ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal of Thermal Biology 31 (2006) 442452

www.elsevier.com/locate/jtherbio

Predicting the effect of relative humidity on skin temperature

and skin wettedness
Ibrahim Atmaca, Abdulvahap Yigit
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Uludag University, TR-16059, Bursa, Turkey
Received 9 December 2005; accepted 28 March 2006

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to investigate the relative humidity effects on skin temperature and skin wettedness for different
operative temperatures. For this aim, thermal interactions between human body and environment are simulated. In this simulation,
Gagge 2-node model is used but includes some signicant modications. The simulation is to apply the Gagge 2-node model to individual
segments rather than to whole body. Also, the results of the simulation are compared with present measurements, and available
experimental data and simulated results in the literature in order to present reliability of the 16 segments-Gagge 2-node model. It is
determined that the simulation results are in good agreement with measured results obtained from present experiments, and simulated
results and experimental data in the literature.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Humidity; Skin temperature; Skin wettedness; Simulation; Experiment

1. Introduction
When examining humidity conditions in the indoor
environment, it is necessary to consider human comfort
and health. Humidity may be a cause of discomfort due to
uncomfortably high level of skin wettedness or inhalation
of humid and warm air. High indoor air humidity causes
also condensation in the building structure or in ducts,
resulting in growth of fungi or other micro organisms
(Toftum and Fanger, 1999; Toftum et al., 1998a, b;
Berglund, 1998).
Thermal comfort is dened as that condition of mind in
which satisfaction is expressed with the thermal environ-
ment (ASHRAE, 1993; ASHRAE Standard 55, 2004).
Person generally feels most comfortable when the environ-
ment is maintained at conditions where the body can easily
maintain a thermal balance with the surroundings. In
warmer conditions or with increased activity, the thermo-
regulatory control processes (vasomotor regulation and
sweating) occur in order to dissipate the metabolic heat
Corresponding author. Fax: +90 224 4428021.
E-mail address: atmaca@uludag.edu.tr (I. Atmaca).
generated and maintain the heat balance between the body
and its surrounding. In hot conditions, the most important
thermoregulatory control process is active perspiration. If
the relative humidity is high, the latent heat dissipation
ability of the body reduces depending on the increase in
vapor pressure and the sweat rate increases over the body.
In these cases, human feels discomfort due to increase in
skin temperature and residual skin wettedness. Skin
temperature affects thermal comfort. The deviations of
skin temperature from its respective neutral set point occur
from not maintaining thermal balance. Hence, the thermo-
regulatory control processes occur in order to maintain
thermal balance.
The rate of water loss depends on vapor pressure
differences between the body and its surrounding air.
According to study of Berglund (1998), a person resting in
24 1C, 50% relative humidity environment while wearing
mens summer casual (0.6 clo) losses about 37 mL/s of
water to the environment depending on respiratory and
water diffusing through dry non-sweating skin. In terms of
energy, these evaporative heat losses represent 21 W or
20% of the resting persons total heat loss of 105 W.
Remaining heat is dissipated by other mechanisms.

