List of Cognitive Biases

1/8/2017 List of cognitive biases - Wikipedia
List of cognitive biases

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Cognitive biases are tendencies to think in certain ways

that can lead to systematic deviations from a standard of
rationality or good judgment, and are often studied in
psychology and behavioral economics.
Although the reality of these biases is confirmed by

replicable research, there are often controversies about how
to classify these biases or how to explain them.[2] Some are
effects of information-processing rules (i.e., mental
shortcuts), called heuristics, that the brain uses to produce
decisions or judgments. Such effects are called cognitive
biases.[3][4] Biases have a variety of forms and appear as
cognitive ("cold") bias, such as mental noise,[5] or
motivational ("hot") bias, such as when beliefs are
distorted by wishful thinking. Both effects can be present at Cognitive biases can be organized into four
the same time.[6][7] categories: biases that arise from too much
information, not enough meaning, the need to act
There are also controversies over some of these biases as to quickly, and the limits of memory[1].
whether they count as useless or irrational, or whether they
result in useful attitudes or behavior. For example, when
getting to know others, people tend to ask leading questions which seem biased towards confirming their
assumptions about the person. However, this kind of confirmation bias has also been argued to be an example
of social skill: a way to establish a connection with the other person.[8]
Although this research overwhelmingly involves human subjects, some findings that demonstrate bias have
been found in non-human animals as well. For example, hyperbolic discounting has been observed in rats,
pigeons, and monkeys.[9]
Contents
1 Decision-making, belief, and behavioral biases
2 Social biases
3 Memory errors and biases
4 Common theoretical causes of some cognitive biases
5 Individual differences in decision making biases
6 Debiasing
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
Decision-making, belief, and behavioral biases

