Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
OVERVIEW
Unit 1
Parts of Speech
Parts of a Sentence
Unit 2
Noun
Pronoun
Adjectives
Unit 3
Verb
Adverb
Tenses
Unit 4
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections
Articles
Unit 5
Modals
Punctuation
Interrogatives
Question Tags
Unit 6
Idioms
Phrasal Verbs
Confusing words
PEL121
Contents
PARTS OF A SENTENCE.......................................................................................................................................... 5
How does it all fit together? ............................................................................................................................. 5
PARTS OF SPEECH ................................................................................................................................................. 9
NOUNS ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Types of Noun ................................................................................................................................................ 12
PRONOUNS ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Definition ........................................................................................................................................................ 17
Types............................................................................................................................................................... 17
Pronoun reference ......................................................................................................................................... 19
ADJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Positioning ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
The Royal Order of Adjectives ....................................................................................................................... 22
Types of adjectives ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Degrees of Comparison .................................................................................................................................. 24
VERBS .................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Transitive ........................................................................................................................................................ 25
Intransitive ..................................................................................................................................................... 25
Auxiliary .......................................................................................................................................................... 25
Conjugation of verbs ...................................................................................................................................... 26
Regular Verbs ................................................................................................................................................. 26
Irregular Verbs................................................................................................................................................ 27
ADVERBS ............................................................................................................................................................. 28
Form................................................................................................................................................................ 28
Types............................................................................................................................................................... 29
Position of Adverbs ........................................................................................................................................ 29
TENSES ................................................................................................................................................................ 31
Past Tense....................................................................................................................................................... 31
Usage .............................................................................................................................................................. 33
Comparison .................................................................................................................................................... 36
CONJUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................................................. 37
Coordinating conjunction .............................................................................................................................. 37
Subordinating conjunction............................................................................................................................. 38
Correlative conjunction.................................................................................................................................. 39
Conjunctive adverbs....................................................................................................................................... 39
PREPOSITIONS..................................................................................................................................................... 41
Positio of p epositio pla e efo e i a se te e ................................................................................ 41
Denoting time................................................................................................................................................. 42
Relative position ............................................................................................................................................ 43
Direction of Movement.................................................................................................................................. 44
About, By, With .............................................................................................................................................. 44
INTERJECTIONS ................................................................................................................................................... 45
ARTICLES ............................................................................................................................................................. 46
Choosing the right article ............................................................................................................................... 46
A, AN ............................................................................................................................................................... 46
THE .................................................................................................................................................................. 46
NO ARTICLE..................................................................................................................................................... 47
Some special points........................................................................................................................................ 47
USAGE ............................................................................................................................................................. 49
MODALS .............................................................................................................................................................. 50
What are Modal Verbs? ................................................................................................................................. 50
PUNCTUATION .................................................................................................................................................... 53
INTERROGATIVES ................................................................................................................................................ 57
Yes No Questions / Closed Ended Questions ............................................................................................. 57
IDIOMS ................................................................................................................................................................ 61
Why should we learn idioms?........................................................................................................................ 61
How can we understand new idioms when we read or hear them? ........................................................... 61
What should we do when we find a new idiom? .......................................................................................... 62
PHRASAL VERBS .................................................................................................................................................. 66
What are phrasal verbs? ................................................................................................................................ 66
TYPES OF QUESTIONS..................................................................................................................................... 74
LIST OF COMMONLY CONFUSING WORDS .................................................................................................... 74
PRACTICE! ....................................................................................................................................................... 77
PARTS OF A SENTENCE
How does it all fit together?
Subject
Sentence
Complements Verb
Subject
The subject is Who or What is completing the action of the sentence.
It can be either a noun or a pronoun.
Often it appears at the beginning of the sentence.
Verb
The verb can show action -- either mental or physical action.
It can also show state of being .
Action Verbs
Types of Mental Action Types of Physical Action
1. To Think 1. To Sing
2. To Feel 2. To Dance
3. To Dream 3. To Play
4. To Believe 4. To Work
5. To Remember 5. To Juggle
6. To Understand 6. To Laugh
Linking Verbs
Certain verbs are always used as linking Certain verbs can be used as either action
verbs or linking verbs
2. To seem 2. To grow
Sentence Complements
Sentence Complements complete the meaning conveyed by the subject and the verb
Sentence Complements can be any one of the following: Direct Objects, Indirect Objects, Predicate
Nouns (also called Predicate Nominatives), or Predicate Adjectives.
How can we figure out which sentence complement is being used?
Sentence Complements are determined by the verb
Action verbs take certain types of sentence complements
Linking verbs take other types of sentence complements
Notice that you can only have a Predicate Noun or a Predicate. You cannot have both in the same
sentence.
Predicate Noun
Predicate Nouns rename the subject. They will most ofte follo a fo of the e to e o to e o e .
Example: Mr. Price is our principal.
HINT: There is a test that can be used for predicate nouns!
Since Predicate nouns rename the subject, they can be interchanged with the subject and the sentence will
still say the same thing.
Mr. Price is our principal. OR Our principal is Mr. Price.
Predicate Adjective
Predicate Adjectives describe the subject. They will follow any linking verb. Be careful of sensory linking
verbs. Example: Mr. Bush grew angry while driving.
What is a phrase? a noun, verb, or preposition with all its modifiers. It does not have a subject and verb
which agree.
What is a clause? a group of words that has at least one subject and one predicate, and the verb and
subject always agree. Independent clause expresses complete meaning unlike a dependent clause.
PARTS OF SPEECH
This chapter provides a very basic introduction to the concept of parts of speech in English. Actually,
the study of parts of speech can be quite complicated and involved, but the purpose of this chapter
is to give the students a working vocabulary and a way to improve their grasp of grammar.
Preposition: A word or phrase that shows the relationship between the noun that it takes as an
object and some other word in the sentence.
The beautiful queen was walking slowly on the cool lawn, and she was reading a long book about
knights and kings which she enjoyed.