0306-4565/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2006.03.003
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I. Atmaca, A. Yigit / Journal of Thermal Biology 31 (2006) 442452
Nomenclature
A surface area, m2
AD DuBois surface area, m2
C convective heat transfer, W/m2
Cres sensible heat loss due to respiration, W/m2
cp,b constant pressure specic heat of body tissue,
kJ/kg K
cp,bl constant pressure specic heat of blood,
kJ/kg K
[CSIG]cr cold signal from the core, dimensionless
[CSIG]sk cold signal from the skin, dimensionless
(C+R)t total sensible heat transfer, W/m2
Emax maximum possible evaporative heat loss,
W/m2
Eres evaporative heat loss due to respiration, W/m2
Ersw evaporative heat loss due to regulatory
sweating, W/m2
Esk total evaporative heat loss from skin, W/m2
h total sensible heat transfer coefcient, W/m2 K
hc convection heat transfer coefcient, W/m2 K
hfg heat of vaporization of water, kJ/kg
hr radiation heat transfer coefcient, W/m2 K
i body segment number, dimensionless
j air or fabric layers number, dimensionless
k thermal conductivity of the air, mm W/m21C
K effective conductance between core and skin,
W/m2 K
LR Lewis ratio, 1C/kPa
M metabolic heat production, W/m2
m body mass, kg
mbl blood circulation between core and skin,
kg/m2 s
mrsw rate of regulatory sweat generation, kg/m2 s
nl number of layers covering segment, dimension-
less
Pa water vapor pressure in ambient air, kPa
Psk,s water vapor pressure saturated at skin tem-
perature, kPa
Decreasing the relative humidity of the 24 1C environment
from 50% to 20% increases the total evaporation energy
loss to 26 W or to 25% of the persons total 105 W energy
loss. This additional evaporation decreases the required dry
heat transfer for energy balance to 79 W. It results in a
slight lowering of the skins temperature by 0.3 1C. And as
a result, the person feels a little cooler. To maintain the
same skin temperature and feeling of warmth with the
5020% humidity decrease, the temperature would need
the increase about 1 1C. In warmer conditions or with
increased activity, active perspiration is required for
thermal balance. In these cases, the effect of humidity is
greater. If the person walks continuously, the person
generates 315 W. The sensible heat losses would change a
little. Active perspiration that was absent in the resting case
443
Psk,mn water vapor pressure saturated at mean skin
temperature, kPa
Qcr,sk heat ow from core to skin, W/m2
R radiative heat transfer, W/m2
r radius, m
Ra thermal resistance of outer air layer, m2 1C/W
Ral thermal resistance of air layer, m2 1C/W
Rcl thermal resistance of clothing ensemble,
m2 1C/W
Re,a evaporative resistance of outer air layer,
m2 kPa/W
Re,al evaporative resistance of air layer, m2 kPa/W
Re,cl evaporative resistance of clothing ensemble,
m2 kPa/W
Re,f evaporative resistance of fabrics, m2 kPa/W
Re,t total evaporative resistance, m2 kPa/W
Rf thermal resistance of fabrics, m2 1C/W
Rt total thermal resistance, m2 1C/W
Scr heat storage in core compartment, W/m2
Ssk heat storage in skin compartment, W/m2
t air layer thickness, mm
ta ambient air temperature, 1C
tb average of the body temperature, 1C
tcr core temperature, 1C
to operative temperature, 1C
t*r mean radiant temperature, 1C
tsk skin temperature, 1C
tsk,mn mean skin temperature, 1C
w skin wettedness, dimensionless
W external work accomplished, W/m2
wrsw required to evaporate regulatory sweat, dimen-
sionless
wmn mean skin wettedness, dimensionless
[WSIG]b warm signal from the body, dimensionless
[WSIG]cr warm signal from the core, dimensionless
[WSIG]sk warm signal from the skin, dimensionless
a fraction of total body mass concentrated in skin
compartment, dimensionless
y time, s
would now be 252 mL/s and its evaporation would carry
away body heat at 161 W rate. In warmer conditions, the
evaporative heat losses are very important similar to
increased activity. In these cases, if the relative humidity
is high, sufcient latent heat losses are not maintained.
Hence, discomfort occurs depending on high skin tem-
perature and wettedness (Berglund, 1998).
The upper humidity limits are prescribed in standards
and guidelines for the indoor environment (ASHRAE
Standard 55, 2004). Several studies for investigating the
effect of relative humidity on thermal comfort were also
made by researchers. The model presented in this paper
enables to calculate the skin wettedness and skin tempera-
ture, but it is incapable of predicting the thermal comfort
or discomfort. Now that thermal comfort or discomfort are
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444 I. Atmaca, A. Yigit / Journal of Thermal Biology 31 (2006) 442452

