in
spatially distributed data (theory of region-
alized variables), developed for and used
principally in estimation of ore reserves
(see Kriging, Semivariogram).
Goodness-of-fit The degree to which observed
data correspond to a mathematical model;
commonly, the degree to which a histo-
gram and a theoretical frequency distribution
coincide

Harmonic mean see Mean.
Histogram A bar-graph representation ot a fre-
quency distribution in which-the height of the
bars 1s proportional to the number of items
within a specified range of an observed
variable .
Kriging A procedure used to produce the
least-biased ("best") estimate of an
unknown value at a given location.
Kurtosis [g2 ] A measure of the peakedness of
a frequency distribution; a distribution is Lep-
tokurtic if it is more peaked than a normal dis-
tribution, and Platykurtic ifflatter
Least squares method A method for fitting lines
or surfa ces to data such that the sum of squares
of the distances between the points and the
line (surface) is minimized.
Leptok.urtic distribution see Kurtosis.
Linear regression analysis see Regression
analysis.
Lognormal distribution A cont inuous fre -
quency distribution which , if expressed on
a logarithm iC scale. becomes a normal
distribution.
Markov chain A stochastic process which di-
vides a set of data into a fin1te number of states
through time or space and examines the tran-
sitions between each successive state to de-
termine if the probability of going from one
state to another is greater or less than that pre-
dicted by chance alone: commonly used in ex-
amining stratigraphiC sequences for cycles or
"memory."
Mathematical model A set of formal rules,
commonly mathematica l equations, which de-
fine re la tion s among variables; a Dete~ mims
tic model is one in which the relations are
completely predi ctable; a Stochastic model IS
one in which the relat1ons are more or less un-
pr!ictable due to the presence of one or more
random vartables 1n the model.
Mean An average, defined in various ways; the
Anthmetic mean [1-',x,m] IS the sum of the
data values divided by their number, n: the
Geometric mean [GM] is the antilog of the
arithmetic mean of the logarithms of the data
values; the Harmonic mean [H] is the recipro-
cal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of
the data va lues (see Med1an, Model.
Median [Md] The value of the middle item in a
set of ranked data ; 1f the number of 1tems is
even, the median is the arithmetic mean of the
two middle 1tems
AGI DATA SHEET 55.3
Mode [Mol The value, or range of va lues. that
occurs with the greatest frequency in a set of
data (see Bimodal distnbut1on, Polymodal dis-
tnbutlon) .
Moments [!-', m] The expected values of the
powers of a variable. all but the f1rst of which
are measured about the mean (the first mo-
ment of a population IS the mean and the sec-
ond is the variance).
Multiple correlation coefficient see Correlation
coefficient.
Multivariate analysis Statistical examination
of three or more variables simultaneously.
Nonparametric statistics Stati stics for which
no underly1ng frequency distribution is as-
sumed .
Normal distribution (also, Gaussian distribution)
The most commonly assumed frequency dis-
tribution in geostatistical analysis: it is con-
tinuous, symmetrical, and bell-shaped.
Null hypothesis [H 0 l Commonly, an assump-
tion that two (sometimes more) population pa-
rameters are equal.
Parameter A descnptive property, such as the
mean or variance, characteristic of a given
population or theoret1cal frequency distnbu-
tion
Parametric statistics Statistics for which some
underlying frequency distribution is assumed
Platykurtic distribution see Kurtosis.
Poisson distribution A discrete frequency dis-
tribution used to describe the occurrences of
rare events; in th1s d1stnbution the mean is
equal to the variance (in fact, all moments of
the di stribution are identica l)
Polymodal distribution A frequen cy distnbu-
tion with more than two modes
Polynomial model A mathematical equation in
wh1ch one variable is related to a sum of
weighted powers of other vanables; common ly
used in trend-surfa ce analysis
Population ll all poss1ble values of a variable;
commonly , geological popu lations are as-
sumed to exh1bit normal, lognormal, binomial
or Poisson frequency distributions; 2) an in-
ventory or count of 1tems from whi ch a sample
is drawn.
Power In stat1st1cal test1ng. the probability of
rejecting a hypothesis when it is false ; defined
AGI DATA SHEET 55.4
as 1-{3, where {3 is the probability of commit-
ting a Type II error (which see).
Precision Degree of reproducibility of a meas-
ured value regardless of the accuracy of the
measurement.
Principal-component analysis A multivariate
procedure in which artificial and uncorrelated
vanables (the Princtpal components) are de-
fined as weighted linear functions of a set of
original variables; commonly used as the first
step in factor analysis.
Probability [P] The likelihood of occurrence
of an event; P ranges from 0 (impossible) to 1
(certain).
Q.mode A multivariate procedure m which re-
lations among items are examined.
R-mode A multivariate procedure in which re-
lations among variables are examined.
Random sample A subset of a population in
which each item in the population had an equal
chance of being chosen
Random variable A variable that is at least in
part unpredictable
Regionalized variables (theory of) see
Geostatistics.
Regression analysis A procedure in which the
relation of a given (dependent) variable to one
or more predictor (independent) variables is
examined (see Trend-surface analysis); com-
monly, only one predictor variable is involved
and the relation defined is that of a straight line
(Linear regression analysis).
Root mean square see Standard deviation.
Sample A subset of a population (see Random
sample).
Scatter diagram A graph on which are plotted
points representing two variables; also called
Scattergram.
Semivarlogram ['y(h)) A graph (or formula)
that relates the difference In value between
sample pairs to distance between those
pairs_
Significance level [a] 1) the probability of a
value or event occurring by chance; 2) the
probability of committing a Type I error
(which see).
Skewness [g 1 ] A measure of the asymmetry of
a frequency distribution; skewness is positive
where the longer tail of the distribution repre-
sents high values and negative where the longer
tail represents low values.
Standard deviation [a, s l A measure of dis-
persian, equal to the square root of the
variance. Syn: Root-mean-square deviation.
Standard error of the mean [Sx.] The standard
deviation divided by the square root of the
number, n. of data values; it is the standard
deviation of a sample mean and estimates the
precision of that mean.
Statistics 1) the science of devising and apply-
ing procedures with which to measure the un-
certainty of inferences; 2) descriptive
summary numbers characteristic of sample
data and which estimate parameters of popu-
lation frequency distributions.
Stochastic model see Mathematical model.
Student's t [t] 1) a family of continuous fre-
quency distributions representing the ratio of
a difference of two means and the pooled
standard error of data drawn from normally
distributed populations; 2) commonly used in
computing confidence limits and in testing
the significance of the difference between two
means.
Sum of squares [SS] The sum of squared
deviations.
Trend-surface analysis A procedure in which a
mathematically defined surface of any re-
quired complexity is fitted to a set of spatially
distributed data.
Type I error Rejection of a hypothesis when
it is in fact true (see Significance level).
Type II error Acceptance of a hypothesis
when it is in fact false (see Power).
Univariate analysis Statistical examinatfon of
a single variable (see Bivariate analysis, Mul-
tivariate analysis).
Variable [x] A measurable quality.
Variance lo->, S2 ] 1) the sum of squares of a
data set divided by the degrees of freedom; 2)
sometimes loosely used as the total variability
of a multivariate data set.
 AGI DATA SHEET 56.1
Periodic Table of the Elements
Comments by R.V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University

The periodic table presents the chemical elements in sequence according to their atomic
numbers. It is organized into horizontal tiers called periods and vertical columns called groups.
Elements included in the same periods differ from each other in a systematic way from one
end to the other of their tier. From left to right, their outer shells are progressively filled with
additional electrons until the outer shell that is characteristic of the period is filled to its capa-
city, giving the appropriate noble gas element.
Elements included in a group are commonly termed congeners because they have similar
physical and chemical properties. For elements in the ~A" groups, the outermost shells con-
tain electrons equal to the Roman-number group designation- for example, each of the elements
in group IIA (i.e., the elements with atomic numbers 4, 12, 20, 38, 56, and 88) has two elec-
trons in its outermost shell.
Ions for elements in groups lA, IIA, and lilA are positively charged and are called cations. Ions
tor elements in groups VA, VIA, and VIlA are negatively charged and are called anions.
Elements in the groups on the left side and in the central part of the table are metals; their
characteristic properties include metallic luster, malleability, and high electrical and thermal
conductivity. Elements in the groups on the right side are nonmetals; their properties are rather
variable and unlike those characteristic of metals. Elements with intermediate properties are
generally referred to as metalloids. Included are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, anti-
mony, and tellurium from groups lilA, IVA, VA, and VIA. As the location of these transition
elements suggests, the metallic properties are most pronounced for elements in the lower left
corner of the table and the nonmetallic properties are most pronounced for elements in the
upper right corner (omitting, of course, the noble gases).
The groups are frequently named and briefly described as follows:
Group lA, the alkali metals soft light metals; most strongly electropositive, highly reactive.
Group IIA, the alkaline-earth metals - harder, heavier metals; strongly electropositive; reac-
tive; easily form oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, sulfates, etc.
Gr~~~~~~~~~ea~~r~~~::luf~;~u~s:o~~des~oron is metalloid whereas aluminum and its other
Group IVA, the carbon-silicon group silicon and germanium are metalloids; tin and lead are
metals; carbon plays a role in the organic world similar to that played by silica in the inorganic
world.
Group VA, the nitrogen or phosphorus group- a mixed group in which nitrogen and phos-
phorus are nonmetals, arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is generally con-
sidered to be a metal.
Group VIA, the oxygen (or chalcogen) group - oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals;
tellurium and polonium are generally considered to be metalloids.
Group VIlA, the halogen group nonmetallic; most strongly electronegative; highly reactive.
Group VIllA, the noble gases chemically inert; form very few compounds.
Groups IB through VIIB and VIII, the transition metals - each of these groups, which constitute
the central portions of the long periods of the table, has one of eight rather complex sets of
chemical properties.
The lanthanides (formerly lanthanoids) plus lanthanum and yttrium, and sometimes scandium,
are rather widely referred to as rare earths or rare earth metals.
The actinides (formerly actinoids) and actinium are radioactive elements sometimes referred
to as the uranium metals. The transuranium man-made elements are included.
To date, 91 elements have been recorded from natural occurrences on earth. Technetium
(43), promethium {61), and the transuranium elements except for plutonium (94) have not been
found.

For additional information, special attention is directed to the annually updated "Handbook
of Chemistry and Physics."

AGI-DS-rvd-82
 key J:lo
GROUP ~
Atomic number VIllA c
lA
~
r---

sr..~~j~l
1 'i"'""-
H He UJ
1.001
3 4
IIA 1
I 5
lilA
I
IVA
7
VA
I
VIA
I
VIlA 4.G03
10
:::t
m
m

Li Be
6.939 9.012
B c N 0
10.111 12.011 14.007 15.991 11.111 20.113
F Ne
-t
U1
0'1
N
11 12 13 14 15 11 17 11

Na Mg
22.991 24.312 1118 IVB VB VIB VIIB ,--VIII~
GROUP
18 liB
AI Si p s
26.112 21.016 30.174 32.014 35.453 31.141
Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 21 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 31

K Ca Sc Ti v CrFe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Mn
39.102 40.08
37 31 39 ...
44.956 47.90 50.942 51.996
41 ....42 43
54.131 55.147 51.133 51.71
45 41
83.54 15.37 61.72
47 41 41
72.51
50
74.122 71.18
!11 52
71.101 13.10
53 54

Rb Sr y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
15.47 17.12
55
Cs
58
Ba
11.905 91.22
57
La
72
12.106 15.94
73 74 75
(II)

Hf Ta w Re Os lr Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
101.07 102.905 108.4 107.170 112.40 114.12 11e.n 121.75 127.10 121.104 131.30
76 77 71 71 10 11 12 13 14 15 ..
..
132.105
17
Fr Ra Ac
137.34 131.11 17'1.41 110.141 113.15

5
111.2 190.2 192.2 115.01 111.117 200.51 204.37 207.11 20I.IICI (210) (210) (222)

(123) (IH) (227) lcei Pr INdiPmlsmleu !Gd(Tb(ov('Hol"er IT-mlvbi'L.

140.12 140.107 144.24 (147) 150.35 151.11 157.25 151.124 112.io 114.130 117.21 111.134 173.04 174.17
10 91 12 13 t4 15 .. ~7 .. " 100 101 102 103

Th
232.03~
Pa (231)
U Np
(237)
231.03
Pu Am Cm
(242) (243) (247)
Bk
(247)
Cf
(241)
Es
(254)
Fm
(253)
Md No
(251) (254)
Lw
(257)
 AGI DATA SHEET 57.1

Abundance of Elements
---------------------------------------
from Brian Mason and Carleton B. Moore, Principles of Geochemistry, 4th edition.
~c 1982 John Wiley & Sons, publishers. Used by permission.

AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF ELEMENTS IN CRUSTAL ROCKS

The average amounts of the elements in crustal rocks In grams per ton or ppm*

4 Be 2.8 47 Ag 0,07
5 B 10 48 Cd 0.2
6 c 200 49 In 0.1
7 N 20 50 Sn 2
8 0 466,000 51 Sb 0.2
9 F 625 52 Te 0.01
II Na 28,300 53 I 0.5
12 Mg 20.900 55 Cs 3
13 AI 81,300 56 Ba 425
14 Si 277,200 57 La 30
15 p 1,050 58 Ce 60
16 s 260 59 Pr 8.2
17 Cl 130 60 Nd 28
19 K 25.900 62 Sm 6.0
20 Ca 36,300 63 Eu 1.2
21 Sc 22 64 Gd 5.4
22 Ti 4,400 65 Tb 0.9
23 v 135 66 Dy 3.0
24 Cr 100 67 Ho 1.2
25 Mn 950 68 Er 2.8
26 Fe 50,000 69 Tm 0.5
27 Co 25 70 Yb 3.4
28 Ni 75 71 Lu 0.5
29 Cu 55 72 Hf 3
30 Zn 70 73 Ta 2
31 Ga 15 74 w 1.5
32 Ge 1.5 75 Re 0.001
33 As 1.8 76 Os 0.005
34 Sc 0.05 77 lr 0.001
35 Br 2.5 78 Pt 0.01
37 Rb 90 79 Au 0.004
38 Sr 375 80 Hg 0.08
39 y 33 81 Tl 0.5
40 Zr 165 82 Pb 13
41 Nb 20 83 Bi 0.2
42 Mo 1.5 90 Th 7.2
44 Ru O.Ql 92 u 1.8

*Omitting the rare gases and the short-lived radioactive elements

AGIDSjld-82
AGI DATA SHEET 57.2
ABUNDANCE OF ELEMENTS IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Elemenl abundances (ppm) In principal lypes of sedlmenlary rocks

Element Shales Sandstones Carbonates Element Shales Sandstones Carbonates

Li 66 15 5 Mo 2.6 0.2 0.4

Be 3 O.X o.x Ag O.Q7 O.OX o.ox
B 100 35 20 Cd 0.3 o.ox 0.09
F 740 270 330 In 0.1 o.ox O.OX
Na 9,600 3,300 400 Sn 6.0 o.x o.x
Mg 15,000 7,000 47.000 Sb 1.5 o.ox 0.2
AI 80,000 25,000 4,200 I 2.2 1.7 1.2
Si 273,000 368,000 24,000 Cs 5 o.x o.x
p 700 170 400 Ba 580 xo 10
s 2,400 240 1,200 La 24 16 6.3
Cl 180 10 ISO Cc 50 30 10
K 26,600 10,700 2,700 Pr 6.1 4.0 1.5
Ca 22,100 39,100 302,300 Nd 24 15 6.2
Sc 13 I I Sm 5.8 3.7 1.4
Ti 4,600 1,500 400 Eu 1.1 0.8 0.3
v 130 20 20 Gd 5.2 3.2 1.4
Cr 90 35 II Tb 0.9 0.6 0.2
Mn 850 XO 1,100 Dy 4.3 2.6 1.1
Fe 47,200 9,800 3,800 Ho 1.2 1.0 0.3
Co 19 0.3 0.1 Er 2.7 1.6 0.7
Ni 68 2 20 Tm 0.5 0.3 0.1
Cu 45 X 4 Yb 2.2 1.2 0.7
Zn 95 16 20 Lu 0.6 0.4 0.2
Ga 19 12 4 Hf 2.8 3.9 0.3
Ge 1.6 0.8 0.2 Ta 0.8 O.OX O.OX
As 13 I I w 1.8 1.6 0.6
Se 0.6 0.05 0.08 Hg 0.4 0.3 0.2
Br 4 I 6.2 Tl 1.0 0.5 0.2
Rb 140 60 3 Bi 0.4 0.17 0.2
Sr 300 20 610 Pb 20 7 9
y 26 15 6.4 Th 12 1.7 1.7
Zr 160 220 19 u 3.7 0.45 2.2
Nb II o.ox 0.3
 AGI DATA SHEET 58.1
Crustal Abundances
Data rrom A.B. Ronov & A.A. Yaroshevsky, 1969, in Hart, P.J. (ed.) "The Earth's Crust and
Upper Mantle", Geophysical Monograph 13. 1969 American Geophysical Union.
ELEMENTS, expressed as weight percent oxides:
Si02 57.60
n~ M4
AI203 15.30
Fe203 2.53
FeO 4.27
MnO 0.16
MgO 3.88
CaO 6.99
Na20 2.88
K20 2.34
P205 0.22
c 0.14
1.40
0.04
0.05
1.37

totai100.Q1

MINERALS, modal composition by weight percent:

Plagioclase 39
K-feldspar 12
Quartz 12
Pyroxenes 11
Micas 5
Amphiboles
Clay minerals & chlorites 4.6
Olivines 3
Calcite & aragonite 1.5
Dolomite 0.5
Magnetite 1.5
Others (e.g., garnets, kyanite,
and apatite) 4.9

total100.0

AGIOSnd-82
AGI DATA SHEET 58.2

ROCKS, expressed as per'cent volume of crust:

Igneous rocks- Basalts, etc. 42.5

Granites 10.4
Granodiorites & diorites 11.2
Syenites 0.4
Peridotites 0.2
64.7
Sedimentary
rocks- Sandstones 1.7
Clays & shales 4.2
Carbonates & evaporites 2.0
7.9
Metamorphic
rocks- Gneisses 21.4
Schists 5.1
Marbles 0.9

totals 100.0 100.0

There are, of course, other pertinent calculations. See, for example, the following
works and papers listed in the references cited in them.
Mehnert, K.R., 1969: Composition and Abundance of Common Metamorphic Rock
~~~~~gk:(. u.~~\s9:
2
Geophysical Aspects of Structure and Composition of the Earth
and the Earth's Crust, p. 134-226.
Wedepohl, K.H., 1969: Composition and Abundance of Common Igneous Rocks, p. 227-
249.
, 1969, Composition and Abundance of Common Sedimentary Rocks,
p. 250-271.
[(All in Wedepohl, K.H. (ed.), 1969, Handbook of Geochemistry, v. 1: Springer-Verlag,
Heidelberg & New York, 442 p.)]
 AGI DATA SHEET 59.1
Chemical Analyses of Common Rock Types
Compiled from cited references
IGNEOUS ROCKS ~
0
~ i
!!
~ ~:Ill
C':l
ia: ~l!
lI!! ~~
(!j~
0 (1).::: ~~ (I)== C) 1))"8
m~
(!It: (!It: (!jC:
cia
~
C( ~~
(1)1!
;:)(!I i :::)Q: ~ ~a
5102 71.30 72.64 69.11 72.82 73.43 66.09 6738
TI02 0.31 0.26 0.50 0.28 0.27 0.54 0.66
AI203 14.32 14.04 15.40 13.27 13.74 15.73 15.25
Fe 20J 1.12 0.87 1.08 1.48 0.49 1.38 1.77
FeO 1.64 0.96 1.45 1.11 1.23 2.73 2.31
MnO 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.08 0.04
MgO 0.71 0.38 0.76 0.39 0.29 1.74 0.96
CaO 1.84 1.39 1.94 1.14 1.17 3.83 2.02
Na20 3.68 3.32 4.07 3.55 4.18 3.75 2.80
K20 4.07 5.48 4.51 4.30 4.34 2.73 5.53
H~+ 0.64 0.34 0.55 1.10 0.34 0.85 0.57
H2o- 0.13 0.66 0.11 0.31 0.12 0.19 0.12
P205 0.12 0.09 0.14 0.07 0.05 0.18 0.28
C02 0.05 O.Q? 0.08 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.15
0.15 - others

Total 99.98 100.53 99.73 99.96 99.85 99.90 99.84

,~ ~
~
a:
~
Q
!
~
{:.
.!!
'E
f.
en
t
~
~
0
:::E
dl
~ ~
0
C(
~ t cia
.l ~
dl

SI02 65.55 65.01 61.52 58.58 61.21 62.60 61.25

Ti02 0.60 0.58 0.73 0.84 0.70 0.78 0.81
AI203 15.04 15.91 16.48 16.64 16.96 15.65 16.01
Fe20J 2.13 2.43 1.83 3.04 2.99 1.92 3.28
FeO 2.03 2.30 3.82 3.13 2.29 3.08 2.07
MnO 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.13 0.15 0.10 0.09
MgO 2.09 1.78 2.80 1.87 0.93 2.02 2.22
CaO 3.62 4.32 5.42 3.53 2.34 4.17 4.34
Na20 3.67 3.79 3.63 5.24 5.47 3.73 3.71
K~ 3.00 2.17 207 4.95 4.98 4.06 3.87
H2o+ 1.09 0.91 1.04 0.99 1.15 0.90 1.09
H2o- 0.42 0.28 0.20 0.23 0.47 0.19 0.57
P205 0.25 0.15 0.25 0.29 0.21 0.25 0.33
C02 0.21 0.06 0.14 0.28 0.09 0.08 0.19

Total 99.79 99.78 100.01 99.74 99.94 99.53 99.83

Note: Full trace element lists are avatlable-see references.

Igneous rock names follow lUGS nomenclature.
Entries under italicized column head are international geochemical rock "standards."

AGIDSMI-89
AGI DATA SHEET 59.2

!!!
~~ 6~
..... ~ ;r ~
=
d~
a~
0 ...
lH s
,;, ~~ .~ "!!
~~
~:I! !g,S ~ ~Q t !g~

SI02 66 65 65.93 57 46 52 65 57.94 5900

TI02 054 0.61 0 95 111 0.67 1 04
AI203 14.55 16.35 16 67 17 42 17 02 17 25
o
Fe 2 3 1 23 0.99 2 50 3 89 3 27 4 51
foO 2 70 2.98 492 5 42 4.04 2 05
MnO 0 06 0.09 0 12 0 21 014 0 10
MgO 1 14 1.03 3J1 4 50 3.33 1 53
CeO 2.66 3.21 6 56 7 06 6.79 4.90
Na20 3.47 4.26 3.54 3 00 3.46 4.26
K20 4.00 3.61 1 76 1 70 1.62 2.89
H2o+ 0.59 0.27 1 15 2 09 0.63 0.81
H2o- 0.14 0.19 0 21 0 23 0.34 0 16
P205 0.19 0.25 0 29 0 27 0.21 0 49
C02 0.09 0.01 0 10 013 005 006
0.04 --others

Total 100.05 99.82 99.98 99.70 99.93 99.05

~~ " "j
~
0
.a l ~~ )
.;
~

i i eta!
)ij!! !I=
"'
t
~
t ~~
~~ 1 ,~1..
~

E
.
0,'=
!g~
~
i
SI02 50.14 50.14 52.64 49.20 49.8 49.58 54.50 49.21
TI02 1.12 1.49 1.07 1.84 2.6 1.98 2.20 2.40
AI203 15.46 15.02 15.00 15.74 14.0 14.79 13.61 16.63
Fe20J 3.01 3.45 1.40 3.79 2.5 3.38 3.68 3.69
feO 7 62 8.16 8.72 7.13 6.5 8.03 8.80 6.18
MnO 0.12 0 16 0.17 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.16
MgO 7.59 6.40 6.62 8.73 7.2 7.30 3.46 5.17
CaO 9.58 8.90 10.96 9 47 11 3 10.36 6.92 7.90
Na20 2.39 2.91 2.15 2 91 2.2 2.37 3.27 3.96
K20 093 099 0.64 1.10 0.82 0.43 1.70 2.55
H2o+ 0 75 1.71 0.53 0.95 0.25 0.91 0.77 0.98
- 011 0.40 0.16 0.43 0.06 0.50 0.80 0.49
P,Os 0.24 0.25 0.14 0.35 0.32 0.24 0.36 0.59
C02 0.07 0.16 0.06 0.11 <0.05 0.03 0.03 0.10

Total 99.15 100.14 ~00.26 99.95 <99.60 100.08 100.28 100.01

 AGI DATA SHEET 59.3

i
c
g,
C(

50.44 50.28 46.27 42.26 41.90 38.29 40.50

1.00 0.64 1.47 0.63 0.015 0.09 0.013
16.28 25.86 7.16 4.23 0.74 1.82 0.24
2.21 0.96 4.27 3.61 2.85 3.59 1.21
7.39 2.07 7.18 6.58 5.24 9.38 7.23
0.14 0.05 0.16 0.41 0.12 0.71 0.11
8.73 2.12 16.04 31.24 43.18 37.94 49.80
9.41 12.48 14.08 5.05 0.51 1.01 0.15
2.26 3.15 0.92 0.49 0.006 0.20 0.007
0.70 0.65 0.64 0.34 0.004 0.08 0.001
0.84 1.17 0.99 3.91 4.70 4.59 0.46
0.13 0.14 0.14 0.31 0.50 0.25 0.06
0.15 0.09 0.38 0.10 0.002 0.20 0.002
0.18 0.14 0.13 0.30 0.12 0.43 0.08

9986 99.80 99.83 99.46 99.887 98.58 99.863

54.99 59.54 56.19 47.60 40.60 42.52

0.60 0.13 0.62 1.76 2.66 0.42
20.96 18.61 19.04 17.00 14.33 4.11
2.25 2.87 2.79 4.12 5.46 4.62
2.05 2.09 2.03 5.22 6.17 6.96
0.15 0.23 0.17 0.15 0.26 0.17
0.77 0.10 1.07 4.70 6.39 26.37
2.31 1.15 2.72 9.16 11.89 5.32
8.23 6.97 7.79 3.69 4.79 0.55
5.58 4.24 5.24 4.49 3.46 0.25
1.30 1.39 1.57 1.03 1.65 1.07
0.17 0.19 0.37 0.22 0.54 0.03
0.13 0.16 0.16 0.63 1.07 0.11
0.20 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.60 0.06

Total 99.69 99.66 99.66 100.01 99.69 94.76

AGI DATA SHEET 59.4
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Ql
c::
Gl
....:
iii e
~~
<J ... ~
~
~ !
(;
I ::..c:
C:lll
8.:
e
~
ci:: ...

g~
cnc:
Gl

><e
:e
::&!::
>c
CQ

~
...:.
"'~
<(
g.
<(
ii:GI
g.2
<(Ill
g.~
<(::!:
-g
0
(!)CD
en!!
:l(!)
g~
~c 'lit
Q:
::&!::
'lit

Si0 2 70.0 66.7 50.7 58.9 61.84 28.29 8.61 3.24 0.30 7.36
AI203 8.2 13.5 15.1 16.7 13.40 7.24 2.41 0.17 0.05 54.30
o
Fe 2 3 2.5 1.6 4.4 2.8 3.83 1.52 0.55 0.17 22.89
FeO 1.5 3.5 2.1 3.7 1.15 1.25 0.34 0.06 I 0.29
MgO 1.9 2.1 3.3 2.6 2.69 4.50 0.72 20.84 0.33 0.13
CaO 4.3 2.5 7.2 2.2 2.68 8.87 47.76 29.58 40.75 0.25
Na 2 o 0.58 2.9 0.8 1.6 0.97 2.66 0.11 0.04 0.09
K20 2.1 2.0 3.5 3.6 2.8 1.71 0.41 0.01 0.07
H2o+ 3.0 2.4 5.0 5.0 3.85 41.3 1.00 0.30 11.54
H2o- I 2.45 (LOI) 1 Total 0.42
HzO

Ti0 2 0.58 0.6 0.78 0.78 0.83 0.35 0.13 0.001 2.40
P205 0.1 0.1 0.10 0.16 0.44 0.29 0.12 0.13
MnO 0.06 0.1 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.042 0.09 0.04
C0 2 3.9 1.2 6.1 1.3 2.55 11.05 37.60 45.54 0.65 0.48
organics 0.18 I
503 0.7 0.3 0.6 0.44 57.60
(0.27 others)
#LOI =loss on ignition; includes water and hydrocarbons.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
The principal use for chemical analyses in studying a metamorphic rock is in determin-
ing what the rock's identity was prior to metamorphism. Because chemical mobility in
metamorphic reactions is usually on an extremely restricted scale, there is typically no
chemical compositional difference between the metamorphic product and its precursor
rock type, except for water content-for example, see Mehnert (in Wedepohl, 1969).
Therefore, an analysis of a metamorphic rock would not be compared with analyses of
other metamorphic rocks but with analyses of sedimentary and igneous rocks. Includ-
ing a table of metamorphic compositions in this compilation of data on common rock
types would thus be meaningless. This notwithstanding, there are metamorphic rocks
used as geochemical standards. These are:
1) ZGI-TB Slate; Si02:60.30, Al20~20.55, Fe603:0.91, Fe0:5.43, Mg0:1.94, Ca0:0.30,
Nat:0:1.31, K2C??85,H.2~+:.3.8~, Ti 2:0.93,_P2 5:0.10, ~n0:0.05, _co2:0.13;_and 2) U~GS
~~26:2~ ~~~~~~. ~~~~ t~ft~~ ~ ~~t?,t~i:o.~~~~~J5~b.~~. ri~~:~1g?d62:~~~-
5 9 0 1 3

References
Average igneous rocks after Le Maitre, R.W. (1976), J. Petrol., v. 17, p. 589-637. Geochemi-
cal Standards from Flanagan, F.J. (1973), Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, v. 37, p. 1189-1200.
(and) Flanagan, F.J. (1976), U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 840, 192 p.
Average sedimentary rocks after Wedepohl, K.H. (1969), Handbook of Geochemistry.
Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 250-271.
Knox dolomite from Pettijohn, F.J. (1975), Sedimentary Rocks, 3rd ed. Harper and Row,
New York, p. 362.
 AGI DATA SHEET 60.1

Gravimetric Conversion Factors

and other data used in interpreting analyses of rocks, minerals, and waters.
compiled by Rollin E. Stevens, Sarah T. Neil, and Charles E. Roberson, U.S. Geological
Survey
Based on atomic weights accepted by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 1957,
and data in Handbook of Chemistry, 9th ed., edited by N.A. Lange and G.M. Forker, 1956

DEFINITIONS AND USES

EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS
1. Definition: The weight of an element or compound, in grams or other weight units, equal in com
bining capacity to 8.0000 units of oxygen measured in the same weight unit. The equivalent weight
of an element is calculated by dividing the atomic weight by the valence of the element; the
equivalent weight of a compound is calculated by dividing the molecular weight of the compound
~~~~~tR~~t~j=c~~~~:!l~~~~~~hv;l~~~~~~~~r~s~f:fd~d t~: tf~~~~~~d:~~ ~~~~~~~~'6~~~c~~~~i;=~~
or reducible component in the formula to calculate the equivalent weight.
2. Uses: For water analyses, each constituent reported is divided by the corresponding equivalent
weight to calculate the comparative combining capacity of each constituent in the analysis; if the
analysis is reported in parts per million, equivalents per million parts of water will be obtained,
from which the normality (equivalents per liter) of each constituent can be calculated (1).
For mineral analyses, the equivalent weights can be used to calculate from the analysis the atomic
ratios in the formula of the mineral, particularly where ion substitutions involve valence changes or
empty spaces within the atomic arrangement of the mineral, by adjusting the equivalents of
cations (metallic or positive ions) in the analysis to balance the equivalents of anions in the for
mula (4)

GRAVIMETRIC FACTORS

1. Definition: The factor by which a reported constituent Is multiplied to express the constituent In
another form or as a chemically equivalent quantity of another constituent.
2. Example of use: The content of AbO~ In the analysis Is multiplied by the appropriate factor
(0.5292) to calculate the content of AI in the analysis; the content ofF is multiplied by 0.4211 to
calculate the oxygen to which it is chemically equivalent; the content of FeO is multiplied by
0.7773 to express the content as Fe, by 1.6125 to express as FeCQ,, by 3.223 to calculate the
magnetite (Fe.O.) corresponding to the content of FeO reported, by 1.0742 to calculate the Fe~o.
that would be formed by oxidation of the FeO, by 1.1113 to calculate the Fe.Ot that would be
formed by oxidation, and by 1.4182 to calculate the fayalite (Fe,SiO.) corresponding to the content
of FeO reported.
For minerals, the factors refer to the idealized compositions given In the formulas. Isomorphous
~~:~~~g~~~~ c0~n~~~f ~f r~~ts~ 0f~~~r~vrrr::;~i~hf~c~~~~0~a~~(soab~r~~~dai~e ci~lc~)~~~~~t~pn~~~
analyses to end members represented by the idealized compositions expressed in the formulas (3}.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Most factors are expressed to only four or five significant figures. This Is because the atomic
weights o.f many elements are know~ to only four significant figures. For example, the atomic
weight of 1ron is given as 55.85, which Implies an accuracy of about 1 part in 6,000. Therefore, to ex
press the gravimetric factor for converting Fe to FeO as 1.2864816 rather than 1.2865 has little
justification. Where the factor begins with a small number, as in 1.2865, five significant figures are
g~gmt_o make them correspond with high values in the next lower order of magnitude, for example,

Similarly, in using the factors, values obtained by computation should not be expressed in more
than four or five significant figures.
For further discussion of significant figures, see Hillebrand et al. (2).

