LNG PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, AND VAPORIZERS

In this section, we will identify the characteristics, maintenance, and uses of

pumps, compressors, and vaporizers
Pumps
LNG Pump Characteristics
LNG pumps are normally centrifugal. Electric motors are used to drive the pumps.
Centrifugal pumps for LNG are similar to other service centrifugal pumps, except the
temperature is lower than usual and the liquid being pumped is near its boiling
temperature.
All centrifugal pumps have head versus flow characteristics. The highest pressure is
at the no flow.
As the flow increases, the head pressure decreases to a point at which the pump
does not have adequate NPSH (net positive suction head).

HEAD OF THE PUMP IS = PRESSURE RISE FROM SUCTION TO DISCHARGE / DENSITY

OF THE FLUID
Pump Characteristics Efficiency
The efficiency of a pump increases with increasing flow rates and then becomes
inefficient at high flow rates.
The efficiency of a centrifugal pump falls off at high pumping rates, as shown at the
right.
At low flow rates, much of the pump work goes to friction that warms the liquid
passing through the pump.

Efficiency = (Rate x Flow) / Work

Ef. (efficiency)

Q (flow rate)
Pump Characteristics: NPSH
NPSH = Net Positive Suction Head
NPSH is defined as the total suction head of liquid (absolute) at the suction
nozzle minus the vapor pressure of the liquid (absolute).
In other wordsunder given operating conditions, the absolute pressure at the pump
inlet must not be less than the vapor pressure of the liquid.
If this occurs, cavitation occurs in the pump.
The greater the flow rate, the more NPSH is required. Although not shown on the curve
below, the NPSH requirements are high for the very low flow conditions due to fluid
congestion in the impeller inlet.
This drawing shows a typical method used to calculate NPSH, where:
P1 = Pressure in tank, normally ~1 psig
h s = Pressure of LNG due to hydrostatic head
h f = friction loss
P v = Vapor pressure*
* The vapor pressure must be adjusted for heat transfer into the pump suction line.
 P1 Pv

hs

NPSH at pump

NPSH = h s + P1 - (h f + P v)

Pump Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation of vapor bubbles in any flow typically at the suction of the
pump.
Cavitation bubble collapse causes damage by affecting the metal surfaces of the
pump impeller and casing.
Pump operation in the presence of cavitation will reduce both the total head efficiency
and output capacity.
A steady cracking noise in and around the suction indicates cavitation.
LNG Pump Cost and Use
Because capital and operating costs of LNG pumps may be lower than those of gas
compressors, LNG is pumped at high pressure into vaporizers at receiving terminals
and peakshavers, thus eliminating the need for gas compressors.
Low-pressure LNG circulation pumps are installed inside or close to the LNG
storage tanks.
LNG delivered by pumps may circulate through the unloading lines.
Booster pumps may be located away from the tanks. They may be used to transfer
LNG into storage tanks or used for high-pressure sendout systems.
LNG Pump Site Location (Liquefaction Plants)
The pumps are normally located inside LNG tanks
Used to load LNG tankers, at battery limit of liquefaction facility
Used to pump LNG to tank.
The recirculation pump is used to transfer or circulate the LNG in the product and
transfer lines.
LNG Pump Site Location (Receiving Terminal)
These are normally located in LNG tanks
Used to transfer LNG to the process (vaporization) area.
Depending on output (end user), pressure requirements may have booster
pumps to get LNG to high pressure before vaporizers.
LNG Pump Features
The driver is normally an electric motor submerged in LNG.
The pump is normally installed in a suction vessel mounting with both suction and
discharge connections.
Special cryogenic materials are used (generally stainless steel, aluminum, etc.).
Cooldown and start-up are important considerations in operation.
Testing at cryogenic operating conditions in the factory is normally done before
installation.
LNG Pump Components Pot Mounted Major Parts
 It is a simple design: The electric motor is completely submerged in the pump liquid.
The elimination of mechanical shaft seals eliminates a leak source.
Pump and motor surfaces are wetted, eliminating exposure of critical parts to moisture
or corrosive environments during service.
Noise levels are low because the pump is totally submerged in pumped fluid.
The casing, motor end bell, pump impeller, and inducer are usually made of aluminum.
LNG Submerged Electric Motors
The LNG motor that drives the pump is submerged in the LNG.
A slipstream of LNG is routed through the motor to wet the stator and rotor, acting as a
coolant for the motor, as well as a coolant and lubricant for the bearings. During
operation, the maximum motor temperature is less than 5 oC (9oF) above fluid
temperature.
This eliminates the need for any seals between the pump and electric motor driver.
This works fine for LNG because LNG is neither corrosive nor electrically conductive.
LNG Lubrication and Cooling for Motor and Pump
Source of lubrication and coolant flow is the high discharge fluid
Pot Mounted LNG Pumps
With the motor energized and rotor turning, LNG is fed into the impeller by the
inducer. The impeller accelerates the liquid to a very high velocity. The velocity is
converted to pressure by the impeller and diffuser.
This process continues with each impeller and diffuser. It continues with each
impeller stage, until the final stage.
The pressure moves the liquid through the annular space between diffuser case and
motor housing.
Piping for suction and discharge of the pot mounted pump influence the pump's
characteristics.
The pump should be installed as close to a liquid source as possible. Piping should
be as direct and free of turns and bends as possible to reduce friction losses.
Suction (well insulated) and discharge lines should be independently supported and
avoid any strain on pumps.
Make sure there is no trap built into the suction line where a gas bubble might form.
Piping To and From LNG Pump
The discharge line should have a check valve between the pump and discharge block
valve to prevent backflow.
A vent is required at the high point to permit vapor release.
Vent Piping From Pump
An out-of-tank pump has vent piping to get rid of vapor in the pump and to assist in
cooldown.
The vent must be vented correctly: A check valve should not be installed in the vent
line.
Vent should not have pockets/traps and should slope slightly back to the pump.
Also, the vent should empty into the LNG tank.
Maintenance of LNG Pot Mounted Pumps
Removal and reinstallation for maintenance purposes is relatively easy.
In-Tank Pumps
Normally, with new installations, this pump is installed inside the tank, as shown in this
drawing.
The pump is removable. Normally, one extra pump is installed to act as a spare.
In-tank pump components shown at right with flow pattern of LNG.

