Global Systems Notes

The Biosphere
The biosphere includes all parts of the Earth's surface and atmosphere where living things exist. It is the sum of all
ecosystems. The biosphere is where other spheres of the planet interact. The land (lithosphere) interacts with the
water (hydrosphere). The land and air (atmosphere) interact. Living things interact with the land, water and air. Part
of the interaction is the natural recycling of water and elements such as carbon and nitrogen. Natural recycling has
enabled natural ecosystems to be sustainable (self-renewing). Sustainable ecosystems are ecosystems that are diverse
and provide for the needs of the organisms that live there.

Spheres
Atmosphere-gases on the earth's surface
Hydrosphere-all of earth's water
Biosphere-all of the living things
Lithosphere-Upper crust of earth

Lithosphere (land)
Contains:
o all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust (surface)
o the semi-land underneath the crust
o the liquid land near the centre of the planet
The surface of the lithosphere is very uneven e.g. high mountain ranges, huge plains, flat areas and deep valleys along
the ocean floor.
The solid, semi-solid, and liquid land of the lithosphere form layers that are physically and chemically different
The outmost layer of the lithosphere consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen and silicon
Underneath the outmost layer a think, semi-solid mantle of oxygen, silicon, iron and magnesium
Below liquid outer core of nickel or iron
At the centre of Earth is a solid inner core of nickel and iron

Atmosphere (air)
Contains all the air in the Earth's system
It extends from less than 1 m below the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface
The upper portion of the atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, it
also absorbs and emits heat
When air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes, weather occurs
As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves around the plants. (simple as a breeze or as complex as a
tornado)
The atmosphere is made up of many layers that differ in chemical composition and temperature

Biosphere (living things)

Includes:
o Microorganisms
o Plants
o Animals
Within the biosphere, living things form ecological communities based on the physical surroundings of an area
(referred to as biomes)
Main types of biomes that exist within the biosphere
o Deserts
o Grasslands
o Tropical rainforests

Hydrosphere (water)
Contains all the solid, liquid and gaseous water of the planet
The hydrosphere extends from Earth's surface downward several kilometres into the lithosphere and upward about 12
kilometres into the atmosphere
A small portion of the water in the hydrosphere is fresh (non-salty). This water flows as precipitation from the
atmosphere down to Earth's surface, as rivers and streams along Earth's surface, and as groundwater beneath Earth's
surface.
Most of Earth's fresh water, however, is frozen.
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 97% of Earth's water is salty
The salty water collects in deep valleys along Earth's surface (known as oceans)
The differences in temperature cause water to change physical states:
o Extremely low temperatures like those found at the poles cause water to freeze into a solid such as a polar
icecap, a glacier, or an iceberg.
o Extremely high temperatures like those found at the equator cause water to evaporate into a gas.

Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle moves carbon between the living and non-living parts of ecosystems.
The carbon cycle is essential for life on Earth. Carbon is ground in all living things, and in their dead bodies and wastes.
It is part of the carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and DNA found in cells, tissues and organs. Carbon is also found
in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2).

Carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis when plants combine it with the hydrogen from water to form glucose.
Animals and other consumer organisms obtain the carbon they need from the food they eat. However, there is not an
endless supply of carbon. Carbon is recycled through the soil, through living things and the atmosphere in the carbon
cycle.

As part of this cycle, the process of photosynthesis in green plants incorporates carbon into living things. Respiration
releases carbon back into the atmosphere and hydrosphere as carbon dioxide, where it again becomes available for
photosynthesis. Organisms release carbon into the soil in wastes such as faeces, urines and fallen leaves. These wastes
are used as food by decomposer organisms. As the decomposer organisms respire, carbon is released into the
atmosphere, water and soil.

Fossils are the preserved remains of once-living organisms. Fossil fuels such as coal and oil contain the carbon of
plants and animals that died and were preserved millions of years ago. Burning coal and oil releases carbon that has
been unavailable to the carbon cycle for millions of years. Burning wood releases carbon stored for hundreds or
maybe even a thousand years.

Earth's largest and oldest long-term store of carbon is calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This chemical is found in limestone,
a sedimentary rock usually made from the shells of molluscs and other marine organisms.

Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle shows how important different groups of bacteria are in the recycling process. Sometimes the work
done by one group of bacteria is undone by another group.
The nitrogen cycle is an important natural cycle for living things, because nitrogen is an important element in proteins.
Air is 78% nitrogen, but most living things cannot use nitrogen when it is in the form of a gas. Plants use nitrogen
compounds from the soil. Animals are consumers that obtain their nitrogen by eating plants or other animals.

When an organism dies, bacteria in the soil cause nitrogen to be released into the soil as ammonia (NH3). A second,
different group of bacteria get their energy from ammonia. In the process they release water-soluble nitrates back into
the soil. Plants take up both the ammonia and the nitrates through their roots.