REFERENCES
1. John D. Hem, U.S.G.S. Water-Supply Paper 1473, p. 32 (1959)
2. W.F. Hillebrand, G.E.F. Lundell, H.A. Bright, J.l. Hoffman, Applied inorganic analysis, p. 6, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1953
3. Albert Johannsen, A descriptive petrography of the igneous rocks, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, p. 292, Univer
sity of Chicago Press, 1939
4. Rollin E. Stevens, U.S.G.S. Bull. 950 (1946}
AGI DATA SHEET 60.2

Formula .Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
Ag 107.88 107.88 AgCI 1.3287
Ag20 1.0742
AgCI 143.337 143.337 Ag .75263
Ag20 .80844
AgzO 231.76 115.88 Ag .93096
AgCI 1.2369
AI 26.98 8.99 AbOJ 1.8895
Ab03 101.96 16.993 AI .5292
(corundum) AI(OH)l 1.5301
(gibbsite)
CaAI2ShOa 2.729
(anorthite)
KAIShOs 5.460
(orthoclase)
(microcline)
KAbSb01a(OH)2 2.604
(muscovite)
KAIShOs 4.281
(leu cite)
KMg3AISb01o(OH)z 8.186
(phlogopite)
biotite (3) 4.10
NaAISiO~ 2.787
(nephelite)
augite (3) 13.5
hornblende (3) 9.52
NaAIShOa 5.144
(albite)
As 74.91 (3+ )24.97 As203 1.3204
As2SJ 1.6421
(5 + )14.982 Asz05 1.5340
AsO. 1.8544
Aszs~ 2.0702
AszOJ 197.82 32.97 As .7574
Aso. 1.4044
As2SJ 1.2436
Asz05 229.82 22.982 As .6519
AsO. 1.2089
AszSs 1.3495
B 10.82 3.607 B20J 3.218
Bz03 69.64 11.61 B .3107
NazB.Or10HzO 2.739
(borax)
Ba 137.36 68.68 BaO 1.1165
BaCOJ (witherite) 1.4369
BaSO. (barite) 1.6994
BaO 153.36 76.68 Ba .8957
BaC03 (witherite) 1.2870
BaSO. 1.5221
Be 9.013 4.507 BeO 2.7752
BeO 25.013 12.507 Be .3603
Be3AizSi60u 7.163
(beryl)
Bi 209.00 69.67 Biz03 1.1148
BbSJ 1.2301
Biz OJ 466.00 77.67 Bi .8970
BbSJ 1.1034
 AGJ DATA SHEET 60.3

Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
Br 79.916 79.916 0 (equivalence) .10010
c 12.011 3.003 co~ 3.6642
COJ 4.9963
co~ 44.011 11.003 c .27291
col 1.3635
HCOJ 1.3864
BaCOJ 4.485
(witherite)
CaCOJ 2.274
(calcite)
CaMg(C03)2 2.095
(dolomite)
MgC03 1.916
(magnesite)
COJ 60.011 30.006 C02 .73338
HCOJ 61.019 61.019 C02 .72136
Ca 40.08 20.04 CaCh 2.769
CaCOJ (calcite) 2.497
Ca(HC03)2 4.045
CaO 1.3992
caso. (anhydrite) 3.397
CaCb 110.99 55.50 Ca .3611
Cl .6389
CaCOJ 100.09 50.05 Ca .4004
CaF2 78.08 Ca .5133
CaO .7182
F .4867
Ca(HC03)2 162.12 81.06 Ca .2472
HC03 .7528
CaO 56.08 28.04 Ca .7147
CaAbSi2Ce (anorthite) 4.961
CaCOJ (calcite) 1.785
CaMg(COJ)2 3.289
(dolomite)
CaMgSbOE approx. 3.862
(diopside)
augite (3) 4.79
hornblende (3) 17.2
Ca5(P04}3F, var. 1.799
(apatite)
CaSiOJ 2.072
(wollastonite)
caso. 2.428
(anhydrite)
CaS0.2H20 3.070
(gypsum)
caso. 136.15 68.07 Ca .2944
CaO .4119
SOJ .5881
so. .7056
CaS0.2H.O 172.18 CaO .3257
(gypsum)
caso. (anhydrite) .7907
Cb(see Nb)
Cd 112.41 56.21 CdO 1.1423
CdS 1.2853
CdO 128.41 64.21 Cd .8754
CdS 1.1251
AGI DATA SHEET 60.4

Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
Ce 140.13 (3 + )46.71 CezOJ 1.1713
(4 + )35.03 CeOz 1.2284
Cez03 328.26 54.71 Ce .8538
CeOz 172.13 43.03 Ce .8141
Cl 35.457 34.457 CaCb 1.5651
KCI 2.1027
MgCiz 1.3430
NaG I 1.6484
0 (equivalence) .22563
Co 58.94 29.47 CoO 1.2715
CoO 74.94 37.47 Co .7865
Cr 52.01 17.34 CrzOJ 1.4614
Crz03 152.02 25.34 Cr .6843
Cs 132.91 132.91 CszO 1.0602
CszO 281.82 140.91 Cs .9432
Cu 63.54 (1 + )63.54 CuzO 1.1259
CuzS 1.2523
(2+)31.77 GuO 1.2518
GuS 1.5047
CuzO 143.08 71.54 Cu .8882
CuzS 1.1123
GuO 79.54 39.77 Cu .7988
GuS 1.2020
F 19.00 19.00 CaF 2.055
(fluorite)
0 (equivalence) .4211
Fe 55.85 (2 +) 27.93 FeO 1.2865
Felo. 1.3820
(3 +) 18.62 Fez03 1.4297
FeO 71.85 35.93 Fe .7773
FeCOJ 1.6125
FelO (magnetite) 3.223
Fe30. (by oxidation) 1.0742
Fez03 (by oxidation) 1.1113
FezSiO (fayalite) 1.4182
FeSiOJ (ferrosilite) 1.8363
FeTiOJ (ilmenite) 2.1120
augite (3) 14.5
hornblende (3) 4.52
hypersthene (3) 3.24
FeJO. 231.55 Fe .7236
(magnetite)
FeO (content) .3103
FeO (by reduction) .9309
FezOJ (content) .6897
FezOJ (by oxidation) 1.034
Fez OJ 159.70 26.62 Fe .6994
(hematite)
FeO (by reduction) .8998
FeJO (by reduction) .9666
augite (3) 21.7
hornblende (3) 6.14
FeSz 119.98 Fe .4655
(pyrite)
FeO (by reaction) .5989
FezOJ (by reaction) .665
s .534
SOz (by reaction) 1.0675
 AGI DATA SHEET 60.5

Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
Ga 69.72 23.24 Ga20J 1.3442
Ga20J 187.44 31.24 Ga .7439
Ge 72.60 18.15 Ge02 1.4408
Ge02 104.60 26.15 Ge .6941
H 1.0080 1.0080 H20 8.9365
H20 18.016 9.008 H .11190
0 .8881
OH 1.8881
H2S 34.082 17.041 s .940
Hf 178.50 44.63 Hf02 1.17
Hf02 210.50 52.63 Hf .848
Hg 200.61 (1 +) 200.61 HgCI 1.1767
Hg20 1.0399
Hg2S 1.0799
(2 +) 100.31 HgCh 1.3535
HgO 1.0798
HgS 1.1599
I 126.91 126.91 0 (equivalence) .06340
In 114.82 38.27 ln20J 1.2090
K 39.100 39.100 KCI (sylvite) 1.9068
K2C03 1.7674
KHCOJ 2.5606
K20 1.2046
KCI 74.557 74.557 K .52443
(sylvite)
Cl .47557
K20 .63173
KNOJ 101.11 101.11 K .38671
(niter)
K20 .46583
NOJ .61327
K20 94.20 47.10 K .83015
KCI 1.5830
KAISbOs 5.910
(orthoclase, microcline)
KAbSiJO,o(OH)l 8.457
(muscovite)
KMgJAISiJO,o(OH)2 8.860
(phlogopite)
KAISi20~ (leucite) 4.634
biotite (3) 8.93
La 138.92 46.31 La20J 1.1728
La203 325.84 54.31 La .8527
Li 6.940 6.940 Li20 2.153
Li20 29.88 14.94 Li .4645
LiAISi20e (spodumene) 12.456
Mg 24.32 12.16 MgCb 3.916
MgCOJ 3.467
Mg(HCOJ)2 6.018
MgO 1.6579
MgCI2 95.23 47.62 Mg .25538
Cl .7446
MgCOJ 84.33 42.17 Mg .2884
(magnesite)
MgO .4781
Mg(HCOJ)2 146.36 73.18 Mg .16662
HCOJ .8338
AGI DATA SHEET 60.6

Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor

MgO 40.32 20.16 Mg .603

CaMgSb06 (diopside) 5.375
MgC01 (magnesite) .20915
Mg(OH)2 (brucite) 1.4469
KMgJAISil01o(OH)2 3.450
(phlogopite)
augite (3) 7.94
hOrnblende (3) 12.05
forsterite (3) 1.75
enstatite (3) 2.50
hypersthene (3) 5.78
Mn 54.94 (2 +) 27.47 MnO 1.2912
(3 +) 18.31 Mn20J 1.4368
(4+) 13.74 MnOz (pyrolusite) 1.5825
MnO 70.94 35.47 Mn .7745
Mn20J 157.88 26.31 Mn .6960
MnOz 86.94 21.74 Mn .6319
Mo 95.95 (4+) 23.99 MoS2 (molybdenite) 1.6684
(6+) 15.99 MoOJ 1.5003
MoOJ 143.95 23.99 Mo .6666
N 14.008 (3 +) 4.669 NHJ 1.2159
NH.+ 1.2878
N02 3.284
(5,+) 2.802 HNOJ 4.499
N03 4.427
N20s 3.856
NH3 17.032 17.032 N .8225
NH+ 18.040 18.040 N .7765
NOz 46.008 46.008 N .30447
N03 62.008 62.008 N .22591
Na 22.991 22.991 NaCI (halite) 2.5422
Na2COJ 2.3051
NaHCOJ 3.6540
Na20 1.3480
NaCI (halite) 58.448 58.448 Na .39336
Cl .60664
NazO .53023
Na2C03 105.99 53.00 C02 .41523
col .56619
Na .43382
Na20 .58477
NaHCOJ 84.01 84.01 C02 .52388
HCOJ .72633
Na .27367
NazO .36890
NaN OJ 85.00 85.00 Na .27048
(soda niter) N03 .72952
Na20 61.98 30.99 Na .74186
NaAISbOs (albite) 8.462
NaAISiO. (nephelite) 4.584
NaCI 1.8860
Nb 92.91 18.582 Nb20s 1.4305
NbzOs 265.82 26.582 Nb .6990
Ni 58.71 29.36 NiO 1.2725
NiO 74.71 37.36 Ni .7858
0 16.000 8.000
 AGI DATA SHEET 60.7

Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor
p 30.975 6.195 P20s 2.2914
P04 3.0662
P04 94.975 31.658 p .32614
PzOs .74730
PzOs 141.95 14.195 p .43642
PO. 1.3381
Cas(P04)3F, var. 2.369
(apatite)
Pb 207.21 103.61 PbO 1.0772
PbS 1.1548
PbS04 1.4636
PbO 223.21 111.61 Pb .9283
PbS 1.0720
PbSO. 1.3587
PbS 239.28 119.64 Pb .8660
(galena) PbO .9329
PbS04 303.28 151.64 Pb .6832
(anglesite) PbO .7360
Rb 85.48 85.48 RbzO 1.0936
RbzO 186.96 93.48 Rb .9144
s 32.066 0 (equivalence) .4990
FeSz (pyrite) 1.8708
(2-) 16.033 HzS 1.0629
(4+) 8.017 so2 1.9979
(6+) 5.344 S03 2.4969
so. 2.9959
SOz 64.066 16.017 s .5005
so3 1.2497
so3 80.066 13.344 s .4005
SOz .8002
sol 80.066 40.033 so. 1.1998
so. 96.066 48.033 so3 .8335
CaS04 1.4172
K2S04 1.8141
NazS04 1.4787
Sb 121.76 (3+) 40.59 Sbz03 1.1971
Sb2S3 1.3950
(4 +) 30.44 Sbz04 1.2628
(5 +) 24.35 Sbz05 1.3285
Sbz03 291.52 48.59 Sb .8354
SbzSJ 1.1653
Sb20 307.52 38.44 Sb .7919
Sb205 323.52 64.70 Sb .7527
Sc 44.96 14.99 Scz03 1.5338
SczOJ 137.92 22.99 Sc .6520
Se 78.96 0 (equivalence) .20263
(4 +) 19.74 SeOz 1.4053
(6 +) 13.16 Se03 1.6079
Se02 110.96 27.74 Se .7116
SeOl 1.1442
Se03 126.96 21.16 Se .6219
Se02 .8740
Si 28.09 7.02 SiOz 2.1392
sio: 3.278
SiOz 60.09 15.023 Si .4675
(quartz) SiOr 1.5325
AGI DATA SHEET 60.8

Formula Weight
Constituent or atomic of one Constituent Gravimetric
reported weight equivalent sought factor

Sn 118.70 (2+) 59.35 SnO 1.1348

(4+) 29.68 Sn02 1.2696
SnO 134.70 67.35 Sn .8812
SnO, 150.70 37.68 Sn .7877
(cassiterite)
Sr 87.63 43.815 SrCOJ (strontianite) 1.6848
SrO 1.1826
SrS04 {celestite) 2.0963
SrO 103.63 51.815 Sr .8456
Ta 180.95 36.19 Ta206 1.2211
Ta2o~ 441.90 44.19 Ta .8190
Te 127.61 0 (equivalence) .12538
(4+)31.90 TeO, 1.2508
(6+) 21.27 Te03 1.3761
Te02 159.61 39.90 Te .7995
Te03 175.61 29.27 Te .7267
Th 232.05 58.01 Th02 1.1379
ThOz 264.05 66.01 Th .8788
Tl 204.39 204.39 ThO 1.0391
ThO 424.78 212.39 Tl .9623
Ti 47.90 11.98 Ti02 {rutile, anatase) 1.6681
Ti02 79.90 19.98 Ti .5995
(rutile, anatase) FeTiOJ (ilmenite) 1.8993
u 238.07 (4 +) 59.52 U02 1.1344
UJOs 1.1792
(6+) 39.68 UOJ 1.2016
uo2 270.07 67.52 u .8815
UJOa 1.0395
UJOa 842.21 52.64 u .8480
U02 .9620
v 50.95 (3 +) 16.98 V20J 1.4711
(5+) 10.19 Vz05 1.7851
vo4 2.2561
V20J 149.90 24.98 v .6798
vo. 1.5337
V20s 181.90 18.19 v .5602
vo4 1.2639
w 183.86 30.64 WOJ 1.2611
WOJ
y
231.86 38.64 w .7930
88.92 29.64 Y20J 1.2699
YzOJ 225.84 37.64 y .7875
Zn 65.38 32.69 ZnO 1.2447
ZnO 81.38 40.69 Zn .8034
Zr 91.22 22.805 ZrOz 1.3508
Zr02 123.22 30.805 Zr .7403
ZrSiO. {zircon) 1.4877
 AGI DATA SHEET 61.1
Geophysical Data

DIMENSIONS AND MASS PROPERTIES OF THE EARTHa,b

Equatorial radius ..........................6,37B km
Polar radius ................................... 6,357 km
Radius of sphere with Earth's
volume ....................................... 6,371 km
Average density ........................ 5.517 g/cm'
Mass {M).................................... 5.98 X 1027 g
Moment of inertia ........................... 1/3 MA 2
Theoretical gravity at
equator.......................... 978.049 cm/sec 2
Area of lands ......................... 14B X 10" km 2
Area of oceans ..................... 362 X 10" km 2
Average height of lands ....................823 m
Average depth of oceans ........ 3.B 0.2 km
Average elevation of Earth's
surface (solid), compared to
sea level.. ................................. - 2,430 m
Theoretical gravity at
poles ..............................983.221 cmlsec 2

DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF INTERNAL LAYERS OF THE EARTHc,d,e,f

Depth to Fraction Mass Compressional Shear

boundaries of (in 10" Density velocity velocity
layer (km) volume g) (glcm') (km/sec) (km/sec)
Continental
Crust 0-33 0.0155' 0.05 2.67-3.0? 5.9-7.4? 3.54-4.1?
(2.84 av)
Mantle 33-2898 0.8225 4.05 3.32-5.66 7.75-13.64 4.35-7.30
(4.93 av)
Core 2898-6371 0.1620 1.88 9.7-12.3? 8.10-11.31
(10.93 av}

DIMENSIONS OF COMPONENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUSTQ,h

Depth Sediments
below sea
Av. surface level to Volume, Mass,
Area elevation boundary solid dry
Region (in 105 km"} (km) (km) {in 105 km3) {in 1021 g)

Deep oceanic 268 -4112 104 80.4 217

Suboceanic 93 -14 173!4 372 1,500
Young folded belts 42 H-4 37 126 340
Shield areas 105 ~ 35 52.5 140
Volcanic islands 2 1fz 14

THE HYDROSPHEREg,h ANNUAL EVAPORATION AND

Volume Mass PRECIPITATIONg
(in 10 8 km 3 ) (in 1Q2 'g)
Oceans 1370 1380
1 ~r~~'g!t~~~r ~~af8it~,)
Lakes, rivers 0.5 0.5 Oceans 297 334
Ice 25-30 25-30 land 99 62
H o in ANNUAL RUNOFFg
2
atmosphere 0.013 0.013 Volume ......................................37 X 10' km
H o in Dissolved load ....................... 5,402 X 10 12 g
2
sediments 196 201 Suspended load ..................32,500 X 1012 g

a Birch, Schairer, and Spicer, Geoi.Soc.Am. Special Paper 36, p. 104, 1942
b Rankama and Sahama, Geochemistry, p. 798, 1942
~ ~~~=~6~~g,og~gf!g~c~~~e~~~~f~~~~ tf,Yp. ~~:34, 1955
1 1

e Worzel and Shurbert, Geol.~oc.Am. Special Paper 62, p. 87-100, 1955

~ ~~,~~~~~~;, ~~~~.~~~~~~~~~~gti, ~~pe~~1,~:~2~~T~~~;~~ 39, p. 528
h Arie Poldervaart, written communication
v.
i Mass including salts 1430 X 10 21 g
AGIDS.fi5
AGI DATA SHEET 61.2
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS (at stp)

Type Density Magnetic Compressional Shear Electrical Thermal

(g/cm 3) susceptibility velocity, near velocity, near resistivity conductivity
(in 10- 6 cgs units) surface, surface (ohm-em) (in 10- 3
(km/sec) (km/sec) caUseccm, C.)
A. Pl,.UTONIC flOCKS
Granite- 2.5-2.9 10-4,000 4.0-6.5 2.4-3.2 10'4-109 3-10
quartz-
diorite
Diorite- 2.7-3.1 70-6,000 104-109 4-6
gabbro
Perido- 3.2-3.4 7,500-15,000 10'4-105
lite-dunite
B. VOLCANIC ROCKS 12
Rhyolite- 2.2-2.7 40-60 1QL1()8
dacite
Andesite 2.4-2.8 60-17,000 10S-1Q8 3-7
Basalt 2.7-3.0 70-26,000 3.6-5.6 105-1()8 4-5
C. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 123.4.
Carbonate 1.8-2.9 1-20 1.7-6.4 1.0-3.7 1Ql-1()1i 2-12
rocks
Shale 1.6--2.9 20-60 1.8-3.9 1.1-2.3 102-1()8 1-7
Sandstone 2.0-3.2 2.5-3.9 1.5-2.3 102-1()15 2-14
Salt 2.1-2.3 -0.5- -3.0 4.5-5.2 2.6--3.0 1QL1QB 20-300
Anhydrite- 2.2-3.0 -0.4--10 3.4-5.5 2.0-3.2 105-107
gypsum
D. SOME CQMMON MINERALS 12 3
Quartz i.654 -1--1.2 1Q12-1Q28 -
Calcite 2.717 -0.6--1 1014
Magnetite 4.97- 300,000- 0.04-105
5.18 800,000
Ilmenite 4.44- 30,000- 100-105
4.9 250,000
Galena 7.57 0.003-80 -
Pyrite 5.018 1Q-3-1Q4 -
Chalco- 4.283 32 O.D1-30
pyrite
Sphalerite 4.083 107-108
Hematite 5.26 40-300 0.4-105
Pyrrhotite 4.7 7,000-130,000 10- 4 -10

THE ATMOSPHERE5
Total mass - 5.25 x 1Q21 g. Height: judged by twilight, 63 km; by meteors, 200 km:
by aurora. 44-360 km.
0 km 50 km 100 km 160 km
Pressure (mm Hg): 760 7.5 X 1Q-l 4.2 X 1Q-4 2x 10-6
Density (g/m 3 ): 1,220 1.3 8x 1Q-4 1.5 X 10-6

1. Birch, Schairer and Spicer, Geoi.Soc.Am.Special Paper 36; 1942

2. Heiland, Geophysical e11p!oration 1940
3. George V. Keller, written communication
4. Nettleton, Geophysical prospecting for oil, 1940
5. Handbook of chemistry and physics, p. 3075, 3076, 1955
 AGI DATA SHEET 62.1
lUGS Classifications
PLUTONIC ROCKS

Q-quartz; A-alkali feldspar [including

mlcrocline, orthoclase, sanidine, anortho-
clase, and perthites (including their plagio-
clase components),and plagioclase An-Q-5];
P-plagioclase other than An-05; F-felds-
pathoids (leucite and pseudoleucite,
nepheline, sodalite, nosean, hauyne, can-
crinite, analcime, etc.); M-mafic minerals;
01-olivine; Ho-Hornblende; Bi-biotite;
Px-pyroxene.