Many of these biases affect belief formation, business and economic decisions, and human behavior in general.
They arise as a replicable result to a specific condition. When confronted with a specific situation, the deviation
from what is normally expected can be characterized by:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases 1/19
Name Description
The tendency to avoid options for which missing information makes the
Ambiguity effect
probability seem "unknown".[10]
The tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor", on one trait or piece of information
Anchoring or focalism when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that
subject)[11][12]
The bias that humans are the central or most important element of existence,
Anthropocentrism or especially as opposed to God or animals. For example, the phrase, "...studies have
human-centrism been done in human AND animal studies," suggests that humans are not animal
and furthermore that the animals have a different standard of care. [13] [14] [15]
Anthropomorphism or The tendency to characterize animals, objects, and abstract concepts as possessing
personification human-like traits, emotions, and intentions.[16]
Attentional bias The tendency of our perception to be affected by our recurring thoughts.[17]
The tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to
Automation bias
erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions.[18]
The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater "availability" in
Availability heuristic memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual
or emotionally charged they may be.[19]
A self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more
Availability cascade plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat
something long enough and it will become true").[20]
The reaction to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one's previous beliefs.[21]
Backfire effect
cf. Continued influence effect.
The tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe)
Bandwagon effect
the same. Related to groupthink and herd behavior.[22]
Base rate fallacy or Base The tendency to ignore base rate information (generic, general information) and
rate neglect focus on specific information (information only pertaining to a certain case).[23]
An effect where someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is
Belief bias
biased by the believability of the conclusion.[24]
A person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another
Ben Franklin effect favor for that person than they would be if they had received a favor from that
person.
The tendency to misinterpret statistical experiments involving conditional
Berkson's paradox
probabilities.
The tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to
Bias blind spot
identify more cognitive biases in others than in oneself.[25]
Cheerleader effect The tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation.[26]
Choice-supportive bias The tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were.[27]
The tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in
Clustering illusion
large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns).[12]
The tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way
Confirmation bias
that confirms one's preconceptions.[28]
The tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, instead of
Congruence bias
testing possible alternative hypotheses.[12]
The tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than general
Conjunction fallacy
ones.[29]
Conservatism (belief The tendency to revise one's belief insufficiently when presented with new
revision) evidence.[5][30][31]
Continued influence effect The tendency to believe previously learned misinformation even after it has been
corrected. Misinformation can still influence inferences one generates after a
correction has occurred.[32] cf. Backfire effect
The enhancement or reduction of a certain perception's stimuli when compared
Contrast effect
with a recently observed, contrasting object.[33]
The tendency to give an opinion that is more socially correct than one's true
Courtesy bias
opinion, so as to avoid offending anyone.[34]
When better-informed people find it extremely difficult to think about problems
Curse of knowledge
from the perspective of lesser-informed people.[35]
The belief that a society or institution is tending towards decline. Particularly, it is
Declinism the predisposition to view the past favourably (rosy retrospection) and future
negatively.[36]
Preferences for either option A or B change in favor of option B when option C is
Decoy effect
presented, which is similar to option B but in no way better.
The tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts
Denomination effect
(e.g., coins) rather than large amounts (e.g., bills).[37]
The tendency to sell an asset that has accumulated in value and resist selling an
Disposition effect
asset that has declined in value.
The tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them
Distinction bias
simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.[38]
The tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the
DunningKruger effect
tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability.[39]
Duration neglect The neglect of the duration of an episode in determining its value
The tendency to underestimate the influence or strength of feelings, in either
Empathy gap
oneself or others.
The tendency for people to demand much more to give up an object than they
Endowment effect
would be willing to pay to acquire it.[40]
Based on the estimates, real-world evidence turns out to be less extreme than our
Exaggerated expectation
expectations (conditionally inverse of the conservatism bias).[5][41]
The tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree
Experimenter's or with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve,
expectation bias discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to
conflict with those expectations.[42]
Focusing effect The tendency to place too much importance on one aspect of an event.[43]
The observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of
their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact
Forer effect or Barnum vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can
effect provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and
practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, graphology, and some types of
personality tests.
Drawing different conclusions from the same information, depending on how that
Framing effect
information is presented
The illusion in which a word, a name, or other thing that has recently come to
one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly
afterwards (not to be confused with the recency illusion or selection bias).[44] This
Frequency illusion
illusion may explain some examples of the Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon, when