not discussed in our paper, a short summary of previous and these values are evaluated in steady state condition.
important studies on the inuence of humidity on thermal Thermal comfort or discomfort is discussed in terms of
comfort is presented to show the effect of humidity on skin temperature and skin wettedness. The simulation
thermal comfort. For instance, the prediction of the results are also compared with present measurements and
percentage of persons dissatised due to humid skin as a available experimental data and simulated results in the
function of the relative humidity of the skin was presented literature, in order to validate present 16 segments-Gagge
by Toftum et al. (1998a) with the developed model. Toftum 2-node model. It seems that they are in good agreement.
and Fanger (1999) determined upper humidity limits for
the comfort zone with the same model given in Toftum 2. Simulation model
et al. (1998a) and compared the proposed limits with the
maximum permissible humidity level prescribed in existing In order to calculate local skin temperatures and
standards for the thermal indoor environment. In addition wettedness, the human body is divided into 16 sedentary
to these, Fountain et al. (1999) performed the climate segments in this computational model. The 16 body parts
chamber experiments to investigate thermal comfort at and their respective surface areas, weights, and neutral core
high humidities. The exposures ranged from 20 1C/60% and skin temperatures are listed in Table 1.
RH to 26 1C/90% RH with clothing levels of 0.5 and 0.9 clo To determine core and skin temperature together with
and three levels of metabolic activity: 1.2, 1.6 and 4 met. In skin wettedness for various thermal environments, 16
that study, clear differences in humidity response were not segments-Gagge 2-node model representing the body as
found for sedentary subjects, but for metabolic rates two concentric cylinders (core and skin) is used. The
1.6 met and above, it was indicated that no practical limit letter i (116) represents the segment number in the
on humidity will likely lower the percentage dissatised following equations and its respective body segment
below 25%. Differ from these studies, the prediction of the name can be seen from Table 1. In this model, a transient
percentage of persons dissatised due to the insufcient energy balance states that the rate of heat storage equals
respiratory cooling as a function of the actual evaporative the net rate of heat gain minus the heat loss and it can be
and convective of the respiratory tract was presented by expressed as,
Toftum et al. (1998b).
Scr i M
W
C res i E res i
Qcr;sk i, (1)
As similar to our study, the thermoregulation model of
the human body has been developed by researchers.
Tanabe et al. (2002) developed the 65-node thermoregula- Ssk i Qcr;sk i
Ci Ri E sk i. (2)
tion model based on the Stolwijk model. Also, Huizenga
et al. (2001) developed a model based on the Stolwijk In these equations, the heat loss by respiration
model which is capable of predicting human physiological (Cres+Eres) is supposed to occur only at core layer of the
response to transient, non-uniform thermal environments. chest segment. In addition, heat conduction between body
Stolwijks multi-node model is modied by considering the
sweat accumulation on the skin surface and is applied to
simulate the human physiological response by Yi et al. Table 1
(2004). But the relative humidity effects on skin wettedness The neutral core and skin temperatures, Dubois surface areas, and weights
of the body segments (Tanabe et al., 2002)
and skin temperature were not discussed in these studies.
In this study, thermal interactions between human body i Body Neutral skin Neutral core Dubois Weight
and environment are simulated to predict relative humidity segments temperature temperature surface area (kg)
effects on skin temperature and skin wettedness. This (1C) (1C) (m2)
simulation is based on Gagge 2-node model (Gagge et al., 1 Left foot 33.9 35.1 0.056 0.480
1971, 1986; ASHRAE, 1993) but includes some signicant 2 Right foot 33.9 35.1 0.056 0.480
modications over the Gagge 2-node model. The simula- 3 Left leg 33.4 35.6 0.112 3.343
tion is to apply the Gagge 2-node model to individual body 4 Right leg 33.4 35.6 0.112 3.343
5 Left thigh 33.8 35.8 0.209 7.013
segments rather than to whole body. The human body is
6 Right thigh 33.8 35.8 0.209 7.013
described by 16 cylindrical segments representing the head, 7 Pelvis 33.4 36.3 0.221 17.57
hands, arms, and etc. Each of these segments consists of 8 Head 35.6 36.9 0.140 4.020
two body layers (core and skin) and a clothing layer. 9 Left hand 35.2 35.4 0.050 0.335
Required data for each body segments such as neutral 10 Right hand 35.2 35.4 0.050 0.335
11 Left arm 34.6 35.5 0.063 1.373
temperatures of core and skin, surface areas, and weights
12 Right arm 34.6 35.5 0.063 1.373
are taken from the existing literature. Using this simula- 13 Left shoulder 33.4 35.8 0.096 2.163
tion, thermal and evaporative resistances of each body 14 Right 33.4 35.8 0.096 2.163
segment are calculated and depending on these, time shoulder
dependent sensible and latent heat losses are also obtained. 15 Chest 33.6 36.5 0.175 12.40
16 Back 33.2 36.5 0.161 11.03
Time dependent core temperature, skin temperature, and
Whole body 1.87 74
skin wettedness are calculated with the simulation program
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parts and heat transfer between segments via the blood given by
ow are ignored because there are very small differences Ral 1=hr k=t, (8)
between the temperatures of body segments.
The rate of heat storage in the core and skin layers cause Ra 1=hc hr . (9)
the rate of change in internal energy and so, core and skin 2
temperatures change: The values of hr, k and t were taken as 4.9 W/m 1C,
24 mm W/m2 1C and 1.3 mm, respectively (McCullough
S cr i 1
ai micp;b dtcr i=dy=Ai, (3) et al., 1989). The unit of air layer thickness (t) is absolutely
taken into consideration as [mm] in the thermal resistance
S sk i ai micp;b dtsk i=dy=Ai. (4) of air layer (Ral) calculation due to the fact that the unit of
In these equations, specic heat of body, cp,b is 3.49 kJ/ the thermal conductivity of the air (k) is [mm W/m2 1C].
kg K (ASHRAE, 1993). Both convective and radiative heat Evaporative heat loss depending on skin wettedness and
losses from the surface of the each clothed body segment vapor pressure differences between the body and its
can be expressed as surrounding air, which is important for thermal comfort
evaluation especially in humidity environments, can be
Ci Ri tsk i
to =Rt i. (5)
expressed as
In this equation, operative temperature Topr can be dened
E sk i wiPsk;s i
Pa =Re;t i. (10)
as the average of the mean radiant and ambient air
temperatures, weighted by their respective heat transfer The evaporative resistance, which can be described
coefcients (ASHRAE, 1993): similar to the thermal resistance, are calculated as below
(Yigit, 1999):
to hr tr hc ta =hr hc . (6)
ri; 0
The thermal resistances (Rt) of each body segment are Re;t i Re;a i
calculated as below (Yigit, 1999): ri; nl
Xnl