Solution
The beautiful queen was walking slowly on
Pronoun verb
Identify parts of speech
1. The queen knew that she would be the only pretty woman at the party.
2. The king did not know if he was going to make the cake, and he was afraid to tell the queen.
3. The thin waitress told the customers that they desperately needed to go on a diet.
. I a a iles e e da , a d I ould t lose a pou d.
5. This quiz was a piece of cake.
NOUNS
A noun is a word, which is used as the name of a person, animal, place, bird, idea, emotion or thing.
Types of Noun
Proper Nouns Plural Nouns
Countable/Uncountable Nouns Compound Nouns
Common Noun Collective Nouns
Concrete Abstract Nouns
Predicate Gerunds
Proper Noun
Proper nouns have two distinct features: They name specific one-of-a-kind items, and they begin with
capital letters, no matter where they occur within a sentence. There is no article in front of proper
nouns except The Jo es Jo e s fa il a d The Jo es ust e itte i plu al fo . The U ited tates
the o d tates is i plu al fo . Other exceptions are The Pacific Ocean, The Sahara, The Vatican, and
The White House.
Examples
People : Thompson, Joseph, John, Jane, Jason
Animals: Monkey, Cow, Buffalo, Cat
Things : IKEA office furniture, Toyota, Honda
Places : KMUTT, Bangkok, Thailand, Australia
Time : January, Saturday, Christmas
Common Noun
A common noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind.These are
the common nouns for things.
Countable Noun
Countable Noun is a noun that can be counted. It may or may not have a shape.
They must have a determiner or an article in The determiner or an article depends on the
front of them. situation.
Uncountable Noun
Uncountable Noun is a noun that can be counted. It can be a very small thing or a very big thing.
Most of uncountable nouns must be written in If uncountable nouns act as the subject of the
singular form without an article. sentence, it must be followed by the singular Verb to
be.
I have bread and butter for my breakfast.
Butter is one of diary product.
We cannot live without air and water.
Butter and cheese are made from milk.
Glass: Paper:
Please give me a glass of water. I read two papers every morning.
That container is made of glass. This flowers are made of paper.
Where are my glasses? Show me your paper.
Compound Noun
A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Most compound nouns in English
are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives
Collective Noun
A collective noun is noun that use to name something that form in group or in collection. They are
names of collections or the word that use for define a groups of objects.
Structure: Collective noun + of + common noun
The words bunch and swarm are collective nouns. The words grapes and bees are not.
The e e fo s of olle ti e ou - Singular and Plural
Concrete Noun
Concrete Noun is opposite to abstract noun. Actually Concrete noun is similar to Common noun.A
concrete noun refers to things with physical properties. This noun can be sensed using one of our five
senses.
Abstract nouns are words that name things that are not concrete. Your five physical senses cannot
detect an abstract noun ou a t see it, s ell it, taste it, hea it, o tou h it. I esse e, a a st a t
noun is a quality, a concept, an idea, or maybe even an event.
Abstract nouns and concrete nouns are usually defined in terms of one another.
Abstract Nouns from Verb Abstract Nouns from Nouns Abstract Nouns from Adjective
Predicate Noun
Gerunds
Gerunds are words that are formed with verbs but act as nouns. The gerund is a common part of speech
that most of us use every day, whether we know it or not.
Examples
Swimming i the o ea has ee ha o s passio si e she as fi e ea s old.
Let s go dancing at the club tonight.
Dreaming is an act at the subconscious level.
Holly decided that flying a o e the louds as the ost i edi le e pe ie e she d e e had.
Bill avoided doing his math assignment because the World Series was on.
PRONOUNS
The objectives of this chapter are
Definition
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun, a group of words acting as a noun, or another
pronoun. The word or words that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. The pronoun must match
the antecedent in number and gender.
Types
Personal Intensive Relative
Possessive Demonstrative
Indefinite
Reflexive Interrogative
Personal
They refer to a specific person or thing by indicating the person speaking, the person being addressed,
or any other person or thing being discussed.
Cases:
Subject: I, you, he, she, it, we, they Object: me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Possessive
They are used to indicate possession or ownership
Singular Plural
My, mine Our, ours
Your, yours Your, yours
His, her, hers, its Their, theirs
Reflexive
It refers or reflects back to a noun or pronoun already mentioned. It adds new information and cannot
be removed from the sentence.
Singular Plural
Myself Ourselves
Yourself Yourselves
Himself, herself, itself Themselves
Antecedent
Intensive
These pronouns add emphasis and they can be removed from the sentence.
Singular Plural
Myself Ourselves
Yourself Yourselves
Himself, herself, itself Themselves
Intensive pronoun
Antecedent
Demonstrative
They point out specific persons, places, things, or ideas.
That is my car. Those are his shoes.
Singular Plural
This (near) these (near)
That (far) those (far)
Interrogative
They are used to form questions.
Who Whose Which
Whom What
Whose jacket is this? Which of those girls do you like?
Relative
They are used to begin a special subject-verb word group called a subordinate clause.
Who, whoever Whom, whomever Which, whichever
Whose That What, whatever
Pronoun reference
What does reference mean?
When you refer to something, you point to something specific.
A reference is a way of pointing out a connection or relationship between two things.
If ou efe e es a e u lea , ou eade s a d liste e s a t ake o e tio s.
A pronoun stands for, or refers to, another word or word group, called the antecedent.
Example - Saurabh wanted to visit the museum, but it had closed for the day.
Generally, the meaning of a pronoun is clear only when the reader knows to which word or
word group the pronoun refers
Shambhavi assured Vinay that she would help him in managing the co-curricular activities.
The meaning of she is clear because we know she refers to Shambhavi.
The meaning of him is clear because we know him refers to Vinay.
A pronoun reference is sometimes unclear because the pronoun and its antecedent do not
agreein number, gender, person, or case.
Unclear Simran is always thinking about holidays. It seems to be her only interest.
Clear Simran is always thinking about her holidays. They seem to be her only interest.
Clear Simran is always thinking about her leisure time. It seems to be her only interest.
