Table of Contents

CHAPTER 12: VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE .............................................................................. 3

12.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate System .................................................................................... 3
12.1.1 Distance and Spheres in Space .................................................................................................. 5
12.2 Vectors ...................................................................................................................................... 7
12.2.1 Component Form ....................................................................................................................... 7
12.2.2 Vector Algebra Operations ...................................................................................................... 10
12.2.3 Unit Vectors ............................................................................................................................. 12
12.2.4 Midpoint of a line segment ...................................................................................................... 14
12.2.5 Applications.............................................................................................................................. 14
12.3 The Dot Product .......................................................................................................................... 16
12.3.1 Angle Between Vectors ............................................................................................................ 16
12.3.2 Perpendicular (Orthogonal ) Vectors ....................................................................................... 17
12.3.3 Dot Product Properties and Vector Projections....................................................................... 18
12.3.4 Work......................................................................................................................................... 20
12.4 The Cross Product ....................................................................................................................... 21
12.4.1 The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space ............................................................................. 22
12.4.2 | | is the Area of a Parallelogram ..................................................................................... 23
12.4.3 Determinant formula for : ............................................................................................. 24
12.4.5 Triple Scalar or Box Product ..................................................................................................... 26
12.5 Lines and Planes in Space............................................................................................................ 27
12.5.1 Lines and Line Segments in Space............................................................................................ 27
12.5.2 The Distance from a Point to a Line in Space........................................................................... 30
12.5.3 An Equation for a Plane in Space ............................................................................................. 30
12.5.4 Lines of Intersection................................................................................................................. 32
12.5.5 The Distance from a Point to a Plane....................................................................................... 33
12.5.6 Angles between Planes ............................................................................................................ 33
12.6 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces. ................................................................................................. 34
12.6.1 Cylinders................................................................................................................................... 34
12.6.2 Quadric Surfaces ...................................................................................................................... 36

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2
CHAPTER 12: VECTORS AND THE GEOMETRY OF SPACE

12.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate System

3
4
12.1.1 Distance and Spheres in Space

The Standard Equation for the Sphere of Radius a and Center ( , , )

( 0 )2 + ( 0 )2 + ( 0 )2 = 2

5
6
12.2 Vectors
12.2.1 Component Form
A vector is represented by a directed line segment. The arrow points in the direction of the
action and its length gives the magnitude of the action in terms of a suitably chosen unit.

Eg.

Vector Direction Magnitude

1) Force force acts forces strength

2) Velocity motion speed

Notation:

1) Boldface letters: a, b,c, u, v, w, F

2) Letters with arrowhead: , ,
, ,
3) Underlined letters: u,v,w

7
Position Vector
Let v =
. There is one directed line segment equal to
whose initial point is the origin. This
is the representative of v in standard position and is the vector we normally use to represent v.
(Figure 12.10).
It is called the position vector of

8
In Fig. 12.10, = 2 1 , 2 1 , 2 1

Note:

1) The magnitude or length of v, denoted by the symbol ||or.

2) The zero vector is = 0,0 or 0,0,0.

Eg. 1:

Find the

(a) component form and

(b) length

of the vector with initial point P(-3, 4, 1) and terminal point Q( -5, 2, 2).

Answers:

(a) = 2, 2, 1
(b) || = 3 units

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Eg. 2: A small cart is being pulled along a smooth
horizontal floor with an 80-N force F making a 45 angle to
the floor. What is the effective force moving the cart
forward?

Answer:

402 56.57 N

12.2.2 Vector Algebra Operations

A scalar is simply a real number.

*(b) The sum of vectors is called the resultant vector.

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 If > 0, has the same direction as.

If < 0, then the direction ofisopposite to that

of .

The difference means + ().

So, if = 1 , 2 , 3 and = 1 , 2 , 3 , then =

1 1 , 2 2 , 3 3 (Figure 12.14).