ri; 0 ri; 0 ri; 0
Rt i Ra i Re;al i; j Re;f i; j : 11
ri; nl j1
ri; j
1 ri; j
Xnl

ri; 0 ri; 0 The evaporative resistance of fabrics (Re,f) values
Ral i; j Rf i; j : 7
ri; j
1 ri; j obtained from McCullough et al. (1989) are also presented
j1
in Table 2. The evaporative resistance of an air layer and
The heat ows from the body parts through alternating the evaporative resistance of the outer air layer are given by
clothing and air layers. Characteristics and thermal
Re;a 1=hc LR (12)
resistances (Rf) of fabrics obtained from McCullough
et al. (1989) are given in Table 2. In each air layer, there Re;al a1
exp
t=b. (13)
are parallel paths for dry heat ow, one by conduction 2
through the air and the other by radiation between The values of a and b are 0.0334 m kPa/W and 15 mm,
the fabric surfaces. Thus, the thermal resistance of an air respectively (McCullough et al., 1989).
layer and the thermal resistance of the outer air layer are Skin wettedness, which is effective especially in humidity
environment, can be calculated as below:
wi wrsw i 0:061
wrsw i
Table 2
Fabric characteristics and resistance values (McCullough et al., 1989)
E rsw i
0:06 0:94 . 14
E max i
Fabric Fabric Thickness Fabric Evaporative
code description (mm) insulation Rf resistance of fabric Emax value can be calculated with Eq. (10) for skin
(m2 1C/W) Re,f (m2 kPa/W) wettedness of 1 (upper theoretical limit). Heat loss by
evaporation is made up of two terms, Edif and Ersw. The
1 Jersey 1.270 0.036 0.0040
former accounts for the heat loss by water vapor diffusion
single knit,
100% through the skin and the latter accounts for the heat loss
cotton due to the regulatory sweat secretion from the skin.
2 Broadcloth, 0.533 0.025 0.0024 Evaporative heat loss by regulatory sweating is directly
plain weave proportional to the regulatory sweat generated:
65%
polyester, _ rsw ihfg ,
E rsw i m (15)
35% cotton
3 Poplin, 0.787 0.026 0.0041 _ rsw i 4:7  10
5 WSIGb i expWSIGsk i=10:7.
m
60%
cotton, (16)
40%
In Eq. (15), heat of vaporization of water, hfg is 2430 kJ/kg
polyester
(ASHRAE, 1993). Thermoregulatory control processes
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446 I. Atmaca, A. Yigit / Journal of Thermal Biology 31 (2006) 442452