Number
A pronoun should agree in number with its antecedent. A word that refers to one thing is singular. A
word that refers to more than one thing is plural.
I me my, mine
you you your, yours Singular personal pronouns
he, she, it him, her, it his, hers, its
we us our, ours
you you your, yours Plural personal pronouns
they them their, theirs
Airline passengers must show their photo-identification cards to the ticket agent.
Gender
Some singular pronouns indicate gender.
Masculine pronouns refer to males.
Feminine pronouns refer to females.
Neuter pronouns refer to places, things, ideas and sometimes animals
Examples-
Each passenger is responsible for getting his or her passport.
Each passenger is a singular genderless antecedent, so the singular pronoun his or her is
preferred usage.
The university has changed its recommendations for the new parking lot facility.
University is a singular neuter antecedent, so the singular neuter pronoun its is used.
Person
Person indicates whether a pronoun refers to
Examples
Incorrect: When a person turns twenty, your perspective on life changes in many ways. (The first half
of the sentence is written in third person, while the second half is in second person.)
Correct: When a person turns twenty, his or her perspective on life changes in many ways. (The entire
sentence is written in third person.)
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are words that describe or modify other words, making your writing and speaking much more
specific, and a whole lot more interesting. Words like small, blue, and sharp are descriptive, and they are
all examples of adjectives. Because adjectives are used to identify or quantify individual people and
unique things, they are usually positioned before the noun or pronoun that they modify. Some
sentences contain multiple adjectives.
Positioning
Before a noun - She has a beautiful handwriting
After a verb - Her handwriting is beautiful
Types of adjectives
Type Purpose Example
Descriptive These adjectives describe nouns that refer to Dangerous chemicals
action, state, or quality. Green vegetables
Quantity An adjective of quantity tells us the number He has eaten three apples.
(how many) or amount (how much) of a I dont have much money.
noun.
Demonstrative A demonstrative adjective (this, that, these, This red balloon is mine and
those) shows the noun it modifies is singular those three yellow; ones are
or plural and whether the position of the yours.
noun is near or far from the person who is These two fat cats have tails,
speaking or writing. A demonstrative but that thi at does t ha e
adjective also points out a fact about the a tail.
noun.
Possessive A possessive adjective expresses possession This must be your cap.
of a noun by someone or something. His arms have a few tattoos.
Possessive adjectives are the same as Its skin is dry and rough.
possessive pronouns
Adjectives as Some adjectives are used as nouns to The injured were in the
Noun describe groups of people. Each of these thousands.
groups follows the determiner the (definite Every year, millions join the
article). ranks of the unemployed
worldwide.
Compound Compound adjectives are used to modify A heart-breaking news.
adjectives nouns. They are called compound because An English-speaking country.
they are made up of two or more words,
usually with hyphens between them.
Adjectival An adjective clause (also called adjectival Students who work hard get
Clause clause) is a dependent clause which modifies good grades. (The adjective
a noun and usually begins with a relative clause who work hard
pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose) or modifies the noun students.)
a relative adverb (where, when, why). The book which you lent me
is very interesting.
(The adjective clause which
you lent me modifies the
noun the book.)
VERBS
A verb is an action or express word. It indicates the action in the present, past and future tenses. The
placement of verb in English is quite different from most of our regional languages.
I + eat + my breakfast
Transitive
A Transitive Verb requires an object to complete its meaning.
Examples: --
(a) The hunter killed a bear. In a ea is the object of killed ".
(b) The scholar learned his lesson. In lesso is the object of lea ed".
Intransitive
An Intransitive Verb does not require an object to complete its meaning.
Examples: -- (a) He sleeps (b) We go.
No object can come after such verbs as sleep ", go etc.
Auxiliary
An Auxiliary Verb is used to help main verb. Auxiliary verbs always come before the main verb
(a) I shall go. (b) We have come.
Note: A verb that is helped by an auxiliary verb is called a Principal verb
In (a) shall " is an auxiliary verb used to help the verb " go " to form a future time.
In (b) "have " is an auxiliary verb used to help the verb " come " to express a time partly past and partly
present.
Conjugation of verbs
Base Form be do have
Present
Habitual Action I wake up at 6 am every morning
Universal Truth JAVA is a programming language
Facts or Generalization California is not in the United Kingdom
Scheduled events in near future Campus recruitment begins during the 7th semester.
Past
Action already completed More than 800 students got placed last year in LPU
Infinitive
To + verb forms infinitives
Past Participle
Formed by both regular and irregular verbs
Used along with helping verbs such as has, have, had
Example: The teacher had requested the students to maintain the decorum of the class
Present Participle
This is formed by adding -ing to the end of present verbs.
It is used with forms of the verb to be, such as am, is, are, was, or were.
This expresses an ongoing action
Regular Verbs
A regular verb forms we can add -d or -ed to the end of its base form. The present participle is formed
by adding -ing to the end of its base form and the past is formed by adding -ed. If the base form verb
ends with the letter -e, we can add only -d for past form verb and remove the -e then just add -ing for
the present participle.
Present (V1) Past (V2) Past Participle (V3) Present Participle (V1-ing)
allot allotted allotted allotting
bat batted batted batting
Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs with similar present, past and past participle forms
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Participle
beset beset beset besetting
broadcast broadcast Broadcast/ broadcasted broadcasting
burst burst burst bursting
Irregular verbs with similar past and past participle forms
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Participle
behold beheld beheld beholding
beseech besought besought beseeching
Irregular verbs with similar present and past participle forms
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Participle
come came come coming
overcome overcame overcome overcoming
Irregular verbs with three distinct forms
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle Present Participle
arise arose arisen arising
awake awoke awoken awakening
blow blew blown blowing
choose chose chosen choosing
do did done doing
Vo el ha ges fro i to a to u
Present Past Past Participle
begin began begun
drink drank drunk
ring rang rung
shrink shrank shrunk
ADVERBS
An adverb is a word that describes or gives more information about a verb, an adjective, another
adverb, or even the entire sentence.
The word "adverb" comes for the Latin ad- (in addition) and verbum (word).