someone repeatedly notices a newly learned word or phrase shortly after learning
it.
Functional fixedness Limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.
Gambler's fallacy The tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in
reality they are unchanged. The fallacy arises from an erroneous conceptualization
of the law of large numbers. For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five
times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much
greater than heads."
Based on a specific level of task difficulty, the confidence in judgments is too
Hardeasy effect
conservative and not extreme enough[5][45][46][47]
Sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, the tendency to see past events
Hindsight bias
as being predictable[48] at the time those events happened.
The "hostile attribution bias" is the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as
Hostile attribution bias
having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign.
The "hot-hand fallacy" (also known as the "hot hand phenomenon" or "hot hand")
Hot-hand fallacy is the fallacious belief that a person who has experienced success with a random
event has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts.
Discounting is the tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more
immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs. Hyperbolic discounting leads to
choices that are inconsistent over time people make choices today that their
Hyperbolic discounting
future selves would prefer not to have made, despite using the same reasoning.[49]
Also known as current moment bias, present-bias, and related to Dynamic
inconsistency.
The tendency to respond more strongly to a single identified person at risk than to
Identifiable victim effect
a large group of people at risk.[50]
The tendency for people to place a disproportionately high value on objects that
IKEA effect they partially assembled themselves, such as furniture from IKEA, regardless of
the quality of the end result.
The tendency to overestimate one's degree of influence over other external
Illusion of control
events.[51]
Belief that furtherly acquired information generates additional relevant data for
Illusion of validity
predictions, even when it evidently does not.[52]
Illusory correlation Inaccurately perceiving a relationship between two unrelated events.[53][54]
A tendency to believe that a statement is true if it is easier to process, or if it has
Illusory truth effect been stated multiple times, regardless of its actual veracity. These are specific
cases of truthiness.
The tendency to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future
Impact bias
feeling states.[55]
Information bias The tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action.[56]
Insensitivity to sample
The tendency to under-expect variation in small samples.
size
The phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based
Irrational escalation on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the
decision was probably wrong. Also known as the sunk cost fallacy.
An over-reliance on a familiar tool or methods, ignoring or under-valuing
Law of the instrument
alternative approaches. "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail."
The tendency to prefer a smaller set to a larger set judged separately, but not
Less-is-better effect
jointly.
An apparently statistically significant observation may have actually arisen by
Look-elsewhere effect
chance because of the size of the parameter space to be searched.
The disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with
Loss aversion
acquiring it.[57] (see also Sunk cost effects and endowment effect).
The tendency to express undue liking for things merely because of familiarity with
Mere exposure effect
them.[58]
Money illusion The tendency to concentrate on the nominal value (face value) of money rather
than its value in terms of purchasing power.[59]
Moral credential effect The tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice.
Psychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater recall of unpleasant
Negativity bias or
memories compared with positive memories.[60][61] (see also actor-observer bias,
Negativity effect
group attribution error, positivity effect, and negativity effect).[62]
The tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under
Neglect of probability
uncertainty.[63]
Normalcy bias The refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.
Aversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or knowledge
Not invented here
developed outside a group. Related to IKEA effect.
When a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates
Observer-expectancy
an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also subject-expectancy
effect
effect).
The tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, or less moral, than equally
Omission bias
harmful omissions (inactions).[64]
The tendency to be over-optimistic, overestimating favorable and pleasing
Optimism bias
outcomes (see also wishful thinking, valence effect, positive outcome bias).[65][66]
Ostrich effect Ignoring an obvious (negative) situation.
The tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the
Outcome bias
quality of the decision at the time it was made.
Excessive confidence in one's own answers to questions. For example, for certain
Overconfidence effect types of questions, answers that people rate as "99% certain" turn out to be wrong
40% of the time.[5][67][68][69]
A vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) is perceived as
Pareidolia significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the man in the moon,
and hearing non-existent hidden messages on records played in reverse.
The tendency for some people, especially those suffering from depression, to
Pessimism bias
overestimate the likelihood of negative things happening to them.
Planning fallacy The tendency to underestimate task-completion times.[55]
Post-purchase The tendency to persuade oneself through rational argument that a purchase was
rationalization good value.
The tendency to have an excessive optimism towards an invention or innovation's
Pro-innovation bias usefulness throughout society, while often failing to identify its limitations and
weaknesses.
The tendency to overestimate how much our future selves share one's current
Projection bias
preferences, thoughts and values, thus leading to sub-optimal choices.[70][71][61]
The tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but
Pseudocertainty effect
make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes.[72]
The urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do out of a need to
Reactance resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice (see also Reverse
psychology).
Reactive devaluation Devaluing proposals only because they purportedly originated with an adversary.
The illusion that a word or language usage is a recent innovation when it is in fact