including vasomotor regulation, sweating and shivering are 3. Validation

governed by temperature signals from the skin and core
depending on deviations from their respective neutral set In order to present reliability of the results estimated
points: from the 16 segments-Gagge 2-node model mentioned
( above, the simulation results have been compared with
0; tcr iptcr;n i;
WSIGcr i (17) measured results obtained from present experiments,
tcr i
tcr;n i; tcr i4tcr;n i; and the simulated results and measured data in the
( literature.
tcr;n i
tcr i; tcr iotcr;n i; In the experimental setup, the subjects were requested to
CSIGcr i (18) wear the same type clothing (approximately 0.5 clobriefs,
0; tcr iXtcr;n i;
short sleeve shirt, long trousers, and socks). It is thought
( that two subjects are sufcient, because the aim of the
0; tsk iptsk;n i;
WSIGsk i (19) experimental study is to present only the prediction ability
tsk i
tsk;n i tsk i4tsk;n i; of the model. Three skin temperature thermistors were
xed to the subjects back skin with medical adhesive tape.
( Since there is a large surface area on the back skin of the
tsk;n i
tsk i; tsk iotsk;n i; human body, skin temperature of the back was measured
CSIGsk i (20) from three points, as shown in Fig. 1. Only back skin
0; tsk iXtsk;n i;
temperature measurements were carried out now that the
( velocity values were measured only in the behind of the
0; tb iptb;n i;
WSIGb i (21) subjects.
tb i
tb;n i; tb i4tb;n i:
Based on the observation that individuals often enter the
The average temperature of the human body, blood ow air-conditioned room perspiring in summer conditions,
and fractional skin mass which are used for solution can be sweaty (wet skin) condition was examined in the experi-
written as: mental study. Firstly, for getting wet skin, two male
subjects rode bicycle 15 min at 30 1C, 70% RH in still air at
tb i aitsk i 1
aitcr i, (22) 2.6 met (150 W/m2) metabolic activity. The bicycle exercise
load is the same with walking on the level surface with
_ bl i 6:3 200WSIGcr i=
m the speed of 1.2 m/s and its metabolic rate is 2.6 met
1 0:5CSIGsk i=3600, 23 or 150 W/m2 according to ASHRAE Standard 55, 2004.
After then the bicycle exercise, the subjects moved into a
_ bl i 0:585.
ai 0:0418 0:475=3600m (24) climatic chamber. The experiments were carried out in a
climate chamber (3.7  2.4  1.9 m3) in which the air
Thermal exchange between the core and skin can be temperature, velocity and humidity could be controlled.
calculated as below:
_ bl itcr i
tsk i.
Qcr;sk i K cp;bl m (25)
In Eq. (25), effective conductance between the core and
skin, K is 5.28 W/m2 K and specic heat of blood, cp,bl is
4.187 kJ/kg K (ASHRAE, 1993). After then sensible and
latent heat losses have been calculated for each body
segment, equation below can be used in order to determine
the total thermal and evaporative resistance:
X
16
C Rt Ci Ri; (26)
i1