Ad e des i es
An adverb can describe a verb: She runs quickly.
An adverb can describe an adjective: She is so beautiful.
An adverb can describe another adverb: She smokes very rarely.
An adverb can describe an entire sentence: Obviously, you don't have to come.
Form
In many cases (but not always!) adverbs have the following form: Adjective + "-ly"
Examples:
When an adjective ends with "y" replace the "y" with an "i":
Heavy + ly = heavi + ly = heavily Happy + ly = happi + ly = happily
However, there are many adverbs that do not end in "-ly": Very, home, too, well, never, sometimes,
and so forth.
Types
Adverbs of degree
Very, highly, totally, perfectly, partially, almost.
Adverbs of manner
Well, badly, nicely, slowly, loudly, quietly, happily, sadly, secretly, weakly.
Adverbs of place
Home, here, there, outside, inside, away, around, anywhere, abroad, up, down, out.
Adverbs of time
Now, soon, later, yesterday, tomorrow, early, before, lately, recently.
Adverbs of frequency
Always, never, sometimes, often, rarely, usually, occasionally.
Adverbs of duration
Forever, constantly, temporarily, briefly.
Adverbs of probability
Certainly, maybe, probably, possibly, surely.
Comparative Adverbs
"Comparative" means "comparing something to something else. Comparative adverbs show us which
action or state is better, worse, stronger, weaker, and so forth.
Examples: more, less, better, worse, faster, slower, farther, and closer
Example sentences:
Maggie works out more seriously than Donna. You are better than this.
She eats less than her friends. We couldn't go slower even if we wanted to.
Superlative Adverbs
"upe lati e" ea s "of the highest deg ee. Superlative adverbs show us which action or state is the
best, the strongest, and so forth.
Examples: Best, most, least, worst, strongest, fastest, and slowest.
Example sentences:
He knows best. He shouted the loudest so he won.
It was the most boring experience. He ran the slowest so he lost.
Position of Adverbs
Adverbs of place, manner, time, generally put after the verb
We gave immediately our reply. The worker has satisfactorily done his work.
We gave our reply immediately. The worker has done his work satisfactorily.
The adverb enough is always placed after the word which it modifies.
Her mother was enough foolish believe it. The Indian army is enough strong to fight.
Her mother was foolish enough to believe it. The Indian army is strong enough to fight.
Adverbs of frequency which answer the question "how often?" and certain other verbs like
almost, already, hardly, nearly, just, quite are normally put between subject and verb.
They come to see me seldom. We try always to help him.
They seldom come to see me. We always try to help him.
'Very' is used before the present participles and the Adverbs and Adjectives of the Positive degree
and 'much' is used before the Adjectives and Adverbs of the Comparative degree.
I am much good now. I am very amazed to find you here.
I am much better now. I am much amazed to find you here.
He sang much sweetly. He arrived very sooner than expected.
He sang much more sweetly. He arrived much sooner than expected.
Too, Very: "Too" indicates excess. It should not be used in the above sense. It is better to use
'very'.
Geeta is too glad to meet you. Sunil is too humble.
Geeta is very glad to meet you. Sunil is very humble.
Ago and Since
He visited Allahabad since three years. He visited Allahabad three years ago.
TENSES
Past Tense
Simple Past Past Continuous
Future Tense
Usage
Examples
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that connect 2 sentences or parts of sentences, acting as connectors.
I was going to see a movie, but I e ha ged i d.
he ould t de ide if she wanted the lemon tea or the rosehip tea.
Coordinating conjunction
The coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join two independent clauses, or two nouns, or two verbs,
etc.
I will be late to the party, for I am working until seven.
Tom likes to read and write.
Sally does not like the mountains, nor does she like the ocean.
I wanted to ride my bike, but the tire was flat.
Fred wants peas or carrots for supper.
I love chocolate, yet I do not eat chocolate ice cream.
She was late to work, so her boss made her stay after five.
ACRONYM
F FOR A AND N NOR B BUT O OR Y YET S - SO
Rule 1
Put a comma before the coordinating conjunction when it is used to connect two independent clauses.
Tom walked the dog, so he grabbed the mail.
OR
Tom walked the dog, and he grabbed the mail.
Both parts of the sentence have a subject and verb (before and after the coordinating conjunction).
I want to go see a movie but my sister has my car. I want to go see a movie, but my sister has my car.
Rule 2
When using a coordinating conjunction to connect two items, do not use a comma.
Example: Tom walked the dog and grabbed the mail.("Tom walked the dog" is an independent clause,
but "grabbed the mail" is not.)
She likes apples, and bananas. She likes apples and bananas.
My brother is young, but smart. My brother is young but smart.
Rule 3
When using a coordinating conjunction with a list of items (three or more in number), the comma
before the coordinating conjunction is optional.
Example with comma: She is cooking chicken, potatoes, corn, and carrot.
Example without comma: She is cooking chicken, potatoes, corn and carrot.
Subordinating conjunction
Subordinating conjunctions show a relationship between an independent and a dependent clause; like
cause-and-effect, and contrast.
Examples: 1) John is the guy who came over for dinner last week.
Correlative conjunction
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together to join phrases or words that carry
equal importance within a sentence. When using correlative conjunctions, ensure verbs agree
Example: Every night, either loud music or fighting neighbors wake John from his sleep.
When you use a correlative conjunction, you must be sure that pronouns agree.
Example: Neither Debra nor Sally expressed her annoyance when the cat broke the antique lamp.
When using correlative conjunctions, be sure to keep parallel structure intact. Equal grammatical units
need to be incorporated into the entire sentence.
Example: Not only did Mary grill burgers for Michael, but she also fixed a steak for her dog, Vinny.
Conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs which join two clauses. Conjunctive adverbs frequently (but not
necessarily) have a semi- olo efo e the . As the e o ju tio s i.e. o ds that joi t o thoughts
o ideas , it s est ot to use the at the egi i g of a se te e.
Please close the outer door; otherwise, the cold air comes in.
Conjunctive adverbs can also put a little break in the sentence, providing emphasis.