A third group of bacteria known as nitrogen-fixing bacteria absorb nitrogen from the air trapped in soil. Nitrogen-
fixing bacteria convert nitrogen into ammonia and then into nitrates.

The actions of a fourth group of bacteria, called denitrifying bacteria, are opposite to those of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Denitrifying bacteria obtain their energy from the nitrates and convert them back into gaseous nitrogen (N2). This is
then released back into the atmosphere.

Water Cycle
Water is one of the most precious resource on Earth and is an essential part of all living things.
The water on Earth is recycled continuously in the water cycle. Energy from the Sun causes water to evaporate from
moist surfaces such as oceans, soil, plants and animals. The largest amount of water vapour comes from the oceans
because they are the largest bodies of water on Earth.
The water cycle described the endless cycle of water evaporating from Earth's surface, condensing to form clouds,
falling as rain, and the run-off returning it to the oceans it originally came from.

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 Cycle Key Chemicals Forms Spheres influenced
"Water" H20 Gas, Liquid, Solid Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere, Biosphere
"Carbon" C02 , glucose Gas, Solids Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere, Biosphere
"Oxygen" C02 , 02 , H20 Solid, Liquid, Gas Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere, Biosphere
"Nitrogen" N2, N03, N02, proteins, NH3, NH4, Gas, Solid Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, Lithosphere, Biosphere

Rain and storms

During lightning storms, nitrates are produced in the atmosphere and dissolve. The falling rain adds these nutrients to
the soil.
During electrical storms, the energy of lightning breaks nitrogen molecules (N2) in the atmosphere into nitrogen
atoms. The nitrogen atoms combine with oxygen in the air, forming nitrogen oxides. These dissolve in rain to form
nitrates that enter the soil with the rain. The nitrates are then available for plants to use.

Leguminous plants
Plants that produce seeds in pods such as peas, beans, clover and wattles are known as legumes or leguminous plants.
They live in a symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria. Both the plant and the bacteria depend on each other
for survival. Rhizobium bacteria are a type of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The bacteria live in nodules in the roots of the
leguminous plant. Rhizobium bacteria take a nitrogen gas from air in the soil and manufactures nitrates. The nitrates
pass into the cells of the plant and the plant uses them to build proteins.

Fossil Fuels:
Carbon-Ancient Forests
Oil-Ancient Marine organisms
Natural Gas-Ancient Marine organisms
These fossil fuels takes 300 million years to produce.

What causes carbon dioxide:

Transport
Electricity
Heating
Cooking

Renewable-It will be replenished within a lifetime

Wind
Hydro
Wave
Tidal
Solar

Non-renewable
Coal
Oil
Gas
Nuclear

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Energy Pros Cons
Source
Coal Relatively inexpensive (low cost) Is non-renewable, there is a finite supply
Relatively low capital investment The largest contributor to global warming due to
Abundant supply greenhouse gases(CO2)
Continuous power, good utilisation. High load High cost of transporting coal to centralised
factor power plants
Substantial existing infrastructure-mature Coal ash is a hazard and a disposal problem
industry High levels of radiation at coal plants
Can be converted to a liquid or a gas, which Pollution, respiratory illnesses
burn cleaner
Most of our electricity
Lots of jobs
Oil Abundant in supply Emits carbon dioxide (greenhouse gases)
No new technology required Non-renewable
Moves vehicles faster and longer than any other Drilling can lead to spills-hazardous both to
energy source mankind and pollution
Easy to transport in liquid form Expensive
Substantial energy-one of the highest energy Disasters of oil drilling-works injured
densities
Easily produced and refined
Gas Delivery infrastructure already exists Non-renewable fuel, supply cannot be replaced
Burns quite efficiently for millennia
Can be used as an automotive fuel Emits carbon dioxide when burned
Burns cleaner than gasoline or diesel Explosive-dangerous
No waste or residue to deal with Concentrated sources require distance
Natural gas industry employs 1.2 million people transmission and transportation
Requires extensive pipelines to transport over
land; equipment
Significant environment risks associated with
fracking; eg. water pollution, leaks lead to gas in
water
Solar Renewable source of energy Expensive to set up the solar panels
Abundant in supply; the potential of solar Intermittent; access to sunlight is limited at
energy certain times
Sustainable-we can never over-consume Energy storage is expensive in batteries;
Environmentally Friendly-does not cause technology is expensive
pollution Associated with pollution, some manufacturing
Good availability; is available all over the world processes are associated with greenhouse gas
Reduces electricity costs emissions
Requires spacious areas, for higher power density
Solar cells effectiveness, air pollution could cause
problems

Hydro Renewable source of energy
Clean, does not cause pollution
Is a safe energy conversion compared to nuclear
energy and fossil fuels
The energy output can be regulated to adapt to
the consumption needs and storage capacity
Durability, dams can produce energy for
decades
Reliable, very little fluctuations in terms of the
electric power produced by the plants
Environmental impact, changing water levels and
flooding large areas-having a strong impact on
wildlife and the ecosystem
Displaced people, construction of a large dame
often requires that entire towns move out of the
area
Expensive, a very important initial investment
Accidents, past old dams often suffered breaches
which led to floods and deaths
Droughts, electricity generation and energy prices
are directly related to how much water is
available