X
16
E sk;t E sk ; (27)
i1

tsk;mn
ta
Rt AD , (28)
C Rt

Psk;mn
Pa
Re;t AD wmn . (29)
E sk;t Fig. 1. Measuring sites for skin temperature in the human body.
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In the climate chamber, subjects exposed 120 min at 0.2 m/s

air velocity, 24 1C with various relative humidity, 40% and
80% RH. The subjects stayed in a seated position for
120 min in the climate chamber and the skin temperatures
of the subjects were measured from 0 to 120 min with
15 min intervals.
The air temperature and humidity in the climate
chamber were monitored continuously by a temperature
and humidity transmitter and registered manually by the
experimenter every 5 min. The transmitter measures
relative humidity by means of a sensor in the range
0100% with an accuracy of 72 RH in the 09.9% RH,
71 RH in the 1090% RH range and 72 RH in the
90.1100% RH range and temperature in the range
20 to
+70 1C with an accuracy of 70.5 1C in the
20 to

10.1 1C range and 70.4 1C in the
10 to +50 1C range
and 70.5 1C in the +50.1 to +70 1C range. The air
velocity was measured continuously in the back side of the
subjects and registered manually by the experimenter every
5 min. The range of air velocity sensor is 020 m/s with an
accuracy of 70.03 m/s in the 02 m/s range and 70.2 m/s
in the 220 m/s range. Equipments used in temperature,
relative humidity and air velocity measurements are shown
in Fig. 2. The local variation in air temperature, air velocity
and relative humidity inside the chamber was negligible.
Air and mean radiant temperature were almost equal.
Skin temperatures on the back from three points were
measured with ergo-physiological measurement device
which is shown in Fig. 3. The ergo-physiological measure-
ment device have been used in the medical and ergonomics
studies. The device occurs from four different apparatus, as
shown in Fig. 3. Main item of the device can be seen from
Fig. 3(a) and it has seven canals and 4 MB memory. This
main item is capable of the measurements of electrocardio-
gram (EKG), electromyography (EMG) and skin con-
ductivity. The extra item (Fig. 3(b)), which has 10 canals, is
essential to measure skin temperature. The thermistors
Fig. 3. Ergo physiological measurement device.