The new building will, furthermore, provide storage facilities as well as meeting space.
School of Professional Enhancement 39
PEL121
The commas are used around the conjunctive adverb for emphasis. If the interruption in the sentence
should be weaker, just leave out the commas.
The new building will furthermore provide storage facilities as well as meeting space.
Examples
Also Meanwhile Moreover Hence
Besides Nonetheless Consequently
Accordingly Finally Instead Similarly
Subsequently Therefore However Still
Thus Indeed
When using a conjunction, make sure that the parts which are being joined by the conjunction have a
parallel structure (i.e. that they use the same verb forms, etc.)Am careful is not in the same form as
quickly; this creates faulty parallelism. The verbs need to be in the same form.
PREPOSITIONS
Tell us the relationship between 2 things
Add information to a sentence
Construct Prepositional phrases Adjectival and adverbial
Denote space and time
Non exhaustive
Complex prepositions can theoretically be added to the language any time
Basically 2 types
- One word at, on, in, by, with
- Complex in front of, along with, out of
Read aloud!
The pla e fle a o e the loud, ehi d the loud, a ou d the loud, elo the loud, e eath the loud,
beside the cloud, beyond the cloud, into the cloud, near the cloud, outside the cloud, over the cloud, past
the loud, th ough the loud, to a d the loud, u de the loud, a d fi all di ed u de eath the loud.
I am in the class, My mom is at home, CA4 answer papers are on my desk, Butter melts on heating
At, in, on, from..to, until, by, before, after, during, while Time
Below, above, under, over, beneath, in front of, behind, opposite to Relative position of things
To, Across, along, down, into, off, over, under, out of, past, through Direction of movement
Denoting time
Since
Since denotes from a point of time in the past until now and usually comes after the present perfect
tense or present perfect continuous tense in a sentence
For
For denotes duration or time period
Solutions
1) In
2) On
3) Behind
4) Under
5) In front of
6) Next to
7) Between
8) Among
INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word or words that show feeling or emotion. If the interjection shows strong feeling, it
stands alone and is followed by an exclamation point.
Ex: Wow! That boat is big! Good grief! The sails are huge!
If the interjection shows mild feeling, it begins the sentence and is followed by a comma.
Ah, the breeze is nice. Well, lets go saili g!
Common Interjections
Hurray Hey Oh, no Well
Good grief Ah Oops Whew
Okay Oh Ouch Wow
Wow! Those are some slobbery kisses. Good grief! Maggie would not go out in the
s o ithout he oat o .
Hurray! I caught another catfish.
Ah, I miss those days.
ARTICLES
The articles are - A, An and The.
Articles modifies Nouns making them adjectives also.
The main thing to consider, when choosing an article, is whether or not the noun is countable, and
whether it is definite.
Cou ta le means that the noun can be made plural, e.g. book/books.
Defi ite means particular, specific or unique.
A, AN
If the noun is singular and countable, and this is the first time you have mentioned it, then you will
usually need the indefinite article: I bought a book we do not know which book.
There is a bird outside we do not know anything about the bird.
Measurements and rates also take the indefinite article: Three times a week
If the noun starts with a vowel sound, then the article an is used: an ear, an uncle, an hour
If the noun starts with a consonant sound, then the article a is used: a school, a university
THE
If your reader or listener understands what you are referring to, then you will usually need the
definite article: I bought a book last week. The book is about trees.
(You have just mentioned the book, so you both know which one.)
We went to a wedding yesterday. The bride wore a lovely dress.
(You have not mentioned the bride before, but you both know she is connected to the wedding.)
Some things are taken to be common knowledge in English and therefore take the definite article:
Common error:
You cannot write most of paintings or none of paintings. It is either most of the paintings (definite)
or most paintings (general).
Most of the paintings in the exhibition were landscapes.
(Definite we know which specific paintings they are in the exhibition)
Most paintings nowadays (general not specific paintings)
NO ARTICLE
We do not need an article if a noun is plural or uncountable and it is not definite.
1. Before proper, material and abstract nouns used in a general sense: London, France, Tom, gold,
rice, honesty, virtue
3. In certain phrases made up of a preposition + noun, Examples are: on foot, at school, from top to
bottom, at home, in bed, by train, by car, in debt, in hand, on earth, at noon, on board, in jest, at
best, at worst etc.
4. In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb and its object: Give ear, set sail, take heart, send
word, catch fire, take offence, leave office, leave home, leave office etc.
He took offence at my words. (BUT NOT He took the offence at my words.)
She left home in the morning. (BUT NOT She left the home in the morning.)
5. Before the names of continents, countries, capes, cities, towns, days, months, arts, languages,
sciences, some diseases etc.
January, March, physics, English, Tokyo, Beijing, Delhi, Tuesday, Friday, Asia, America etc.
December is a cold month.
English is spoken all over the world.
6. Before common nouns when they go in pairs: Both husband and wife had serious injuries.
8. Before the nouns following kind of: What kind of flower is it? (NOT What kind of a flower is it?)
USAGE
A single, countable noun must have an article if there is no other number, determiner or possessive
(e.g. two, our, this). If the noun is plural, an article may not be necessary.
our house you do not need an article, because you already have the possessive our.
this year you do not need an article, because you already have the determiner this.
car you need an article, because this is a singular countable noun with no determiner already.
trees you may need an article, depending on whether the noun is definite or not.
For example:
Trees are usually green no article is needed, because you are talking generally and the noun is not
definite, i.e. you are not talking about specific trees.
The trees in the park are green the article is needed because you have specified which trees you are
talking about.
I like books books is a plural noun. It is used about books generally, not specific books, so it takes no
article.
Blood is thicker than water blood and water are singular, uncountable nouns. They are used in a
general sense, therefore they do not need an article.
I bought two books you do not need an article, because you already have the word two.
I bought some books you do not need an article, because you already have the word some.
I bought a book book is a singular, countable noun; therefore it has to have an article. Your reader
does ot k o hi h ook ou a e efe i g to, the efo e it is i defi ite .