In order to plot a rock's composition in the appropriate triangle on the larger, double
triangle, the three components, alkali feldspar (A), plagioclase feldspar (P), and quartz
(Q) or the fold minerals (F) are equated to 100 per cent-i.e., the other components are
subtracted from the total mode and the remaining QAP or FAP percentages are nor-
malized to 100 per cent
The names to be applied to the rocks are as follows:

~~a~~~i~~~~~e5~~~~~~~~~~;
1b.', ~u;a~~r~~~a~{.~~lid~~;; ~Y!~~~~~-!,e}~~E:~~r~~~t;i~~; ~~~~~~irt~
monzonite; g, quartz monzodiorite/quartz monzogabbro; 10, quartz diorite/quartz gab-
bro/quartz anorthositec; 6, alkali-feldspar syenite; 7, syenite; 8, monzonite; 9, mon-
~~~~~~~~~~.0~~f9-~~~~f~g ~y~~~[~~e'N~b~~~~~~~si:;~n~o~~~-~~~r~~Pd-~:::~~~~~~
1

zodiorite/monzogabbro; 10', fold-bearing diorite/gabbro; 11, fold syenite; 12, foid monzo
syenite (syn. fold plagisyenite); 13, foid monzodiorite/fold monzogabbro (essex
ite =nepheline monzodiorite/monzogabbro); 14, foid diorite/fold gabbro
(theralite =nepheline gabbro, teschenite =analcime gabbro); 15, foidolites; 16,
ultramafic plutonic rocks (ultramafitolites).

a. Plutonic rocks were not assumed to be of igneous origin by the Subcommission responsible
for this nomenclature scheme.
b. Triangles tor these rocks are given on the reverse side of this sheet.
c. Diorites are distinguished from gabbros on the basis of the An-content of the constituent
plagioclase feldspar with An-50 the limiting value; anorthosites are rocks made up of 90 or more
percent plagioclase.

AGIOS-rv<l-89
AGI DATA SHEET 62.2

wehrltte
horzburgde

lherzoltle

401--+--------~40--

oltvtne f I
orthopyroxenore I

orthop~roxe note

01_ _

90 90

hornblende
-perodoto!es
pyroxene
Per! dot des
perodolites
pyroene-
hornb:ende
perodotiles

Pyro>en1tu
OIP11ne
pyrount!es oh'lflnt- oiPill1t ond
hornblende pyronne hornblend1le Hornblendotes
10 pyronnotes hornblendole 10

Px !'>0
IIJrOU~IlU
hornblende pyrooene hornblencltte
pyroun11n hornblndh

01-ollvine
Opx-orthopyroxene
Cpx-clinopyroxene
Px-pyroxene
Ho-hornblende

Ultramafic rocks: 01 + Px + Ho (etc.) ~ 90 per cent.

Diagrams for the lUGS Preliminary classification for plutonic rocks, suggested for field use, are
presented on Data Sheet 21. Additional diagrams out I ining suggested use of the prefixes leu co
and mela and giving nomenclature for less common phanerites such as carbonatites and lam-
prophyres may be found in the following references:
Dietrich, R.V., and Skinner, B.J., 1979, Rocks and Rock Minerals: Wiley, N.Y., 369p.

no~~scl~~~~~~~~~~i~~ r~gk;~~e~~~~~~-~~~. ~~ 1 18(o~~.i, :.~ts:h1973, Classification and

Streckeisen, A., 1979, Classification and nomenclature of ... lamprophyres, carbonatltes, and
melilitic rocks: Geology, v. 7, p. 331-335.
 AGI DATA SHEET 62.3
VOLCANIC ROCKS

a 2 alkali (-feldspar) rhyolite

(liparite)
3a
3b
rhyolite (liparite)
,....< 90
4
5 dacite
6. quartz-alkali (-feldspar) trachyte
6 01--r---.---,--__,...-\6 0 6 alkali (-feldspar) trachyte
6' laid-bearing alkali (-feldspar) trachyte
\ 7. quartz trachyte
2 3a 3b 4 's
\
7 trachyte
\ 7' foid-bearing trachyte
\ a quartz latite
8 latite
8' foid-bearing latite
9
10 andesite, basalt
11 phonolite
12 tephritic phonolite
13 phonolitic tephrite (basanite)
14 tephrite, basanite
15a phonolitic foidite
11 12 13 14
15b tephritic foidite
15c foidite
16 ultramafitite

~
I
15ai15b
I
90 .!. 90 01 P
15c M&90-100

0-quartz; A-alkali feldspar (includes sanidine, orthoclase, anorthoclase, and per-

thites); P-plagioclase feldspar; F-feldspathoids, etc.; M-mafic minerals;
Mel-melilite; 01-olivine; Px-pyroxene.
There has been much discussion as to what criterion or set of criteria should be used to
distinguish between basalts and andesites. The Subcommission is on record as favor-
ing a combined pair of criteria involving silica content (which is determined by chemical
analysis) and color index. See the diagram and explanation on the reverse side of this
sheet.
AGI DATA SHEET 62.4

Distinguishing basalts from andesites-a scheme suggested by the Subcommission:

ANDESITE mela-andeslte

Silica
Content 52 1--------+---------1
(per cent)

leuco-basalt BASALT

40 wgt. (35 vol.)

Color Index (per cent)----tll..

The first criterion to be used is the Si02-content. It is suggested that, being so critical,
the value should always be determined In the same way-i.e., it should be taken from
rock analyses after they have been recalculated as H20 and C02free and normalized to
100 per cent.
The second criterion to be used Is color index, for this purpose defined as the percen-
tage of mafic minerals in a norm. The two different values are given because the color
Index derived from the CIPW norm (weight-based) is generally 1-2 per cent higher than
that from the Barth Katanorm (molecular-based).
Attention is directed to the references cited on the other sheet dealing with igneous
rock nomenclature- Data Sheet 21 -especially the following:
Streckeisen, A., 1979, Classification and nomenclature of volcanic rocks, lam-
prophyres, carbonatites, and melilitic rocks: Recommendations and suggestions of the
JUGS Subcommission on the systematics of igneous rocks: Geology, v. 7, p. 331-335.
 AGI DATA SHEET 63.1
Optical Determinations
Kwo-Ling Chyi, Central Michigan University

OPTIC SIGN DETERMINATION

The optic sign of a mineral can be determined using the appropriate (conoscopic)
setup and with an accessary plate. The figures on this sheet show how to determine the
optic sign with gypsum plate and quartz wedge (arrows indicate movement of isochromat-
ic lines) .

I. Uniaxial Mineral
Figure 1. Determination of the optic sign of uniaxial optic axis figures: 1B, 1C, and
1D- gypsum plate; 28, 2C, and 2D- quartz wedge.

CRYSTAL ( +) CRYSTAL (-)

20

Figure 1. Y - Yellow
B- Blue
A-Red

AGI -DS-rvd-89
 II.
F Biaxial Mi neral
2. Deter n:'~atlon
gyps~m pi:~~
10 - lgure
extinction . . of the
quartz ,wedge
38, 3C, and 30 .!osition . oplate;
gypsum
. 28, 2C . anadl acute
ptlc sign of biaxi 20-bisectrix
45o f.lgures: 18 1C
pos1tion.

30

Figure 2. Y- Yellow
B- Blue
A-Red
 AGI DATA SHEET 63.3

OPTIC ANGLE ESTIMATION

Figure 3. A: Estimation of 2Vangle from acute bisectrix figure. The maximum separation
of the isogyres (dark lines) in a 45" position is a function of the refractive index N~ and of
the numerical aperture (N.A.) of the obJeCtive lens. 8: The 2Vangle can also be estimat-
ed from the curvature of the single isogyre of an optic-axis figure

Nd = 1.5. N.A. = 0.85

69ffiEB
15 30 4~
Nff = 1.7, N.A. = 0.85

A
60

Figure 3.

References
Bloss, F. D., 1961 An Introduction to the Methods of Optical Crystallography. Holt. Rine-
hart and Winston, New York, 294 p.

Ehlers, E.G., 1987. Optical Mineralogy, Theory and Technique. Blackwell Scientific Publi-
cations. Palo Alto. 158 p.

Phtllips, W.R., 1971. Mineral Optics, Pnnciples and Techniques. W.H. Freeman and Co.,
San Francisco. 249 p.
 AGI DATA SHEET 64.1
An-Content of Plagioclase Feldspars
R. V. Dietrich, Central Miclligan University

Optic anglo (2V! and optic sign I +!II -I

EJC.tinc:tion anoia for o~~axis section

II to trace of (0011 ~ 1010}}

100

Mole percent anorthite

The determination of the An-content of plagioclase feldspars is fundamental for

naming some rocks and resolving several petrologic problems. Although these
determinations can be made in several ways, most are initially made by optical
measurements. The most frequently used measurements are determination of the
optical sign and optic angle, the refractive indices, and the extinction angle for a-
axis sections. A-axis sections are perpendicular to both 001 cleavage and the
polysynthetic albite twinning planes; they are relatively easy to spot because they

AGIDS-rvd-8!<
AGI DATA SHEET 64.2

exhibit the greatest contrast between alternate twins when either set is at or near
extinction, and they have the same gray hue when the twinning planes are parallel
to the directions of vibration of either the polarizer or analyzer. Graphs for these val
ues are given above; graphs for other optical measurements are given in references
listed at the end of this data sheet-see Winchell and Winchell (1951); Deer et al.
(1961); Phillips and Griffen (1981).
Two methods relating to An-content, which are used for separating plagio
clases from associated minerals and in laboratory investigations, are based on
specific gravity of the diverse plagioclases and the refractive index values for pia
gioclase glass. Graphs showing these values are given below.

Refractive index
synthetic plagioclase
1.57 1.57
glass
1.55 1.55

1.53 1.53

1.51 1.51

1.49 1.49

10 30 50 70 90 100

Mole% An

Specific gravity
2.75 2.75

2.70

2.65 2.65

2.60 2.60
Oligoclase Andesine Labradorite Bytownite

0 20 30 90 100

Mole percent anorthite

(Refractive index graph based on data of Schairer. Smith. and Chayes. 1956)

References
Deer, W.A., Howie, A.A., and Zussman, J., 1963. Rock-Forming Minerals: Vof.4,
Framework Silicates. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Phillips, W.R., and Griffen, D.T., 1981. Optical Mineralogy, The Nonopaque Minerals.
W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco.

Schairer, J.F., Smith, ~I.A., and Chayes, F, 1956. "Refractive indices of plagioclase
glasses." In Annual Report, Director, Geophys. Lab., Carnegie lnst., Washington, Yr.
Book, No. 55, p. 95.

Winchell, A.N., and Winchell, H., 1951. Elements of Optical Mineralogy Part II -
Descriptions of Minerals, 4th ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
 AGI DATA SHEET 65.1
Calculation of Norms
D.M. Henderson, University of Illinois, Urbana
(Results are cation percentages of normins; these approximate volume percentages.)
RULES FOR SHORT FORM OF BARTH KATANORM
1. Compute norm base of cation percentages from analysis:
(See sample calculation of Data Sheet 65.7.)
a. Calculate molecular number, MN(FU), for each constituent via 1-cation formula weights
(FW's) of AGI Data Sheet 65 .5 (set for katanorm).
b. Sum MN(FU)'s to obtain cation MN total (TOT).
c. Divide each MN(FU) by TOT and multiply by 100 to obtain the cation percentage, C%;
check that these total 100.0 for the analysis.
d. (If analysis lists iron as total iron (FeO or Fe 20 3), distribute % to Fe 2 ' and 1fs to FeJ).
e. Combine any Mn and Fe2 as Fe 2 .
The following allotments are made from the foregoing cation percentages.
2. Any P and 1.67 times as much Ca are allotted to Apatite.
3. Any Ti and an equal amount of Fe2 are allotted to Ilmenite.
4. K and an equal amount of AI are allotted to provisional Orthoclase (Or').
(Here and elsewhere , sign' indicates provisional normin.)
5. Na and an equal amount of AI are allotted to provisional Albite (Ab').
Go to rule 8 if there is excess Na.
6. AI and half as much Ca are allotted to Anorthite.
7. Any remaining AI is allotted to Corundum.
8. Any remaining Na and an equal amount of Fe 3 are allotted to Acmite.
(If Na exceeds Fe3 , convert enough Fe2 to Fe 3 to use up all Na as A c.)
9. Any Fe 3 and half as much Fe 2 are allotted to Magnetite.
10. Any remaining Fe 3 is allotted to Hematite.
11 . Any remaining Ca is allotted to provisional Wollastonite (Wo').
12. Mg is allotted to provisional Enstatite (En').
13. Any remaining Fe2 is allotted to provisional Ferrosilite (Fs').
14. Re-form pyroxene normins:
a. Combine En' and Fs' as provisional Hypersthene (Hy") .
b. Find proportion of En' and Fs' in Hy"; this proportion of 'Mg' to 'Fe' is maintained in any
Diopside, Hypersthene, and Olivine.
c. Combine equal amounts of Hy'' and Wo' to make Diopside ; find amounts of Diopside"
(Di") and Hedenbergite (Hd'1 in Di by rule 14b.
d. If any Wo' remains after Di, excess forms final Wollastonite .
e. If any Hy" remains after Di, excess forms new provisional Hypersthene' (Hy') .
15. Make provisional determination of norm percentages:
a. Allot required amount of Si to each silicate normin made so far (see Data Sheet 65.6
for 'proportions).
b. Sum of cation allotments to a normin gives amount (cation percentage) of normin or
provisional normin.
c. Obtain total amount (T) of all normins so far.
d. If T < 100.0, allot difference (100- T) to Quartz.
Provisional Hy', Or', and Ab' become final Hy, Or, and Ab.
Go to rule 17.
e. If T > 100.0, rock is silica undersaturated and some or all of one or more provisional
normins has to be converted to a lesser silicated normin.
Determine amount (E) of excess Si via
E=T -100.0
AGI DATA SHEET 65.2

16. Adjust silication of provisional normins:

a. Convert as much Hy' as necessary into Olivine via one of following alternatives.
If E<:HyY4
Of"" 3E, Hy"" Hy'- 4E, excess (Ea) now"" 0.0
Go to rule 17.
If E>HyY4
Hy=O.O, 01=0.75 Hy', new excess Ea=E-Hy:/4.
b. Convert as much Ab' as necessary into Nepheline v1a one of following alternatives.
If E,<D.40Ab'
Ne = 1.50 Ea. Ab = Ab'- 2.50 Ea, excess= 0.0
Go to rule 17.
If E, >D.40Ab'
Ab" 0.0, Ne" 0.60 Ab'. E," E,- 0 40 Ab'.
c. Convert as much Or' as necessary intoLeucite via
Lc=4Eb, 0r=Or'-5Eb, excess-0.0
17. Record fmal katanorm
a. F1nd amounts of En and Fs in Hy, and Fo and Fa in 01, by rule 14b
b Report final normins to no more than 3 significant figures
Report Mg-Fe norm1ns as Di", Hd", En, Fs, Fo, and Fa.
c. Check that the sum of norm is 100.0 0.2
d. List Di, Hy, 01, and Plagioclase (P0 (PI"Ab+An)

(Adapted from T. F. W. Barth, (1962). Theorelical Pe1rology, 2nd ed.)

 AGI DATA SHEET 65.3
RULES FOR SHORT FORM OF CIPW NORM
(Results are weight percel'"ltages of norm1ns )

1. Compute norm base from analysis:

(See sample calculation on Data Sheet 65.8.)

a. ~a!~~~~:r~~~~~~f~a7~:r~~la~~frs~M)~?:G~ g~~!~~~~~t ~~.~[:~~fu~6il~~ ~~}1

b. [If analysis lists iron as total iron (FeO or Fe 20 3), distribute % to MN(FeO) and 1/
5 to
MN(Fe203)] ;
c. Combine any MN(MnO) with MN(FeO) as MN(FeO).
(All following "amounts refer to MN's.)
2. Any P2 0 5 and 3.33 times as much CaO are allotted to apatite.
3. Any Ti02 and an equal amount of FeO are allotted to ilmenite.
4. K2 0 and an equal amount of Alz0 3 are allotted to provisional orthoclase (01').
(Here and elsewhere, sign 'indicates provisional normin.)
5. Na20 and an equal amount of Alz0 3 are allotted to provisional albite (ab'}.
Go to rule 8 if there is excess Na20.
6. Alz0 3 and an equal amount of CaO are allotted to anorthite.
7. Any remaining Al 20 3 is allotted to corundum.
B. Any remaining Na2 0 and an equal amount of Fe 2 0 3 are allotted to acmite. (If Na2 0 ex-
ceeds Fez0 3 , convert enough FeO to Fe20 3 to use up all Na20 as ac.)
9. Any Fe 2 0 3 and an equal amount of FeO are allotted to magnetite.
10. Any remaining Fe2 0 3 is allotted to hematite.
11. Any remaining CaO is allotted to provisional wollastonite (wo').
12. MgO is allotted to provisional enstatite (en1,
13. Any remaining FeO is allotted to provisional ferrosilite (fs').
14. Re-form pyroxene normins:
a. Combine en' and fs' as provisional hypersthene" (hy");
b. Find proportion of en' and Is' in hy"; this proportion of'Mgto'Fe'is maintained in any
diopside, hypersthene, and olivine;
c. Allot equal amounts of hy" and wo' to diopside (amount of di in norm equals amount of hy"
in dt);
d. If any wo' remains after di, excess forms final wollastonite;
e. If any hy" remains after di, excess forms new provisional hypersthene (hy').
15. Make provisional distribution of Si0 2 :
a. Allot required amount of Si0 2 to each silicate normin (see AGI Data Sheet 65.6 for pro-
portions);
b. If amount of SiO used (S) is less than amount in rock, allot difference to quartz.
=
(q MN(Si02)rk- S)
Provisional hy', or', and ab' become final hy, or, and ab.
Go to rule 17.
c. If amount of Si0 2 used (S) is greater than amount in rock, rock is silica undersaturated
and some or all of one or more provisional normins has to be converted to a lesser sili-
cated normin.
Compute excess (E) amount of Si0 2 allocated via
E = S- MN(Si02)rk.
AGI DATA SHEET 65.4

16. Adjust silication of provisional normins.

a. Convert as much hy' as necessary into olivine via one of following alternatives.
If E <hy/2
oi=E, hy=hy'-2E, excess now=O.O
Go to rule 17.
If E> hy'/2
ol = hy'/2, hy = 0.0, new excess E.= E- hy'/2
b. Convert as much ab' as necessary into nepheline via one of the following alternatives.
(Amounts of ab' and ne taken as amounts of Na2 0 in each. not Na~ + Ab03 .)
If E.s4ab'
ne= E./4, ab= ab'- E./4, excess now= 0.0
Go to rule 17.
If E.>4ab'
ne=ab', ab=O.O, E.=E.-4ab'
c. Convert as much or' as necessary into leucite via
lc = E./2, or= or'- E./2.
17. Calculate weight percentages of normins.
a. Find amount of each normin as MN(FU) of one of its allocated oxides (e.g. use P20 5
for ap, Na20 for ab). See AGI Data Sheet 65.8for handling of di", hd", en, fs. For undersaturated
rocks, amounts of hy, of, ab, ne,and lc are given by rule 16 (obtain en, fs and fo, fa in same
way as for di", hd" and en, ts in saturated rocks).
b. Find percentages by multiplying amount of each normin by its FW (See AGI Data Sheet
65.6). (Report percentages to no more than 3 significant figures.)
c. Compute norm total. Compare total with analytical total. Any difference should be close
to sum of wt pets of analytical constituents not used in norm, less 0 for F. Cl, and S.
d. Listwt pets of di, hy, andpl(plagiodase): di"+ hd"=di, en+fs=hy, to+ fa=ol, ab+an=pl.

(Procedure for achieving silica balance is that of C. H. Kelsey, (1965), Min. Mag. 34, 276-282.)
 AGI DATA SHEET 65.5
DATA FOR NORM CALCULATION

Formula Weights for Computing Molecular Numbers

for Short Forms of Barth Katanorm and CIPW Norm

Barth Katanorm CIPW Norm

FU FW FU FW
Si02 60 .1 Si02 60.1
Ti0 2 79.9 Ti02 79 .9
AI03;2 51.0 AI203 102.0
Fe03; 2 79.9 Fe203 159.7
FeO 71 .9 FeO 71.9
MnO 70.9 MnO 70.9
MgO 40.3 MgO 40.3
GaO 56.1 GaO 56.1
Na0 112 31 .0 Na20 62.0
K0 11 2 47 .1 K20 94.2
POs12 71.0 P20 s 142.0

Explanation of Symbols
FU is formula unit
Ex: FeO represents 1 unit of Fe2 or FeO
Fe 2 0 3 represents 1 unit of Fe 20 3 or 2 units of Fe 3 +
FU 's for Barth katanorm are known as 1-cation units
FW is formula weight of indicated FU
MN is molecular number of indicated FU
MN(FU) (below) means molecular number for formula
unit FU; parentho-.s os do not indicate multiplication , but
are simply part of symbol
FW(FU) means formula weight of given formula unit FU

Computation of Molecular Number of Given Formula Unit

MN(FU) = WP(AC) /FW(FU) (note that parentheses in symbols MN(FU), WP(AG), and FW(FU) do
not indicate multiplication ; see "explanation of symbols" above)
WP(AC) is weight percentage of given analytical constituent AC (listed in chemical analysis).
MN(FU) is relative amount of desired FU for given AG: gives relative numbers of indicated cations
(and oxygen atoms) .
Example :
For an analysis containing 5.67 wt pet Fe 20 3 ,
MN(Fe03; 2) = 5.67/ 79 .9 = 0.071 (Fe 3 in Barth katanorm base)
MN(Fe 20 3)=5.67/ 159 .7=0.036 (Fe 20 3 in CIPW norm base)
AGI DATA SHEET 65.6

Normative Minerals (Normins) for Short Forms of Barth Katanorm and CIPW Norm

Barth Formula Weights

Name and Symbol' Katanorm CIPW Norm of CIPW Normlns
Quartz 0, q Si0 2 Si0 2 60.1
Corundum C. c AlzOa Al 1 0a 102
Orthoclase Or. or KAISi 3 0 8 KzO AlzOa 6Si02 557
Albite Ab, ab NaAISi 3 0s NazO Al 2 0a 6Si02 524
Anorthite An, an CaAI 2 Si 2 0a Ca0AI 2 0 3 2Si0 2 278
Nepheline Ne, ne NaAISi0 4 NazO AhOa 2Si0z 284
Leucite Lc, lc KA1Si 2 06 K 20Ab0 3 4Si0 2 436

Acmite Ac, ac NaFeSi 2 0s Na 2 0Fez0 3 4Si0z 462

Wollastonite Wo, wo CaSi0 3 Ca0Si0 2 116
Enstatite En, en MgSi0 3 MgOSiOz see hy
Ferrosilite Fs, fs FeSiOa FeOSiOz see hy
Oiopside Oi, di Oi" CaMgSiz06 di" CaO MgO 2Si0 2 217
Hd" CaFeSi~ 6 hd" Ca0Fe02Si0z 248
Hypersthene Hy, hy En MgSi0 3 MgOSiOz 100
Fs FeSi0 3 fs FeOSiOz 132
Olivine 0/, of Fo MgzSi0 4 to 2MgOSi0 2 141
Fa Fe 2 SiO. fa 2FeOSiOz 204
Magnetite Mt, mt FeFe 20. Fe0Fe~ 3 232
Ilmenite II, if FeTi0 3 FeOTi0 2 152
Hematite Hm, hm FezOa Fe 2 0 3 160
Apattte Ap. ap Cas(PO.)a 3 1/J CaO P2 0 5 329

First letter of name and symbol of a normin is capitalized for katanorm, is in lower case for CIPW
norm
Conventional CIPW diopside corresponds to an augite-like combination of end-members diopside"
(di") and hedenbergite (hd") shown here. Original CIPW choice of name diopside was unfortunate.
 AGI DATA SHEET 65.7
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF SHORT FORM OF BARTH KATANORM

Olivine basalt, Gough Island, S. Atlantic (Banh, 1962, p. 69)

AC wt% FW MN C% Ap Dr' Ab' An Mt Wo' En' Fs'

Si02 49.10 60.1 .817 46.0 9.9 19.2 8.2 4.1 7.0 1.9
Ti02 3.59 79.9 .045 2.5 2.5
AI203 16.21 51.0 .318 17.9 3.3 6.4 8.2
Fe203 2.87 79.9 .036 2.0 2.0
FeO 6.84 71.9 .095 5.3 2.5 1.0 1.9
MnO 0.05 70.9 .001 0.1
MgO 5.04 40.3 .125 7.0 7.0
CaO 8.90 56.1 .159 8.9 0.75 4.1 4.1
Na20 3.53 31.0 .114 6.4 6.4
K20 2.76 47.1 .059 3.3 3.3
P20s 0.54 71.0 .008 0.45 0.45 Dr
H2o+ 0.47 1.777 99.9 1.2 5.0 16.5 32.0 20.5 3.0 8.2 14.0 3.8
99.90 (TOT)

(14a) Hy"= 7.0 + 1.9= 8.9 (14b) 'Mg'= 7.0/8.9 =0.787, 'Fe'= 1.9/8.9 = 0.213
(14c) Di=4.1 +4.1 .. 8.2 Oi"=B.2 .787=6.5, Hd"=B.2 .213=1.7
(14e) Hy'=8.9-4.1 =4.8
( 15a) See top row of table above (for AC = Si02).
(15b) See bottom row of table (totals for normins).
(15c) T =sum of bottom row= 104.2
(T not affected by choice of form of pyroxenes)

Silication of pyroxenes { g~. : ::~: ::~: ~ ~:~ ~~.: ~:~: ~:~: ;:~
(15e) T>100.0 E-104.2-100.0=4.2
(16a) Hy/"4=9.6/4~2.4 E>Hy/"4
Hy=O.O DI=0.75 9.6=7.2 Ea=4.2-2.4=1.B
Fo=7.2 .787=5.7 Fa=7.2 .213= 1.5
(16b) 0.40 Ab'=0.4 32.0=12.8 E.<0.4Ab'
Ne=t.5 1.8=2.7 Ab=32-(2.5 1.8)=27.5

Norm
Dr 16.5 Di" 13.0 Ap 1.2
Ab 27.5 Hd" 3.4
l Di 16.4
Mt 3.0
An 20.5
l PI 48.0
Fo 5.7 II 5.0
lQI 7.2
Ne 2.7 Fa 1.5
tOO.O
AGI DATA SHEET 65.8
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF SHORT FORM OF CIPW NORM

Hypersthene diorite, Mt. Tripyramid, White Mtns., N.H.

AC wt% FW MN I ap or' ab' mt wo' en' fs'

Si02 48.67 60.1 .810 .078 .372 .180 .021 .115 .031 .013
Ti0 2 2.12 79.9 .027 .027
AI203 16.88 . 102.0 .165 .013 .062 .090
Fe203 4.98 159.7 .031 .031
FeO 6.37 71.9 .089 .027 .031 .031
MnO
MgO 462 40.3 .115 ~
CaO 8.63 56.1 .154 .043 .090 .Q?.l
Na20 3.85 62.0 .062 .062
K20 1.26 : 94.2 .013 Jlll
P20s 1.85 i 142.0 .0130 ~

~
H2o ab
H2o- 329 152 557 524 278 232 60.1
7 4.3 4.1 7.2 32.5 25.0 7.2 0.8

(14a) hy": .115 + .031 = .146 (14b) 'Mg'= .115/.146= .788, 'Fe'= .031/146 = .212
(14c) for di: wo' = .021, hy" (in dt) = .021
(14e) hy'= .146-.021 = ~
(15a) See top row of table above (for AC = Si0 2 ).
(15b) S =sum of top row of table= .797 (or' through fs1 q= .810-.797 = .013
(S not affected by choice of form of pyroxenes)
(17a) Characterizing amounts underlined in table.
di"=.021 . 788=.017 hd"=.021 .212=.004
en=.125 .788=.099 fs =.125 .212=.026
(17b) See bottom 2 rows of table for ap, if, or, ab, an, mt, q.
% di"= .017 217=3.7 % hd"= .004. 248= 1.0
%en= .099 100=9.9 o/o fs=.026 132=3.4

Norm
q 0.8 di" 3.7 ap 4.3
di 4.7
or 7.2 hd" 1.0 mt 7.2
en 9.9
ab ~;:~ I pi 57.5 fs 3.4
hy 13.3
if 4.1
99.1+ 0.3(H 2 0) = 99.4
 AGI DATA SHEET 66.1
Major Fossil Groups Used for Dating and Correlation of
Phanerozoic Strata in North America
Compiled by J. Thomas Dutro, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey

Empirically, certain kinds of fossils prove more useful than others for dating and cor
relating marine strata in different parts of the Phanerozoic of North America. Groups
with wide dispersal , occurrence in several facies, and rapid rates of evolution are most
useful. Within limits, all fossils are valuable fo r dating, correlation, environmental
analysis, paleogeographic reconstruction , etc. in certain areas or in specific parts of the
sequence. Nevertheless, listed below are the more commonly used fossils in the
Phanerozoic Systems and recent references to each group, which can be consulted for
details.
A major reference is the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, but several parts are
~~~a~~s~a~~v~n~~~~e~~~~~eb~eii~~o~~~~f~n ~~odst~~b~~~~~dftY~~a~~~!r~nn~;~t f~r ~~~
0

detailed studies. Index Fossils of North America by Sh imer and Shrock remains an
essential source for general biostratigraphy.