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 Geothermal Environmentally friendly compared to gas or oil Electricity is still needed to operate heat pumps
furnaces Geothermal energy using wells requires an
Not a significant source of pollution incredible usage of water
Efficient Discharge into the Earth could include sulphur
A renewable source as long as the Earth exists dioxide and silica
No cost fluctuations determined by gas and oil Damage to underground loops can be difficult
prices and costly to repair
Not weather dependent Large scale geothermal power plants are
Technology behind geothermal energy will only dangerous to the Earths surface
continue to improve in efficiency
Wind Does not cause pollution Wind reliability, changes in weather
The potential of wind power is enormous, more Threat to wildlife, the edges of wind turbines can
energy produced actually be unsafe to natural life
Wind turbines are incredible space-efficient Noise and visual pollution
The operational costs associated with wind Expensive to set up the wind turbines
power are low Risks the safety of people, severe storms and high
Good domestic potential, extra savings for land winds can cause damage to the blades of wind
owners turbine
Renewable source of energy Effect on environment, needs open areas of land
meaning clearing of lands (cutting trees)
Tidal Renewable energy source Expensive to build
Environmentally friendly, does not emit any Locations are often remote
climate gases Barrages may restrict access to open water
Tidal currents are highly predictable, making it Can change tidal level of surrounding area
easier to construct the system Disrupts regular tidal cycles
Effective at low speeds Reduces kinetic energy in the ocean
High efficiency

Pollution
Water pollution
E.g. sewage, industrial waste, oil pesticides and fertilizers all pollute water.
Fertilizers and sewage can easily be washed into rivers, streams and lakes. The nutrients, phosphates and nitrates in
these substances cause eutrophication (consequence).
Eutrophication is the accumulation of nutrients in water, which causes excessive algal growth. This leads to a reduction
in oxygen levels and the death of aquatic life.

What is the order of stages in eutrophication?

1. Fertilizers and liquid nutrients wash into the water
2. Algae stars to grow rapidly, blocking out the light
3. Plants below the surfaced of the water die
4. Oxygen levels drop as microbes feed on dead plants
5. Fish and invertebrates die from the lack of oxygen

Land pollution
Land and oil can be polluted by two main types of substance:
Solid waste-such as plastic, metal, paper and other man-made substances
Chemical-such as herbicides and pesticides, crude oil and waste from industrial processes.
Land pollution often leads to water pollution, as chemicals are washed into rivers and lakes.
On average, each Australian household produces 450 kg of rubbish each year.

What are the options are there for disposing waste materials?
Landfill is the cheapest solution, but sites quickly becomes full and the waster contaminates the surround air, soil and
water.
Incinerating waster reduces volume, but often produces toxic chemicals.
Recycling materials allows them to be useful again, and reduces the need to use more raw materials.
Composting uses natural biological processes to decompose organic materials, but cannot be used to dispose of non-
biodegradable waster.

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 Air pollution
Human activity produces two main types of air pollutant:
Noxious gases-These include carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Particulates-These are tiny particles suspended in air (e.g. smoke), which are usually produced by the combustion of
fossil fuels.
Air pollution has been a major problem since the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th Century, and has been made
worse by humans' reliance on burning fossil fuels for energy.
Air pollution, global warming, acid rain, damage to the ozone layer and smog. Each of these has serious implications
for the environment and human health.

Global warming and greenhouse gases

One of the greatest threats caused by air pollution is global warming. Global warming is caused by a build-up of
greenhouse gases, which leads to an increase in the Earth's temperature
A greenhouse gas is an atmospheric gas that absorbs infrared light.
Key greenhouse gases include:
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Water vapour (H20)
Nitrous oxide (N20)

Natural influences on climate

Weather and climate
Weather described the states of the atmosphere in terms of temperature, wind, cloud cover and precipitation.
Weather is created by interactions between the hydrosphere (all the water on Earth), the lithosphere (Earth's land
masses) and the atmosphere (the layers of gases surrounding the plant).

Climate is the long-term averages of weather conditions. Average statistics using 30 years of weather records and
including extreme events are used to describe the climate of an area. To understand climate change, you first have to
understand what influences climate and the particular factors that affect Australia's climate.

Influences on climate
The Sun is the ultimate source of energy for most living things, and it keeps the plant warm enough to support life.
Energy from the Sun is a major influence on climate. However, other factors also influence the world's climate.

Surface of the Earth

Characteristics of the Earth's surface determine how much of the energy from the Sun is reflected back into space.
Clouds and the ice of the Arctic and Antarctic reflect most of the energy coming in front the Sun. Ice reflects about
84% compared with the dark green forests, which reflect 14%. If all the Earth was covered in forests, a lot more of the
Sun's energy would be absorbed and the Earth would be warmer than it is today.