The book I bought is interesting- book is again a singular, countable noun; therefore it has to have an
article. In this case, we know which book you are referring to (the book you bought), so it takes a
definite article. (More details on the definite article are given below.)
I like the books you gave me books is a plural noun. It is used in a definite sense (we know which
books the books you gave me), so it takes a definite article.
MODALS
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that expresses necessity or possibility. English modal verbs include must, shall, will,
should, would, can, could, may, and might. Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very irregularly in
English.
Comparison
PUNCTUATION
Correct punctuation is essential for clear and effective writing. The following list contains some of the
most critical punctuation rules.
COMMAS
Commas are used to separate parts of a sentence. They tell readers to pause between words or groups
of words, and they help clarify the meanings of sentences.
1) Commas are used to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
EXAMPLE: Practice will be held before school, in the afternoon, and at night.
2) Commas are used after an introductory dependent clause (a group of words before the subject of a
sentence that do not form a complete sentence).
EXAMPLE: If your friends enjoy Chinese food, they will love this restaurant.
3) Commas are used to set off introductory words, introductory adverbial, participial, or infinitive
phrases, and longer introductory prepositional phrases.
EXAMPLE: Incidentally, I was not late this morning. (word)
Hoping for a bigger fish, Rob spent three more hours fishing. (phrase)
4) Commas are used between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so).
EXAMPLE: My dog had fleas, so we gave him a bath.
5) Commas set off nonessential phrases or clauses.
EXAMPLE: The man, I think, had a funny laugh.
6) Commas set off an appositive (a word or phrase that renames a noun).
EXAMPLE: Tanya, Debbie's sister, gave a brilliant speech last night.
Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-; with the suffix -elect; and with all prefixes before a
proper noun or proper adjective.
EXAMPLE: all-star ex-mayor pro-Canadian senator-elect Anti-Semitic
Non-European self-control self-image
DASHES
Dashes connect groups of words to other groups of words in order to emphasize a point or show that
the information is unessential. Usually the dash separates words in the middle of a sentence from the
rest of the sentence, or it leads to material at the end of the sentence.
In the middle of a sentence, a dash can put special emphasis on a group of words or make them stand
out from the rest of the sentence.
EXAMPLE: Linda Simpson's prescription for the economy, lower interest rates, higher employment, and
less government spending, was rejected by the president's administration.
BECOMES: Linda Simpson's prescription for the economylower interest rates, higher employment, and
less government spendingwas rejected by the president's administration.
The dash can also be used to attach material to the end of a sentence when there is a clear break in the
continuity of the sentence or when an explanation is being introduced.
EXAMPLE: The president will be unable to win enough votes for another term of officeunless,
of course, he can reduce unemployment and the deficit soon.
EXAMPLE: It was a close callthe sudden gust of wind pushed the helicopter to within inches of
the power line.
APOSTROPHES
Apostrophes are used to show possession or to indicate where a letter has been omitted to form a
contraction. To show possession, add an apostrophe and an -s to singular nouns or indefinite pronouns
that end in one or body.
EXAMPLE: Susan's wrench, anyone's problem
Add only an apostrophe for plural possessive nouns ending in -s.
EXAMPLE: my parents' car, the musicians' instruments
Add an apostrophe and an -s for plural possessive nouns that do not end in -s.
EXAMPLE: the men's department, my children's toys
Add an apostrophe and an -s for singular possessive nouns that end in -s.
EXAMPLE: Chris's cookbook, the business's system
Do not use an apostrophe with possessive personal pronouns including yours, his, hers, its, ours, their,
and whose.
Apostrophes are also used in contractions, two words which have been combined into one, to mark
where the missing letter or letters would be.
EXAMPLE: I am= I'm I have = I've
who is = who's let us = let's
cannot = can't he is, she is, it is = he's, she's, it's
INTERROGATIVES
A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence. A question mark [?] is used to close
such a sentence. Interrogation refers to a sentence of inquiry that asks for a reply.
Yes No Questions / Closed Ended Questions
With an auxiliary verb
We form yes-no questions with an auxiliary verb (be, do or have) + subject + main verb or with a modal
verb + subject + main verb:
Be: Is she working very hard? Were they travelling together?
Do: Does that taste okay? Did you go to the concert?
Have: Have they eaten yet? Had they visited Rome before?
Modal: Could you help me lift this? Should I open the window?
Where there is no auxiliary verb be, have or modal verb already present in the statement, we use the
auxiliary do, does, did:
Statement form (no auxiliary) Question form
You usually walk to work. Do you usually walk to work?
Not: Walk ou?
You liked disco music in the 70s. Did you like disco music in the 70s?
Not: Liked ou?
QUESTION TAGS
Tag Questions - questions that are added to a declarative sentence, usually at the end, to engage the
listener, verify that something has been understood, or confirm that an action has taken place.
FORM: Affi ati e, e / au ilia e + [ t] ot + su je t?
Negative, verb/ auxiliary verb + subject?
You are liste i g, are t ou?
You ha e t read a thi g, ha e ou?
I a desire to e i depe de t, a t I?
Form
Auxiliary verb + subject
1. We use the same auxiliary verb in the tag as in the main sentence. If there is no auxiliary verb in
the main sentence, we use do in the tag.
You live in Spain, dont you?
If the auxiliary verb in the sentence is affirmative, the tag is negative.
Youre Spanish, arent you?
If the auxiliary verb in the sentence is negative, the tag is affirmative.
Youre not Spanish, are you?
2. We use tag questions to Confirm or check information or ask for agreement.
You want to come with me, dont you? You do t k o here the oss is, do you?
You can swim, cant you? That film was fantastic, wasnt it?
3. We use tag questions to Check whether something is true.
The eeti gs to orrow at 9am, isnt it? You o t go ithout e, will you?
4. We can use affirmative tag questions after affirmative sentences to express a reaction such as
surprise or interest.
Youre o i g to Brazil, are you?
In the present form of be: if the su je t is I , the au ilia ha ges to a o ai t / are or arent in
the tag question.