CAMBRIAN trilobites (Palmer, in Moore et al. , 1979, p. A 119-A 135)

ORDOVICIAN conodonts (Sweet and Bergstrom, in Bassett, 1976, p. 121-151)
graptolites (Berry, in Kauffman and Hazel, 1977, p. 321-338)
nautiloid cephalopods (Flower, in Bassett , 1976, p. 523- 552)
trilobites (Ross, 1951 ; Hintze, 1953)
SILURIAN conodonts (Klapper et al., in Berry and Boucot, 1970, p .. 35- 38 and
chart)
graptolites (Berry and Boucot, 1970)
brachiopods (Berry and Boucot, 1970)
DEVONIAN conodonts (Klapper and Ziegler, in House et al. , 1979, p. 199-224;
Sandberg, in Sandberg and Clark, 1979, p. 87-105)
gon iatites (House, 1978)
brachiopods (Johnson, in House et al. , 1979, p. 291-306)
spores (McGregor, in House et al. , 1979, p. 163-184)
MISSISSIPPIAN foraminifers (Mamet and Skipp, 1971)
goniatites (Gordon, in Dutro et al. , 1979)
conodonts (Collinson et al., in Sweet and Bergstrom, 1971 , p. 353- 394;
Huddle, in Dutro et al., 1979; Sandberg, in Sandberg and Clark, 1979,
p. 87-105)
PENNSYLVANIAN fusulinids (Douglass, in Kauffman and Hazel , 1977, p. 463-481)
conodonts (Lane et al., in Sweet and Bergstrom , 1971 , p. 395-414)
goniatites (Ruzhentsev, 1966)
radiolarians (Holdsworth and Jones, 1979)
PERMIAN fusulinids (Douglass, in Kauffman and Hazel, 1977, p. 463-481)
conodonts (Clark et al., in Sandberg and Clark, 1979, p. 143-150;
Wardlaw and Collinson , in Sandberg and Clark, 1979, p. 151-164)
goniatites (Furnish, 1973)
radiolarians (Holdsworth and Jones, 1979)
TRIASSIC mollusks (Silberling and Tozer, 1968)
conodonts (Sweet et al., in Sweet and Bergstrom, 1971 , p. 441-465)
JURASSIC mollusks (Imlay, 1952)
radio larians (Pessagno, 1977a)
CRETACEOUS mollusks }
~o;;~~~;Ws (Kauffman, in Moore et al., 1979, p. A418-A487)
spore-pollen
radiolarians (Pessagno, 1972, 1977b)
TERTIARY mollusks }
foraminifers
ostracodes (Papp, in Moore et al., 1979, p. A488-A504)
spore-pollen
siliceous microfossils
radiolarians (Kling, 1980)
AGI DATA SHEET 66.2

System Selected fossil groups

Neogene
I
Paleogene

Cretaceous

I Cambdan

i
 AGI DATA SHEET 66.3

REFERENCES
Bassett, M.G., ed., 1976, The Ordovician System: proceedings of a Palaeontolo~ical Association
Symposium, Birmingham, September, 1974: University of Wales Press and Nat1onal Museum of
Wales, Cardiff. 696 p.
Berry, W.B.N., and Boucot, A.J., eds., 1970, Correlation of the North American Silurian Rocks: Geol.
Soc. America Spec. Paper 102, 289 p.
Dutro, J.T., Jr., Gordon, M., Jr., and Huddle, J.W., 1979, Paleontological zonation of the Mississip-
pian System, In Paleotectonic Investigations of the Mississippian System in the United States:
U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 1010, part II, chapterS, p. 407-429.
Furnish, W.M., 1973, Permian stage names, in The Permian and Triassic Systems and their Mutual
Boundary, Logan, A. and Hills, L., eds.: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 2, p.
522-548.
Hintze, L.F., 1953, Lower Ordovician trilobites from western Utah and eastern Nevada: Utah Geol.
Miner. Survey Bull. 48 (for 1952), 249 p.
Holdsworth, B.K., and Jones, D.L., 1979, Preliminary radiolarian zonation for Late Devonian
through Permian time: Geology, v. 8, no. 6, p. 281-285.
House, M.R., 1978, Devonian Ammonoids from the Appalachians and their bearing on International
Zonation and Correlation: Palaeontological Association Special Papers in Palaeontology 21, 70 p.
House, M.A., Scrutton, C.T., and Bassett, M.G., eds., 1979, The Devonian System: Palaeontological
Association Special Papers in Palaeontology 23, 353 p.
Imlay, R.W., 1952, Correlation of the Jurassic Formations of North America, exclusive of Canada:
Geol. Soc. America Bull. v. 63, p. 953-992.
Kauffman, E.G., and Hazel, J.E., eds., 1977, Concepts and Methods of Biostratigraphy: Dowden,
Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. 658 p.
Kling, S.A., 1980, Radiolaria, in Introduction to Marine Micropaleontology, B.U. Haq and A.
Boersma, eds.: Elsevier, New York, p. 203-244.
Mamet, B.L., and Skipp, Betty, 1971, Lower Carboniferous calcareous Foraminifera: preliminary
zonation and stratigraphic implications for Mississippian of North America: Internal. Congress
Carboniferous Strat. and Geol., 6th, Sheffield, 1967, Compte Rendu, v. 3, p. 1129-1146.

~~~~er ~ccol~r~~g,~~eJsu~i~~~~~1;7;( J~~~~~~ Loa~~~~~~~~~~:a~~~e0~~~~~~f Geol. soc. America,

Pessagno, E.A., Jr., 1972, Cretaceous Radiolaria, Parts I and II: Bull. American Paleontology, v. 61
(270), p. 267-328.
Pessagno, E.A., Jr., 1977a, Upper Jurassic Radiolaria and radiolarian biostratigraphy of the Califor-
nia Coast Ranges: Micropaleontology, v. 23, p. 56-113.
Pessagno, E.A., Jr., 1977b, Lower Cretaceous radiolarian biostratigraphy of the Great Valley Se-
quence and Franciscan Complex, California Coast Ranges: Cushman Found. Special Publ. no. 15,
p. 1-86.
Ross, R.J., Jr., 1951, Stratigraphy of the Garden City Formation in northeastern Utah and its
trilobite faunas: Bull. Peabody Museum Natural History, 6, 161 p.
Ruzhentsev, V. Ye., 1966, Principal ammonoid assemblages of the Carboniferous Period: Interna-
tional Geology Review, v. 8, no. 1, p. 48-59 (translated from Paleont. zhurnal, 1965, no. 2, p. 3-17)
Sandberg, C.A., and Clark, D.L., eds., 1979, Conodont Biostratigraphy of the Great Basin and Rocky
Mountains: Brigham Young University Geology Studies, v. 26, part 3, 190 p.
Shimer, H.W., and Shrock, R.R., 1944, Index Fossils of North America; John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York. 837 p.
Silberling, N.J., and Tozer, E.T., 1968, Biostratigraphic Classification of the Marine Triassic in
North America: Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 110, 63 p.
Sweet, W.C., and Bergstrom, S.M., eds., 1971, Symposium on Conodont Biostratigraphy: Geol.
Soc. America Memoir 27, 499 p.
 AGI DATA SHEET 67.1
Geologic Distribution of Life Forms

Neogene

~ 4 5 6

~3 ~
....~--- lO Phyto~ours
Silunan

12'

*'' '
Turtles

Ordovician

4rjiJJIIJI~
Jowless fishes
.pS:;ons
1Ostrocoderms 2
c
Plocoderms

H.N. Andrews, 1947, Ancient plants and the world they lived in, Comstock
C.A. Arnold, 1947, An introduction to paleobotany, McGraw-Hill
~ E.H. Colbert, 1955, Evolution of the vertebrates, John Wiley & Sons
:g R.C. Moore, C.G. Lalicker, and A.G. Fischer, 1952, Invertebrate fossils, McGraw-Hill
..:. A.S. Romer, 1945, Vertebrate paleontology, Univ. Chicago Press
~ G.G. Simpson, C.S. Pittendrigh, and L.H. Tiffany, 1957, Life: an introduction to biology, Harcourt, Brace & Co
AGI DATA SHEET 67.2

1- Boct~rio
!-l~lga~
~Fungi
Cambrian .
B~o~ojs-Fil ~~
Brachi.lopo.lds~
0
~ly
IM
NautiloidsiJ

P~lecypodsl
~
I
~
r'I ['f'
l_j{j

'\
Cys.toods

Annelodsi1

Gropto:3ites~
Archoeocyatho--~:~:::ns
I ~ostropods
-I Merosfo=rms
Trilobites
Asteroods

Holothuroids
 m "'D
a. ::::r

~- ~.
r- (")
. m
::1: -
Ill .,

~ a
Continental Terrace (Shelf and Slope) Environment; some average sediment physical properties. ~ ~
z ::a.
Bulk Grain Velocity Ratio
!:! i'
!!!. CIJ
Sediment No. Mean Grain Sand, Silt, Clay, Density,
Type Samples mm O;b % % g/cm3 Avg. SE
0 0
n -
Sand =
::J ::D
(D
Coarse 2 0.5285 0.92 100.0 0.0 0.0 2.710 2.034 38.6 1836 - 1.201 "'
'< (")
(D
!e. :::::s
Fine 22 0.1593 2.65 90.9 4.9 4.2 2.704 1.941 0.023 45.6 102 1749 11 1.145 0.006 ID -
Very fine 12 0.0960 3.38 81.9 10.5 7.6 2.684 1.856 0.022 50.0 0.97 1702 18 1.115 0.012 i 3:
Silty sand 27 0.0490 4.35 57.6 28.9 13.5 2.689 1.772 0.020 55.3 0.72 1646 10 1.078 0.006 ~ ~.
Sandy silt 26 0.0308 5.02 28.0 59.2 12.8 2.680 1.771 0.033 54.1 1.49 1652 12 1.080 0.007 i ~
Silt 19 0.0237 5.40 7.8 80.1 12.1 2.661 1.740 0.047 56.3 1.30 1615 8 1.057 0.005 (/)
CD
Sand-silt-clay 23 0.0172 5.86 32.3 41.6 26.1 2.701 1.596 0.022 66.3 1.53 1579 8 1.033 0.005 Q.

Clayey silt 62 0.0077 7.02 7.3 60.0 32.7 2.660 1.488 0.016 71.6 0.86 1549 4 1.014 0.003 3'
CD
Silty clay 19 0.0027 8.52 4.8 41.2 54.0 2.701 1.421 0.015 75.9 0.82 1520 3 0.994 0.002
all>
CIJ ~
Notes: Properties are mostly from top 40 em of sediment cores. Sediment types after Shepard (1954). Laboratory values: 23C. 1 atm;
c
~:~7~i:~o~~~~f~~n~~~~~~~~~: ~~m:ti!~d~~~ ~~~;r ~~~~~ ~~~~it~~g:~ ;r~~o~i~~i7t6~~;9~8~'}~~~~t~sit~ s~~-v;:~~: :.t ~rg(~n a~~s~)7
0

a
(/J
:::z::
m
m
-1

~
 J>
e
c
Abyssal Plain and Abyssal Hill Environments; some average sediment physical properties. ~
)li
Environment Bulk Grain Density, Porosity, Velocity, Velocity Ratio CJ)
-sel:nment -Type ::::1:
No. Mean Grain Sand, Silt, Clay, Density, ~ % m/sec
m
Samples mm % o/o % g/cm3 Avg. SE ~SE ~sE Avg. SE m
-f
Abyssal PI!Jin Ql
C
Clayey silt 24 0.0052 7.59 4.2 55.7 40.1 2.655 1.454 0.022 74.2 1.58 1528 3 0999 0.002 N
Silty clay 51 0.0021 8.87 3.0 35.3 61.7 2.665 1.348 0.014 80.5 0.98 1515 2 0.991 0.001
Clay 6 0.0014 9.53 0.0 22.2 77.8 2.663 1.352 0.037 80.0 2.20 1503 2 0.983 0.001
Bering Sea and Okhotsk Sea (Siliceous-Diatomaceous)
Silt 1 0.0179 5.80 6.5 76.3 17.2 2.474 1.447 70.8 1546 1.011
Clayey silt 5 0.0049 7.68 8.1 49.1 42.8 2.466 1.228 0.019 85.8 0.86 1534 2 1.003 0.001
Silty clay 23 0.0024 8.71 3.0 37.4 59.6 2.454 1.214 0.008 86.8 0.43 1525 2 0.997 0.001
Abyssal Hill
Deep-sea ("red") pelagic clay
Clayey silt 17 0.0056 7.49 3.9 58.7 37.4 2.678 1.347 0.020 81.3 0.95 1522 3 0.995 0.002
Silty clay 60 0.0023 8.76 2.1 32.2 65.7 2.717 1.344 0.011 81.2 0.60 1508 2 0.986 0.001
Clay 45 0.0015 9.43 0.1 19.0 80.9 2.781 1.414 0.012 77.7 0.64 1493 1 0.976 0.001
Calcareous pelagic sediment
Sandsiltclayb 193 0.015 6.1 2.683 1.435 0.007 75.3 0.38 1556 2 1.017 0.001
Silt-clay 166 0.006 7.3 - 2.656 1.404 0.011 76.9 0.64 1536 1 1.004 0.001

Notes: See notes on previous page. "For approximate properties of thinner. coarser-gramed layers 1n abyssal platn turbtdttes see continental terrace in
the line sand to sand-silt-clay sizes (silt is most common). blncludes sandy clay, clayey sand, s1lty sand. and sandy stlt (coarser parttcles are mostly hollow
Foraminifera). clncludes clayey stlt and silty clay (mostly liner calcareous parttcles)
 AGI DATA SHEET 69.1
ldenUfication of Minerals by Staining
CARBONATES, GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE
Gerald M. Friedman and Charles A. Sternbach, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
ETCHING
Hand samples, cores, or drill cuttings of carbonate rocks are etched in dilute hydrochloric acid
and washed in running water prior to staining. The acid solution consists of eight to ten parts
by volume of commercial grade concentrated hydrochloric acid diluted with water to 100 parts
(Lamar 1950; tves 1955); exposure to acid varies depending on fabric and mineralogy. Two
to three minutes of etching are usually adequate for most of these rocks. Experimentation soon
shows the best etching time and acid concentration for particular kinds of rock or purposes.
Textural and mineralogical relationships of etched carbonate samples, particularly in polished
surfaces, appear in three dimensions under the binocular microscope (Friedman 1977).
STAINING
Stain Specific for Aragonite
Feigl's Solution (Feigl1958; Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977).
Friedman (1959) termed this reagent "Feigl's Solution." The solution consists of the following:
1 g of solid (commercial grade) Ag 2 S0 4 is added to a solution of 11 .8 g MnS04 7H~ in 100
ml of water and boiled. After cooling, the suspension is filtered and one or two drops of diluted
sodium hydroxide solution is added. The precipitate is filtered off after 1 or 2 hours. It is impor-
tant that only distilled water be used; tap water leaves a white precipitate of silver chloride.
Stain Specific for Calcite
Alizarine Red S (Friedman 1959; 1971 ; 1977). Dissolve 0.1 g of alizarine red in 100 ml 0.2
percent cold hydrochloric acid. (The hydrochloric acid solution is made up adding 2 ml of com-
mercial grade concentrated hydrochloric acid to 998 ml of water.) With this solution, calcite
is stained deep red within 2 to 3 minutes and dolomite is not affected except on excess ex-
posure. This stain also is effective for use in thin sections.
Stain Specific for High-Magnesian Calcite
Titan Yellow or Clayton Yellow (Friedman 1959; 1977; Winland 1971; Choquette and Trusell
1978). This stain is specific for magnesium and in basic solution imparts a deep red color.
The solution consists of 0.5 g dye, 8 g NaOH, and 2 g EDTA in 500 ml of distilled water. The
degree of coloration reflects the amount of magnesium present. This stain is also effective
for use in thin sections. Stain colors range from pale pink in calcite containing relatively small
percentages of Mg to deep red in relatively Mg-rich calcite. Winland (1971) described the ten-
dency of the stain to fade quickly (often in an hour or less). Choquette and Trusell (1978) recom-
mend dipping the stained specimen in a 5 molar fixer solution of sodium hydroxide for about
30 seconds to prevent fading.
Stains Specific for Dolomite
Alizarine Red S, Titan Yellow (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977). Two tenths g of dye is dissolved
in 25 ml methanol, if necessary by heating. Methanol lost by evaporation should be replen-
ished. Fifteen ml of 30 percent NaOH solution (add 70 ml of water to 30 g of sodium hydrox-
ide) is added to the solution and brought to a boil. The sample is then immersed in this boiling
solution for about 5 minutes (occasionally it may take even more time). Dolomite is stained
purple in alizarine red, and deep orange-red in titan yellow alkaline solution. Inadequate stain-
ing imparts a yellow to yellow-orange color with titan yellow.
Stain Specific for Calcite and Dolomite Containing Ferrous Iron
Potassium Ferrjcyanide (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977; Evamy 1963; Katz and Friedman 1965).
This is a routine analytical test for iron. A staining solution is prepared by dissolving 5 g of
potassium ferricyanide in distilled water containing 2 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid, fol-
lowed by dilution to 1 liter with distilled water. A black color will be imparted to the specimen,
the deepness of color being proportional to the lfe2+ concentration.
Combined Stains for Calcite, Ferroan Calcite, and Ferroan Dolomite
Alizarine RedS and Potassium Ferricyanide (Evamy 1963; Katz and Friedman 1965; Dickson
1966; Friedman 1971; 1977). The reactions of alizarine red S and potassium ferricyanide in
the combined reagent are the same as those in the individual stain solutions. Katz and Fried-
man (1965) recommended the solution be made up as follows: dissolve 1 g of alizarine red
S with 5 g of potassium ferricyanide in distilled water containing 2 ml concentrated hydrochlor-
ic acid and bring the solution to 1 liter with distilled water. The following colors are obtained:
iron-free calcite, red; iron-poor calcite, mauve; iron-rich calcite, purple; iron-free dolomite,
(dolomite sensu stricto), not stained; ferroan dolomite, light blue; ankerite, dark blue.
Stain Specific for Gypsum
Alizarine RedS (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977). Dissolve 0.1 to 0.2 g of dye in 25 ml of methanol.
Add 50 ml of 5 percent sodium hydroxide (5 g of sodium hydroxide added to 95 ml of water).
AGI DATA SHEET 69.2
Immerse the specimen in the cold solution. Staining occurs within a few minutes, imparting
a deep color to the gypsum and a very faint tint of the same color to dolomite. The color differ-
ence is sufficient to distinguish the two minerals easily. Heating the solution increases the stain-
ing effectiveness. Anhydrite and calcite are not stained by these dyes.
Stain Specific for Anhydrite
Mercuric nitrate (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977; Hounslow 1979). The presence of anhydrite may
be determined by process of elimination (Friedman 1959; 1971; 1977).

~~~~~~f Ji~~i~~~ r!r;{;~~~~~e~ ~da3i~~t 1~~e~~~ ~~~=v!7~ ~~r~n~ ~~~~~~ch~~~~~~ii~

precipitate that forms redissolves. This test causes the formation of yellow basic mercuric sulfate
when sulfates, including gypsum and anhydrite, are present.

Recommended Staining Procedure

Calcite HighMg Calcite Dolomite Magnesite

or Gypsum
Recommended staining procedure; alizarine red S and Feigl's solution.
Or faint stain. (After Friedman, 1959)

References
Choquette, D.W., and Trusell, F.C., 1978, A procedure for making the titan-yellow stain for Mg-calcite
permanent. J. Sed. Pel., 48, 639-641.
Dickson, JAD., 1966, Carbonate identification and genesis as revealed by staining, J. Sed. Pet., 36,
491-505.
Evamy, B.D., 1963, The application of a chemical staining technique to a study of dedolomitization,
Sedimentology, 2, 164-170.
Feigl, Fritz, 1958, Spot tests in inorganic analysis, 5th ed., Elsevier Publishing Co., 600 p.
Friedman, G.M., 1959, Identification of carbonate minerals by staining methods, J. Sed. Pet., 29, 87-97.
Friedman, G.M., 1971, Staining, p. 511-530, in: Carver, R.E., 1971, Processes in Sedimentary Petrology,
John Wiley.
Friedman, G.M., 1977, Identification by staining methods of minerals in carbonate rocks, p. 96-97, in:
LeRoy and LeRoy, 1977, Subsurface Geology, Colorado School of Mines.
Hounslow, A.W., 1979, Modified gypsum/anhydrite stain, J. Sed. Pet., 49, 636-637.
lves, William, Jr., 1955, Evaluation of acid etching of limestone, Kansas Geol. Surv. Bull. 114, pt. 1
Ka1Z, Amitai, and Friedman, G.M., 1965, The preparation of stained acetate peels for the study of car-
bonate rocks, J. Sed. Pet., 35, 248-249.
Lamar, J.E., 1950, Acid-etching in the study of limestones and dolomites, Illinois State Geol. Surv. Circ.
156, 47 p.
Winland, H.D., 1971, Nonskeletal deposition of highMg calcite in the marine environment and its role
in the retention of textures. p. 278-284in; O.P. Bricker, ed., Carbonate Cements (Stud. Geol., No. 19),
Johns Hopkins Univ.
 AGI DATA SHEET 69.3

FELDSPAR
Gerald M. Friedman, Brooklyn College, and Northeastern Science Foundation,
Troy, N.Y.

Gabriel and Cox (1929) proposed a staining method to differentiate quanz from alkali
feldspars. The feldspar is etched by hydrofluoric acid vapor and treated with a con-
centrated solution of sodium cobaltinitrite. A coating of yellow potassium cobaltinitrite
appears on potassium feldspar, whereas quartz remains unaffected. This method is
simple in theory but difficult to apply, as indicated by several anicles (Keith, 1939;
Chayes, 1952; Rosenblum, 1956; Hayes and Klugman, 1959).
Bailey and Stevens (1960) proposed a method for staining plagioclase feldspar with
barium chloride and potassium rhodizonate after etching. Plagioclase takes on a red
coloration. This staining technique was combined with yellow staining of potassium
feldspar with sodium cobaltinitrite.
Laniz, Stevens, and Norman (1964) advocated a method for sequentially staining
plagioclase red with F.D. and C. Red No. 2 (amaranth) and potassium feldspar with
cobaltinitrite.
Reeder and McAllister (1957) proposed staining the aluminum ion in feldspar with
hemateine after etching. Doeglas et al. (1965) and Van Der Plas (1966) successfully
combined the techniques of Gabriel and Cox (1929) with those of Reeder and
McAllister (1957), based on experiments by Favejee (Van Der Plas, 1966).

CAUTION ON USING HYDROFWORIC ACID

Staining feldspars Involves etching with hydrofluoric acid vapor. Use extreme
care when working with this reagent. The acid reacts rapidly with tissue, but
pain and other overt signs of deep burns may not be noticed tor several hours.
To avoid painful burns, wear gloves. Hood ventilation Is imperative.

Staining with Barium Chloride, Potassium Rhodlzonate, and Sodium Cobaltlnltrtte

(Bailey and Stevens, 1960)
For rock slabs, the steps are as follows:
1. Saw the rock slab. If the rock is porous, soak the specimen in molten paraffin
for about 15 minutes, or impregnate it with Lakeside 70 before polishing. Polish
the flat surface with No. 400 grit and dry it.
2. Pour concentrated hydrofluoric acid (52% HF) into an etching vessel to about
5 mm from the top. (Note: Hydrofluoric acid must be used under a well-
ventilated hood.)
3. Put the slab, polished surface down, across the top of the etching vessel. Leave
for 3 minutes.
4. Cover the etching vessel and specimen with an inverted plastic cover to prevent
drafts.
5. Remove the slab from the etching vessel, dip it in water, and then quickly dip
it twice in and out of 5% barium chloride solution.
6. Rinse the slab in water, and immerse the polished surface in saturated sodium
cobaltinitrite solution for one minute.
7. Remove excess cobaltinitrite with water. Potassium feldspar is stained bright yellow.
If the feldspar is not well stained, remove the etch by rubbing the surface under
water, drying, and etching again for a longer period; then repeat steps 5, 6, and 7.
8. Rinse the slab briefly in distilled water, and cover the polished surface with
rhodizonate reagent (0.05 gm rhodizonic acid potassium salt dissolved in 20 ml
distilled water; the reagent is unstable so make it up fresh in a small bottle, and
apply it with a dropper). Plagioclase feldspar takes on a red stain.
9. Remove excess stain with water.

AGIDSrmiB9
AGI DATA SHEET 69.4
For thin sections, the steps are as follows:
1. Etch the uncovered section in hydrofluoric acid at room temperature for 10
seconds. See the caution on using hydrofluoric acid on Data Sheet 69.3.
2. Immerse the section in saturated sodium cobaltinitrite solution for 15 seconds.
The potassium feldspar is stained light yellow.
3. Rinse the section in water to remove cobaltinitrite.
4. Dip the section quickly in and out of 5% barium chloride solution.
5. Rinse the slide quickly in distilled water.
6. Use a dropper to cover the thin section with rhodizonate reagent (see step 8 in
previous paragraph for preparation of this reagent). Plagioclase feldspar is
stained pink.
7. Wash the slide in water, dry, and mount with cover glass.

Staining with F.D. and C. Red No. 2, amaranth (Laniz, Stevens, and Norman, 1964)
This method is combined with a barium chloride and sodium cobaltinitrite treat-
ment. In this technique, a red coloration is obtained on plagioclase by absorbing
barium ion on the etched plagioclase and then dipping the specimen in the amaranth
dye. Various washings in this technique (see below) lead to a purple-red coloration
of the plagioclase that sharply contrasts with the yellow color of the potassium feldspar
(stained yellow by cobaltinitrite); quartz remains unstained. Pure albite does not stain
but can be stained by first dipping the sample in calcium chloride solution.

For rock slabs, the steps are as follows:

1. Saw the rock slab and polish it on a lap with No. 400 to BOO grit. If the rock is
porous, impregnate it with Lakeside 70 before polishing.
2. Etch the polished surface in concentrated (52%) hydrofluoric acid for 10 to 15
seconds. See the caution on Data Sheet 69.3.
3. Dip the slab in water.
4. Immerse the slab in saturated sodium cobaltinitrite solution for one minute.
5. Remove excess cobaltinitrite with water.
6. Dry the slab under a heat lamp.
7. Immerse the slab in 5% barium chloride solution for 15 seconds.
8. Dip the slab once quickly in water, and dry gently with compressed air.
9. Immerse the slab in F. D. and C. Red No.2 solution (one ounce of 92% pure coal-
tar dye in 2 liters water) for 16 seconds.
10. Dip the stab once quickly in water.
11. Remove excess dye from the surface of the slab with a gentle stream of com-
pressed air.
12. When white grains, crystals, or patches suggestive of albite remain after the above
treatment, repeat steps 1 to 3, dip in calcium chloride, dry, then proceed with
steps 4 to 11.

For thin sections, the steps are as follows:

1. Etch the uncovered section in hydrofluoric acid vapor for 15 seconds. See the
caution on Data Sheet 69.3.
2. Immerse the section in saturated sodium cobaltinitrite solution for 15 seconds.
3. Wash the section quickly in water.
4. Immerse the section in 5% barium chloride solution for a few seconds.
5. Dip the section once in distilled water.
6. Immerse the section in the F.D. and C. Red No. 2 solution for one minute.
7. Dip the section once in water.
8. Remove excess dye from the surface of the section with a gentle stream of com-
pressed air.
 AGI DATA SHEET 69.5
For sand grains, the steps are as follows:
1. Mount the grains in melted Lakeside 70 containing lampblack to make it opaque.
2. Cool.
3. Grind a smooth surface to expose the sand grains.
4. Etch and stain the same as directed for rock slabs.

Staining with Cobaltinitrite and Hematelne (Van Der Plas, 1966)

Cobaltlnltrtte Staining
For rock slabs and thin sections, the steps are as follows:
1. Polish the rock slab or thin section. Remove Canada balsam, resin, or grease
with organic solvent or ultrasonic cleaner.
2. Put the slab or section on a small, flat lead plate in the etching vessel. For the
section. cover the glass surface carefully with a grease resistant to hydrofluoric
acid vapor.
3. Etch the surface in hydrofluoric acid vapor at 90C for one minute. See the cau-
tion on Data Sheet 69.3.
4. Heat the slab in an electric furnace for about 5 minutes at 400C; heating the
section is unnecessary, in fact, inadvisable.
5. Pour cobaltinitrite solution on the slab or section (one gm sodium cobaltinitrite
in 4 ml distilled water), and leave for 2 minutes.
6. Wash the sample in distilled water and dry. Alkali feldspar shows a yellow stain.

For sand grains, the steps are as follows:

1. Etch the grains in hydrofluoric acid vapor at 90C for one minute. The grains must
be in the vapor above the liquid hydrofluoric acid (35%). The procedure should
be carried out under a well-ventilated hood.
2. Heat the sample in an electric furnace for about 5 minutes at 400C.
3. Pour cobaltinitrite solution on the grains (one gm sodium cobaltinitrite in 4 ml
distilled water), and leave for about one minute.
4. Wash the sample in distilled water and dry. Alkali feldspar grains show a yellow
stain.

Hemateine Staining
For slabs and thin sections, the steps are as follows:
1. Prepare a hemateine solution (50 mg hemateine in 100 ml of 95% ethanol) and
a buffer solution (20 gm sodium acetate in 100 ml distilled water to which are
added 6 ml glacial acetic acid. This solution is diluted to 200 ml and buffered
at pH 4.8 with an acidity of 0.5 N).
2. Mix hemateine and buffer solutions in the proportions 2:1 prior to use.
3. Etch the sample in 1:10 HCI; after etching, pour the mixed hemateine and buffer
solutions (see step 2) on the slab or uncovered section, and leave for 5 minutes.
4. Rinse the sample with 95% ethanol and with acetone. Feldspars show a bluish
stain.

For sand grains, the steps are as follows:

1. Etch the grains and heat them in an electric furnace for about 5 minutes at 400C.
2. Add about 10 drops hemateine solution and 5 drops buffer solution to the sam-
ple (see step 1 in the preceding paragraph for preparation of these two reagents).
Swirl the container for 2 to 3 minutes to mix the solution. Leave the sample in
the solution for about 5 l"'linutes.
3. Remove the solution by washing the sample with 95% ethanol. Siphon off any
supernatant liquid; wash the sample twice with acetone. The feldspar shows a
purple-bluish stain.
AGI DATA SHEET 69.6
Combined Staining
Feldspar grains can be stained for potassium and aluminum ions. In this tech
nique, cobaltinitrite staining must precede hemateine staining. If the grains are not
well stained, they can be cleaned with dilute hydrochloric acid, washed in distilled
water, dried in acetone, and etched and stained a second time.

References
Bailey, E. H., and Stevens, R.E., 1960, Selective staining of K-feldspar and plagioclase
on rock slabs and thin sections: Am. Mineral., 45, p. 1020-1026.
Chayes, Felix, 1952, Notes on the staining of potash feldspar with sodium cobaltinitrite
in thin section: Am. Mineral. 37, p. 337-340.
Doeglas, D.J., Favejee, J. Ch. L., Nota, D.J.G, and Van Der Plas, L., 1965, On the
identification of feldspars in soils: Mededelingen van de Lil.ndbouwhogschoo/te W<Jgen-
ingen, 65(9), 14 p.
Gabriel, A., and Cox, E.P, 1929, A staining method for the quantitative determination
of certain rock forming minerals: Am. Mineral., 14, p. 290-292.
Hayes, J.R., and Klugman, M.A., 1959, Feldspar staining methods: J. Sediment. Pet.,
29, p. 227232.
Keith, M.L., 1939, Selective staining to facilitate Rosiwal analysis: Am. Mineral., 24,
p. 561-565.
Laniz, R.V., Stevens, R.E., and Norman, M.B., 1964, Staining of plagioclase and other
minerals with F. D. and C. Red No.2: US. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 501.8, p. 81528153.
Reeder, S.W., and McAllister, A.L., 1957, A staining method tor the quantitative deter
mination of feldspars in rocks and sands from soils: Canadian J. Soil Sci., 37, p. 57-59.
Rosenblum, Samuel, 1956, Improved techniques for staining potash feldspars: Am.
Mineral., 41, p. 662-664.
Van Der Plas, Leendert, 1966. The Identification of Detrital Feldspars. Elsevier
Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 305 p.
 AGI DATA SHEET 70.1
Projection Nets
EQUAL AREA

~ - "-\~\:i~~-~~{):/a;Jf: -'
.~:. _-_.-.:-~~- :-~ : -: :f}:t?7; : \;:-~.:,: .:~ ~Y:1~:~ _:-<.:. .:_:-.
2

~--- <:,-:---.~ ._-'>:i:-.~:->::,/_.-,:. . \' . ~.. \' \' ." ', \ :'\><_'. -~
30,. ~ ~~ // .. ' + ' / + / + ' I + 'j + ~ \ \ ' I\ ' ' " '\ \. . ~
!- t ' / ~ I \ \ '\ "
I
I ; ( f
I
I / "' / +

~. ~7

.'
I
+
I
~ .
: j
\ t ~
I I

~ + i +8
+ 't ..