Gases in the atmosphere

The energy that comes from the Sun is short-wave radiation. It is absorbed by clouds and the Earth's surface and
radiated back out into space as long-wave radiation (heat). Nitrogen and oxygen are the gases that make up most of
Earth's atmosphere, and they have no effect on the radiation coming in from the Sun or on the radiation going back
out into space. However, the same is not true for a number of other gases in the atmosphere.

Water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone all allow the incoming short-wave solar radiation to
pass through. However, they absorb the out-going long-wave radiation (heat). They re-emit the heat in all directions.
Some is radiated back to the Earth's surface. These gases have the effect of trapping heat close to the Earth's surface,
keeping it warmer than it would be if these gases were not present. These gases are known as greenhouse gases and
the effect they have on warming the Earth is known as the greenhouse effect. Greenhouses (or glasshouses) heat up
because the short-wave solar radiation can pass through glass into the greenhouse, where it is absorbed by the air, soil
and objects in the greenhouse.

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 The heat that is re-radiated is long-wave radiation and cannot pass through glass. It causes the temperature inside to
increase. Without the protection of the atmosphere, the days would be hotter and the nights colder. Without the
greenhouse effect, the Earth's average temperature would be around -18C rather than 15C. This would affect weather
conditions, plant growth and animal survival.

Orientation of the Earth

The Earth is roughly spherical. It orbits the Sun and rotates on its own tilted axis. The tilt of the axis and the Earth's
movement around the Sun cause the seasons. If the tilt of the Earth was different, the characteristics of the seasons
would also be different.

As the Earth rotates, the atmosphere and the waters of the oceans are dragged around with it. This movement
influences the circulation of the air and water on a global scale. However, the major factor influencing circulation of
water in the oceans in temperature.

Differences in the temperature Of the oceans in different parts of the world have a major impact on Australia's
climate.

Ocean currents
Ocean currents are continuous movements of ocean water. They can flow for great distances and cause water to
circulate continuously around the whole of the Earth. This circulation plays an important part in determining the
climate of many of the Earth's regions.

Currents can be at the surface or deep in the ocean. The main causes of currents are:
wind
temperature
variations in salinity (salt levels)
the rotation of the Earth on its own axis
the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon

Major surface currents

The major surface currents of Earth are caused by wind. Wind pushes the surface water along until it reaches land.
Then the water has to flow left or right or sometimes downwards. In the major ocean basins, the currents form the
circular patterns. These circular patterns, called gyres, flow in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and
anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. The circular pattern of gyres is caused by the rotation of the
Earth.

Deep currents
Deep currents begin at the poles, where extremely cold water is found. They flow through the ocean, carrying very
cold water along the bottom.

Currents and climate

Surface currents and deeper currents interact. Water cycles from deep currents to surface currents, and then back to
the deep again, forming the thermohaline circulation (thermo means temperature, haline means salt). The
thermohaline circulation is very slow, taking around 1600years to complete just one circuit! Scientists commonly call
the thermohaline circulation the global conveyor belt.

The global conveyor belt is important because it distributes heat around the globe. By distributing heat, the global
conveyor belt affects the climates of the Earth.

The Gulf Stream

The Gulf Stream is part of the global conveyor belt. It is a current that makes western Europe much warmer in winter
than any other region at the same latitude. For example, northern United Kingdom and Norway are much warmer
than Greenland and Canada. The Gulf Stream flows from the warm Caribbean Sea carrying heat across the North
Atlantic Ocean towards Europe. The Gulf Stream feeds into the North Atlantic Drift and the Norwegian currents and
into the Labrador and Greenland seas. Very cold Arctic winds then cool the water of the Gulf Stream, increasing its
density. The denser water sinks, pushing away water below it and creating a deep current. This cold deep current
flows all the way south to Antarctica.

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 Australia's climate
Australia is a land of contrastsQueensland can be in drought while Victoria is experiencing floods. The causes of
these extremes of weather are two climate phenomena:
the Southern Oscillation, which gives rise to the El Nino and La Nina effects
the Indian Ocean Dipole.
As climatologists and meteorologist gain greater understanding of these patterns, they can use them to make more
accurate predictions of what to expect in particular seasons.

Southern Oscillation
The Southern Oscillation is a sequence of changes to the way the atmosphere and water circulate across the Pacific
Ocean and Indonesian islands. In most years, a cold current flows northwards along the coast of South America, then
westwards along the equator, where it is warmed by the Sun. The result is a temperature difference of 30C to 80C
between the cooler eastern Pacific and the warmer western Pacific.

The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is a measure of the atmospheric and ocean conditions across the Pacific Ocean. It
is calculated using the difference in air pressure between Tahiti and Darwin. Under 'normal' conditions, the SOI is close
to zero (Figure 6.2.10). During El Nino events, the SOI is strongly negative. During La Nina, the SOI is strongly positive.