Eg. 3:

Let = 1, 3, 1and = 4, 7, 0. Find the components of

(a) 2 + 3
(b)
1
(c) |2 |

Answers:

(a) 10, 27, 2

(b) 5, 4, 1
1
(c) 11 units
2

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12.2.3 Unit Vectors
A unit vector is a vector of length 1. The standard unit vectors in space are

= 1, 0, 0, = 0, 1, 0, = 0, 0, 1

Any vector = 1 , 2 , 3 can be written as a linear combination of the standard unit vectors
as follows:

= 1 , 2 , 3

= 1 , 0, 0 + 0, 2 , 0 + 0, 0, 3

= 1 1, 0, 0 + 2 0, 1, 0 + 3 0, 0, 1

= 1 + 2 + 3

where 1 is called the i-component,

2 is called the j-component,

3 is called the k-component.

Whenever , its length ||is not zero, and

1 1
| | = || = 1.
|| ||

Thus,||is a unit vector in the direction of , called the direction of .

Eg. 4:

Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector from 1 (1, 0, 1)to 2 (3, 2, 0).
2 2 1
Answer: 3 , 3 , 3

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Eg. 5:

If = 3 is a velocity vector, express as a product of its speed times a unit vector in the
direction of motion.
3 4
Answer: 5 (5 5 )

Eg. 6:

A force of 6 newtons is applied in the direction of the vector v 2i 2 j k . Express the force
F as a product of its magnitude and direction.

Answer:

2 2 1
= 6 ( + )
3 3 3

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12.2.4 Midpoint of a line segment

Eg 7:

The midpoint of the segment joining 1 (3, 2, 0) to

2 (7, 4, 4) is

3 + 7 2 + 4 0 + 4
( , , ) = (5, 1, 2).
2 2 2

12.2.5 Applications
Eg8: Finding ground speed and direction

A jet airliner, flying due east at 500 km/hr in still air,

encounters a 70 km/hr tailwind blowing in the direction
60 north of east. The airplane holds its compass heading
due east but, because of the wind, acquires a new ground
speed and direction. What are they?

Answers:

New ground speed: 538.4 km/hr

353
New direction: = tan1 6.5
535

14
Eg 9:

A 75 N weight is suspended by two wires, as shown in

Figure 12.18a. Find the forces F1 and F2 acting in both wires.

Answer:

1 = 33.08, 47.24, 2 = 33.08, 27.76

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12.3 The Dot Product
12.3.1 Angle Between Vectors

Here, 0 . If the vectors lie along the same line, the angle between them is 0 if they point

in the same direction, and if they point in opposite direction .

Eg.1: Find the dot product of

a) = 1, 2, 1and = 6, 2, 3
1
b) = 2 + 3 + and = 4 + 2
Answers:
a) 7
b) 1

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Eg. 2:Find the angle between = 2 2and = 6 + 3 + 2.

Answer: 1.76 radians

Eg.3:Find the angle in the triangle ABC determined by the

vertices A(0,0), B(3,5) and C(5,2).

Answer: 1.36 radians

12.3.2 Perpendicular (Orthogonal ) Vectors

- The angle between the vectors is2 .

-Thus cos = cos = 0.
2

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Eg. 4:Determine if the vectors below are orthogonal.

a) = 3, 2and = 4, 6
b) = 3 2 + and = 2 + 4
c) = and = + +
Answers: Yes to all three questions.

Note: 0is orthogonal to every vector since = 0.

12.3.3 Dot Product Properties and Vector Projections

Dot Product Properties

Vector Projection
onto a non-zero vector
The vector projection of =
v =
is the vector
determined by dropping a
perpendicular from point to the line .

Notation: projv u read as the vector projection of

u onto v

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Eg. 5: Find the vector projection of = 6 + 3 + 2onto = 2 2and the scalar
component of u in the direction of v.
4 8 8 4
Answers: proj = 9 + 9 + 9 and|| cos = 3.