Recency illusion
long-established (see also frequency illusion).
A certain state of mind wherein high values and high likelihoods are
Regressive bias
overestimated while low values and low likelihoods are underestimated.[5][73][74]
Restraint bias The tendency to overestimate one's ability to show restraint in the face of
temptation.
Rhyming statements are perceived as more truthful. A famous example being used
Rhyme as reason effect in the O.J Simpson trial with the defense's use of the phrase "If the gloves don't fit,
then you must acquit."
Risk compensation /
The tendency to take greater risks when perceived safety increases.
Peltzman effect
Selective perception The tendency for expectations to affect perception.
Semmelweis reflex The tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.[31]
Sexual overperception
bias / sexual The tendency to over-/underestimate sexual interest of another person in oneself.
underperception bias
The tendency, when making decisions, to favour potential candidates who don't
Social comparison bias
compete with one's own particular strengths.[75]
The tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in
Social desirability bias
oneself and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours.[76]
The tendency to like things to stay relatively the same (see also loss aversion,
Status quo bias
endowment effect, and system justification).[77][78]
Expecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having
Stereotyping
actual information about that individual.
The tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of
Subadditivity effect
the parts.[79]
Perception that something is true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also
Subjective validation
assigns perceived connections between coincidences.
Losing sight of the strategic construct that a measure is intended to represent, and
Surrogation
subsequently acting as though the measure is the construct of interest.
Concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and
Survivorship bias
inadvertently overlooking those that didn't because of their lack of visibility.
Underestimations of the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or
Time-saving bias decreasing) from a relatively low speed and overestimations of the time that could
be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively high speed.
Belief that mass communicated media messages have a greater effect on others
Third-person effect
than on themselves.
The tendency to give disproportionate weight to trivial issues. Also known as
bikeshedding, this bias explains why an organization may avoid specialized or
Triviality / Parkinson's
complex subjects, such as the design of a nuclear reactor, and instead focus on
Law of
something easy to grasp or rewarding to the average participant, such as the
design of an adjacent bike shed.[80]
The tendency to want to finish a given unit of a task or an item. Strong effects on
Unit bias
the consumption of food in particular.[81]
WeberFechner law Difficulty in comparing small differences in large quantities.
Underestimation of the duration taken to traverse oft-traveled routes and
Well travelled road effect
overestimation of the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.
Preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger
Zero-risk bias
risk.
A bias whereby a situation is incorrectly perceived to be like a zero-sum game
Zero-sum bias
(i.e., one person gains at the expense of another).
Social biases
Most of these biases are labeled as attributional biases.
Name Description
The tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize
the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their
Actor-observer bias situation (see also Fundamental attribution error), and for explanations of one's
own behaviors to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the influence of our
situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality).
The tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure
Authority bias
(unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion.[82]
Defensive attribution Attributing more blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe or as
hypothesis personal or situational similarity to the victim increases.
Occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a
Egocentric bias
joint action than an outside observer would credit them with.
An exception to the fundamental attribution error, when people view others as
Extrinsic incentives bias having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations
for oneself
The tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with
False consensus effect
them.[83]
The tendency to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that
Forer effect (aka Barnum
supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general
effect)
enough to apply to a wide range of people. For example, horoscopes.
The tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for
Fundamental attribution behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of
error situational influences on the same behavior[61] (see also actor-observer bias, group
attribution error, positivity effect, and negativity effect).[62]
The biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are
reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision
Group attribution error
outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is
available that clearly suggests otherwise.
The tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one
Halo effect personality area to another in others' perceptions of them (see also physical
attractiveness stereotype).[84]
Illusion of asymmetric People perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge
insight of them.[85]
When people view self-generated preferences as instead being caused by
Illusion of external agency
insightful, effective and benevolent agents
People overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their
Illusion of transparency
ability to know others.
Overestimating one's desirable qualities, and underestimating undesirable
Illusory superiority qualities, relative to other people. (Also known as "Lake Wobegon effect", "better-
than-average effect", or "superiority bias".)[86]
The tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to
Ingroup bias
be members of their own groups.
The tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just,
Just-world hypothesis causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the
victim(s).
The tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the
Moral luck
outcome of an event.
Nave cynicism Expecting more egocentric bias in others than in oneself.
Nave realism The belief that we see reality as it really is objectively and without bias; that the
facts are plain for all to see; that rational people will agree with us; and that those
who don't are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or biased.