El Nino is the best known extreme of the Southern oscillation and is probably one of the most important influences on
the climate in Australia, particularly in Queensland and much of New South Wales. El Nino years there may be little or
no difference in temperature between the western and eastern Pacific. With little temperature difference, there is
also little air pressure difference. The trade winds that normally blow strongly from South America weaken and the
winds carrying a lot of moisture do not reach Australia. Cool air descends over Australia bringing little rainfall.

The opposite of El Nino is La Nina. As Figure 6.2.12 shows, during a La Nina, the central and eastern Pacific Ocean
becomes much cooler than normal. The trade winds blow more strongly than usual and Australia experiences more
cloud and wetter-than-normal conditions, especially in the north. La Nina events usually last for more than one year.

Indian Ocean Dipole

Weather in the southern parts of Australia is influenced by the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). The IOD is a cycle of change
in the water temperature between the eastern and western areas of the Indian Ocean, near the equator. The change
is not a regular one. It does not happen every year or at the same time of year. The cool sea temperatures in the
Indian
Ocean near Australia leads to poor rainfall in central and southern Australia. In this case, the IOD is positive, meaning
temperatures are higher in the western Indian Ocean and lower in the east near Australia.

An IOD event usually starts in May or June and peaks between August and October. The amount of difference between
the sea temperatures and how long this difference exists determines the length of droughts in southern Australia.

Changing climate
There is evidence that Australia's climate has been very different in the past from the climate experienced today. More
than 62 million years ago, the land mass that became Australia still joined to Gondwana. Then Australia experienced a
warmer and wetter climate. There have been many cycles of cooling and warming in the Earth's history About 2.5
million years ago, an ice sheet covered Tasmania and southern Australia. Cycles of warming and cooling followed.
Then about 20000 years ago, the current period of warming began.

As an ice age approaches, the ice caps at the north and south poles expand and the amount of liquid water on the
Earth decreases. Sea levels fall, exposing additional land on the coasts. There were land bridges during the last ice age.
At that time it would have been possible to walk from mainland Australia to Tasmania and the island of New Guinea.

Global warming
Interglacial are periods between glaciationsthey are periods of global warming. Warming means an increase in
average world temperature. During interglacial, ice caps melt and this causes the sea level to rise and coastal lands to
flood. Evidence for the rise and fall of sea level can be seen in the patterns of sediments and fossils in coastal rocks.
Reasons for the past warming and cooling of Earth are not understood completely. Therefore, it is challenging to fully
assess the contribution that human actions are making to the present period of global warming. Global warming
started 20,000 years ago when humans were just about to emerge from the Stone Age.

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 Evidence for climate change
Evidence for past changes in climate has come from a variety
Of sources, which are described below.

Glaciers
Glaciers are indicators of climate change, advancing when the climate cools and retreating when the climate warms.
As glaciers move, they grind against the rocks on the sides and floor of the valley through which they flow. The rocks
on the side of the valley are deeply scored by broken rocks being dragged along the sides and base of the glacier.
When the glacier retreats, the scoring of the rocks becomes visible. The pile of grey rock at the front of the glacier is a
moraine. This is the debris the glacier was carrying and has left behind as the glacier retreated.

Ice cores
On some glaciers and ice sheets, sufficient snow falls each year to form recognizable annual layers. Scientists take
cores, from ice sheets in places such as Antarctica. By analyzing the physical and chemical properties of ice cores, they
gain information about temperatures and the composition of the air from hundreds of thousands of years in the past.
These data show links between temperature and variations in the global sea level. They also reveal that the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has varied in the past.

In early 2010, scientists studying Antarctic ice cores discovered a strong link between the amount of snow that falls in
eastern Antarctica and drought in south-western Western Australia. Ice cores reveal that in the last 3040 years,
eastern Antarctica has experienced higher than average snowfalls. During this time,
winter rainfall in south-west Western Australia has decreased by 15%.

The reduced rainfall is thought to be caused by climate change modifying the path followed by the Antarctic
Circumpolar Current. This current circulates round Antarctica and usually sends moist warm air up to Western
Australia. A change in the pattern is causing the warm moist air to be directed to Antarctica where snowfall is the
result. Cold, dry air directed towards Australia results in reduced rainfall.

Pollen analysis
Pollen decays very slowly and often becomes fossilized. Fossil pollen indicates the species growing in the area when
the sediments that created the fossils were laid down. Changes in the types of pollen found indicate changes in
vegetation and climate.

Sea level change

The worldwide distribution of sedimentary rocks and the types of fossils found in them are indicators of changes in sea
level in the past. For example, sedimentary rocks in central Australia contain fossils of sea creatures.

Is the Earth Warming?

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
conducted a comprehensive review of the evidence
for climate change. In 2007, the IPCC reported:
increases in global average air and ocean temperatures
widespread melting of snow and ice
rising global average sea level

The enhanced greenhouse effect

Many scientists believe that human activities are having a significant effect on the rate and intensity of global
warming, and that this is influencing climate change. However, measurement of climate variables on a worldwide scale
has been occurring for little more than a century. Many of the trends that drive climate change occur over periods
much longer than thishundreds of thousands of years. Therefore it is difficult to identify the exact effect of changes
caused by
humans.