Eg. 6: Find the vector projection of a force = 5 + 2onto = 3and the scalar
component of F in the direction of v.
1 3 1
Answers: proj = 10 + 10 and|| cos = .
10

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Writing a Vector as a Sum of Orthogonal Vectors

Eg. 7:A force = 2 + 3is applied to a spacecraft with velocity = 3 . Express F as a sum
of a vector parallel to v and a vector orthogonal to.
1 1
Answer: = 2 (3 ) + [(2 + 3) 2 (3 )]

12.3.4 Work
The formula

Work done = force x distance

is used if the force is directed along the line of motion.

20
If the force Fmoving anobject through some
displacement = has some other
direction, the work is done by the component
of F in the direction of. If is the angle
between F and , then

Work = (scalar component of F in the direction of D ) X (length of D )

= || cos ||

= FD

Eg. 7: If|| = 40N (newtons), || = 3m, and = 60, the work done by in acting from P to
Q is

Work = F D

= || ||cos

= 40(3) cos 60

=60 J (joules)

12.4 The Cross Product

-also known as the vector product

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12.4.1 The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
Consider and two nonzero vectors in space. If
and are not parallel, they determine a plane.
Select a unit vector perpendicular to the plane by
the right-hand rule.

This means we choose to be the unit (normal)

vector that points the way your right thumb points
when your fingers curl through the angle from
to. Then the cross product (cross) is
the vector defined as follows:

-the cross product is a vector

-applies only to vectors in space.

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To visualize Property 4, note that when the fingers of a
right hand curl through the angle from , the thumb
points the opposite way, and the unit vector we choose in
forming is the negative of the one we choose in
forming (Figure 12.28).

When we apply the definition to calculate the pairwise cross

products of I,j and k, we find (Figure 12.29)

= ( ) =

= ( ) =

= ( ) =

and

= = =

12.4.2 | |is the Area of a Parallelogram

Area of the parallelogram determined by u and v (Figure 12.30)

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12.4.3 Determinant formula for :
The determinant of a 2x2 matrix a b is a b
ad bc
c d c d

The determinant of a 3x3 matrix a a a is

1 2 3

b 1
b
2
b 3
c
1
c
2
c 3

a a a
b .
1 2 3
b b b b b
b 1
b
2
b a
3 1
2
a
3

2
1 3
a3
1 2

c 2
c 3
c 1
c
3
c 1
c2
c 1
c
2
c3

Eg. Calculate the determinant of 1 2 1 .

3 4 3
0 2 6

Answer: -12

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Eg 2: Find a vector perpendicular to the plane of P(1, -1, 0),
Q(2, 1, -1) and R(-1, 1, 2) (Figure 12.31).

Answer: <6, 0, 6>

Eg. 3:Find the area of the triangle with vertices P(1, -1, 0), Q(2,
1, -1) and R(-1, 1, 2) (Figure 12.31).

Answer: 32

25
Eg. 4: Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of P(1, -1, 0), Q(2, 1, -1) and R(-1, 1, 2)
(Figure 12.31).
1 1
Answer: +
2 2

12.4.5 Triple Scalar or Box Product

The expression( ) is called the triple product of, and (in that order).

Note that|( ) | = | ||||cos |

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12.5 Lines and Planes in Space
We will use scalar and vector products to write equations for lines, line segments, and planes in
space.

12.5.1 Lines and Line Segments in Space

In space, a line is determined by a point and a vector giving the direction of the line.

Suppose that L is a line in space passing through a point P0(x0,y0,z0) parallel to a vector
v v i v j v k . Then L is the set of points P(x,y,z) for which 0 is parallel to.
1 2 3

Thus, 0 = for some scalar parameter.

Expanding,

( x x )i ( y y ) j ( z z )k t (v i v j v k )
0 0 0 1 2 3

or, xi yj zk x i y j z k t ( v i v j v k )
0 0 0 1 2 3

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Eg.1: Find parametric equations for the line through
(2, 0, 4)parallel to = 2 + 4 2(Figure 12.36).