A typical in-tank pump (supplied by J.C. Carter) is shown in this drawing.

The in-tank pump shown here has a pipe column and accessories to remove the pump.
LNG Pump Capacities
Capacities have grown from 5-HP-rated LNG pumps in 1960 to 3,000-HP-rated LNG
pumps in 1980, and higher.
In-Tank Pumps Foot Valve Operation
The key to safe removal of an LNG pump is the correct closure of the foot valve,
shown at right.
When the pump is removed, a spring-loaded foot valve is closed.
The foot valve then acts as a non-return check valve and relieves pressure from the
column into the tank.
Cooldown/Start-up of Pot Mounted LNG Pumps
Before start-up, the operator must inspect to ensure all piping and general conditions of
the pump are satisfactory and check that valves are in the correct direction.
Pumps should be allowed to cool down a minimum of 3 hours, maintaining their
operating temperature.
This will ensure that design conditions for the motor and pump have been reached.

The pot must be full of liquid LNG for at least 3 hours.

During cooldown, all suction, recycle, and vent valves should be open.
Start-Up of an LNG Pump
Suction pot mounted pumps should be allowed a minimum of 3 hours cooldown at
their operating temperature to stabilize temperatures throughout the stator and rotor in
order to assure design temperature conditions have been attained.
A thermocouple in the pot vent line should be monitored during start-up to ensure that
liquid is being maintained in the pot.
Linesreturn and supplyalong with the pot should be well insulated to ensure that
temperatures are maintained.
Compressors
Compressor Applications
Compressors are used in both Baseload and Peakshaving plants. They are an
integral part of the liquefaction process.
Compressors are also used for boil-off gas pressure maintenance in both
liquefaction and receiving terminals.
Reliability is critical: Wthout the main refrigerant compressors, LNG production
stops.
Compressors for Gas Applications
There are primarily two types of compressors for gas plants: Positive Displacement
and Dynamic.
The two types of ppositive displacement compressors are:
Reciprocating and Rotary (screw).
The two types of dynamic compressors are: Radial (centrifugal) and Axial.
Each type of compressor has its advantages and disadvantages. Depending on the
criteria of application, the compressors predominantly used in Peakshaving plants and
Baseload applications are either reciprocating or centrifugal.
Comparing Centrifugal and Reciprocating Compressors
Advantages of centrifugal compressors:
Lower installed cost when pressure and volume are favorable
Lower maintenance expense
Greater reliability
Less operating attention
Greater volume capacity per unit of plot area
 Adaptability to high-speed, low maintenance cost drivers
Advantages of reciprocating compressors:
Greater flexibility in capacity and pressure range
Higher compressor efficiency
Capability of delivering higher pressures
Capability of handling smaller volumes
Less sensitive to changes in gas composition and density
Reliability
How is reliability assured? Here are some guidelines:
Make sure the correct compressor type is chosen for the required application
(centrifugal versus reciprocal).
Peakshaving plants have an off season, when LNG is not produced. During this
period, perform preventive maintenance on the compressor.
Ensure that the vendor is readily available and the recommended maintenance
program is followed closely. Some plants (peakshaving) have "swapping"
arrangements either with another plant or with the vendor.
Most baseload liquefaction facilities have at least two process trains; problems with
one compressor will still allow production from the other process train.
Recent grassroots facilities have been built with one train but have installed 50%
capacity compressors to ensure production if one compressor is down. Use the
same compressor models to assure common spare parts.
Plant Capacity
The production capacity of the plant is normally limited by the size (or total
horsepower) of the compressors.
The reason is the higher Capex (capital cost) of the compressors relative to that of
the exchangers and other equipment.
Initial debottlenecking of liquefaction facilities is normally accomplished by
increasing the horsepower of the refrigerant compressors.
Compressor Characteristics
The cross-section of a centrifugal compressor, below, is typical for a multistage