The IPCC report suggested that global warming is partly due to natural processes but is also caused by the enhanced
greenhouse effect. The enhanced greenhouse effect is an increase in the natural greenhouse effect caused by human
activity. The major cause of the enhanced greenhouse effect is an increase in carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
oxide concentrations in the atmosphere.

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Scientists have created computer models to try to forecast the effects of global warming on Earth's climate. Not all the
computer models agree in specific details. However, there is agreement that if greenhouse gases continue to be
produced at the same rate as in the year 2000, then there will be a 0. IOC increase in temperature per decade. What
actually happens will depend on the actual carbon dioxide emissions that occur. Australia's emissions already exceed
the 2000 levels.

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Of all the carbon dioxide produced on Earth, 95% would be emitted whether humans were present or not. The largest
source is natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands. However, the carbon dioxide produced by natural
means is balanced by natural carbon sinksthese are places and events that remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.

The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased from 280 parts per million (ppm) before the
Industrial Revolution to 391 ppm in 2010. Compare this with an increase of only 20 ppm in the 8000 years before
industrialization.

Coal and gas are both major carbon sinks. Since the Industrial Revolution, humans have been extracting and burning
coal and gas as a primary energy source, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

In Australia most of the energy used in homes and by industry is produced by coal-fired power stations.

India and China produce only a small amount of carbon dioxide per person when compared with Australia. However,
when the population of these countries is taken into account, the picture is different.

Methane
Methane (CH4) is able to trap more than 20 times the heat of carbon dioxide. It is formed from the breakdown of
organic matter. Methane is produced in the stomachs of cows and sheep as bacteria digest the cellulose in the grass
the animals eat. Rice paddies, garbage tips, coal mines and natural gas fields also release methane. The concentration
of methane in the atmosphere in 2010 was 18.5 ppm, which is more than double the level before the Industrial
Revolution.

On Earth, there are areas near the poles where the temperature in layers of soil or rock beneath the surface never
rises above freezing point. These layers are known as permafrost. Vast areas of the Arctic are boggy wetlands of
permafrost where the remains of plants and animals decompose, producing methane. Permafrost traps the methane
(Figure 6.3.8). However, rising temperatures in the Arctic causes the boggy soils to melt and release the trapped
methane. Estimates suggest that Arctic soils store billions of tonnes of methane.

Increased methane emissions may cause the temperature to rise further, melting more ice and releasing more
methane in a process known as positive feedback.

Nitrous oxide
Nitrous oxide (N O) is capable of trapping 300 times more heat than carbon dioxide. Its concentration in the
atmosphere in 2010 was 3.19 ppmthis is about 18% higher than before the Industrial Revolution. Nitrous oxide is
produced in car exhausts and through many industrial processes, as well as the burning of forests and the use of
nitrogenous fertilizers.

Loss of ice
During winter, the amount of ice in the Antarctic doubles to cover an area of about 19 million square kilometers. That
is an area about three times the size of Australia. Scientists are currently gathering information that seems to suggest
that the extent and thickness of the ice has an effect on climate.
The areas of the globe covered in ice reflect more of the Sun's rays and have a cooling effect on Earth. Any reduction in
the area of Antarctic ice would reduce this cooling effect.

When it covers the ocean water, ice acts as a blanket. The amount of heat that moves from the ocean to the
atmosphere is reduced. Less ice means that more heat will be added to the atmosphere.

Ice is fresh water. As salt water freezes, the salt remains in the ocean. The salinity increases and therefore the density
of the water also increases. The dense water sinks, moving into the deep currents that circle the Earth.

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The Antarctic Ocean is Earth's major source of the cold dense water that is the driving force for the global conveyor
belt. Changes to the amount of Antarctic ice will cause changes in the amount of cold dense water entering the global
conveyor belt. This in turn could cause changes in the currents and the global climate.

Carbon dioxide absorption

Water at the surface of the oceans absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. As the cold dense water of the
Antarctic Ocean sinks, the carbon dioxide is carried with it. This has the effect of pumping carbon dioxide out of the
atmosphere. Without this process, any build-up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would be faster.

Shrinking Antarctica
Scientists are carrying out research to answer the question of whether or not the Antarctic ice is melting. Satellites are
used to measure the total mass of ice on The results indicate that Antarctica is losing ice and that the rate of loss is
increasing.

Different things are happening in different parts of the continent of Antarctica. Under the ice of east Antarctica is a
land mass about the size of Australia. In this part of the continent, there is a little loss of ice at the edges and an
accumulation of snow in the interior. Therefore, there is not much change.

West Antarctica is more like a series of islands so a lot of the ice is sitting in water. Here the sea ice surrounding the
islands is retreating. Loss of sea ice allows the glaciers to flow more rapidly, sending large amounts of ice into the
ocean.