xed to the subjects can be seen from Fig. 3(c). The

Fig. 2. Experimental apparatus (a) air velocity measurement sensor (b) air
temperature and relative humidity measurement sensor.
measured values were recorded on a PC at 15 min intervals
with the online data converter (Fig. 3(d)) and the software
of the device. Measuring range and sensitivity of the device
are 1050 1C and 0.02 1C, respectively.
For same conditions, both simulated and measured back
skin temperatures are given in Fig. 4. It can be seen from
Fig. 4 that the experimental data on different subjects are
different, showing the different responses of different
subjects to the ambient conditions. After the bicycle
exercise, the back skin temperature has high value. In
Fig. 4, 0th min represents this situation and its value is
about 34.4 and it is approximately equal both for subjects
responses and simulation results. After entering the climate
chamber, the back skin temperatures decrease gradually.
The back skin temperature prediction is very close to
the measured values (within 1 1C). It can be seen from
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448 I. Atmaca, A. Yigit / Journal of Thermal Biology 31 (2006) 442452
Fig. 4. Comparison of the simulated and average measured back skin
temperatures at 24 1C, 0.2 m/s for (a) 40% RH and (b) 80% RH.
Fig. 4(a), for 40% RH, the difference between prediction
and the response of subject 1 is higher than 1 1C only in
15th min. For other time step, the differences between
predictions and the subjects responses are less than 1 1C.
Even if, it can not be seen from Figs. 4(a) and (b) clearly, it
can be said that in 40% RH, the skin temperatures are less
than that of 80% RH. For nal time step (120th min), the
skin temperatures predictions are 32.67 and 32.76 1C for
40% and 80% RH, respectively. Similarly, the average
subjects responses are 32.69 and 32.95 1C for 40% and
80% RH, respectively. This is expected since the evapora-
tion heat loss from the back skin is higher for 40% RH
than that of 80% RH. The predicted temperatures agree
well with the experimental data indicating satisfactory
predictability of the model.
As only 2 subjects responses were obtained from the
experimental study, results predicted from the simulation
are also compared with the measured and simulated data in
the literature. Raven and Horvath (1970) exposed the
subjects to a downward step change from 28 1C at 45% RH
to 4.7 1C at 70% RH, in still air. Skin temperatures on
segments were presented in that study. Similarly, Hardy
and Stolwijk (1966) exposed the subjects to a step change
from 43 1C at 30% RH to 17 1C at 40% RH. Mean skin
temperatures of the subjects for various time steps were
given in that study. Stolwijk and Hardy (1966) exposed the
subjects to upward step change from 30 1C at 40% RH to
48 1C at 30% RH and presented total evaporative heat loss
from the subjects. Huizenga et al. (2001) was presented the
simulation results obtained from the Berkeley comfort
model based on the Stolwijk model for similar environ-
mental conditions with mentioned experimental studies,
and compared the results with the measured data. In this
study, the results estimated from the simulation are
compared with the measured and simulated results men-
tioned above.
It can be seen from Fig. 5(a), mean skin temperature
predictions are very close to the measured (Hardy and
Stolwijk, 1966) and simulated (Huizenga et al., 2001) data.
The differences between the predictions and measured and
simulated data taken from the literature are less than
0.5 1C. As seen from Fig. 5(b), the differences between the
prediction of thigh skin temperature and measured (Raven
and Horvath, 1970) and simulated (Huizenga et al., 2001)
data are higher than 1 1C only in from 40th to 60th min.
For other time steps, the differences are less than 1 1C.
These differences are expected since the metabolic activity
level, thermal and evaporative resistances of the clothing
are different for each study. The above model validations
show that the model is able to predict skin temperatures
with reasonably accuracy. Also it can be seen from Fig. 5(c)
that prediction of evaporative heat losses from the body are
very close to the measured (Stolwijk and Hardy, 1966) and
simulated (Huizenga et al., 2001) data. This is shown that
the model is also capable of the skin wettedness predictions
with reasonably accuracy.
4. Results and discussion
The purpose of this simulation in which results are
presented here is to comprehend the effects of the relative
humidity on skin temperatures and skin wettedness of
building occupants. Metabolic activity level and air
velocity for simulation were adjusted to hold constant at
60 W/m2 and 0.2 m/s, respectively. The exposures were
ranged from 26 to 34 1C with 4 1C interval for the operative
temperature. The relative humidity was changed from 30%
to 90% with 20% interval for each operative temperature.
Clothing type, which inuences the human thermal
comfort as a personal variable, is also very important.
The clothing type for the simulation is assumed as mens
summer casual. Details of mens summer casual such as
garment types, fabrics and clothed body parts are
presented in Table 3. The total thermal and evaporative
resistances (Rt(i), Re,t(i)) including the thermal resistance of
outer air layer are given in Table 4 for each body segment.
It can be seen from Table 4, while both thermal and
evaporative resistances of the pelvis are extremely high
depending on its clothing; these resistances have low values
for nude body parts such as arm, hand and head. In
addition to this, the thermal and evaporative resistances for
the whole body (Rt and Re,t) and the thermal and
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Fig. 5. Comparison of the results predicted by the model with the results reported by other researchers. (a) Mean skin temperature, (b) Skin temperature
on the thigh, (c) Evaporative heat loss.

Table 3 Table 4
Details of mens summer casual Total thermal and evaporative resistances for body parts

Garment Fabric codea Clothed body parts Body segment number Rt(i) (m2 1C/W) Re,t(i) (m2 kPa/W)

Briefs 1 Pelvis 12 0.204 0.0263

Short-sleeve shirt, shirt 2 Left and right 3456 0.194 0.0264
collar shoulder, chest, back 7 0.272 0.0332
Long trousers 3 Left and right leg, left 89101112 0.125 0.0196
and right thigh, pelvis 13141516 0.193 0.0247
Calf-length dress socks 1 Left and right foot
a
Fabric description depend on fabric code can be seen from Table 2.