I I
I I
~ + I : -t .. ~ -+

27..

i r + ~ +

+ .....
I
t
.. 1 ~ 10
I I

25'
I

prOduced from chart prepared by the United States Department of Interior Geological Survey

AGIOS-&>
AGI DATA SHEET 70.2
EQUAL ANGLE WULFF NET

from Correns, Introduction to Mineralogy

Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg , New York, published by permission.
 AGI DATA SHEET 71.1
ACF, AKF, and AFM Diagrams
Complied by R.V. Dietrich, Central Michigan University

Three-component triangular diagrams, introduced by the Finnish petrologist Pentti

Eskola, are widely used in petrology. ACF and AKF diagrams and modified versions of
these diagrams that are based on different apex components are usually used to indi-
cate what minerals are and are not compatible within diverse metamorphic facies. Both
pertain to silica-saturated parageneses. The AFM diagram can also be used as just
described, but is more frequently used to show patterns of variation among rocks that
appear to have been derived from the same or consanguineous magmas.
Triangular diagrams, in general, are used to show graphically chemical composi-
tions that may be expressed in three components. The diagram below shows how the
components are plotted. The numbers along AB indicate percentages of A; those along
BC, indicate percentages of 8; and those along CA, percentages of C.

Points

45 55

40 I 20

10 70 20

In ACF diagrams: A (AI 2 0 3 + Fe203) (Na:P + K20)

c CaO

(FeO + MgO + MnO).

In AKF diagrams: A (AI 2 0 3 + Fe 2 0 3 ) - (Na 2 0 + K2 0 +GaO)

K K 20

(FeO + MgO + MnO).

In both of these cases, the oxide components are recalculated from the total chemi-
cal analyses of the rocks to a 100 percent total (molar) for the components plotted.
Some petrologists modify the above outlined calculations by computing total Fe as FeO,
thus eliminating the Fe 2 0 3 component from "A."
The following example is an ACF diagram for the amphibolite facies, modified after
Turner (personal communication, 1981 ). The phases that may coexist in equilibrium are
at the ends of the lines with no intermediate phases indicated or at the apices of trian-
gles not circumscribing any smaller triangle.

AGIDS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 71.2

In AFM diagrams: A {Na 20 + K2 0) }

{FeO + Fe 20 3 + MnO) Weight percentages

M MgO

or A
Na + K }
Fe + Mn Atomic percentages

M = Mg

The following diagram is a schematic variation diagram that indicates fairly typical
alternative differentiation tracks that a basaltic magma might take.

Andesites

Tr11chytes

A._---------------M
References
Turner. F.J., 1981. Metamorphic Petrology, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

Williams, H., Turner, F.J., and Gilbert. C.M., 1982. Petrography, 2nd ed. W.H. Freeman
and Co., San Francisco.
 AGI DATA SHEET 72.1
Phase Equilibria Diagrams for Mineralogy and Petrology
H.S. Yoder, Jr., Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D.C.
The chemical analysis of an igneous rock can be reduced into normative minerals
(see Data Sheet 65.1) that closely reflect the species of constituent minerals. The most
abundant of these minerals can be used to characterize the rock. For example, a
basalt consists primarily of a clinopyroxene and plagioclase. The principal normative
species of the clinopyroxene are diopside and hedenbergite, and the plagioclase can
be represented by albite and anorthite. To achieve an understanding of the crystalliza-
tion or melting behavior of the rock, it is useful to examine the behavior of the simplified
systems consisting of the various combinations of these normative species or end-
member phases. It is customary to take the simplest combinations of the two most
important end members first, then to add additional end members until most of the
composition of the rock is included.
For an initial approach to the behavior of basalt, one can first examine the phase
relations of diopside-anorthite. If a systematic study of the crystallization behavior of
various combinations of these two end members is carried out at a series of
temperatures, a shorthand summary of the results can be presented in a phase
diagram (Figure 1).

A B

~ 1400
~-
~ 1300
CIJ
0.. 1200
E
CIJ
1- 1100 Diopside + Anorthite
:
l__l___l___j____L ----'---___L_-----L----'--'------'

Diopside Weight Percent Anorthite

Figure 1

The diagram shows that the mutual addition of the end members lowers the melting
temperature of each. As determined by experiment, both phases (diopside and anor-
thite) began to crystallize together simultaneously if the temperature is lowered to
1274C, provided the combination is exactly 58% diopside and 42% anorthite. Held
at this temperature, the eutectic temperature, all the liquid will crystallize. These pro-
portions of diopside and anorthite closely approach those in natural basalts. If com-
positions to the left, A, or right, B, of the eutectic are taken, then diopside or anorthite
will crystallize first, respectively. As the crystals form, the liquid moves down the li-
quidus curve (the curve along which liquid and crystals are in equilibrium, but above
which the system is completely liquid) until it reaches the eutectic composition, where
the remaining liquid crystallizes both phases. The resultant "rocks" will be a "pyrox-
enite" (A) if diopside is the dominant ( >90%) phase or an "anorthosite" (8) if anor-
thite is the dominant phase. Conversely, as the temperature is raised on any com-
position consisting of diopside and anorthite, the first melt will always form at the
eutectic temperature at the eutectic composition. Because basalts are represented
by the eutectic composition, basalts are the most common magma type on Earth

AGI-DS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 72.2
when the mantle is melted.
The effects of pressure and water on the diopside-anorthite system are displayed
in Figure 2.

1600

1500

~ 1400
~-
~ 1300
(l)
a.
E 1200
Ql
f-

1100

1000

Diopside Weight Percent Anorthite

Figure 2

Pressure increases the temperatures of the liquidus and solidus (the curve along which
liquid and crystals are in equilibrium and below which the system is completely solid)
whereas the solution of water in the liquid results in drastic lowering of the
temperatures and, more importantly, results in large shifts of the "eutectic" composi-
tion. An interpretation of this system suggests that anorthositic rocks are formed at
either very high pressures or in the presence of high water pressures. It is evident
that different types of rocks can be formed from the same materials at the same
pressure depending on the presence or absence of water.
The simplified basalt can be further refined by adding albite to the system, but first
it is necessary to work out the melting relations of albite-diopside and albite-anorthite.
The latter system displays a continuous series of solid solutions (Figure 3).
The composition C will begin to crystallize at the temperature of t 1 , and the crystals
will have the composition of X 1 With lowering temperatures, the liquid composition
follows the liquidus curve, and the crystals will change continuously in composition
along the solidus curve, also determined by experiment. At t2 the composition C will
be all crystalline, and the crystals will have the composition X2 Rocks, however, do
not always crystallize under equilibrium conditions, where the crystals can react com-
pletely with liquid as the temperature changes. For example, if crystallization takes
place so fast that continuous reaction between crystals and liquid cannot take place,
then crystals are effectively removed from the system. The result is that each time
a few crystals are formed and removed, the composition of the remaining liquid ad-
vances down the liquidus curve until it reaches pure albite. The aggregate composi-
tion of the crystals, however, will still have the initial composition C, having followed
the path X1 to X3 , but the zones produced around each crystal will follow the path
X1 to albite. The failure of equilibrium will, therefore, extend the temperature range
of crystallization and produce zoned crystals.
Because Diopside-Aibite is similar in general form to Diopside-Anorthite, except
for the displacement of the eutectic to lower temperatures toward albite, it is possible
to combine the three binary systems into the ternary system Diopside-Aibite-
Anorthite (Figure 4).
 AGI DATA SHEET 72.3

1600

1500

1400
~
1300
~-

~c. 1200
~
~
1100

1000

Albite Weight Percent Anorthite

Figure 3

Diopside

1133

Albite Weight Percent Anorthite

Figure 4

A closer approach to natural basalt is thereby made. Compositions in the diopside

liquidus field all crystallize diopside first, and as the crystals of diopside form under
equilibrium conditions, the composition of the liquid moves directly away from diop-
side, as shown by the dotted construction line {diopside-D) and the liquid path line
AGI DATA SHEET 72.4
(D-X 4). When the liquid reaches the liquidus boundary curve between diopside and
plagioclase, a feldspar will begin to crystallize at X 4 The composition of that feldspar
has to be determined by experiment and is represented by X5 ; the dotted tie line con-
nects the liquid composition ~with the feldspar composition X 5 With continued lower-
ing of temperature, the liquid composition follows the boundary curve, and the crystals
change as indicated by the three-phase triangles, one example of which is diopside-
Xe-X7. When the base (the line Diopside-X7) of the three-phase triangle phases through
the bulk composition, D, the composition is completely crystalline. In this example,
diopside will be the first phenocrystic phase joined by phenocrysts of plagioclase at
lower temperatures, both crystallizing together over much of the temperature range,
as is observed for natural basalts.

1900
p 1bar
1800
I
Two Liquids
~
'
I
~- 1700 1695
~ Cristobalite

E
i 1600 Liquid
~
1557
1543
1500
+ Enstatite + Cristobalite
Enstatite

1400~--~--~--~~--~--~--~----~--~--~--~

Forsterite Enstatite Weight Percent

Figure 5

Olivine is a particularly important mineral in basalts, and its relationship to or-

thopyroxene is of special interest. The relevant end-member system is forsterite-
enstatite, which may be extended to Si0 2 (Figure 5). The principal feature of this
diagram is that enstatite melts incongruently to forsterite plus liquid, that is, to another
solid phase and a liquid different in composition from the original solid phase. With
cooling of composition E, forsterite forms first as the liquidus phase until the
temperature t8 (1557C) is reached where some of the forsterite reacts with liquid to
form enstatite. The final product consists of forsterite and enstatite. On the other hand,
for composition F, the reaction consumes all the forsterite at t8 , and the liquid is then
free to continue down the liquidus curve to the eutectic where cristobalite joins
enstatite, crystallizing completely at t9 (1543C) to enstatite and cristobalite. Failure
to achieve complete reaction is commonly seen in lavas where enstatite (hypersthene)
 AGI DATA SHEET 72.5
surrounds unreacted olivine. The reaction relatio~ persists up to depths of about 16
km (4 Kbar), where enstatite melts congruently, that is, to a liquid of its own composi-
tion (Figure 6). As a result, a thermal divide is generated between liquids rich in
forsterite and those rich in Si0 2 Such a thermal barrier, a temperature maximum
over which liquids cannot cross under equilibrium conditions, is particularly impor-
tant when the derivative relationships of igneous rocks are deduced.

1900 P 20 Kb

~ 1800
,
,,
IQ.

~
1700
,' High-Quartz + Liquid

1-

Enstatite + High-Quartz
1600

Forsterite Enstatite
Figure 6

Some minerals show a limited range of solid solution with each other, and the ex-
act partitioning of the elements as a function of temperature and pressure provides
useful geothermometers and geobarometers in characterizing the conditions for for-
AGI DATA SHEET 72.6
mation of a rock. For example, the Diopside-Enstatite system illustrates how the com-
position of each phase changes in the solid state after complete crystallization of the
liquid along each limb of the solvus (Figure 7), that is the line that separates a
homogeneous solid solution phase from two or more phases. As the two types of
coexisting crystals cool, they exchange calcium and magnesium so that each phase
approaches its end-member composition. Precise calibration of the composition of
the coexisting phases with temperature gives accurate measures of the temperature
of closure, that is the last temperature to which the crystals responded. For example,
if it can be shown by an independent geobarometer (e.g., At-content of enstatite) that
the pressure was 20 Kbar, and the compositions of the coexisting pyroxenes in a
nodule from an alkali basalt were determined to be En 95 Di5 and Di 80 En 20 , then the
closure temperature, according to Figure 7, was 1200C.

P 12Kb
1800

1700

1600

~ 1500 Enstatite 55
Q).
+

iQ.
1400
Diopside 55

~
1-
1300

1200

1100

1ooo~~~~~~~~--~~~~~

Enstatite Weight Percent Diopside

Figure 7

References
Many quantitative diagrams to help understand the melting behavior of rocks have
been prepared and assembled in the following books:
Phase Diagrams for Ceramists, American Ceramic Society, Westerville, Ohio:
Vol. I 1964 E.M. Levin, C.R. Robbins, and H.F. McMurdie
Vol. II 1969 E.M. Levin, C.R. Robbins, and H.F. McMurdie
Vol. Ill 1975 E.M. Levin and H.F. McMurdie
Vol. IV 1981 R.S. Roth, T. Negas, and L.P. Cook
Vol. V 1983 R.S. Roth, T. Negas, and L.P. Cook
Vol. VI 1987 R.S. Roth, J.R. Dennis, and H.F. McMurdie
Vol. VII 1989 L.P. Cook (in press)
Vol. VIII 1989 B.O. Mysen, R.S. Roth, and H.F. McMurdie (in press)
Basalts and Phase Diagrams, S.A. Morse (1980), Springer-Verlag, New York, 493 p.
 AGI DATA SHEET 73.1
Fault-plane Solutions of Earthquakes
by R. F. Yerkes, U.S. Geological Survey

Fault-plane solutions of earthquakes are one of the most powerful tools available for inter-
pretation of tectonic regimes because they furnish the only evidence of the geometry and sense
of modern deformation at seismic depths; they also serve to correlate that deformation with
exposed structural elements. This introductory sketch outlines the basis of fault-plane solu-
tions, describes their derivation, identifies major pitfalls in construction and use, shows selected
examples, and identifies some of the important literature.
Fault-plane solutions are derived from the sense of first motions recorded on seismograms.
It is assumed that the first motions reflect the double-couple model of faulting. Figure 1, for
example, shows pure horizontal displacement on a vertical fault ana the corresponding fault-
plane diagram. The arrows show the directions of relative movement: the material ahead of
the arrows is visualized as being compressed or pushed away from the source, whereas that
behind the arrows is dilated or pulled toward the source. The region surrounding the earth-
quake hypocenter is thus viewed as divided into quadrants in which the first motions are alter-
nately compressions and dilations. The quadrants are separated by two orthogonal planes,
A-A' and F-F', the focal planes.

to ,A 2a

1b
F
8
-=
......

G ti.G
G
!.... F'

2b
W
@ B
I
s
+
0

I
E
1

F~F "-=='\ "

A

3 4

-0 ~ ........_, __ T

5 6

Q-F I
<l >
Figure 1. a) Plan view of horizontal displacement on vertical fault AA' or F-F' and resulting distribution
of compressions (+)and dilatations ( - ); b) corresponding fault-plane ("beachball") diagram.

~~~~~~-faaJ,r~:~lv~:~~~~i~~r~~~e~n 6~~wi/ ~;~~~~e~~J'~~~ ;inf!~~t~~x~~~;;s~~~~=~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~

of section; () . compression; (o) , dilatation ; T, tension axis ; P. compress1on or "P" axis; S. slip vector,
plunges 45 N 50 E. b) Geologc seclion along B-B'; T, toward; A, away.
Figure 3.- Fault-plane diagram showing normal dip slip on north-striking fault dipping about 50 W.
or 40 E.
Figure 4.- Fault-plane diagram corresponding to first-motion radiation pattern and fault event of
Figure 2.
Figure 5.- Fault-plane diagram showing normal-right-oblique displacement on fault F-F', which strikes
N 20 E and dips 30 NW .
Figure 6.- Fault-plane diagram showing pure reverse slip on north-striking fault that dips 60 W or
30 'E.
AGI -DS-rmf-82
AGI DATA SHEET 73.2

Derivation involves the following steps: 1) The directions of motion (up or down; away from
or toward the source) are read from seismograms from each recording station. 2) The observed
first motion for each station is projected back to the earthquake source and plotted in its cor-
rect geometric relation to signals from other recording stations on an imaginary sphere-the
focal sphere-surrounding the source of the earthquake. The focal sphere is usually represented
by an equal-area projection of the lower hemisphere. 3) The resulting radiation pattern of first-
motion polarities is then separated by use of the stereonet into quadrants of compressional
and dilatational signals so that adjacent quadrants have opposite polarities (Figure 2; see Lee
and Stewart, 1981, sec. 6.2 for methods). If it is assumed that the radiation pattern is produced
by impulsive rupture on a plane, one of the nodal planes defined by the quadrants represents
the fault. Determining which nodal plane represents the fault must be based on independent
evidence, such as the distribution of aftershocks. Step 3 determines the inferred stress axes
{P, compression; T, tension) uniquely. Once the fault plane is identified, the slip vector (axis
of net slip in the fault plane) and the relative proportions of vertical and horizontal displace-
ment can be determined. In principle, the P and T axes do not necessarily correspond to the
tectonic stresses that caused the earthquake; however, the latter can be determined to within
20 once the fault plane and slip vector are known {Raleigh and others, 1972, p. 283-284).
Figure 2 shows a resolved radiation pattern, in which the focal planes are tightly constrained
by well-distributed signals that are mostly uniform within quadrants. The dilatation signal near
the T axis, in an otherwise compressional quadrant, suggests that polarities were reversed
on the corresponding seismograph or that the seismogram was misread. The quality of radia-
tion patterns-and hence their interpretation-is directly dependent on the number and dis-
tribution of reliable recorders relative to the hypocenter and the adequacy of the velocity model
used, as well as proper polarity of recorders. Figures 3-6 show typical fault-plane solutions.
The "beachball~ symbol is derived from the resolved radiation pattern by showing compression-
al quadrants in solid or dark color and dilatational quadrants as blank.

to~~~~f!~~;m~~~~~~;, ~~~:~b~:~~i!a~~tup~~:r:~~~~~i~~fy ~~ru~~~u~:rt~~~~~~!~~~t ~~~u~~~

0

~~~~r~~:~et~~~i~~J~~r~hs:~~~~~~:~~f~~~1~t~f~rrm~:i~:~~9~~~ ~~~~~~~e~!~~~~:
cal Research often contain interpretations based on fault-plane solutions. Hodgson (1957) pre-
sents one of the earliest reviews of interpretive methods and a summary tabulation of fault-
plane data on 75 earthquakes from around the world. Fara (1964) presents tabulated data on
all published fault-plane solutions for earthquakes around the world to April1964. Sykes (1967)
and !sacks et al. (1 968) apply the interpretive power of fault-plane solutions to plate tectonics
on a world scale. An excellent example of a special study is that of the 1971 San Fernando
earthquake (Whitcomb et al., 1973), in which the geometry and sense of displacement on the
failure surtace are derived. Stauder (1962) and Lee and Stewart (1981) present brief histories
of development of the method, formal derivations of analyses used in ray tracing, and methods
of resolving radiation patterns by use of the stereonet.

References
Fara, H. D., 1964, A new catalog of fault-plane solutions: Seismological Society of America Bulletin, v. 5,
p. 1491-1517.
Hodgson, J. H., 1957, Nature of faulting in large earthquakes: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
v. 68, p. 611-652
lsacks, B., Oliver, J .. and Sykes, L.R., 1968, Seismology and the new global tectonics: Journal of Geo-
physical Research, v. 73, p. 5855-5899.
Lee, W. H. K., and Stewart, S. W., 1981, Principles and applications of microearthquake networks:
Advances in Geophysics, Supplement 2, Academic Press, New York.
Raleigh, C. B., Healy, J. H., and Bredehoeh, J.D., 1972, Faulting and crustal stress at Rangely, Colorado,
in Heard, H. C., et al .. eds., Flow and fracture of rocks: Geophysical Monograph Series, v. 16, p. 175-
284, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C.
Stauder, W., 1962. The focal mechan1sm of earthquakes: Advances in Geophysics, v. 9, p. 1~76, Aca-
demic Press, New York.
Sykes, L. R., 1967. Mechanism ot earthquakes and nature of faulting on the Mid Ocean ridges: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 72, p. 2131-2153.
Whitcomb, J. H., Allen, C. A., Garmany, J.D., and Hileman, J. A., 1973, San Fernando earthquake series,
1971: Focal mechanisms and tectonics: Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, v. 11, p. 693-730.
 AGI DATA SHEET 74.1
Seismic Moment and Moment Magnitude
Thomas C. Hanks, U.S. Geologic Survey

Seismic moment (Me) is a measure of the strength of shear failure customarily identified as the
cause of crustal earthquakes. As such, it is a useful measure of the "size" of an earthquake
and is superior to conventional magnitude scales for two important reasons: Me is an absolute,
not a relative measure of source strength, and Mo does not "saturate" for large enough earth-
quakes, as any conventional magnitude scale must. Although Moisalmostalwaysderivedfrom
seismic wave data, it is readily related to the geologic expression of faulting accompanying
crustal earthquakes and thus is of great value for quantifying rates of slip and recurrence inter-
vals from the historic record of earthquakesjalong active crustal fault zones.
(Formally, seismic moment is a tensor quantity for general conditions of material failure that
could give rise to earthquakes. In almost every instance of crustal earthquakes, however, it
can be reduced to a scalar quantity, the magnitude of either of the equal and opposite mo-
ments to which earthquake faulting models can be reduced in the natural coordinate system
of the fault plane and the dislocation vector.)
The seismic moment of an earthquake can be determined from either its body waves or
its surface waves, after suitable corrections are made for wave-propagation effects. In an elastic,
homogeneous, and isotropic full space, for example, Mo can be determined from either the P
or S wave with the relation
M _ 4 1r P R Iv(P,S)p Ue(P,S)
o-RIJq>(P.S)
Here p. is the density of the medium, R is the hypocentral distance, and v(P ,S) and Ro (P,S)
are, respectively, the material velocity and radiation pattern for the P or S wave, as appropri-
ate; O~(P ,S) is the area under the displacement pulse of the P or S wave or, equivalently, the long-
period displacement spectral density.
Of great significance for geologic investigations of fault activity and recurrence intervals is
the relation that M 0 bears to the product of the average faulting displacement u that develops
across a fault surface of area A in the course of an earthquake:
Mo= J.i.UA
where J.1. is the shear modulus of the source region. Cumulative Mo sums for any fault zone
of interest can then be cast into a seismic slip rate, which can be compared with longer-
term slip rates determined geologically or paleomagnetically, or with geodetically determined
u
slip rateS.'2 Conversely, Me can be determined from field observations and estimates of and A
for any earthquake for which they are available.

Seismic moment can also be estimated from empirical relations between Mo and the area
enclosed by Modified Mercalli Intensity VI. These relations are of value when historical data
are available but instrumental data are not. For southern California the relation is3
log Me= 1.971og Av1- 2.55
where A" is in em<. A similar relation exists between log Mo and log Av1for eastern North American
earthquakes. 4
Seismic moment is the basis of the new M,. magnitude scale, 5 the moment-magnitude rela-
tion being
log Mo=1.5Mw+16.1.
This is virtually identical to empirically derived relations between M.(surface-wave magnitude)
and Mo6
log M0 =1.5M,+(16.1 0.1)
and ML (local magnitude) and M/
log Mo+ 1.5 ML +16.0.
Thus a single moment magnitude M may be written 8
M='!J log M 0 -10.7
which is uniformly valid with respect to 3 :s ML :s 7, 5 :S Ms :S 71/2, and Mwat larger magnitude,
apart from the usual scatter that accompanies empirical correlations between seismic moment
and magnitude.

AGIDSrmf-62
AGI DATA SHEET 74.2

A table of seismic moments and moment magnitudes for some important California earth-
quakes follows.3,B
Earthquake Date Ma(X1 ozs dyne-em)
II
Fort Tejon Jan. 9, 1857 530-870 7.8-7.9
Owens Valley Mar. 26, 1872 500 7.8
San Francisco Apr. 18, 1906 400 7.7
Kern County July 21, 1952 200 7.5
Lompoc Nov. 4, 1927 65 7.2
Imperial Valley May 19, 194Q 30 7.0
Santa Barbara June 29, 1925 20 6.8
San Fernando Feb. 9, 1971 10 6.6
Borrego Mountain Apr. 9, 1968 6 6.5
Imperial Valley Oct. 15, 1979 6 6.5
Long Beach Mar. 11, 1933 2 6.2
Point Mugu Feb. 21, 1973 0.1 5.3

References
1. Brune, J. N., 1968. Seismic moment, seismicity, and rate of slip along major fault zones, J.
Goophys. Res. 73, 777-784.
~~~~~~f~t~ta~~~~~n~~ s~u~he~nng~i~~r~~~.Ta~i h~ ~~~~i~!!~~~~ ~!e,2i;~~~~~~,~~~~ ~:,
2
.
1140-1146.
3. Hanks, T. C., Hileman, J. A., and Thatcher, W., 1975. Seismic moments of the larger earth-
quakes of the southern California region, Geo/. Soc. Amer. Bull. 86, 1131-1139.
4. Herrmann, R. B., Cheng, S. -H., and Nuttli, 0. W., 1978. Archeoseismology applied to the
New Madrid earthquakes of 1811 to 1812, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Amer. 68, 1751-1759.
5. Kanamori, H., 1977. The energy release in great earthquakes, J. Geophys. Res. 82,
2981-2987.
6. Purcaru, G., and Berckhemer, H., 1978. A magnitude scale for very large earthquakes, Tec-
tonophysics 49, 189-198.
7. Thatcher, W., and Hanks, T. C., 1973. Source parameters of southem California earthquakes,
J. Geophys. Res. 78, 8547-8576.
8. Hanks, T. C., and Kanamori, H., 1979. A moment magnitude scale, J. Geophys. Res. 84,
2348-2350.
 AGI DATA SHEET 75.1
Calculating the Richter Magnitude of a Local Earthquake
from Seismological Laboratory, California Institute of Technology

This procedure is reproduced by permission from Earthquakes: A Primer, by Bruce A.

Bolt, 1978, W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco. Copyright 1978.
Procedure for calculating the local magnitude, M~:
1. Measure the distance to the focus using the time interval between the secondary (S) and
the primary (P) waves (S- P = 24 seconds).
2. Measure the height of the maximum wave motion on the seismogram (23 millimeters).
3. Place a straight edge between appropriate points on the distance (left) and amplitude (right)
scales to obtain M~=5.0.

500
.50
100
400
40 50
300
.}() 20

200 10
20

100 lO
60 H
6
40
0.5

0.2
20
0.1

Amplitude
~1agnitude (millimeters)
(M2)

Distance P
(kilometers) (sf:'comh)

AGIDStvd-82
 AGI DATA SHEET 76.1
Application of Geophysical Methods*
by David Cummings
SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEYS

=~~!~~J!~~~!~r!f:~ ""~'"W$;:,::~
ble, location of faults, dynamic in situ
properties of subsurface materials,
v, \ ,-
\'
~
//
1
h
1
weathering, and static corrections for 1
large-scale seismic refraction surveys.
~~~~~s~i~~ip~=~~~i:~~~~ of~~; v2 __,.

engineering applications, a crew of 2 or 3 is required; for large exploration programs more

in-field technicians are required. Data interpretation is usually straightforward.

SEISMIC REFLECTION SURVEYS

The data can be used for detailed interpretation
of the subsurface for exploration geologic studies,
det~tingsmallchangesi~diporslopeo!subsur- aeo hones Shot poi!J.t,_,_@Recorder
~~C,:~~:e~:~~~e~~n~~a~~~h~~ ff~~~~;~t~s~~~ }~')~' ./' ./' --r . \ . . ,.: .......
engineering geologic studies and in shallow and
deep marine surveys. Most widely used geophysi-
j
cal method in petroleum exploration. Same basic
crew as seismic refraction, but large exploration
programs on land or sea require more technicians.
Data interpretation is usually straightforward after v,

:J>J:r~i~~~;~~~~~s :~~t"~~1~i ~~~~~~~~ v7_..'"'",\-"',,.........J.,..../"ii-'--

locations to make a cross-section, produce a dis- ~ r,
torted picture of the subsurface. The amount of , ,
distortion, which increases with the amount of dip,
can be corrected by "migrating" the data. Reflec-
tion surveys for shallow engineering applications commonly include detection of surface waves
that are superposed on the reflected waves. Corrections to eliminate the influence of the sur-
face waves are usually made with the aid of computers. Need to correct the field data may
add substantially to the cost of the basic field survey.

MAGNETOMETER SURVEYS .. , ..,. E-w

The data can be used to determine lateral
changes in rock types or configurations of
subsurface structures. location of faults,
depth to magnetic bedrock in deep alluvial-
filled basins. Data are collected quickly and
easily by one person. Aeroma~;~netic SUJveys
prov1de a relatively inexpensive and rapid
method for regional exploration. Qualitative Surface
interpretation of magnetic lineaments,
trends, and so forth, is relatively simple.
Quantitative interpretation is highly involved
and difficult for the non-geophysicist.

First published by GSA Engineering Geology Division.

AGIDS-rvd-82
AGI DATA SHEET 76.2

GRAVIMETRIC SURVEYS
02~/--~~-----
The data can be used to determine faults, depth to . ,
bedrock in deep alluvial-filled basins, lateral changes
of rock types, configuration of subsurface structures. 0.1 - - _ .... ~,.
Surveys require precise elevation and latitude con-
0
trol, and also corrections for instrument drift, earth -2 0 2
tides, and nearby terrain. (Supportive data of -0.1
measurement-station elevations to within 0.3 meters
are usually needed.) Data are collected quickly and Surface
easily by one person. Equipment is expensive, not
widely available, and very easily damaged. Interpreta-
tion of data is usually straightforward.