In February 2010, an iceberg 78 km long and 39 km wide broke off the tongue of the Mertz Glacier in East Antarctica.
The tongue of the glacier was hit by an iceberg known as '139B' which is 97 kilometers long. Some scientists are
concerned that this event may affect wildlife in the area.

Ozone
Ozone (O3) occurs naturally in the atmosphere, mostly in the stratosphere. It is vitally important to life on Earth
because it absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted by the Sun. Too much exposure to UV radiation can cause skin
cancers and eye disease.

Ozone is formed when UV light strikes an oxygen molecule (O2) and splits it into individual atoms, which then combine
with O2 molecules to form O3 molecules.

The concentration of ozone in the atmosphere varies throughout the year and around the world. Measurements over
Antarctica show that the values are lowest during September to October, when daylight returns after the long dark
winter. At this time chlorine is most effective at breaking down ozone molecules. In November, prevailing winds carry
ozone-rich air from other regions and repair the hole. But lower ozone level still remain over Australia and New
Zealand.

An increase in the rate of ozone destruction was linked to the release into the atmosphere of manufactured
compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons. CFCs are very stable compounds that scientists now know
react with UV radiation to release chlorine, which destroys ozone. Halons were developed to fight fire.

Predictions
Many different computer models of climate change have been created. They produce different outcomes. However,
they agree that not all parts of the world will be affected in the same way. The models predict that the oceans will not
warm as much as land. The greatest increase in temperature will be in the northern parts of the northern hemisphere.
Areas near the Antarctic and in the far north of the Atlantic Ocean are predicted to have the smallest temperature
increase.

The area of land covered in snow will decrease and the amount of sea ice at both poles will be reduced. Satellite data
have shown that the extent of Arctic sea ice has decreased by 2.7% each decade since 1978.

The number of extreme weather events such as heatwaves and tropical cyclones will increase.
Precipitation will increase towards the poles, but in areas such as the Mediterranean, parts of Queensland Western
Australia the rainfall will decrease.

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 Who will survive?
The history of the Earth reveals that climate change in the past has caused many species and entire ecosystems to
become extinct. About 14 700 years ago, Earth's temperature rose by IOOC. At that time, many of the mega-mammals
of North America such as mammoths, mastodons and giant sloths began to disappear. There is debate about whether
climate alone caused those extinctions or whether hunting by early humans was a contributing factor.

Around 56 million years ago many large mammals disappeared due to a 7.20C rise in temperature caused by a natural
release of methane from marine sediments. Humans were not around at this time.

Not all plants and animals die out when the temperature changes. When the climate warms, species move towards
the poles if they are able to. During a period of cooling, they move towards the equator.

Urban development and clearing und for agriculture have destroyed some natural ecosystems and divided others into
small fragments. This makes more difficult for organisms to move awvay from that are no longer suitable.

Climate change and the: destruction of ecosystems by human activity has led to a decrease in biodiversity. Biodiversity
is the variety of ecosystems in the biosphere, the variety of species within those ecosystems and the genetic variation
within those species.

Australia is very biodiverse. It is one of 17 countries that together contain more than 70% of all species found on Earth.
Many species found here are unique to Australia. About 85% of Australia's terrestrial mammals, 91% of flowering
plants, and 90% of reptiles and frogs are found nowhere else in the world. More than 50% of the world's marsupial
species occur only in Australia.

Great Barrier Reef

Corals are very sensitive to small changes in temperature. An increase in temperature of only 11.50C above the
summer average maximum can cause severe stress to the coral.
The health of coral reefs depends on the symbiotic relationship between the coral and unicellular, photosynthetic
protists that live within their cells. As well as providing essential nutrition, these protozoans give corals their distinctive
colour.

When the coral is stressed, it expels the protists. The coral becomes lighter in colourit is bleached. Once the
bleaching has begun, it does not necessarily stop once the stress has reduced. Some corals take months to recover
from a bleaching episode. Other corals never recover.

Bleached corals suffer from a lack of the nutrients that are normally provided by the protists. The corals can no longer
compete with faster growing algae. The corals die and the reef is overtaken by algal growth.

Explain how the greenhouse effect works and distinguish between this and the "enhanced greenhouse
effect"
Naturally, low wave radiation enters the atmosphere, greenhouse gases allows this radiation to enter the atmosphere
but when it bounces back as long wave radiation (heat) into the space. They trap some of this heat in the atmosphere
of the Earth. However, due to human activity, we are releasing more of these greenhouse gases that further trap heat
in the atmosphere, which mean there is too much greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, this is called enhanced
greenhouse effect

Increasing global temperatures

If the plant really is warming up then we should see:
Atmosphere
Gets hotter (more greenhouse gases)
Changing humidity
More frequent heat waves
More extreme weather (in higher temperature, there is higher pressure which creates weather)