Answer: = 2 + 2, = 4, = 4 2

Eg. 2: Find parametric equations for the line through P(-3,2,-3) and Q(1,-1,4).

Answer: = 1 + 4, = 1 3, = 4 + 7,

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Eg.3:Parametrize the line segment joining the pointsP(- 3,2,-3)
and Q(1,-1,4) (Figure 12.37).

Answer: = 3 + 4, = 2 3, = 3 + 7, 0 1

Observe the vector equation for a line in space:

() = 0 + = 0 + ||
||

That is, the position of a moving particle at time t is its initial position plus its distance moved in

the direction || of its straight line motion.

Eg. 4:A helicopter is to fly directly from a helipad at theorigin in the direction of the point
(1,1,1)at a speed of 20 m/sec. What is the position of the helicopterafter 10 sec.?
200 200 200
Answer: ( , , )
3 3 3

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12.5.2 The Distance from a Point to a Line in Space

Observe that

| = |
| ||| sin (definition of cross product)

|
|

|| = || sin

Eg. 5: Find the distance from the point S(1, 1, 5) to the line

: = 1 + , = 3 , = 2.

Answer: 5 units

12.5.3 An Equation for a Plane in Space

30
Eg. 6: Find an equation for the plane through P0(-3,0,7) perpendicular to the vector

= 5 + 2 .

Answer: 5 + 2 = 22

Note: 3 points can determine a plane because 3 points can determine 2 vectors with the same
initial point. We know that 2 vectors can determine a plane.

Eg.7: Find an equation for the plane through A(0,0,1),B(2,0,0) and C(0,3,0).

Answer: 3 + 2 + 6 = 6

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12.5.4 Lines of Intersection
Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are
parallel. Two planes that are not parallel intersect
in a line.

The line of intersection of two planes is

perpendicular to both planes normal vectors 1
and 2 and therefore parallel to 1 2 . In other
words, 1 2 is parallel to the line of
intersection.

Eg. 8 & 9: Consider the planes 3 6 2 = 15 and 2 + 2 = 5 intersect.

8. Find a vector parallel to the line of intersection of the planes.

9. Find parametric equations for the line in which the planes intersect.

Answers:

8. 14 + 2 + 15 or its multiple.

9. = 3 + 14, = 1 + 2, = 15

8
Eg. 10:Find the point where the line = 3 + 2, = 2, = 1 + intersects the plane 3 +
2 + 6 = 6.

Answer: (2/3, 2, 0)

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12.5.5 The Distance from a Point to a Plane
If P is a point on a plane with normal n, then the distance from any point S to the plane is the

length of the vectorprojection of PS onto n. That is, the distance from S to the plane is

n
d PS .
n

where n Ai Bj Ck is normal to the plane.

Eg. 10:Find the distance from S(1,1,3) to the

plane 3x 2 y 6 z 6 .

Answer: 17/7 units

12.5.6 Angles between Planes

The angle between two intersecting planes is defined to
be the (acute) angle determined by their normal vectors.

Eg. 12: Find the angle between the planes

3x 6y 2z = 15 and 2x + y 2z=5.

Answer: 1.38 radians

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12.6 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces.
12.6.1 Cylinders
A cylinder is a surface that is generated by moving a straight line
along a given planar curve while holding the line parallel to a
given fixed line.

The curve is called a generating curve for the cylinder.

Eg. 1:Find an equation for the cylinder made by the lines parallel to
the z-axis that pass through the parabola y x 2 , z 0.

Answer: The cylinder of y = x2

Other examples of cylinders:

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley Slide 12 - 90

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 Conclusion from the example, any curve f ( x, y) c in the xy-plane defines a cylinder
parallel to the z-axis whose equation is also f ( x, y) c .

The equation g ( x, z ) c in the xz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to the y-axis whose
equation is also g ( x, z ) c .

The equation h( y, z ) c in the yz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to the x-axis whose
equation is also h( y, z ) c .

Exercise: Sketch the surface x y 2 .