Thermal comfort or discomfort could be discussed in

evaporative resistances of the clothing (Rcl and Re,cl) which
state that total resistances minus the resistances of the
outer air layer are given in Table 5. These values are also
compared with the experimental data in the literature and
it is obtained that the simulation results are in good
agreement with the experimental data in the literature.
terms of skin temperature and wettedness. The model
predictions for mentioning conditions are demonstrated in
Figs. 68. As shown from the gures, the skin temperatures
and wettedness of the body parts are different from each
other. The skin temperatures and wettedness of clothed
body parts are normally higher than those of the unclothed
body parts.
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The effect of relative humidity on the skin temperatures
and skin wettedness are shown in Fig. 6 for each body part
at 26 1C operative temperatures. As seen from the Fig. 6,
the skin wettedness changes a little except nude body parts
with increasing relative humidity. The neutral skin
temperature of 33.4 1C is exceeded only in pelvis, which
has the highest resistance value, at all relative humidity
values and the skin temperature of the pelvis increases to
approximately 33.68 1C at 90% RH. For the nude body
parts, skin wettedness value has 0.06 which is the minimum
value depending on diffusion. For other body parts, skin
wettedness changes depending on clothing and it reaches
approximately 0.34 and 0.44 in pelvis at 70% and
90% RH, respectively. For typical summer casual, 26 1C
operative temperature is appropriate for thermal comfort.
The results have demonstrated that relative humidity is not
Table 5
Thermal and evaporative resistances for mens summer casual and
comparison with experimental data
Rt Re,t Rcl
(m2 1C/W
clo) (m2 kPa/W) (m2 1C/W
clo) (m2 kPa/W)
Simulation results 0.184
1.19 0.0260 0.0758
0.50
Experimentala 0.186
1.20 0.0270 0.089
0.57
a
Experimental results are taken from McCullough et al. (1989).
an effective parameter on condition that the operative
temperature is in the comfort limits.
The changes of the investigated parameters are given in
Fig. 7 for operative temperature of 30 1C. It is obtained
that for 30 1C operative temperature and above, the relative
humidity effect on skin temperatures and skin wettedness is
more effective than that of the low operative temperatures.
With increasing relative humidity, important changes occur
in the skin wettedness at this operative temperature despite
it is not shown considerable changes in the skin tempera-
tures of the body parts. Skin wettedness exceeds 0.8 value
at 90% RH and 0.5 value at 70% RH in pelvis and it
increases to approximately 0.4 and 0.6 values for other
clothed body parts at 70% and 90% RH, respectively.
It can be seen from Fig. 8, with increasing relative
humidity, a signicant change occurs in the skin tempera-
tures and skin wettedness at 34 1C operative temperature.
Signicant deviations from neutral skin temperatures of
the body parts in the skin temperature occur in all of
the body parts at this operative temperature with increas-
ing relative humidity. The skin temperature increases
Re,cl
to approximately 37.05 1C in pelvis and it reaches to
approximately 36 1C for other clothed body parts at 90%
0.009 RH. While the skin wettedness value reaches 1, which is the
0.015
maximum theoretical value, in all of the body parts except
head at 90% RH, it approaches to approximately 1 in

Fig. 6. The effect of relative humidity (RH) on the skin temperature and wettedness for 26 1C operative temperature.
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Fig. 7. The effect of relative humidity (RH) on the skin temperature and wettedness for 30 1C operative temperature.

Fig. 8. The effect of relative humidity (RH) on the skin temperature and wettedness for 34 1C operative temperature.
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452 I. Atmaca, A. Yigit / Journal of Thermal Biology 31 (2006) 442452
pelvis and increases to approximately 0.7 for other clothed
body parts at 70% RH.
5. Conclusions
To analyze the effects of relative humidity on the skin
temperatures and skin wettedness, 16 segments-Gagge
2-node model is developed. Predicted results are compared
with present experiments and literature data, and it
is shown that the model is able to predict both skin
temperature and skin wettedness with reasonably accuracy.
After then this validation, the model is used to investigate
the relative humidity effects on skin temperature and skin
wettedness. It is pointed out that the relative humidity is
not an effective parameter on the skin temperatures and
skin wettedness if the operative temperature stays in the
acceptable range for the thermal comfort. But, with
increasing relative humidity, signicant increase in skin
temperatures and wettedness occurs at high operative
temperatures.
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