I sitti g e t to ou, arent I? I a little red, arent I?
With lets, the tag question is shall we?
Lets go to the ea h, shall we? Lets ha e a offee, shall we?
With an imperative, the tag question is will you?
Close the window, will you? Hold this, will you?
We use an affirmative tag question after a sentence containing a negative word such as never, hardly,
nobody.
IDIOMS
Idioms are groups of words with a special meaning that is quite different from the meaning of the
individual words. For example, the idiom "to be on the ball" really has nothing to do with a ball or being
on top of one. It means that someone is very industrious, intelligent and organized. For this reason, we
a sa that idio s ea i gs a e opa ue athe tha t a spa e t.
EXPLANATION:
There are many phrases in English which can be very confusing to people trying to learn the language,
especially phrases which we try to understand literally, but actually mean something very different.
These phrases are known as idiomatic phrases, or idioms.
Ex: I have a lot on my plate to orro as I ha e to fi ish a assig e t a d ork i the e e i g.
If we try to understand these words literally, it means I have a plate with many items on it, meaning I
ha e a lot of food Is this hat e ea ? Defi itel ot! This ph ase a tuall ea s busy:
Ex: I am busy tomorrow as I have to finish an assignment and ork i the e e i g.
Why should we learn idioms?
There are two main reasons to learn common idioms.
1. When used in speaking, and sometimes writing, they show a high level of vocabulary.
This is because they are natural phrases commonly used by native speakers. Remember, when we study
English, we want to sound as natural as possible, as close to a native speaker as possible. Therefore,
using idioms helps us in this.
Now that we have decided if a phrase is useful, we need to record it. Everyone studying English,
whether at a high level or low level, should keep a vocabulary journal (a notebook to record new and
useful words and phrases). It is a good idea to have an area to record idioms so that you can find them
again easily.
Finally, use and review! Try to use your new phrases in speaking and writing, and go back to older
phrases and use them again.
The most important things to know when learning to use idioms are:
o
I have a lot on my plates with school, and I have been working around my watch. (Incorrect)
I have a lot on my plate with school, and I have been working around the clock. (Correct)
PHRASAL VERBS
What are phrasal verbs?
Phrasal verbs are verbs that consist of a verb and a particle (a preposition or adverb) or a verb and two
particles (an adverb and a preposition as in get on with or look forward to). They are identified by their
grammar (more about that in Unit 2), but it is probably best to think of them as individual vocabulary
items, to be learnt in phrases or chunks. They often but not always have a one-word equivalent. For
example, you can come across a new phrasal verb or you can encounter it.
You can pick up a language or you can acquire it. Come across and pick up sound less literary or formal
than encounter or acquire.
They are very frequent in newspaper headlines. Here are just a few examples:
Cover-up raises fears over bird flu. Cou tr s ispla ed pride holds back its
democracy.
Phrasal verbs are common in less formal English but you will also hear or see and need to use them in
more formal contexts.
Be aware that one of the special features of phrasal verbs is that some of them have many different
meanings for example, you can pick something up from the floor, you can pick up a language or bad
habits, the weather can pick up, you can pick up a bargain, a radio can pick up a signal, the economy can
pick up, you can pick up a story where you left it, you can pick someone up in your car. Sometimes the
meanings are clearly related, some being more literal and some more metaphorical.
PHRASAL VERBS WITH AND WITHOUT OBJECTS
Some phrasal verbs take an object (transitive); others do not take an object (intransitive).
with object (transitive) no object (intransitive)
The re knocking down the old hotel. The path branched off1 to the river.
The plumber soon sorted out the shower problem. The noise of the train died away.
She tied her hair back so she could work better. In the winter the lake froze over.
1
if a road or path branches off, it goes in another direction
Some verbs can be used both with and without an object, but the meaning may change. Use the context
to decide if the verb has a different meaning from the one you are familiar with.
Tina and Jo were so clever the teacher moved them up to a higher class. (with object)
Tina and Jo moved up to a higher class. (no object = same meaning)
I can drop you off at the station. (with object = drive you somewhere and leave you there)
I was sitting in the armchair and I dropped off. (no object = fell asleep, different meaning)
Some verbs must have two objects, one after the verb and one after the particle.
When the object is a personal pronoun, the pronoun always comes before the particle.
Some verbs (sometimes called prepositional verbs) must have the object after the particle, even if it is a
pronoun. A good dictionary will tell you if this is so.
We e had to contend with a lot of problems lately. (Not: contend a lot of problems with) [Deal with a
difficult or unpleasant situation]
You probably already know some of these verbs (look for, look after, cope with).
THREE-PART VERBS
Some phrasal verbs have three parts, the verb and two particles. The object comes last.
Other examples include look forward to, look down on, get on with, catch up on [do something you did
not have time to do earlier], face up to [accept that a difficult or unpleasant situation exists].
cheer up To support somebody with She cheered up when she heard the good
applause news.
Cheer someone up make happier I brought you some flowers to cheer you
up.
chip in help If everyone chips in we can get the
kitchen painted by noon.
come across something find unexpectedly I came across these old photos when I
was tidying the closet.
come forward volunteer for a task or to give The woman came forward with her
evidence husband's finger prints.
come from somewhere originate in The art of origami comes from Asia.
count on rely on I am counting on you to make dinner
someone/something while I am out.
Cut something down make something fall to the We had to cut the old tree in our yard
ground down after the storm.
Cut something off remove with something sharp The doctors cut off his leg because it was
severely injured.
Cut something out remove part of something I cut this ad out of the newspaper.
(usually with scissors and
paper)
do away with something discard It's time to do away with all of these old
tax records.
dress up wear nice clothing It's a fancy restaurant so we have to dress
up.
eat out eat at a restaurant I don't feel like cooking tonight. Let's eat
out.
end up eventually reach/do/decide We ended up renting a movie instead of
going to the theatre.
fall apart break into pieces My new dress fell apart in the washing
machine.
Figure something out understand, find the answer I need to figure out how to fit the piano
and the bookshelf in this room.