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12.6.2 Quadric Surfaces
These surfaces are the three-dimensional analogues of ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas.

A quadric surface is the graph in space of a second- degree equation in x, y, and z. The most
general form is

Ax 2 By 2 Cz 2 Dxy Eyz Fxz Gx Hy Jz K 0

where A, B, C and so on are constants. We will study only the simpler equationsellipsoids,
paraboloids, elliptical cones and hyperboloids.

12.6.2.1 Ellipsoids
The ellipsoid x 2
y2 z2
2
1
a b2 c2

- Cuts the coordinate axes at a,0,0, 0,b,0, 0,0,c .

-It lies between the planes x a, y b, z c .

-The surface is symmetric with respect to each of the coordinate planes because each variable
in the defining equation is squared.

-The curves in which the three coordinate planes cut the surface are ellipses.

36
- The section cut from the surface by the plane z z , z c , is the ellipse
0 0

x2 y2
1
z0 2 z0 2
a (1 (
2
) ) b (1 (
2
) )
c c

- If any two of the semiaxes a, b, and c are equal, the surface is an ellipsoid of revolution.

- If all three are equal, the surface is a sphere.

Exercise: Sketch the surface 9 x 2 4 y 2 36 z 2 36

12.6.2.2 Paraboloids
The elliptical paraboloid x 2 y 2 z is symmetric with respect to the planes x 0, y 0. The only

a2 b2 c
intercept on the axes is the origin. Except for the origin, the surface lies above(if c 0 ) or
below(if < 0 ) the xy-plane. Intersections
with the coordinate planes are

xy-plane: the point (0,0,0)

yz-plane: the parabola c 2

z y
b2

xz-plane: the parabola c 2

z x
a2

Each plane z = z0 above the xy-plane cuts the surface in an ellipse.

37
Exercise: Sketch the surface z x 9 y
2 2

12.6.2.3 Cones
The elliptical cone

x2 y2 z 2

a2 b2 c2

is symmetric with respect to the three

coordinate planes.

Intersections with the coordinate

planes are

xy-plane: the point (0,0,0)

xz-plane: the line c

z x
a

yz-plane: the line c

z y
b

Ex. Sketch the surface 9 x 4 y 36 z

2 2 2

38
12.6.2.4 Hyperboloids
The hyperboloid of one sheet

x2 y2 z 2
1
a2 b2 c2

is symmetric with respect to each of

the three coordinate planes.

Intersections with the coordinate

planes are

xy-plane: the ellipse x 2 y2

1
a2 b2

yz-plane: the hyperbola y 2 z2

1
b2 c2

xz-plane: the hyperbola x 2 z2

1
a2 c2

The hyperboloid of two sheets

z 2 x2 y2
1
c2 a2 b2

is symmetric with respect to each of the three

coordinate planes.

xy-plane: no intersection

xz-plane: the hyperbola z 2 x2

1
c2 a2

yz-plane: the hyperbola z 2 y2

2
1
c b2

The hyperbolas
have their vertices and foci on the z-axis.

For a horizontal plane to intersect the surface, we must have z c.

39
12.6.2.5 A Saddle Point
The hyperbolic paraboloid
y2 x2 z
c0
b2 a2 c

has symmetry with respect to the planes x = 0 (yz-plane) and y = 0 (xz-plane). The intersections
with these planes are:

x 0 :the parabola c 2
z y
b2

y 0 :the parabola c 2
z x
a2

In the plane x = 0 (the yz-plane), the parabola opens upward from the origin. The parabola in
the plane y = 0 opens downward.

The intersection with a plane z = z0> 0 is a hyperbola y 2 x 2 z 0 ,

b2 a2 c

With its focal axis parallel to the y-axis and its vertices on the parabola c 2.
z y
b2

If z0< 0, the focal axis is parallel to the x-axis and its vertices on the parabola c 2
z x
a2

lms.uniten.edu.my/moodle, enroll key:matb113

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