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEYS

The data can be used to determine
the depth to the ground water table
or to perched water tables, water
quality,leakage from dams or tail-
ings ponds, corrosion potential of
soils, configuration of subsurface
materials, detection of sands and
gravels for industrial minerals ex-
ploration, sea-water intrusion, etc.
Exploration of conditions at deeper
levels from surface observations
can be done by moving the elec- -~ ..---:::: ::.::-:...--
trodes farther and farther apart.
The electrical resistivity val-
ues that are recorded are "apparent resistivity," and not true resistivity. because the electrical
current is influenced by the thickness of earth materials through which it flows. True resistivity
may be approximated by matching the data curve to theoretical curves. The basic equipment
is inexpensive and widely available. A crew of 3 or 4 is convenient, but not necessary, for rapid
surveys. Interpretation can be done both qualitatively, for quickly locating anomalies, and quan-
titatively, for defining anomalies. Quantitative analysis can be difficult and the results may be
ambiguous.

IN SITU SEISMIC SURVEYS

The data are used in earthquake engineering analy-
sis. Shear wave velocities are used to determine in
situ elastic properties of rocks and soils. From this
information, the nature of how the ground might re-
spond to earthquake shaking can be described. A
field crew of 2 is usually required. Preliminary analy-
sis of the data can be done easily with a pocket cal
culator. More sophisticated analyses, for example in
studies of dynamic wave propagation, require use
of computers.
DOWN-HOLE CROSS HOLE
SHEAR WAVE SURVEY SHEAR WAVE SURVEY
Recorder

l~~
I
Three-component
' Three-component geophone
geophone
Shear
wave
 AGI DATA SHEET n.1
Geophysical Well Logging Techniques
by David Cummings
The use of geophysical methods to investigate properties of rocks and soils in a borehole
can provide valuable geologic information. Application of these methods has been primarily
in the fields of petroleum and ground water. Recently, they have been used in engineering
geology and mining projects. Although the cost of equipment may be relatively high, the costs
of running the surveys are not, exclusive of the cost of drilling the borehole. A crew of 2 or
3 is usually required. Data interpretation is generally straightforward, although interpretations
of some sets of data are difficult for a non-geophysicist. Field surveys and interpretations are
generally done by geophysical companies.
Commonly, several different types of logs are run simultaneously-e.g., electrical resistivity
logs and spontaneous potential logs. These procedures save time in the field and aid in corre-
lation of rock or fluid properties.
The nature of the borehole and the absence of fluids in the hole will prevent certain logging
methods from being effective-e.g., the electrical resistivity method will not operate in a hole
that is dry or is cased; the sonic log method will be seriously affected by metal casing. Irregu-
larities in the borehole diameter will also affect the quality of detection of some data.
The table on the reverse side summarizes the commonly used logging methods.

First published by GSA Engineering Geology Division

 AGI DATA SHEET 78.1

Use Of Mohr's Circle in Geology

by Lawrence C. Wood, Stanford University

In a two-dimensional stress system two perpendicular directions exist for which the Figure 1
shear stress ( 1) is zero; these directions are called the principal directions, and the cor-
responding normal stresses ( 0') are called the principal stresses. Defining the x and y
axes as principal directions, the equations for the normal and shear stresses on an ar-
,.
Mohr's circle

bitrary plane can be shown to be

STRESSES ON AN ARBITRARY PLANE
(referred to principal axes)

a a ... cos 2 a + ay sin

2
a =+-(ax+ ay) + t<ax- ay) cos2a

(J
The Mohr's circle is a nomograph that solves these equations; the locus of points that
represent the stress components on any arbitrary plane making an angle a with the
least principal stress axis is a circle, namely, Mohr's circle. The stress components ( a
and 1 ) vary with the angle a: and are represented graphically by Mohr's diagram in
whicn a and 1 are taken as coordinates. Each arbitrary plane corresponds to a
point on the ( o- , T ) plane. Mohr's circle is centered at (a c , 1 c ) = ( ~J!y , 0)
2
and has a radius of magnitude/ a,-; a Y/ Figures 1 and 2 are such diagra ms. The
following features of Mohr's circle make it the most useful of all methods for analyzing
stresses:
(1) Given the magnitudes and directions of the greatest and least principal stresses, the
normal and shear stresses on any arbitrary plane can be determined; in other words, a=~
l 2
+ Yi(o-.-2-}
ar\ 2.!- T..z
r
stresses are resolved by geometry rather than by algebraic manipulations.
(2) Given the normal and shear stress on any two perpendicular planes the direction of
the principal stresses can be obtained by a=~
3 2
First: plotting these two points on the ( a , T ) plane
Second: constructing Mohr's circle passing through these two points
Third: measuring the angle a that the principal stresses make with these
planes.
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion of fracture states that when failure occurs, the normal and
shear stresses on the plane of failure are connected by some functional relationship ~3-~
T = j(a). This curve is the envelope of all circles containing points that corres- 2 - 2
pond to the conditions of fracture. Specifically, the values of a, T, and a of the point
of tanQency of Mohr's circle with Mohr's envelope are the straight lines T =
f~c~io~o01 :;,:~te~iai~Fig~~~~~~~~dat~~P~~~1e:~~~~~ is called the angle of internal
Figure 2
typical Mohr's diagram
Mohr's circle relates the angle of internal friction to the angle of dip. In general the three T
axes of stress are unequal; the plane of the fault will strike parallel to the intermediate
stress axis, and it will be inclined to the least principal stress axis by the angle a: 4>
From Figure 2 it is seen that 2 a oo + 6 or a = 45 + <!>12 Thus, when the prin- 6 \0"/------
cipal stresses are horizontal and vertical, the dip of normal faults is 45 + 612 and
the dip of thrust faults is 45 - !JJ/2 . Strike-slip faults dip oo and the angles be- 1""-::;1""o >r
tween conjugate sets of faults are 90 > .
Experiments show that Mohr's envelope for most rock materials is very close to a
straight line of the form = 7Q + a tan 9 . The shear strength To and the angle of
internal friction of a rock are usually determined by triaxial tests. Since direct
measurements of these quantities are not feasible, Mohr's circles are determined by
measuring the lateral and axial stresses. The envelope of these circles gives the rela-
tionship between the normal and shearing stress. The results of a series of tests on
some typical foundation rocks, made by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in the manner
just described, are summarized in Table 1 (Data Sheet 78.2).The elastic constants of the
specimens have been determined by both static and dynamic tests. Dynamic tests sub-
ject the specimens to vibrations instead of static loads. The loads due to vibrations are
very small and of extremely short duration; the duration is seldom longer than 118,000th
second. The static constants are of significance in geology; the dynamic constants, on
the other hand, are significant in seismic wave propagation.
AGI DATA SHEET 78.2
Physical (Engineering) Properties of Rocks
Compiled by Lawrence C. Wood, Stanford University ::_
Table 1
~ _:_.:.~ - - __ ____ - -- ~ -- ___ ._ --- ~- --- --- ~ -- ---,-i -
HASTI C CONSTANTS
PREOI CTED Dl P
COHESION TAN Ass uming hori z. p. =P oisson's Rati o
AVERAGE AVERAGE
= Ang. and vert. prin- AVERAGE E = Young's Mo dulus
ROCK TYPE PSI of Int. cipal stress e s COMPRESSIVE SPECIFIC G = Shear Mod u Iu s
POROSITY
F rict io n in hoono~e n . rock STRENGTH GRAVIT Y STA T I C I>YNAMIC
10 6 PSI 106 PSI
"' NORMAL
FAULTS
THRUST
FAULTS PSI PER CENT p. E p. : E G

i
ANDESITE 4060 1 .0 67c 23c 19 150 2.57 4.80 0 . 18 7. 9 !
3970 1 .0 67 23 18710 3.60 0 . 16 5. 6
BASALT 4500 1.1 69 21 2445o 2. 74 4. 50 0 . 25 9. 2
6340 1. 2 70 20 3 1850 2 . 72 I .63 0 . 22 8. 7 I
2010 1. 4 18 12670 I. 00 0 . ]g l 4 . 40 "'Ts
~
Dl ORI TE QUARTZ 72 _] .~ 3.-
r:oo
____J
-
DIORITE GNEISS 1590 1. 3 I 71 19 9 3 10 1. 07 3. 1 I
2540 I .4 72 18 15140 ~- 0. 10 4.2
GRANITE, Med . Grnd.
51 i ght 1y a I t e red
S I i ght 1y a I tered
PEGMATITE
3250
1420
1150
1040
1.5
1 .6
I .8
1.5
73
74
76
73
17
16
14
17
21580
10460
9400
7000
2.63
2 . 63
2 . 61
2 . 61
-:59
- I
I .0
2. 36
I .0
0.12
0 . 20
0 . 09
*' l;~if
3 .9
1.0 a. 1a 2. 2
2.8
I

1
-r- -

I .0

SUBGRAY\.IACKE, Coar se 1700 1. 1 69 21 790 0 2 . 46 10.3 0 .0 5 1.7 0 . 06 3 .8 1 .8

Coarse Gnd. 910 1.2 70 20 4440 2.49 9. 7 0.09 I . 4 0 . 08 : 3 . 8 1. 8
Fin e Grained 1640 1.0 67 23 7010 2.41 12 . 00.07 1 . 7 0.23 3 . 7 1. 5
Med. Grained 16 50 1 .0 67 23 7080 2.44 11 . 50.06 I .8 0. 19 3.8 I .6
Me d. Gr a ined 1580 1 .0 67 23 7350 2.49 9.7 0.06 1 .4 0. 29 3. 6 1 .4
LIMESTONE , Fine Gr nd. 2150 I .6 74 16 11660 2 . 71 3.4 0. 25 g . 8 0. 28 10 . 3 4 .0
Med. Grnd. 53 CO 0. 7 61 29 18480 2.68 4. 7 0 . 19 4.9 0. 31 7 . 6 2. 9
Po r o us 2430 1.1 69 21 19320 2 . 44 13.9 0 . 20 2.8 0 . 20 4.1 1.7
Cha 1ce don i c 2610 1.5 73 17 15580 2 .60 5.4 0.20 3.8 0.25 6 .8 2.7
Oo l i tic 2950 I .0 67 23 14420 2.67 I .60. 18 6.8 0 . 21 7.8 3.2
Reef Breccia 4960 2.35 1>:0 0. 16 5.5
Reef Br ec cia 180 0.6 60 3~ 860 2.25 32. 7 0. 12 1.1
Reef Hea d 3080 1 . 79 36 . 00.24 3.0 i
Sty l o ti c 19 20 1.7 12_ 11530 2 .B_ ~ 0 . 15 2.1 0. 27 8. 2
MONZONITE PORPHYR Y 239 0 1.7
75
75 15 18090 2 . 57 2.40 0. 18 6. 0 0 . 21 -8 .2 {{--
MONZONITE PORPH YRY 2860 2.1 77 13 25020 0 . 16 6. 2
MONZONITE PORPHYRY 3170 1.5 73 17 247 30
PHYLLITE, GRAPHITE 310 1. 1 69 21 9 70 2.35 15 . 3 1. 4 3. 9 I .0
PHYLLITE, QUARTZ 25 0 1.2 70 20 1360 2.18 22 . 4 0.02 1. 3 2.7 0.7
PHYLLITE SERI Cl TE 280 1.1 69 21 1420 2. 34 17. 4 2.5
SANDSTONE 1690 1. 1 69 21 88 10 2 . 28 16 . 43 0.06 2.8 0 16 8 .6 3.7
2450 12200 2.37 11 . 21 0 . 17 3. 9
SCHIST. B lOTI TE 2090 1. 7 75 15 12010 2. 70 I .44 0 . 18 5. 8
BIO-CHLOR . 780 2.3 78 12 12000 2. 74 0 . 70 0. 10 9. 7
BID-SILL . 480 1.2 70 20 2300 2. 72 2.0 0.02 3.5
SERICIT E 350 I .4 72 18 2180 2.47 I I .4 0.1 2 1. 2
SHALE, CALCAREOUS 116) 2.1 77 13 5220 2.67 1. 8 0.02 2. 3 3.6 2 .3
QUARTZOSE 3390 1.0 67 23 I 7770 2.69 6.6 0.0 7 2. 3 3 .2 1.7
51 L TSTONE 720 1.2 70 20 3500 2. so I 0.3 0 .0 8 I .9 3.9 I .8
TUFF , LITHIC 100 0 .9 66 24 530 1. 4 5 42.48 0 08 0. 18
----
Table 2 I
l AVERAGE RANGE OF TENSILE SHEARING References
CRUSHING STR ENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH
ROCK TYPE 2 TABLE 1
STRENGTH k g / cm kg / cr" 2 k g/cm 2
k g / cm 2 G.G. Balmer, Physical properties of some typical
foundation rocks: U.S. Bur. Reclamation lab.
rept. SP-39, Denver, 1953
Granite 1480 370-3790 30-50 150-300
Syen i t e 19 60 I 000-3440 TABLE 2
~;,~ :Ony~~r~~gd~~~ '{{~amics of faulting: Oliver
Di o r i le
Gabbr o , d i ab.t s e , e tc
1960
1800
960-2600
460-4 700
1
Gn e i ss 1560 810-3270 ~e': ~~~~~g1~ 5~t~~r~'[~ft~~~'f914)Prentlce-Hall,
Quartzit e 2020 260-3200 30-90 I 00-300
Marbl e 1020 310-2620 30-9 0 ~-e~:~~ott~.H:;~~~?~:;frhlt,i~~~~onstants:
Sandstone 740 II 0-2520 10-30 100-200
L irne s t o n e 960 60-3 600 30-60 150-250
R.S. Carmichael (ed), 1982, Handbook of Physi
cal Properties of Rocks, v. 1-2, CRC Press,
Slat e 1480 600- 3 130 250 Boca Raton, Fla. v. 1, 404 p.; v. 2, 345 p.
Serpentine 1230 630-1230 60- 110 180 - 340
Tu f f 310 100- 520 S.P. Clark, et al., Handbook of Physical Con
Bas a It 2500 2000-3500 50-150 stants, Geoi.Soc.Am .Memoir 97, 1966
Fe I s i te 2450 2000-2900
 AGI DATA SHEET 79.1
Physical Properties of Building Stones
Complied by Eugene C. Robertson, U.S. Geological Survey

The laboratory measurements tabulated here can be useful both for deter-
mining structural design and for understanding deterioration processes for build-
ing and monument stones. The variety of mineral composition, bonding, pore
shape and size, fabric, and anisotropy affect the physical properties so much
that an average value for one rock type would be misleading; only ranges of val
ues are given in the table. However, in rock in place, the presence of minor inho-
mogeneities such as shaley layers, cements, foliation, induration, microfractur-
ing, and incipient jointing are as important as laboratory tests and can justify
rejection of dimension stone blocks.
Porosity and permeability are probably the most important physical proper-
ties because they determine the a.;cessibility of water and gases and acidic
solutes, which can cause deterioration of the stones. Thermal and mechanical
properties are important because of their effects on permeability, strength, and
mineral integrity and bonding.
Bulk density, p, is the mass of mineral grains divided by the bulk volume.
Stones having p > 2.2 g /cm3 are too hard to work easily with masonry tools,
although they resist weathering better; stones having p < 1.7 g /cm3 are too soft
and easily weathered. Porosity, <jl, is the ratio of pore volume to pore plus grain
volume. Pores are important because they afford pathways and receptacles for
chemically active fluids, and they can be sources of weakness for ambient
stresses ranging from tectonic to ice-freezing pressure. Coefficient of permeabili-
ty, f-L, in negative logarithms of darcies, d, is defined empirically by Darcy's law,
by which f-L depends on the fluid pressure, viscosity, and rate of flow through unit
area and for unit length. Intrinsic f-L values (in the table) are measured on intact
samples; however, joints and fractures can increase f-L by 10 to 1,000 times.
Thermal expansion, a, is the decimal fractional length change per degree C.
Thermal stress by heating can produce microfractures in rock because of mineral
anisotropy, usually an irreversible effect A 70-bar increase in stress in a granodi-
orite surface was caused by a 25C temperature increase by solar heating.
Freezing ice, at -10C, fully constrained, would exert 1 kb tensile stress. Thermal
conductivity, K, is a measure of solid heat conduction rate per degree C through
unit area per unit length. The K of common rocks increases by a factor of two to
three for a decrease in <jJ from 40 percent to 1 percent; a temperature rise of
1oooc causes a 10 percent reduction in K in common rocks except basalts. Dif-
fusivity, k, is a measure of heat transfer and storage. This parameter is useful in
estimating fluctuating changes in temperature with depth; a 25C surface tem-
perature change produces only a 2C change at 8-m depth.
Hardness, H, like the Mohs' scale, is a relative scratch hardness and is a
measure of the ease of polishing stones. Young's modulus of elasticity, E, is the
ratio of stress to strain in compression. Most rocks behave elastically nearly to
the failure stress, so E can be used to estimate one parameter from the other.
Microcracking damage of stone due to temperature or stress effects will change
E and can be detected by acoustic velocity techniques. Compressive strength, S,
is the maximum stress attained before a rock fails, usually by brittle rupture at
strains of about 1 percent. Modulus of rupture, R, is measured by a simple bend-
ing test and is about equal to tensile strength.

References
Robertson, E.C., 1982. "Physical properties of building stone," and other papers. In
Conservation of Historic Stone Buildings and Monuments. National Research Council,
National Academy Press, 365 p.
Winkler, E.M., 1973. Stone: Properties and Durability and Man's Environment. Springer-
Verlag, New York, 230 p.
AGI-DS-jld-89
 :J:Io
~
Ra~s of Valuj~e~a~hJ~~=!.t~~!!l!erties of Building Stones
c
Density
Aqqre~~ation PrODerties
Porll5ity Pennea- Expan- Conduct- Diffus- Hard-
Medianica1 !Sr!!l!ert 1es
Young's Strength Modulus
!i
:J:Io
bil ity sion
ex.
fvity ivity ness Modulus of Rupture en
.P 4> f..t _1_ _ K lr. H E s R :I:
m
Rod TvDe q/cm
3 (1) (log d) (106 "C) ~
s ( w- 2cm 2/s) (Hb) (k.b) (kb)
m
....
.....
co
Granite 2.5-2.7 0.1-4 -9 to -6 5-11 3-10 0.5-3 5-7 0.3-0.6 0.8-3.3 0.1-0.7 IN
Gabbro 2.8-3.1 0.3-3 -7 to -5 4-7 4-6 1-2 5-6.5 0.5-1.1 1.1-3.0 0.1-0.7

Rhyoandes i te 2.2-2.5 4-15 -8 to -2 5-9 2-9 0.4-3 5-6.5 0.6-0. 7 0.6-2.2 0.01-0.7

Basalt 2.7-3.1 0.1-5 -5 to -1 4-6 2-5 0.4-1.5 4-6.5 0.5-1.0 0.5-2.9 0.1-0.9

Quartzite 2.5-2.7 0.3-3 -7 to -4 10-12 8-16 2-8 4-7 0.6-1.0 1.1-3.6 0.1-1.0

Harble 2.4-2.8 0.4-5 -6 to -3 5-9 3-7 0.5-1.5 2-4 0.2-0.7 0.4-1.9 0.04-0.03

Slate 2.6-2.9 0.1-5 -11 to -8 8-10 3-9 0.5-3 3-5 0.3-0.9 0.5-3.1 0.05-1.0

Sandstone 2.0-2.6 1-30 -3 to 0 8-12 2-12 0.4-5 2-7 0.03-0.8 0.2-2.5 0.01-0.4

Limestone 1.8-2.7 0.3-30 -9 to -2 4-12 2-6 0.4-1.5 2-3 0.1-0.7 0.2-2.4 0.1-0.5

Shale 2.0-2.5 2-30 -9 to -5 9-15 1-8 0.3-Z 2-3 0.1-0. I 0.3-1.3 0.02-0.5

Soapstone 2.5-2.8 0.5-5 -6 to -4 8-12 2-7 0.4-1.5 1 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.4 0.01-0.1

Travertine 2.0-2.7 0.5-5 -5 to -2 6-10 2-5 0.4-1 Z-3 0.1-0.6 0.1-1.5 0.02-0.1

Serpentinite 2.2-2. 7 1-15 -7 to -3 5-12 3-9 0.5-3 2-5 0.1-0.5 0.7-1.9 0.05-0.1

Source: E. C. Robertson. "Physical properties of building stone. In Conserva~_l~ Historic Stone Buildiogs __and Monurne_l'll:s, 1982.
>
f1
c
CD
,
;;
6
(/1
S' ::::::1

l a
3
!UJ
m
31: ::::::1
Name Surface Atmosphere c.
~
0
yr
0.62 yr
1.00 yr
48.7
59.8
5.3
5.5
basalt, granite?
basalt, granite, water
AI
<
ni"
!fJ
'"
ca
CD
C/)
:0 I
Moon - - 27.32 d 0.7 3.3 basalt, anorthosites none
~
Marsb 228 1.52 1.88 yr 6.4 3.9 basalt, clays, ice 0.07 bar: 95% CO,
?'
Jupiter 778 5.20 11.86 yr 18,991 1.3 none H,,He,CH.,NH,, etc.
en
CD
Callisto 16.69 d 1.1 1.9 dirty ice none a: UJi
Ganymede
Europa
- 7.15 d
3.55 d
1.5
0.5
1.9
3.0
3
2
dirty ice
ice
nona
none
CD
3CD
lo 1.77 d 0.9 3.6 3 sulfur, SO, trace SO, ~'::J
Saturn 1,426 9.54 29.46 yr 5,686 0.7 36 none Hl,He,CH.,NH,, etc. m
~
Titan 15.95 d 1.3 1.9 3 ice? hydrocarbons? 1.5 bar: N,, trace CH.
Uranus 2,868 19.18 84.07 yr 866 1.2 21 ? H.,He,CH.,NH.h etc.
Neptune 4,494 30.06 164.82 yr 1,030 1.6 23 ? H,,He,CH.,NH,, etc. en
Triton
Pluto
-
5,900 39.44
5.88 d
248.6 yr
?
0.01
?
1.7
?
1
CH. Ice, liquid N,(?)
CH. ice
trace CH.
trace CH.
S'
'::J
9:
CD
::r
CD ]:1!>
Notes
Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., from David Morrison and Tobias Owens, 1988, The Planetary System.
'::J
Q, 9
!=I c
a R denotes retrograde rotation.
~ ~
lJi
b The belt of asteroids is between Mars and Jupiter. -1 en
:::r
0 :I:
m
~ m
-t

~
AGI DATA SHEET 80.2

The four small terrestrial planets are closest to the sun. Beyond the asteroid belt lie
the giant planets and finally the terrestrial-like planet of Pluto. In this diagram, distances
from the sun are given by a logarithmic scale and the diameters of the planets by
an arithmetic scale.

Judson/Kauffman/Leet, Physical Geology, 7/E, 1987, p. 399. Reprinted by permis-

sion of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
 Area in; Greatest Depth in:
Sq. Miles Sq.Km. Feet Meters

Pacific Ocean 64,186,000 166,241 '700 36,198 11,033

Atlantic Ocean 31,862,000 82,522,600 28,374 8,648
Indian Ocean 28,350,000 73,426,500 25,344 7,725
Arctic Ocean 5,427,000 14,056,000 17,880 5,450
Caribbean Sea 970,000 2,512,300 24,720 7,535
Mediterranean Sea 969,000 2,509,700 16,896 5,150
Bering Sea 875,000 2,266,250 15,800 4,800
Gulf of Mexico 600,000 1,554,000 12,300 3,750
Sea of Okhotsk 590,000 1,528,100 11,070 3,370
East China Sea 482,000 1,248,400 9,500 2,900
Sea of Japan 389,000 1,007,500 12,280 3,740
Hudson Bay 317,500 822,300 846 258
North Sea 222,000 575,000 2,200 670
Black Sea 185,000 479,150 7,365 2,245 Jlo
Red Sea 169,000 437,700 7,200 2,195 e
Baltic Sea 163,000 422,170 1,506 459 c
~
Jlo
en
::1:
m
m
-f

~
AGI DATA SHEET 81.2
Continents and Large Islands

CONTINENTS
Area in: Percent of
Sq. Miles Sq.Km. World's Land
Asia 17,128,500 44,362,815 29.5
Africa 11,707,000 30,321,130 20.2
North America 9,363,000 24,250,170 16.2
South America 6,875,000 17,806,250 11.8
Antarctica 5,500,000 14,245,000 9.5
Europe 4,057,000 10,507,630 7.0
Australia 2,966,136 7,682,300 5.1

LARGE ISLANDS
Area in:
Sq. Miles Sq.Km.
Greenland 840,000 2,175,600
New Guinea 305.000 789,950
Borneo 290,000 751,100
Madagascar 226,400 586,376
Baffin, Canada 195,928 507,454
Sumatra, Indonesia 164,000 424,760
Honshu, Japan 88,000 227,920
Great Britain 84.400 218,896
Victoria, Canada 83,896 217,290
Ellesmere, Canada 75,767 196,236
Celebes, Indonesia 72,986 189,034
South Island, New Zealand 58,393 151,238
Java, Indonesia 48,842 126,501
North Island, New Zealand 44,187 114,444
Newfoundland, Canada 42,031 108,860
Cuba 40,533 104.981
Luzon. Philippines 40,420 104.688
Iceland 39,768 103,000
Mindanao, Philippines 36,537 94.631
Ireland 31,743 82,214
Sakhalin, USSR 29,500 76,405
Hispaniola, Haiti & Dominican Republic 29,399 76,143
Hokkaido, Japan 28,983 75,066
Banks, Canada 27,038 70,028
Ceylon, Sri Lanka 25,332 65,610
Tasmania, Australia 24,600 63,710
Svalbard, Norway 23,957 62,049
Devon, Canada 21,331 55,247
Novaya Zemlya (north island), USSR 18,600 48,200
Maraj6, Brazil 17,991 46,597
Tierra del Fuego, Chile & Argentina 17,900 46,360
Alexander, Antarctica 16,700 43,250
from Hammond, Citation World Atlas
Copyright Permission: Hammond Incorporated
Maplewood, New Jersey
 AGI DATA SHEET 82.1
Craters of the World
Prepared for the International Union of Geological Sciences Commission on
Comparative Planetology by R.A.F. Grieve and P.B. Robertson, Geological Sur-
vey of Canada, Energy Mines and Resources Canada.