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 Hydrosphere:
Sea level rise (melting land ice)
Melting glaciers/snow/ice caps
Sea temperature warms up
Reducing salinity

Lithosphere:
Coastal erosion
Erosion of landforms quickens (causes more rivers)

Biosphere:
Habitat destruction
Extinction
Food web shifts
Adapt or immigration of species
Seasonal creep

Possible alternative reasons to increasing temperatures

1. Greater solar activity
2. Earth is getting closer to the Sun, Earth tilting more towards Sun (Malenbouich cycle)
3. Volcanic activity, releasing huge volumes of CO2
4. Human greenhouse gas emissions

Australias Climate and El Nio

1. In northern Australia, what is winter usually like?
Warm

2. A typical summer satellite picture shows what sort of conditions in the south of Australia? With what type of
pressure systems?
Cold

3. In winter, what sort of fronts go through southern Australia?

Cold

4. Name three things that affect the long term climate around the world
Global Warming
Solar Radiation
Volcanoes

5. El Nio happens how often on average?

3-7 years

6. What is El Nio?
Is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific

7. What are some of the effects in Australia of El Nio?

Droughts
Reduced rainfall
Warmer temperatures

8. What happens in North and South America?

Thunderstorms
Increased rainfall

9. How long have El Nio been around for?

Over 124,000 years

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10. How was El Nio named?
El Nino was first noticed by a fisherman off the west coast of South America, in which he named it "the boy" in Spanish
after Jesus as it was during the Christmas time period.

11. What happens to the winds, clouds and rainfall during El Nio?
Strong winds
Decreased cloud cover that results in warmer than average daytime temperatures
Lower rainfall

12. What is the Southern Oscillation index? What does a large negative number mean?
Gives an indication of the development and intensity of El Nino and La Nina events in the Pacific Ocean. The large
negative number means abnormally warm ocean waters across the eastern tropical Pacific typical of El Nino episodes.

13. Is Global Warming linked to El Nio?

Yes, El Nino causes the eastern Pacific to get warmer. But as the ocean temperature is linked to the wind currents, this
causes the winds to grow weaker still and so the ocean grows warms, meaning the El Nino grows.

14. What is a La Nia event?

Opposite of El Nino - cold + wet-represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures across the east-central
Equatorial Pacific

Effects on Weather and Climate

Human effects on weather and climate
Greenhouse gas emissions
Deforestation
Land Use changes
Urban heat effect

Natural effects on weather and climate

Solar radiation
Volcanoes
Bushfires
ENSO/NAO
o El Nino-"the boy"
o La Nina-"the girl"

Pracs
1. Modelling the greenhouse effect
How does it reflect the problem?
To show that when greenhouse gases are trapped inside, the temperature increases than the open air

How accurately does it represent what you were trying to model?

It's an accurate representation, because it shows how heat can get trapped in a system

How could it be improved?

Repetition, experiment in different environments, increase the concentration of greenhouse gases

What do these experiments mean for future research into the effects of climate change?
For ways to figure out how to reduce the greenhouse effect, does it occur and why

Why is it important we produce models for natural systems?

To observe the constant changes to our climate

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2. The effects of Sea Ice vs Land Ice on Sea Levels
How does it reflect the problem?
Sea ice doesn't change the water level and Land ice does change the water level when they melt

How accurately does it represent what you were trying to model?

It's an accurate representation

How could it be improved?

Repetition of experiment

What do these experiments mean for future research into the effects of climate change?

Why is it important we produce models for natural systems?

To monitor the rising sea levels in our hydrosphere

3. The effect of glacial meltwater on ocean currents and circulation

How does it reflect the problem?
The effects of deep currents, as hot water circulates above the cold water that circulates at the bottom, we can
visualise how water moves in a current

How accurately does it represent what you were trying to model?

Its an inaccurate representation

How could it be improved?

Repetition of experiment

What do these experiments mean for future research into the effects of climate change?
How much does the current change, to learn how to sustain the environment during the changing water currents.

Why is it important we produce models for natural systems?

It displays predictions in currents

Definitions
Carbon cycle: the process by which carbon is recycled through the soil, water, living things and the atmosphere
Denitrifying bacteria: bacteria that convert nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen, which is then released back into the
atmosphere
Fossil fuels: fuels that contain the carbon of plants and animals that died and were preserved millions of years ago
Fossils: the preserved remains of once-living organisms
Leguminous plants: plants that can take nitrogen from the air and fix it in their tissues
Nitrogen cycle: bacteria that absorb nitrogen from the air and convert it into ammonia and then into nitrates
Sustainable ecosystems: ecosystems that are diverse and provide for the needs of the organisms that live there
Greenhouse gases: gases that trap heat close to the Earth's surface
Climate change: change to the averages of aspects of climate that persist for decades or longer
Global warming: a time when the average world temperature is increasing
Greenhouse effect: the warming of Earth caused by greenhouse gases
Enhanced greenhouse effect: an increase in the natural greenhouse effect caused by human activity

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