Outgroup homogeneity Individuals see members of their own group as being relatively more varied than
bias members of other groups.[87]
The tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also
Self-serving bias manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a
way beneficial to their interests (see also group-serving bias).[88]
Known as the tendency for group members to spend more time and energy
discussing information that all members are already familiar with (i.e., shared
Shared information bias
information), and less time and energy discussing information that only some
members are aware of (i.e., unshared information).[89]
The disproportionally higher representation of words related to social interactions,
in comparison to words related to physical or mental aspects of behavior, in most
languages. This bias attributed to nature of language as a tool facilitating human
Sociability bias of
interactions. When verbal descriptors of human behavior are used as a source of
language
information, sociability bias of such descriptors emerges in factor-analytic studies
as a factor related to pro-social behavior (for example, of Extraversion factor in
the Big Five personality traits [61]
The tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic, and
political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged,
System justification
sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest. (See also
status quo bias.)
The tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of
Trait ascription bias
personality, behavior, and mood while viewing others as much more predictable.
Similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make
Ultimate attribution error an internal attribution to an entire group instead of the individuals within the
group.
A tendency to believe ourselves to be worse than others at tasks which are
Worse-than-average effect
difficult.[90]
Memory errors and biases

In psychology and cognitive science, a memory bias is a cognitive bias that either enhances or impairs the
recall of a memory (either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for
it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many types of memory
bias, including:
Name Description
Bizarreness effect Bizarre material is better remembered than common material.
In a self-justifying manner retroactively ascribing one's choices to be more
Choice-supportive bias
informed than they were when they were made.
After an investment of effort in producing change, remembering one's past
Change bias
performance as more difficult than it actually was[91]
Childhood amnesia The retention of few memories from before the age of four.
Tendency to remember high values and high likelihoods/probabilities/frequencies
Conservatism or
as lower than they actually were and low ones as higher than they actually were.
Regressive bias
Based on the evidence, memories are not extreme enough[73][74]
Incorrectly remembering one's past attitudes and behaviour as resembling present
Consistency bias
attitudes and behaviour.[92]
That cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-context
Context effect memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories (e.g., recall time
and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa)
The tendency for people of one race to have difficulty identifying members of a
Cross-race effect
race other than their own.
A form of misattribution where a memory is mistaken for imagination, because
Cryptomnesia
there is no subjective experience of it being a memory.[91]
Recalling the past in a self-serving manner, e.g., remembering one's exam grades
Egocentric bias as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it
really was.
A bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more
Fading affect bias
quickly than the emotion associated with positive events.[93]
False memory A form of misattribution where imagination is mistaken for a memory.
That self-generated information is remembered best. For instance, people are
Generation effect (Self-
better able to recall memories of statements that they have generated than similar
generation effect)
statements generated by others.
The tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using
Google effect
Internet search engines.
The inclination to see past events as being more predictable than they actually
Hindsight bias
were; also called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect.
That humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones,
which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive
Humor effect
processing time to understand the humor, or the emotional arousal caused by the
humor.[94]
That people are more likely to identify as true statements those they have
previously heard (even if they cannot consciously remember having heard them),
Illusion of truth effect
regardless of the actual validity of the statement. In other words, a person is more
likely to believe a familiar statement than an unfamiliar one.
Illusory correlation Inaccurately remembering a relationship between two events.[5][54]
The phenomenon whereby learning is greater when studying is spread out over
Lag effect time, as opposed to studying the same amount of time in a single session. See also
spacing effect.
Memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time,
often concurrent with sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that
Leveling and sharpening take on exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the
experience lost through leveling. Both biases may be reinforced over time, and by
repeated recollection or re-telling of a memory.[95]
Levels-of-processing That different methods of encoding information into memory have different levels
effect of effectiveness.[96]
A smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list, but as the length of
List-length effect
the list increases, the absolute number of items remembered increases as well.[97]
Memory becoming less accurate because of interference from post-event
Misinformation effect
information.[98]
That memory recall is higher for the last items of a list when the list items were
Modality effect
received via speech than when they were received through writing.
Mood-congruent memory
The improved recall of information congruent with one's current mood.
bias
That a person in a group has diminished recall for the words of others who spoke
Next-in-line effect
immediately before himself, if they take turns speaking.[99]
That being shown some items from a list and later retrieving one item causes it to
Part-list cueing effect
become harder to retrieve the other items.[100]
That people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how
Peak-end rule
it was at its peak (e.g., pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended.
Persistence The unwanted recurrence of memories of a traumatic event.
The notion that concepts that are learned by viewing pictures are more easily and
Picture superiority effect frequently recalled than are concepts that are learned by viewing their written
word form counterparts.[101][102][103][104][105][106]
Positivity effect That older adults favor positive over negative information in their memories.
Primacy effect, recency That items near the end of a sequence are the easiest to recall, followed by the
effect & serial position items at the beginning of a sequence; items in the middle are the least likely to be
effect remembered.[107]
Processing difficulty That information that takes longer to read and is thought about more (processed
effect with more difficulty) is more easily remembered.[108]
The recalling of more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than
Reminiscence bump
personal events from other lifetime periods[109]
Rosy retrospection The remembering of the past as having been better than it really was.
That memories relating to the self are better recalled than similar information
Self-relevance effect
relating to others.
Confusing episodic memories with other information, creating distorted
Source confusion
memories.[110]
That information is better recalled if exposure to it is repeated over a long span of
Spacing effect
time rather than a short one.
The tendency to overestimate the amount that other people notice your appearance
Spotlight effect
or behavior.
Memory distorted towards stereotypes (e.g., racial or gender), e.g., "black-
Stereotypical bias
sounding" names being misremembered as names of criminals.[91]
Diminishment of the recency effect because a sound item is appended to the list
Suffix effect
that the subject is not required to recall.[111][112]
A form of misattribution where ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for
Suggestibility
memory.
The tendency to displace recent events backward in time and remote events
Telescoping effect forward in time, so that recent events appear more remote, and remote events,
more recent.
The fact that you more easily remember information you have read by rewriting it
Testing effect
instead of rereading it.[113]
Tip of the tongue When a subject is able to recall parts of an item, or related information, but is
phenomenon frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an instance of
"blocking" where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with
each other.[91]
Overestimating the significance of the present.[114] It is related to the
Travis Syndrome enlightenment Idea of Progress and chronological snobbery with possibly an
appeal to novelty logical fallacy being part of the bias.
That the "gist" of what someone has said is better remembered than the verbatim
Verbatim effect
wording.[115] This is because memories are representations, not exact copies.
Von Restorff effect That an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items[116]
That uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed
Zeigarnik effect
ones.
Common theoretical causes of some cognitive biases