Diameter Age
Name (km) (Ma)
1. Amguid, Algeria 0.45 <0.1
2. Aouelloul, Mauritania 0.37 3.1 0.3
3. Araguainha Dome, Brazil 40 <250
4. Azuara, Spain 30 <130
5. Barringer, Arizona, U.S.A. 1.2 0.025
6. Bee Bluff, Texas, U.S.A. 2.4 <40
7. Beyenchime-Salaatin, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 8 <65
8. Bigatch, K.S.S.R., U.S.S.R. 7 63
9. Boltysh, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 25 1005
10. Bosumtwi, Ghana 10.5 1.30.2
11. Boxhole, N. T., Australia 0.18
12. B.P. Structure, Libya 2.8 <120
13. Brent, Ontario, Canada 3.8 45030
14. Campo del Cielo, Argentina (20) 0.09
15. Carswell, Saskatchewan, Canada 37 1178
16. Charlevoix, Quebec, Canada 46 36025
17. Clearwater LEast, Quebec, Canada* 22 29020
18. Clearwater L. West, Quebec, Canada 32 29020
19. Connolly Basin, W.A., Australia 9 <60
20. Crooked Creek, Missouri, U.S.A. 5.6 32080
21. Dalgaranga, W.A., Australia* .021
22. Decaturville, Missouri, U.S.A. 6 <300
23. Deep Bay, Saskatchewan, Canada 12 10050
24. Dellen, Sweden 15 109.61
25. Eagle Butte, Alberta, Canada 10 <65
26. El'gygytgyn, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 23 3.50.5
27. Flynn Creek, Tennessee, U.S.A. 3.8 36020
28. Glover Bluff, Wisconsin, U.S.A. 6 <500
29. Goat Paddock, W.A., Australia 5 >50
30. Gasses Bluff, N.T., Australia 22 142.50.5
31. Gow L., Saskatchewan, Canada* 5 <250
32. Gusev, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 3 65
33. Haughton, N.W.T., Canada 20 21.51.2
34. Haviland, Kansas, U.S.A. 0.011
35. Henbury, N.T., Australia (14)* 0.15
36. Holleford, Ontario, Canada 2 550 100
37. lie Rouleau, Quebec, Canada 4 <300
38. llintsy, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 4.5 3955
39. llumetsy, Estonia, U.S.S.R. 0.08 0.002
40. Janisjarvi, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 14 69822

AGI-DS-jtd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 82.2

Diameter Age
Name (km) (Ma)
41. Kaalijarvi, Estonia, U.S.S.R. (7)* 0.11 0.004
42. Kaluga, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 15 380 10
43. Kamensk, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 25 65
44. Kara, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R.* 60 579
45. Karla, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 10 10
46. Kelly West, N.T., Australia 2.5 <550
47. Kentland, Indiana, U.S.A. 13 <300
48. Kjardla, Estonia, U.S.S.R. 4 51030
49. Kursk, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 5 25080
50. Lac Couture, Quebec, Canada 8 42525
51. Lac La Moinerie, Quebec, Canada 8 40050
52. Lappajarvi, Finland* 14 774
53. Liverpool, N.T., Australia 1.6 150 70
54. Logancha, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 20 5020
55. Logoisk, Belorussia, U.S.S.R. 17 405
56. Lonar, India 1.83 0.05
57. Machi, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. (5) 0.3 <1
58. Manicouagan, Quebec, Canada 100 2104
59. Manson, Iowa, U.S.A. 32 61 9
60. Middlesboro, Kentucky, U.S.A. 6 <300
61. Mien, Sweden* 5 1183
62. Misarai, Lithuania, U.S.S.R. 5 395 145
63. Mishina Gora, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 2.5 <360
64. Mistasin, Nfld. and Lab., Canada 28 384
65. Monturaqui, Chile* 0.46 1
66. Morasko, Poland (7) * 0.1 0.01
67. New Quebec, Quebec, Canada 3.2 5
68. Nicholson L., N.W.T., Canada* 12.5 <400
69. Oasis, Libya 11.5
70. Obolon', Ukraine, U.S.S.R.* 15 21525
71. Odessa, Texas, U.S.A. (3)* 0.168
72. Ouarkziz, Algeria 3.5 <70
73. Piccaninny, W.A., Australia 7 <360
74. Pilot L., N.W.T., Canada 6 4402
75. Popigai, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R.* 100 399
76. Puchezh-Katunki, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 80 1835
77. Red Wing Creek, N. Dakota, U.S.A. 9 200
78. Riacho Ring, Brazil 4
79. Ries, Fed. Rep. Germany* 24 14.80.7
80. Rochechouart, France* 23 16515
81. Rogozinskaja, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 8 555
82. Rotmistrovka, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 2.5 14020
83. saaksjarvi, Finland* 5 51412
84. Saint Martin, Manitoba, Canada 23 22540
85. Serpent Mound, Ohio, U.S.A. 6.4 <320
86. Serra da Canghala, Brazil 12 <300
 AGI DATA SHEET 82.3

Diameter Age
Name (km) (Ma)
87. Shunak, Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R. 2.5 12
88. Sierra Madera, Texas, U.S.A. 13 <100
89. Sikhote Alin, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. (122)* 0.0265
90. Siljan, Sweden 52 3681
91. Slate Is., Ontario, Canada 30 <350
92. Sobolev, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R.* 0.05
93. Soderfjl:l.rden, Finland 5.5 <600
94. Spider, W.A., Australia 5
95. Steen River, Alberta, Canada 25 95 7
96. Steinheim, Fed. Rep. Germany 3.4 14.80.7
97. Strangways, N.T., Australia* 24 <472
98. Sudbury, Ontario, Canada 140 1850 150
99. Tabun-Khara-Obo, Mongolia 1.3 <30
100. Talemzane, Algeria 1.75 <3
101. Teague, W.A., Australia 28 16855
102. Tenoumer, Mauritania 1.9 2.50.5
103. Ternovka, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 8 33030
104. Tin Bider, Algeria 6 <70
105. Ust-Kara, R.S.F.S.R., U.S.S.R. 25 579
106. Upheaval Dome, Utah, U.S.A. 5
107. Veevers, W.A., Australia* 0.08 <450
108. Vepriaj, Lithuania, U.S.S.R. 8 16030
109. Vredefort, South Africa 140 1970 100
11 0. Wabar, Saudi Arabia (2) 0.097
111. Wanapitei L., Ontario, Canada 8.5 372
112. Wells Creek, Tennessee, U.S.A. 14 200 100
113. West Hawk L., Manitoba, Canada 2.7 10050
114. Wolf Creek, W.A., Australia 0.85
115. Zeleny Gai, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. 1.4 12020
116. Zhamanshin, Kazakhstan, U.S.S.R.* 10 0.750.06

These craterform structures have associated meteoric material and/or

diagnostic shock metamorphic features. They are considered to be the result of
the impact of interplanetary bodies with the Earth. Sites with multiple craters are
indicated by (n), where n is the number of craters. Structures with meteoritic
fragments or geochemical anomalies considered to have a meteoritic source are
designated by '* '.

Reprinted by permission. Shirley, Kathy, 1989, Structures have impact on theories:

AAPG Explorer, v. 10, no. 4, p. 14-17.
 AGI DATA SHEET 83.1
Principal Mountain Peaks of the World

Feet Meters
Everest, Nepal-China 29,028 8,848
Godwin Austen (K2). Pakistan-China 28,250 8,611
Kanchenjunga, Nepal-India 28,208 8,598
Lhotse, Nepal-China 27,923 8,511
Makalu, Nepal-China 27,824 8,481
Dhaulagiri, Nepal 26,810 8,172
Nanga Parbat, Pakistan 26,660 8,126
Annapurna, Nepal 26,504 8,078
Gasherbrum, Pakistan-China 26,470 8,068
Nanda Devi. India 25,645 7,817
Rakaposhi, Pakistan 25,550 7,788
Kamet, India 25,447 7,756
Gurla Mandhada, China 25,355 7,728
Kongur Shan, China 25,325 7,719
Tirich Mir, Pakistan 25,230 7,690
Gongga Shan, China 24,790 7,556
Muztagata, China 24,757 7,546
Communism Peak, USSR 24,599 7,498
Pobeda Peak, USSR 24,406 7,439
Choma Lhari, Bhutan-China 23,997 7,314
Muztag, China 23,891 7,282
Cerro Aconcagua, Argentina 22,831 6,959
Ojos del Salado, Chile-Argentina 22,572 6,880
Bonete, L;nllle-,fl.raentma 22,541 6,870
Tupungato, ljnl!le-,funemma 22,310 6,800
Pissis, Argentina 22,241 6,779
Mercedario, Argentina 22,211 6.770
Huascaran, Peru 22,205 6,768
LlullaHiaco, Chile-Argentina 22,057 6.723
Nevada Ancohuma, Bolivia 21,489 6,550
lllampu, Bolivia 21,276 6,485
Chimborazo, Ecuador 20,561 6,267
McKinley, Alaska 20,320 6,194
Logan, Canada (Yukon) 19,524 5,951
Cotopaxi. Ecuador 19,347 5,897
Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 19,340 5,895
El Misti, Peru 19,101 5,822
Pica Cristobal Col6n, Colombia 19,029 5,800
Huila, Colombia 18,865 5,750
Citlaltepetl (Orizaba), Mexico 18,855 5,747
El'brus. USSR 18,510 5,642
Damavand, Iran 18,376 5,601
St Elias. Alaska-Canada (Yukon) 18,008 5,489
Vilcanota, Peru 17,999 5,486
Popocateptl, Mexico 17,887 5,452
Oykhtau, USSR 17,070 5,203
Kenya, 17,058 5,199
Ararat, 16,946 5,165
 Feet Meters
Vinson Massif, Antarctica 16.864 5,140
Margherita (Ruwenzori). Uganda-Congo 16.795 5,119
Kazbek. USSR 16,512 5,033
Puncak Jaya, Indonesia 16,503 5,030
Tyree, Antarctica 16,289 4,965
Mont Blanc, France 15,771 4,807
Klyuchevskaya Sopka, USSR 15,584 4,750
Fairweather, Canada (British Columbia) 15,300 4,663
Dufourspitze (Mte. Rosa), Italy-Switzerland 15,203 4.634
Ras Dashan, Ethiopia 15,157 4.620
Matterhorn. Switzerland 14.691 4,478
Whitney. California, U.S. 14,494 4.418
Elbert, Colorado, U.S. 14,433 4,399
Rainier, Washington, U.S. 14,410 4.392
Shasta, California, U.S. 14,162 4,317
Pikes Peak, Colorado, U.S. 14,110 4,301
Finsteraarhorn. Switzerland 14,022 4,274
Mauna Kea, Hawaii, U.S. 13,796 4,205
Mauna Loa. Hawaii, U.S. 13,677 4,169
Jungfrau, Switzerland 13.642 4,158
Cameroon. Cameroon 13.350 4,069
Grossglockner. Austria 12,457 3,797
Fuji, Japan 12,389 3.776
Cook. New Zealand 12.349 3,764
Etna, Italy 11,053 3.369
Kosciusko, Australia 7,310 2,228
Mitchell, North Carolina, U.S. 6,684 2,037

from Hammond, Citation World Atlas

Copyright Permiss1on: Hammond Incorporated
Maplewood, New Jersey
 AGI DATA SHEET 84.1
Notable Volcanoes of the World
Prepared by Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution
Some volcanoes, notable primarily lor a si~gle eruption, are included in the Data Sheet 64.3. Volcano repose
periods are long, compared to historic records, and an unexpected erupt1on may make a little-known volcano
"notable" overnight.

Elev First Most Yrs

VOLCANO NAME Oocation) (m) Histc Recent Act Comment
fiUJ:!2(!!! & Middle fi!st (20)
CAMPI FLEGREI (~aly) 458 1198 1538 0 10+ m uplift & subs1dence; Roman times to 1984
VESUVIO (llaly) 1281 79 1944 128 History's storied volcano; overlooks Bay of Naples
STROMBOLI (Italy) 926 -450? 1989 190 Almost continuous eruptions for 2000 yrs
ETNA (Italy-Sicily) 3350 -1500? 1989 139 Basaltic volcano; 133 eruptions with lava flows
SANTORINI [THIRAJ (Greece) 564 -197 1950 12 Submerged caldera; historically formed islands
OAMAVAND (Iran) 5670 Holocene, highest in Asia Minor
Alrlca & lndlen Oceen (14)
KILIMANJARO (Tanzania) 5895 Holocene, highest in Africa
OL DOINYO LENGAI(Tanz) 288 1880 1989 30 East African Rift volcano; unusual carbonatite lavas
NYAMU RAGIRA (Zaire) 3053 1882 1989 45 Most active in Africa, along with nearby Nyiragongo
MT CAMEROON (Gameroon)4070 -450? 1982 14 Only non-Mediterranean historic B.C. eruption
FOURNAISE (Reunion I) 263 1640 1988 110 115 eruptions with lava flows since 1640
~(54)
TAUPO (New Zealand) 760 130 0 Large caldera; major Holocene explosive eruptions
RUAPEHU (New Zealand) 2796 1861 1989 45 Most crater lake eruptions (37)
NIUAFO'OU (Tonga) 260 1814 1985 12 Shield volcano & caldera lake; most active in Tonga
RABAUL (Papua New Guinea) 229 1767 1943 7 Caldera forms harbor; site of PNG Vole Observatory
KAVACHI (Solomon Is) -80 1939 1986 26 a
28 submarine eruptions since 1939, islands formed
SAVO (Solomon Is) 510 1568 1847? 1 First historic eruption in SW Pacific
YASUR (Vanuatu) 350 1774 1989 190 Enupting since discovery by Captain Cook
Indonesia (7 B)
TOBA (Sumatra) 1981 3
Wor1d's largest caldera; 2800 km erupted 75 ka BP
KERINCI (Sumatra) 3805 1838 1970 21 Highest volcano in wor1d's most volcanCHich nation
KRAKATAU (Sumatra/Java) 813 1680 1988 44 Caldera formed 1683; new island growth since 1927
MERAPI (Java) 2911 1548 1986? 98 25 enuptions with pyroclastic flows, 12 fatal
KELUT (Java) 1731 1000 1967 13 Indonesia's first historic; 10 fatal crater lake eruptions
GAMALAMA (Halmahera) 1715 1538 1988 38 Most active in Halmahera, along with Dukono
Phlllppfnes(16)
MAYON (Luzon) 2462 1616 1984 46 Symmetrical strato-volcano; Philippines' most active
TAAL(Luzon) 400 1572 1977 17 20-km-wide caldera lake; active central island
hR!!J.(57)
SAKURA-JIMA (Kyushu) 1118 708 1989 48 Over1ooks Kagoshima; eruption continuous from 1955
ASO(Kyushu) 1592 553 1989 97 Large caldera; 1st historic, most eruptions in Japan
FUJI (Honshu) 3776 781 1707 0 Symbol of Japan and its highest peak
ASAMA (Honshu) 2550 685 1983 62 Frequent explosive enuptions; 14 fatal
USU (Hokkaido) 725 1626 1978 11 300-m dome formed 1944-45; 180-m uplift 1977-82
USSR & Melnland Asia (59)
CHIKURACHKI (Kurills) 1817 1853 1986 14 Most active in Kurillslands
TOLBACHIK (Kamchatka) 3085 1740 1976 28 Basaltic shield volcano
KLIUCHEVSKOI (Kamchat1<a)4850 1697 1988? 77 Highest and most active in Kamchatka
KUNLUN GROUP (Tibet) 5808 1951 1951 1 Pyroclastic cones; highest Asian volcanoes
TIANSHAN GAP (NW China) 5400? 50? 650? 0 Enupted first century A.D.
Alaska (44)
SHISHALDIN (Aleutians) 2875 1824 1986 30 Symmetrical volcano; most active in Aleutians
PAVLOF (Alaska Peninsula) 2518 1790 1988 37 Most active in Alaska
AUGUSTINE (Alaska Pen) 1252 1812 1986 10 Many debris avalanches/tsunamis; recent explosions
WRANGELL (E Alaska) 4252 1819 1907? 5 Highest, largest volume volcano in Alaska
CIISCides & Hewell (12)
RAINIER (Washington) 4392 1843? 1894? 1 Cascades' highest; large Holocene mudflows
ST. HELENS (Washington) 2549 1831 1986 20 Lost400-m height in 1980 eruption
SHASTA (California) 4317 1786 1786 0 First historic eruption in Cascades
KILAUEA (Hawaii) 1222 1750 1989 133 Half of world's known lava lake eruptions
MAUNA LOA (Hawaii) 4170 1750 1984 41 Highest historically active volcano above base (9 km)
Mexico & Central Ame rice (41)
COLIMA (Mexico) 4100 1560 1988 93 Mexico's most active volcano
POPOCATEP ETL (Mexico) 5465 1345 1943 7 N America's 1st historic; overlooks Mexico City
PI CO DE ORIZABA (Mexico) 5675 1537 1687 0 Highest volcano in N America
FUEGO (Gualemala) 3763 1524 1987 28 Guatemala's most active, along with Santa Maria
IZALCO (EI Salvador) 1965 1770 1966 88 Born in 1770; most active in Central America
MASAY A (Nicaragua) 635 1524 1989 34 Explosive basaltic caldera; frequent lava lakes
POAS (Costa Rica) 2708 1828 1989 48 Acid crater lake; pyroclastic sulfur
AGIDS-rvd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 84.2
Elev First Most Yrs
VOLCANO NAME (location) (m) His1c Recent Act CoiTJnent
South America (59)
GALERAS (Colombia) 4276 1535 1989 35 Colombia's most active volcano
COTOPAXI (Ecuador) 5911 1532 1942 55 Frequent mudflows devastate adjacent valleys
SANGAY (Ecuador) 5230 1628 1989 173 Virtually continuous eruptions since at least t 934
FERNANDINA (Galapagos) 1495 1813 1988 19 Most active of 15Galapagos shield volcanoes
EL MISTI (Peru) 5825 1454 1870? 1 First historic eruption inS America (16 yrs)
LLULLAILLACO (N Chile) 6723 1854 1877 3 World's highest hlstOiically active volcano
VILLARICA (Chile) 2847 1558 1988? 51 Chile's most active volcano
Iceland & Atlantic (54)
H EKLA (Iceland) 1491 1104 1981 7 Major tephra deposits blanket Iceland
GRIMSVOTN (Iceland) 1719 1332 1983 20 Most subglacial eruptions (24)
BEERENBERG (Jan Mayen) 2277 1732 1985 7 Northernmost subaerial historic volcano
FAYAL(Azores) 1043 1672 1958 2 Strato-volcano; subaerial & submarine flank vents
TENERIFE (Canary Is) 3713 1430 1909 1 Highest Atlantic volcano; eruption seen by Columbus
PELEE (West Indies) 1397 1792 1932 10 West Indies' most acijve, along with Guadeloupe
4ntarctlca(9)
DECEPTION Is (Antarctica) 576 1800 1970 8 Caldera Lay served as Antarctic whaling station
EREBUS (Ross I) 3794 1841 1989 27 Southernmost historic volcano; active lava lake

~
Number of historically active volcanoes in each region is listed i~ pare~theses.
Elevation of summ1t ts in meters above sea level
First Hisle is year of first historically documented eruption; minus represents a B.C. eruption.
Most Recent represents the most recent eruption known as of October, 1989.
Yrs 4ct is number of years, since A.D. 1800, in which volcano erupted.
Global records in each category are boldfaced.

HOLOCENE VOLCANOES VOLCANOES ACTIVE PER YEAR

Historic 542 Year ~0 1981 1982 1963 1984 1985 1986 1~ 1988
Prehistoric-dated (14c, etc.) 144
Geologic evidence, undated 477 Continuing 25 25 22 19 20 25 19 24 21
Thermal features 196 New 35 24 30 32 30 22 25 29 27
Uncertain 138 Uncertain
~ 4 6 2 ~ 5 3 3
TOTAL 1497 TOTAL 65 53 58 53 54 52 46 56 51
Number of the world's known volcanoes are listed by evidence for Holocene activity. The number ol volcanoes
active are shown for the period 19801988. Eruptions continuing !rom the previous year, volcanoes with new
eruptions during the year, and volcanoes with only questionable activity are all listed. Subsurface activity, or unrest,
Is not included.

VOLCANIC EXPLOSIVITY INDEX

VEl
GeneraJOescrtplton
Non-
Explosive
Small Moderate M~~~:te Large Verylarge _ _ _ _...,

3
Volume ol Tephra (m ) <10 4 1o4S 106 107 10 8 109 1010

CloudColumnHeight(km) <0.1 0.1-1 1-5 3-15 10-25 25 - - - - - - -

Gentle, eHusive -Explosive+ ---Cataclysmic. paroxysmal, colossal-
Qualitative Description
----Severe,violent,terrific-
-Strombolian-+ - - - - P l i n i a n -
Classification
Hawaiian -vulcanian ----uttra-PL~ian - -
Total Historic Eruptions 487 623 3176 733 119 19

The Volcanic Explosrvity Index (VEl), a semtq~:antitative measure of explosive magnitude, is listed lor each ol the
notable eruptions in the loll owing data sheet. The criteria for VEl assignments are shown above

Source: Smithsonian Institution's Volcano Relere,ce File (Voicanaes of the World, Hutchi~son Ross, 1981) with
some fatality data lrcm R.J. Blong (Volcanic Hazards, AcademiC Press, 1984). VEl descriptions n Volcanoes of
the World and Newhall and Self, JGR (Oceans & Atmospheres) v. 87, 1982. Comments and correct ons are we~come
at Smithsonian Institution, NHB-GVP m.s. 119, Washington D.C. 20560.
 AGI DATA SHEET 84.3
Notable Volcanic Eruptions*
YEAR MoDy VOLCANO NAME (region) VEr"Comment
-4895 CRATER LAKE (US-Oregon) 7 Post-eruption collapse forms caldera
-4350 KIKAI (Ryukyu Is-Japan) 7 Pyroclastic flows reach Kyushu
-1500 ETNA (Italy) 5? First historically documented eruption
-1390 SANTORINI [THIRA] (Greece) 6 Late Minoan civilization devastated
-179 SANTORINI [THIRA] (Greece) 2? First historic new vdcanic island

1 ~~ 0824 ~!~~b~~~~~~ealand) ~. ~~.~b~~~~'1dd~~~~~~~um buried; 3380 killed

260 ILOPANGO (EI Salvador) 6 Late Mayan civilization affected

~~7 o81n ~~~~~~~f;~~tJapanJ ~ ~~:: !":;~~~ ~~~C:!~ ~[~t~~~~~e~5,:3 (~ek~~

3

1104 10 HEKLA (Iceland) 5 Largest historic Hekla eruption (2.5 km tephra)

1362 06 ORAEFAJOKULL (Iceland) 6 Iceland's largest historic explosive eruption
1477 03 KVERKFJOLL (Iceland) 5 Subglacial eruption produces major jokulhlaup
1586 KELUT (Java) 4 Explosions in crater lake; mudflows kill 10,000
1631 1216 VESUVIO (Italy) 4 Modern Vesuvio eruptive cycle starts; 3500 killed
1660 LONG ISLAND (New Guinea) 6 Pyroclastic flows; caldera collapse; legends
~ ~~~ ~~6~ ;~J~~~~~~~~~~~-~apan) ; ~~~1=~te7~~~~~~~~~xk~~i~ep~~~ption along with:
1672 0804 MERAPI (Java) 3 Pyroclastic flows and mudflows kill3000
1707 1216 FUJI (Honshu-Japan) 5 Hoei flank eruption; ashlall on Tokyo
~;~~ 121 o ~~uA\;(~~~~~j-lndonesia) ~ ~r~~~~:~~ :,~;~~~~~~~go km2
1760 0922 MAKIAN (Halmahera-lndonesia) 3 Eruption kills 2000; island evacuated for 7 years