Fill something in to write information in blanks Please fill in the form with your name,
(Br. E.) address, and phone number.
Fill something out to write information in blanks The form must be filled out in capital
(N. Amer.) letters.
find out discover We don't know where he lives. How can
we find out?
Get something across/over communicate, make I tried to get my point across/over to the
understandable judge but she wouldn't listen.
get along/on like each other I was surprised how well my new
girlfriend and my sister got along/on.
get away with something do without being noticed or Jason always gets away with cheating in
punished his maths tests.
get back return We got back from our vacation last week.
Get something back receive something you had Liz finally got her Science notes back from
before my room-mate.
wedding.
look forward to something be excited about the future I'm looking forward to the Christmas
break.
look into something investigate We are going to look into the price of
snowboards today.
look out be careful, vigilant, and take Look out! That car's going to hit you!
notice
look out for be especially vigilant for Don't forget to look out for snakes on the
someone/something hiking trail.
Make something up invent, lie about something Josie made up a story about why we were
late.
make up forgive each other We were angry last night, but we made
up at breakfast.
pass away die His uncle passed away last night after a
long illness.
pass out faint It was so hot in the church that an elderly
lady passed out.
Put something out extinguish The neighbours put the fire out before the
firemen arrived.
Put something together assemble I have to put the crib together before the
baby arrives.
run into meet unexpectedly I ran into an old school-friend at the mall.
someone/something
run over drive a vehicle over a person or I accidentally ran over your bicycle in the
someone/something thing driveway.
Set something up arrange, organize Our boss set a meeting up with the
president of the company.
Set someone up trick, trap The police set up the car thief by using a
hidden camera.
stick to something continue doing something, You will lose weight if you stick to the
limit yourself to one particular diet.
thing
Switch something off stop the energy flow, turn off The light's too bright. Could you switch it
off.
Switch something on start the energy flow, turn on We heard the news as soon as we
switched on the car radio.
take after someone resemble a family member I take after my mother. We are both
impatient.
take off start to fly My plane takes off in five minutes.
Take something off remove something (usually Take off your socks and shoes and come
clothing) in the lake!
Think something over consider I'll have to think this job offer over before
I make my final decision.
Throw something away dispose of We threw our old furniture away when
we won the lottery.
Turn something down decrease the volume or Please turn the TV down while the guests
strength (heat, light etc) are here.
CONFUSING WORDS
INTRODUCTION TO CONFUSING WORDS
Ma k T ai said, The diffe e e et ee the ight o d a d the al ost ight o d is the diffe e e
et ee the lighti g a d the light i g ug .
Confusing words questions have been designed to check primarily for mental alertness differentiating
between two similar words.
English has a lot of commonly confused words. They either look alike, sound alike or, worst of all, look
and sound alike but have completely different meanings. Other words look and sound different but are
si ila i ea i g, a d it s hard to determine which the correct one in a given context is.
To excel in this area, having a good vocabulary alone is not sufficient. A good vocabulary can be useful
when used to trigger a word already in your vocabulary bank. But simply plucking out a near- synonym
in trying to the guess the meaning of a word that seems similar to a word that you already know, can
result in some disastrous situation because the word may not fit the context. And thus comes the need
of understanding the usage of words and having mental alertness to identify subtle differences
between/ among them
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
1. SPOT ERROR
The company has come up with a new add for their product
BREATH-noun, air inhaled or exhaled ex: You could see his breath in the cold air.
BREATHE-verb, to inhale or exhale ex: If you don't breathe, then you are dead.
CAPITAL-seat of government. Also financial resources. ex: The capital of Virginia is Richmond.
ex: The firm had enough capital to build the new plant.
CAPITOL-the actual building in which the legislative body meets
ex: The governor announced his resignation in a speech given at the capitol today.
CITE-to quote or document ex: I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper.
SIGHT-vision ex: The sight of our flag arouses patriotism.
SITE-position or place ex: The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.
COMPLEMENT-noun, something that completes; verb, to complete
ex: A nice dry white wine complements a seafood entree.
COMPLIMENT-noun, praise; verb, to praise ex: The professor complimented Betty on her proper
use of a comma.
CONSCIENCE-sense of right and wrong ex: The student's conscience kept him from cheating on the
exam.
CONSCIOUS-awake ex: I was conscious when the burglar entered the house.
COUNCIL-a group that consults or advises ex: The men and women on the council voted in favor
of an outdoor concert in their town.
COUNSEL-to advise ex: The parole officer counseled the convict before his exit.
ELICIT-to draw or bring out ex: The teacher elicited the correct response from the student.
ILLICIT-illegal ex: The Columbian drug lord was arrested for his illicit activities.
EMINENT-famous, respected ex: The eminent podiatrist won the Physician of the Year award.
IMMANENT-inherent or intrinsic ex: The meaning of the poem was immanent.
IMMINENT-ready to take place ex: The war is imminent.
ITS-of or belonging to it ex: The baby will scream as soon as it hears its mother.
IT'S-contraction for it is ex: It's a beautiful day in the neighborhood.
LEAD-noun, a type of metal ex: Is that pipe made of lead?
LED-verb, past tense of "to lead" ex: She led the campers on an over-night hike.
LIE-to lie down (a person or animal. hint: people can tell lies)
ex: I have a headache, so I'm going to lie down for a while.(also lying, lay, has/have lain--The dog has lain
in the shade all day; yesterday, the dog lay there for twelve hours).
LAY-to lay an object down.
ex: "Lay down that shotgun, Pappy!" The sheriff demanded of the crazed moonshiner.
ex: The town lay at the foot of the mountain. (also laying, laid, has/have laid--At that point, Pappy laid
the shotgun on the ground).
LOSE--verb, to misplace or not win
ex: Mom glared at Mikey. "If you lose that new lunchbox, don't even think of coming home!"
LOOSE--adjective, to not be tight; verb (rarely used)--to release
ex: The burglar's pants were so loose that he was sure to lose the race with the cop chasing him.
ex: While awaiting trial, he was never set loose from jail because no one would post his bail.
PRACTICE!