Bounded rationality limits on optimization and rationality
Prospect theory
Mental accounting
Adaptive bias basing decisions on limited information and biasing them based on the costs of
being wrong.
Attribute substitution making a complex, difficult judgment by unconsciously substituting it by an
easier judgment[117]
Attribution theory
Salience
Nave realism
Cognitive dissonance, and related:
Impression management
Self-perception theory
Heuristics in judgment and decision making, including:
Availability heuristic estimating what is more likely by what is more available in memory, which
is biased toward vivid, unusual, or emotionally charged examples[53]
Representativeness heuristic judging probabilities on the basis of resemblance[53]
Affect heuristic basing a decision on an emotional reaction rather than a calculation of risks and
benefits[118]
Some theories of emotion such as:
Two-factor theory of emotion
Somatic markers hypothesis
Introspection illusion
Misinterpretations or misuse of statistics; innumeracy.
A 2012 Psychological Bulletin article suggested that at least eight seemingly unrelated biases can be produced
by the same information-theoretic generative mechanism that assumes noisy information processing during
storage and retrieval of information in human memory.[5]
Individual differences in decision making biases

People do appear to have stable individual differences in their susceptibility to decision biases such as
overconfidence, temporal discounting, and bias blind spot.[119] That said, these stable levels of bias within
individuals are possible to change. Participants in experiments who watched training videos and played
debiasing games showed medium to large reductions both immediately and up to three months later in the
extent to which they exhibited susceptibility to six cognitive biases: anchoring, bias blind spot, confirmation
bias, fundamental attribution error, projection bias, and representativeness.[120]
Debiasing
Debiasing is the reduction of biases in judgment and decision making through incentives, nudges, and training.
Cognitive bias mitigation and cognitive bias modification are forms of debiasing specifically applicable to
cognitive biases and their effects.
See also
Affective forecasting List of common Prevalence effect
Anecdotal evidence misconceptions Publication bias
Apophenia List of fallacies Raster scan
Black swan theory List of memory biases Recall bias
Chronostasis List of topics related to Saccade
Cognitive bias in animals public relations and Saccadic masking
Cognitive bias mitigation propaganda Saccadic suppression of
Cognitive distortion Lists of thinking-related image displacement
Cross-race effect topics Self-handicapping
Dysrationalia Media bias Systematic bias
Feedback Mind projection fallacy Transsaccadic memory
Frame rate Pollyanna principle
Positive feedback
List of common Prevalence effect
Notes
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1/8/2017 List of cognitive biases - Wikipedia

Cognitive biases are tendencies to think in certain ways

Although the reality of these biases is confirmed by

Decision-making, belief, and behavioral biases

who don't are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or biased.

Memory errors and biases

Common theoretical causes of some cognitive biases

Individual differences in decision making biases

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