g~; ~~6~ ~~:~~AAYRA~~~~AR] (Iceland) ~ f:r~~~:~~~t~~~~:~~~~s~~~ k~~~~~~so die

7

1783 0726 ASAMA (Honshu-Japan) 4 Pyroclastic flows and floods kill >1200
1790 11 KILAUEA (Hawaii) 4 Hawaii's last large explosive eruption
1792 0521 UNZEN (Kyushu-Japan) 2 Debris avalanche & tsunami kill14,500
1815 0410 TAM BORA (Indonesia) 7 History's most explosive; 92,000 die; climate
1822 1008 GALUNGGUNG (Java) 4 Pyroclastic flows and mudflows kill4011
~~~ ~~~~ g~~~G~~~L~~~~~~GJ (Chile) ~ :~~~~~~!~;~l:!i~~~~ations heard in Colombia
1854 0218 SHIVELUCH (Kamchatka) 5 Similarto 1956 Bezymianny, 1980 St. Helens
1856 0302 AWU (Sangihe Is-Indonesia) 3? Pyroclastic flows kill2606
1875 0329 ASKJA (Iceland) 5 Ashfall on Europe; caldera collapse follows
~ :: ~~~b ~~~~~AR~ (~~~~~::/and) ~ ~~~~r~~~::~~~~t~~~1 ~~~~~~most by tsunami
1892 0607 AWU (Sangihe Is-Indonesia) 3 Pyroclastic flows kiJI1532
1902 0508 MONT PELEE 0N Indies) 4 St. Pierre destroyed; 28,000 dead; famous spine
1902 0506 SOUFRIERE ST. VINCENT 0N I) 4? 1680 fatalities from pyroclastic llows
1902 1024 SANTA MARIA (Guatemala) 6 5000 killed; dome growth begins 20 yrs later
1907 0326 KSUDACH (Kamchatka) 5 Maar formation; 3 km 3 tephra
1912 0606 NOVARUPTA [KATMAI] (Alaska) 6 Largest 20th century eruption; ca. 33 km 3 tephra
1914 0530 LASSEN (US-California) 3 California's last historic eruption begins
1919 0519 KELUT(Java) 4 Mudflowskill5110,devastate 104villages
1932 0410 CERRO AZUL [QUIZAPU] (Chile) 6 18 km 3 tephra; ashfall inS Africa, New Zealand
1943 0220 PARICUTIN (Mexico) 3 New cone formation observed from start
1951 0121 LAMINGTON (Papua New Guinea) 4 Pyroclastic flows kill2942
1956 0330 BEZYMIANNY (Kamchatka) 5 Similar to 1980 St. Helens eruption
1959 1114 KILAUEA (Hawaii) 2 Kilauea lki: still cooling lava lake formed
1963 0317 AGUNG (Bali-Indonesia) 4 Climatic effects; 1148 killed
1963 1116 SURTSEY (Iceland) 3 New island appears after 2 days; 4-year eruption
1968 0611 FERNANDINA (Galapagos) 4 350-m drop of caldera floor follows eruption
1975 0706 TOLBACHIK (Kamchatka) 4 Major fissure eruption starts as predicted
1975 1220 KRAFLA (Iceland) 1 9-yr fissure eruption/intrusion event starts
1976 0812 SOUFRIERE GUADELOUPE (WI) 2 Evacuation of 74,000 residents begins
1977 0110 NYIRAGONGO (Tanzania) 1 Fluid lava flow; velocity 100 km/hr (avg 30 km/hr)

~ ~~~ ~;~: k~~~~~~~i~G~~~ashington) ~~fe~~~~~~~;;s~~~e~~~~t:~~:f:ts~~~tv~~a:~r

1982 0328 EL CHICH ON (Mexico) Pyroclastic surges kill1877; climatic effects
1982 0405 GALUNGGUNG (Java) 75,000 evacuated; aircraft damaged
1983 01 03 KILAUEA (Hawaii) Longest (continuing) East Rift eruption starts
1985 1113 RUIZ (Colombia) 22,000 dead in mudflows
1986 0821 OKU VOLC FIELD (Cameroon) 1700 die from C~ release from Lake Nyos
1986 1115 OSHIMA (lzu Is-Japan) 3 Lava fountains to 1.5-km height

Historic lava or tephra volume >2 km 3 , Holocene>100 km 3 , fatalities >1500, etc.

Volcanic Exploslvity Index (Data Sheet84.2}.
 >
~
c
~
)>
en
~
m
~
CD
~
:,:,..

,
..

,\ . . .,...
~
~

sa * r~
1.
)

...
Filled triangles represent volcanoes with historically documented eruptions. Empty triangles indicate volcanoes active in Holocene
time. Small dots show thermal features and uncertain eruption reports. Ocean ridge volcanism is not shown. Coordinates are at
20 intervals. Map and data from Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program.
 AGI DATA SHEET 85.1

Compiled by John C. Kammerer, U.S. Geological Survey

River Country Drainage Average

area discharge
at mouth
(1,000 (1,000 (1,000 (1,000
mi 2 ) km 2 ) tt 3 /s) m 3 /s)
AFRICA
Zaire (Congo) Zaire, Congo 1,440 3,720 1,600 44.
Zambezi (Zambesi) Mozambique, 548 1,420 570 16.
Zambia, Angola
Niger Nigeria, Niger, Mali 467 1,210 200 5.7
Ogooue (Ogowe) Gabon, Congo 85 221 167 4.7
Sanaga Cameroon 52 135 73 2.1
Nile Egypt, Sudan, 1,170 3,030 34 1.0
Ethiopia, Uganda
ASIA
Ganges and Bangladesh, India, 571 1,480 1,090 31.
Brahmaputra China
Yangtze (Chang China 698 1,810 1,030 29.
Jiang)
Yenisei (Yenisey} USSR, Mongolia 996 2,580 627 18.
Lena USSR 961 2,490 576 16.
Mekong Vietnam, Cambodia, 303 786 530 15.
Thailand, Laos,
China
Irrawaddy Burma 153 396 479 14.
Ob USSR 1,150 2,990 431 12.
Amur (Heilong Jiang) USSR, China 716 1,860 360 10.
Hsi (Sikiang; Zhu China 175 454 338 9.6
Jiang; Pearl River)
Red (Hungho; Vietnam, China 65 170 138 3.9
Sankai)
Kolyma USSR 250 647 134 3.8
Lower Tunguska USSR 168 435 117 3.3
Khatanga USSR 141 364 116 3.3
Godavari India 121 314 94 2.7
Pyas ina USSR 70 182 90 2.5
Purari Papua New Guinea 12 31 86 2.4
Fly(-Strickland) Papua New Guinea 26 67 86 2.4
Sungari (Songhua) China 211 546 85 2.4
Mahanadi India 50 130 75 2.1
Krishna (Kistna) India 99 256 69 2.0
Indus Pakistan 370 970 67 1.9
lndigirka USSR 140 360 62 1.7
Salween Burma, China 125 325 53 1.5
Shatt-ai-Arab a Iraq, Iran, Turkey, 405 1,050 52 1.5
Syria
Hwang Ho (Huang China 290 752 51 1.4
He; Yellow River)

AUSTRALIA
Murray Australia 410 1,060 25 0.7

EUROPE
Volga USSR 525 1,360 280 8.0

AGI-05-jtd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 85.2
River Country Drainage Average
area discharge
at mouth
(1,000 (1,000 (1,000 (1,000
mi 2 ) km 2 ) tP/s) m3 /s)
EUROPE (cont.)
Danube Romania, Yugoslavia, 315 817 231 6.5
Hungary, Austria
Pechora USSR 124 322 143 4.1
Dvina (Northern USSR 138 357 119 3.4
Dvina; Severnaya)
Neva USSR 108 281 92 2.6
Rhine Netherlands, West 65 169 78 2.2
Germany, France,
Switzerland, etc.
Dnieper (Dnepr) USSR 195 504 59 1.7
Rhone France, Switzerland 37 95 55 1.6
Po Italy 29 74 52 1.5

NORTH AMERICA
Mississippi h u.s. 1,250 3,240 651 18.
St. Lawrence Canada, U.S. 396 1,030 348 9.9
(-Great Lakes)
Mackenzie Canada 697 1,810 343 9.7
Ohio u.s. 203 526 281 8.0
Columbia U.S., Canada 258 668 265 7.5
Yukon U.S., Canada 328 850 225 6.4
Fraser Canada (British 90 232 125 3.5
Columbia)
Stave Canada 238 616 125 3.5
Grijalva(-Usumacinta) Mexico, Guatemala 46 120 118 3.3
Nelson Canada 414 1,070 94 2.7
Koksoak (Kujjuaq) Canada 52 133 85 2.4
Missouri u.s. 529 1.370 76 2.2
Peace Canada 117 303 74 2.1
Ottawa Canada 56 146 69 2.0
Tennessee U.S. 41 106 68 1.9
Mobile u.s. 45 116 67 1.9
Kuskokwim U.S. 48 124 67 1.9

SOUTH AMERICA
Amazon Brazil, Peru 2,370 6,150 7,100 200.
Orinoco Venezuela, Colombia 370 970 1.270 36.
Rio Negro Brazil 390 1,000 1.060 30.
Madeira Brazil 460 1,200 770 22.
Parana Argentina, Paraguay, 1,010 2,600 570 16.
Brazil
Tocantins Brazil 350 910 360 10.
Magdalena Colombia 93 240 265 7.5
Uruguay Argentina, Uruguay, 90 230 136 3.9
Brazil
Sao Francisco BrazH 250 640 110 3.1

Notes
All data are rounded to two or three significant figures.
a Tigris, Euphrates, and Karun rivers.
b Includes Atchafalaya River.
,
f) River Lengtha Drainage area 0
6 (miles) (square miles) 0
!f. 3
'2.
~ ;-
"' Atchalalaya (Red)c 1,420 a.
D"
532 '<
c..
1.450 246,000 (U.S.Mexico) 3,500 300,000 Jul. 1684 0
:r
:::J
Columbia 1,240 258,000 (US.Canada) 265,000 1.240,000 Jun 6, 1694 p
Copper 286 24,400 59,000 380,000 Aug 8, 1981 ;:-
3
(Canada) 125,000 536,000 May 31, 1948
3
Fraser 850 90,000 I'll
ca
500 46,000 (Mexico-Guatemala) 11 8.000 ~""'
!=
y>
Koksoak (Kuuuaq) 543 51,500 (Canada) 85,500 477,000 May 24, 1979
Q
I'll
Kuskokwim 724 48,000 (U.S.) 67,000 392,000 Jun 5, 1964 0
0
1.0
()"
!!.
(/)
Liard 693 107,000 (Canada) 66,500 572,000 Jun 6, 1979 c
Mackenzie 2,640 697,000 (Canada) 343,000 1,200,000 May 26, 1975 i
Mississippi 2,340d 1,150,000e (U.S.-Canada) 593.000' 2,080,000 Feb 17, 1937
~I 18
Missouri 2,540 529,000 (U.S. Canada) 76,200 Re~ Rock Cree~. 892.000 Jun, 1844 ~
(/)
::z:
-
I I~
Mobile 774 44,600 (U.S.) 67,200

1,600 (Canada) 94,000 176,000

1,310 (U.S.) 281,000 1,850,000
w
Ottawa 790 56,500 (Canada) 69,000 Outaouais (Ottawa)
River, Quebec
289,000 Apr 4, 1976
~
Peace 1,210 117,000 (Canada) 74,000 Thutade Creek, 551,000 Jun 14, 1972 c
Red 1,290 93,200 (U.S.) 56,000
British Columbia
Tierra Blanca Creek, 233,000 Apr 17, 1945
,..
~
Curry Co., N.M. en
Rio Grande (Bravo 1,760 336,000 (U.S.-Mexico) 1,2W Rio Grande, San 605,000 Sep 1, 1932 %
del Norte) Juan Co., Colo. m
m
Saguenay 434 34,000 (Canada) 61,700 Peribonca River, 327,000 May 31, 1928 -1
Quebec m
St. Lawrence (-Great 1,900 396,000 (U.S.-Canada) 348,000 North River, Lake 352,00011 Jun 22, 1976 U1
Lakes) Co., Minn. A.
Slave 1,460 238,000 (Canada) 125,000 Thutade Creek, 396,000 May 5, 1974
British Columbia
Snake 1,040 108,000 (U.S.) 56,900 Snake River, Teton 409,000 Jun 5, 1894
Co., Wyo.
Stikme 379 20,000 (U.S.Canada) 56,000 Stikine River, British 300,000 Sep 11, 1981
Columbia
Tennessee 886 40,900 (U.S.) 68,000 Courthouse Creek. 500,000 Feb 17, 1948
Transylvania Co.,
N.C.
Yukon 1,980 328,000 (U.S.-Canada) 255,000 McNeil River, Yukon 1,100,000 Jun 5-8, 1985
Territory

Notes
Information is primarily from the U.S. Geological Survey, Water Survey of Canada, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Department of Transpor-
tation (Coast Guard), and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. All data are rounded to no more than three significant figures.
a From source to mouth. Because river lengths and methods of measurement may change from time to time, the length figures are subject
to revision
b At or near the mouth of the river.
" Continuation of the Red River; data on average discharge, length, and drainage area include the Red River but exclude about 167,000
ft 3 /s diverted from the Mississippi into the Atchafalaya River.
d The length from the source of the Missouri River to the Mississippi River and then to the Gulf of Mexico is about 3,710 miles.
e Excluding the drainage areas of the Red and Atchafalaya rivers.
f Includes about 167,000 ft 3 /s diverted from the Mississippi into the Atchafalaya River but excludes the flow of the Red River.
g Excludes water reaching the Gulf of California via floodway channels.
h Drainage area at the gaging station is 299,000 mi 2 .
 AGI DATA SHEET 86.1

Waverly Person, U.S. Geological Survey, National Earthquake Information Center

EARTHQUAKES WITH 1,000 OR MORE DEATHS FROM 1900

Date Location Coordinates Deaths Mag.

1902 Dec 16 Turkestan 40.8 N 72.6 E 4,500
1905 Apr 4 India, Kangra 33.0 N 76.0 E 19,000 8.6
1905 Sep 8 Italy, Cahibria 39.4 N 16.4 E 2,500 7.9
1906 Jan 31 Colombia 1 N 81.5 w 1,000 8.9
1906 Mar 17 Formosa, Kagi 1,300 7.1
1906 Aug 17 Chile, Santiago 33 s 72 w 20,000 8.6
1907 Jan 14 Jamaica, Kingston 18.2 N 76.7 w 1,600 6.5
1907 Oct 21 Central Asia 38 N 69 E 12,000 8.1
1908 Dec 28 Italy, Messina 38 N 15.5 E 83,000 7!3

1912 Aug 9 Marmara Sea 40.5 N 27 E 1,950 7.8

1915 Jan 13 Italy, Avezzano 42 N 13.5 E 29,980 7:S

1920 Dec 16 China, Gansu 35.8 N 105.7 E 100,000 8.6

1923 Sep 1 Japan, Kwanto, Tokyo- 35.0 N 139.5 E 143,000 8.3
Yokohama
1925 Mar 16 China, Yunnan 25.5 N 100.3 E 5,000 7.1
1927 Mar 7 Japan, Tango 35.8 N 134.8 E 3,020 7.9
1927 May 22 China, near Xining 36.8 N 102.8 E 200,000 8.3
1929 May 1 Iran 38 N 58 E 3,300 7.4

1930 Jul 23 Italy 41.1 N 15.4 E 1,430 6.5

1932 Dec 25 China, Gansu 39.7 N 97.0 E 70,000 7.6
1933 Mar 2 Japan, Sanriku 39.0 1\1 143.0 E 2,990 8.9
1934 Jan 15 India, Bihar-Nepal 26.6 N 86.8 E 10,700 8.4
1935 Apr 20 Formosa 24.0 N 121.0 E 3,280 7.1
1935 May 30 Pakistan, Quetta 29.6 N 66.5 N 30,000 7.6
1939 Dec 26 Turkey, Erzincan 39.6 N 38 E 30,000 8.0

1943 Sep 10 Japan, Tottori 35.6 N 134.2 E 1,190 7.4

1944 Dec 7 Japan, Tonankai 33.7 N 136.2 E 1,000 8.3
1945 Jan 12 Japan, Mikawa 34.8 N 137.0 E 1,900 7.1
1946 May 31 Turkey 39.5 N 41.5 E 1,300 6.0
1946 Nov 10 Peru, Ancash 8.3 s 77.8 w 1,400 7.3
1946 Dec 20 Japan, Tonankai 32.5 N 134.5 E 1,330 8.4
1948 Jun 28 Japan, Fukui 36.1 N 136.2 E 5,390 7.3
1949 Aug 5 Ecuador, Ambato 1.2 s 78.5 E 6,000 6.8

1950 Aug 15 India, Assam, Tibet 28.7 N 96.6 E 1,530 8.7

1954 Sep 9 Algeria, Orleansville 36 N 1.6 E 1,250 6.8
1957 Jul 2 Iran 36.2 N 52.7 E 1,200 7.4
1957 Dec 13 Iran 34.4 N 47.6 E 1,130 7.3

AGI-DS-jtd-89
AGI DATA SHEET 86.2
1960 Feb 29 Morocco, Agadir 30 N 9 w 10,000+ 5.9
1960 May 22 Chile 39.5 s 74.5 w 4,000+ 8.5
1962 Sep 1 Iran, Qazvin 35.6 N 49.9 E 12,230 7.3
1963 Jul 26 Yugoslavia, Skopje 42.1 N 21.4 E 1,100 6.0
1966 Aug 19 Turkey, Varto 39.2 N 41.7 E 2,520 7.1
1968 Aug 31 Iran 34.0 N 59.0 E 12,000+ 7.3
1969 Jul 25 Eastern China 21.6 N 111.9 E 3,000 5.9

1970 Mar 28 Turkey, Gediz 39.2 N 29.5 E 1,100 7.3

1970 May 31 Peru 9.2 s 78.8 w 66,000 7.8
1972 Apr 10 Iran, southern 28.4 N 52.8 E 5,054 7.1
1972 Dec 23 Nicaragua, Managua 12.4 N 86.1 w 5,000 6.2
1975 Sep 6 Turkey 38.5 N 40.7 w 2,300 6.7
1976 Feb 4 Guatemala 15.3 N 89.1 w 23,000 7.5
1976 May 6 Italy, northeastern 46.4 N 13.3 E 1,000 6.5
1976 Jun 25 West Irian (New Guinea) 4.6 s 140.1 E 422 7.1
1976 Jul 27 China, Tangshan 39.6 N 118.0 E 255,000 8.0
(official)
1976 Aug 16 Philippines, Mindanao 6.3 N 124.0 E 8,000 7.9
1976 Nov 24 Northwest Iran-USSR 39.1 N 44.0 E 5,000 7.3
1977 Mar 4 Romania 45.8 N 26.8 E 1,500 7.2
1978 Sep 16 Iran 33.2 N 57.4 E 15,000 7.8

1980 Oct 10 Algeria 36.1 N 1.4 E 3,500 7.7

1980 Nov 23 Italy, southern 40.9 N 15.3 E 3,000 7.2
1981 Jun 11 Iran, southern 29.9 N 57.7 E 3,000 6.9
1981 Jul 28 Iran, southern 30.0 N 57.8 E 1,500 7.3
1982 Dec 13 Western Arabian Peninsula 14.7 N 44.4 E 2,800 6.0
1983 Oct 30 Turkey 40.3 N 42.2 E 1,342 6.9
1985 Sep 19 Mexico, Michoacan 18.2 N 102.5 w 9,500 8.1
(official)
1986 Oct 10 El Salvador 13.8 N 89.2 w 1,000+ 5.5
1987 Mar 6 Colombia-Ecuador 0.2 N 77.8 w 1,000+ 7.0
1988 Aug 20 Nepal-India 26.8 N 86.6 E 1,450 6.6
1988 Dec 7 Turkey-USSR 41.0 N 44.2 E 25,000 7.0
 AGI DATA SHEET 86.3

EARTHQUAKES 7.0 AND ABOVE AND/OR 1,000 OR MORE DEATHS: 1984-1988

Date Location Deaths Magnitude

1984
Feb 7 Solomon Islands 0 7.5
Mar 19 Uzbek, USSR 0 7.0
Mar 24 Kuril Islands 0 7.0
Nov 1 Central Mid-Atlantic Ridge 0 7.1
Nov 17 Northern Sumatera 0 7.2
Dec 28 Near east coast of Kamchatka, USSR 0 7.0
1985
Mar 3 Near coast of central Chile 177 7.8
Apr 9 Near coast of central Chile 2 7.2
May 10 New Britain region 1 7.1
Jul3 New Britain region 0 7.2
Aug 23 Southern Xinjiang, China 71 7.3
Sep 19 Michoacan, Mexico 9,500 8.1
Sep 21 Near coast of Guerrero, Mexico 0 7.6
Sep 26 South of Kermadec Islands 0 7.0
Nov 17 West Irian region 0 7.1

~=~~=!~ :~:=~~~ (two events)

Nov 28 0 7.0
Nov 28 0 7.1
Dec 21 Vanuatu Islands 0 7.3
1986
Apr 30 Michoacan, Mexico 0 7.0
May 7 Andreanof Islands, Aleutian Islands 0 7.7
Jun 24 Papua New Guinea 0 7.1
Aug 14 Mol ucca Passage 0 7.2
Oct 10 El Salvador 1,000 5.4
Oct 20 Kermadec Islands region 0 8.1
Nov 14 Taiwan 15 7.8
1987
Jan 30 South Sandwich Islands region 0 7.0
Feb 8 East Papua l\lew Guinea region 3 7.4
Mar 5 Near coast of northern Chile 1 7.3
Mar 6 Colombia-Ecuador border region 1,000+ 7.0
Sep 3 Macquarie Islands region 0 7.3
Oct 6 Tonga Islands region 0 7.3
Oct 16 New Britain region 0 7.4
Oct 25 West Irian 0 7.0
Nov 30 Gulf of Alaska 0 7.6
1988
Feb 24 Luzon, Philippine Islands 0 7.0
Mar 6 Gulf of Alaska 0 7.6
Apr 12 Near coast of Peru 0 7.0
Jun 18 Gulf of California 0 7.0
Aug 6 Burma-India border region 5 7.2
Aug 10 Solomon Islands 0 7.4
Aug 20 Nepal-India border region 1,450 6.6
Nov 6 Burma-China border region 730 7.3
Dec 7 Turkey-USSR border region 25,000 7.0
 AGI DATA SHEET 87.1
Proofreader Symbols
Authors. editors, and proofreaders use a language of standard symbols to
indicate corrections to be made. Thus. a printer need not understand English to
make the changes.
Mark the text to show a change, and write the appropriate symbol in the
margin. A sample of marked copy follows these symbols (Data Sheet 87.2).

0 insert period <9 brea~egin new line

* insert comma t;1 paragraph
:/ insert colon ..,. ~ no new paragraph
;I insert semicolon 0 indent t em
=I insert hyphen CD indent 2 ems
v insert apostrophe italics
"Ct!-r; insert quotation marks @ ill1

(/) insert parentheses @ ~ and small caps

[/] insert brackets @ ~owercas;

~
insert question mark @boldface
insert exclamation point ] rna~ right
@ insert virgule, slash, shilling C CJnove left
I
"N insert en dash
I
il insert em dash U moveU
1\ subscript n moveD
v superscript up
..:f' deletej!' t character ~align~
i delete an!? close up
@ llalig~erti-
a insert from 1 chaJ.,_cter up
to 7 words cally
insert more than 7 words :::J[]center horizontallyC
transpose adjacent lette,!t) U center \;em!
~ n ~
~ close up spce (3 ignore~change
~ equa"\i 1ze -'space
conee spell a~~
inser!pace underscore
less A space use rule

~
Ill dirty or broKen letter
Gewline I? query to author
AGI DATA SHEET 87.2

=I Three,...component triangular diagrams,

introduced by the Finnish petrologist Petti
Eskola, are widely used in petrologyAACF and
AFM diagramsAand modified version"of these Cs
diagrams that are based on different~ apex
component~usually used to indicate what
minerals are"compatible wittlt diverse
metamorphic facies. Both pertain to silica-
saturated para79eneses. The afm diagram can
also be usecJ?;-just described our is more
frequently used to show patterns of variation
among rocks that appear to have been derived
or from the same,...consan~in~s magmas. o f/
<ll "Trian~r diagrams, /n genera~are used to (/Jjj
-1-
show graphically chemical compositions that ~
/ maibe expressed ir(])components.AThe diagram~
below shows how the components are plotted.
The numbers along AB indicate percentages of
A~hose along ~ indicate91' percentages of BA .::f/; /
and those along ~. percentages of C.
~diagran:[ c ctl
==
~'n
~I
)
c_/(]3// U,..= (FeO"+ MgO + MnOA A
II In both of these cases, the oxide
components are recalcu~ed from the chemical a
.f analyses of thep rocks to a 100 percent
(molar) for the components plottedJ.some p~ @)/=/
tr ~ Aologists modify the above outlined calculations
by computing Fe as FeO, thus eliminating the
q- / 1 F~components from "1

*Circled type indicates an instruction to the printer. Other letters and words will be
typeset.

References
Bishop, Elna E., et al., 1978. Suggestions To Authors, of the Reports of the
United States Geological Survey, 6th ed. U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.
The University of Chicago, 1982. The Chicago Manual of Style, 13th ed. The
University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986. A Manual of Style. Gramercy Publishing
Co., New York.
 AGI DATA SHEET 88.1
Preparing and Presenting a Slide Talk
Duncan Heron, Duke University
The purpose of a slide talk is to communicate one or more ideas to an audience.
Data are presented as maps, graphs, charts, and photographs. Gathering scientific
data is often a long and expensive process. Prepare your presentation as carefully
as you gathered your data, and consider the following aspects: copy, production, and
showmanship.
Copy
Design and art production are separate but closely related parts of preparing slide
copy. Try to follow these rules for a design:
Keep the design simple with only one idea per slide.
Plan your design at a 2:3 ratio, using either 6" x g or a x 12" paper.
Keep the format horizontal.
Once you have a design, show it to a colleague and briefly explain the point of
the diagram. Then remove the diagram and ask questions. You should quickly know
if your design works.
You or an artist may prepare the art, using many methods, including a computer
(CAD); dot-matrix graphs do not, however, make good slides. Slide copy must be bold:
Letter size, line weights, and symbols should be large. Remember these guidelines
for art production:
Letter size is a function of copy size and viewing distance. Using Pratt and
Ropes' (1978) assumption that maximum seating distance is six projector
screen widths, to determine minimum letter size, take the longest dimen-
sion of the slide image area and multiply by 2. This gives the type point
size. Convert this to inches by multiplying point size by 0.014. Some examples
follow.
Longest image dimension Point size Inch size
9 18 0.25
12 24 0.33
18 36 0.5
Line weights should be thicker than those in journal illustrations. A minimum
of k,"
is use d .~ith a 6'' x 9" image area. Make prime data lines two times
1
heav1er, or i6 .
Bullet size for 6" x 9" should be no smaller than 0.10''. Use a larger size for
the most important data points.
Letter style should be simple and uniform. Avoid script and gothic, outlined,
and similar fancy letter styles.
Color should be used to emphasize the important point of the slide and to
replace cross-hatching and other patterns. Colors used on maps or sections
should conform to U.S. Geological Survey usage for rock types.
Production
Turning the finished artwork into a slide is essentially a copying process. Try to
follow these rules:
Use a copying stand equipped with 3200 K lights.
Use a 35-mm SLR camera in the manual mode.
Use daylight slide film with an BOA blue filter, or use tungsten film and no filter.
Align the copy so that it fills the frame and is square with the border of the frame.
Use anti-glare glass if reflections are a problem.
In the manual mode, determine the exposure on a gray card (a neutral test
card with 18% reflectance).
Make extra exposures by bracketing one stop above and one stop below the
gray card reading.

AGI-DSjld-89
AGI DATA SHEET 88.2

Showmanship
A polished slide talk is a result of well-planned slides, careful integration of the
slides with the oral presentation, and practice. One cannot overemphasize practice.
Some guidelines follow:
Clean and preload your slides.
Make certain the slide on the screen corresponds to what you are saying. The
slide acts as a prompt-card. When you change to another point, change
to a related slide. If you don't have a related slide, leave the screen black
or use a neutral gray blank slide.
Never return to a previous slide. Use a duplicate.
Look at the audience, not the screen.
Do not overuse a pointer.
Avoid the phrase "I apologize for this slide, but..." If you must apologize for
a slide, do not use it. If you must use a poor slide, do not apologize.

References
Bishop, Ann, 1984. Slides-Planning and Producing Slide Programs. Eastman Kodak
Company, S-30, Rochester, 159 p.
Heron, Duncan, 1986. Figuratively Speaking. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Tulsa, 110 p.
Pratt, Dan, and Ropes, Lev, 1978. 35-mm Slides. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Tulsa, 32 p.
 AGI DATA SHEET 89.1
State Boards and Offices Regulating the Practice of Geology
Complied by Robert E. Tepel, Association of Engineering Geologists

This listing provides the name, address, and telephone number for each
state board of registration (or other office with similar function) in the United
States. The entries are based on information provided by the boards as of June,
1989. In addition, four states have adopted statutory definitions of "geology"
and/or "geologist" and related terms, but they have no regulatory boards or
offices; these states are Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, and Wyoming. Wisconsin
alone has a definition of "hydrogeologist" in its solid waste regulations, as well
as a certification statement required for reports submitted to its Department of
Natural Resources regarding landfills. For that reason it is listed below.
Alaska
Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development
Division of Occupational Licensing
Box D-LIC
Juneau, Alaska 99811-0800
(907) 465-2534
Arizona
Arizona State Board of Technical Registration
5060 N. 19th Ave., Suite 306
Phoenix, Ariz. 85015
(602} 255-4053
Arkansas
Arkansas State Board of Registration for Professional Geologists
c/o Arkansas Geological Commission
3815 W. Roosevelt Road
Little Rock, Ark. 72204
(501) 371-1488
California
State Board of Registration for Geologists and Geophysicists
1021 0 St., Room A-190
Sacramento, Calif. 95814
(916) 445-1920
Delaware
Delaware State Board of Registration of Geologists
Carvel State OHice Building
820 N. French St., 3rd Level
Wilmington, Del. 19801
(302) 571-3288
Florida
Board of Professional Geologists
Department of Professional Registration
130 N. Monroe St.
Tallahassee, Fla. 32399-0750
(904) 488-9912
Georgia
Georgia State Board of Registration for Professional Geologists
Secretary of State, Examining Boards Division
166 Pryor St., S.W.
Atlanta, Ga. 30303
(404) 656-3941 or 656-3900

AGIDSitd89
Index
Abstracts, 47.1-47.2 Fossils,
ACF, AKF, and AFM diagrams, 71.1-71.2 dating and correlation, 66.1-66.3,
Aerial photos and imagery, 46.1-46.2 67.1-67.2
An-Content of plagioclase feldspars, geopetal criteria, 10.3-10.4
64.1-64.2 Functions, 7.1-7.2
Aphanites, 21.2 Gemological weights and measures,
Asteroid belt, 80.1-80.2 52.1-52.2
Barth katanorms, 65.1-65.2, 65.5-65.7 Gemstones
Beds, determining top and bottom, durability 18.1
10.1-10.4 materials, 17.1-17.2
Bibliographies, 47.1-47.3 misnomers, 18.2
Bravais lattices, 19.2 Geochronologic units, 1.1-1.7
Building stones, 79.1-79.2 Geological surveys, 44.1-44.12
Canadian geological surveys, 44.5-44.6 Geologic maps 45.1-45.4
Carbonates Geologic symbols, 3.4-a6
limestones, 33.1-33.2 Geomagnetic polarity time scales,
staining techniques, 69.1-69.2 1.5-1.7
Cenozoic polarity time scale, 1.7 Geopetal features, 10.1-10.4
Chemical analyses of rocks, 59.1-59.4 Geophysical data, 61.1-61.2
Chronostratigraphic units, 1.1-1.7 Geophysical methods, 76.1-76.2
CIPW norms, 65.3-65.6, 65.8 Geophysical well logging techniques,
Cleavage, 10.2, 115 77.1-77.2
Composition, comparison charts, Grain-size scales, 29.1-29.3
23.1-23.2 Gravimetric conversion factors, 60.1-60.8
Continents, 81.2 Hardness, 13.1
Contour spacing, 9.2 Hydraulic conversion data, 53.1-5a2
Corrections for dip, 8.1 Igneous masses, 24.1-24.5
Correlation, Phanerozoic strata, Igneous rocks
66.1-66.3 aphanites, 21.2
Craters, 82.1-82.3 intrusions, 24.1-245
Crustal abundances, 58.1-58.2 phanerites, 21.1
Crystal systems, 19.1 plutonic. 62.1-62.2
Dating, Phanerozoic strata, 66.1-66.3 pyroclastic, 25.1-25.5, 26.1-26.2
Dip, 8.1-8.2 textures, 22.1-22.2
Earthquakes volcanic. 10.4, 62.3-62.4
effects, 42.1-42.2, 43.1, 86.1-86.3 Impact craters, 82.1-82.3
intensity, 41.1-41.4 Impact statements, 39.1
magnitudes, 73.1-73.2, 74.1-74.2, 75.1, Inclined strata, 8.2
86.1-86.3 Indexes, 47.1-47.3
Electromagnetic spectrum, 50.1 International geological surveys,
Elem~nts. 56.1-56.2, 57.1-57.2, 58.1-58.2 44.7-44.12
Energy conversion tables, 54.1-54.2 Intrusions, 24.1-24.5
Engineering properties, 78.1-78.2, Islands, 81.2
79.1-79.2 lUGS Oassifications
Environmental impact statements, 39.1 plutonic, 62.1-62.2
Equal angle Wulff nets 70.2 volcanic, 21.2, 62.3-62.4
Equal area projection nets, 70.1 Joints, 12.1-12.3
Facies, metamorphic, 35.1-35.4 Library classifications, 48.1-48.2
Fallout tephra, 26.1-26.2 Life forms, geologic distribution,
Fault-plane solutions of earthquakes, 67.1-67.2
73.1-73.2 Limestones, 32.1, 33.1-33.2
Faults, 12.1-12.3 Maps
Fault symbols, a7-3.8 coverage, U.S., 46.1
Feldspars geologic, 45.1-45.4
plagioclase, An-content, 64.1-64.2 standards, 2.1
staining techniques, 69.3-69.6 symbols, a 1-3.8
Fluvial nonmarine sequence symbols, Marine sediments, 68.1-68.2
4.1 Measurement conversions, 51.1-51.4
Folds, 10.1, 11.1-11.6 Metamorphic facies, 35.1-35.4
Index
Metamorphic rocks, 34.1-34.2
Minerals
An-content of plagioclase feldspars,
64.1-64.2
Bravais lattices, 19.2
crystal systems, 19.1
gem materials, 17.1-17.2
gemstone durability, 18.1
gemstone misnomers, 1a2
hardness, 13.1
nonsilicate data, 15.1-15.3
opticai determinations, 63.1-63.3
physicai properties, 13.1-13.2
separation characteristics, 16.1-16.3
silicates, 14.1-14.10, 20.1-20.2
specific gravity, 13.2
staining techniques, 69.1-69.6
Mine reports, 40.1-40.2
Modified Mercalli scale, 41.141.4
Mohr's Orcle, 78.1-78.2
Mohs' hardness scale, 13.1
Mountains, 83.1-83.2
Natural functions, 7.2
Nonsilicate mineral data, 15.1-15.3
Norms, 65.1-65.6
Oceans and major seas, 81.1
Optical determinations, 63.1-63.3
Periodic table, 56.1-56.2
Phanerttes, 21.1
Phase equilibria diagrams, 72.1-72.6
Plagioclase feldspars, An-content,
64.1-64.2
Planets, 80.1-80.2
Plutonic rocks, 62.1-62.2
Polarity time scales, 15-1.7
PctNers of Ten, 49.1
Precambrian time scaie, 1.3
Pressure temperature diagrams, 35.4
Professional registration, 89.1-1!9.2
Projection nets, 70.1-70.2
Proofreader symbols, 87.1-87.2
Public land survey grids, 5.1-5.2
Pyroclastic sediments and rocks,
25.1-255
Registration boards, 89.1-89.2
Richter magnitude, 75.1-75.2
Rivers, 85.1-85.4
Rock-forming silicates, 14.1-14.10
Roundness companson chart, 30.1-30.3
Seas, 81.1
Sedimentary particles, 28.1-28.2
surface appearance, 31.1
Sedimentary rocks
crustal abundance, 57.2
limestones, 33.1-33.2
names 32.1-32.2
Sediments
marine, 68.1-68.2
pyroclastic, 25.1-255
Seismic intensity, 41.1-41.4
Seismic moment and rooment
magnitude, 74.1-74.2
Separation characteristics of minerals,
18.1-16.3
Silicates
identification of, 14.1-14.10
structural classmcation, 20.1
Size analysis
grain-size 29.1-29.3
sedimentary particles, 28.1-28.2
Slide talks, 88.1-88.2
Slope angles, 9.1-9.2
Soils
classification, 36.1-38.4, 37.2, 38.1
field description, 37.1
honzon designations, 36.2
plasticity, 38.2
Specific gravity, 13.2
Sphericity companson chart, 30.1-30.3
Stadia tables, 8.1-6.2
Staining techniques, 69.1-69.6
Standards for geologic maps, 2.1
State registration boards, 89.1-89.2
Statistical terms, 551-55.4
Surface appearance, rocks and par-
ticles, 31.1
Survey grids, 5.1-5.2
Symbols
tau~. 3.7-3.8
fluvial nonmarine sequences, 4.1
map, 3.1-3.8
Tephra, 28.1-28.2
Textures, igneous rocks, 22.1-22.2
Time scales, 1.3-1.7
Trigonometric formulas and functions,
7.1-7.2
U.S. geological surveys 44.1-44.4
U.S. public land survey grids, 5.1
U.S. state registration boards, 89.1-89.2
Volcanic rocks, 10.4, 21.2, 28.1-28.2,
62.3-62.4
Volcanoes, 27.1-27.2, 64.1-84.4
Well logging techniques, 77.1-77.2