refrigerant compressor.
Materials for rotors are usually capable of handling low-temperature gas.
Refrigerant and BOG compressors are built by a limited number of vendors. This photo
shows a compressor case and rotor under construction.
The construction schedule is normally around 14 months for fabrication but can be
longer if vendors' shops have a backlog of other orders.
Refrigerant and BOG compressors are built by a limited number of vendors. This photo
shows a compressor case and rotor under construction.
The construction schedule is normally around 14 months for fabrication but can be
longer if vendors' shops have a backlog of other orders.
Boil-Off Gas (BOG) Compressor
BOG compressors and refrigerant compressors for peakshaving plants typically are
"package units" with the compressor and driver motor mounted on a skid. (This can be
an electrical motor driver, as shown below.)
If the BOG compressor is down and out of service, the BOG is flared or vented.
Refrigerant Compressors
The photograph, right, shows a refrigerant compressor (centrifugal) installed in a
plant.
Proper leveling and alignment with piping is essential during installation.
Misalignment and improper operation can cause shaft misalignment with the driver and
wear out the bearings and/or damage the rotor.
Compressor Driver Selection
Selecting a driver for compressors is important.
Driver possibilities include:
Steam Turbines
Industrial Gas Turbines
Aeroderivative Gas Turbines
Electric Motors
Steam TurbinesAdvantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Well proven technology in LNG plants
Turbine selection based on required power
Ease of operation and start-up
Disadvantages:
Requires major plant infrastructure (water, steam, and condensing systems)
High overall plant cost
Industrial Gas TurbinesAdvantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Proven technology in LNG plants
Simple plant design
Cost-effective
Disadvantages:
Process design flexibility decreased due to discrete, fixed sizes
Single shaft turbines require large starter motors
Aeroderivative Gas TurbinesAdvantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Simple plant design
Cost-effective
Higher fuel efficiency than industrial gas turbines
Can be quickly removed or replaced
Disadvantages:
Not proven in LNG service
Higher fuel gas pressure required than industrial turbines
MotorsAdvantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Lower capital cost
Lower maintenance cost
Greater flexibility in matching compressors
Disadvantages:
Depends on outside source of power
Motor starting power may be an issue

LNG Vaporizers
In the last part of this chapter on Pumps, Compressors, and Vaporizers, we will study
LNG vaporization, including selection parameters, revaporization, remote-heat and
open-rack vaporizers, and operational issues
Vaporization of LNG
Vaporizing LNG is the final step in a peakshaving or baseload receiving terminal. This
step converts LNG to its gaseous state.
LNG is normally converted to natural gas at high pressures. This eliminates the need for
a natural gas booster compressor, which is more expensive than the LNG pumps.
Thermal energy is required to vaporize LNG, as shown in the drawing below. The
process chosen for vaporization must be highly reliable and capable of operating
according to the plant's requirements (either baseload or peakshaving).
Vaporizer Heat Source
Vaporizers get heat from either ambient conditions or from a fired (above ambient) heat
source.
Ambient:
- Water
- Air
Fired:
- Direct
- Indirect (Intermediate)
- Submerged
Vaporization Selection
Plant function is critical to selection:
If the plant is Baseload:
- Can justify higher Capital Cost (Capex) to reduce operating cost (Opex)
If the plant is Peakshaving:
- Lower Capex justifies higher Opex
Plant location is critical to selection:
If the plant is near a sea or river, water is an excellent heat source.
If the plant has cold winters, an alternative (back-up) heat source to water or air
may be required.
If land is scarce, compact solutions such as submerged combustion vaporizers
are attractive.
Regasification Components
Regasification consists of the following major operations:
Pumping LNG from storage to pipeline or end user pressures
Vaporizing liquid to gas
Controlling the process, temperature, and pressure
Odorizing and metering the s
endout stream
Basics Types of LNG Vaporizers
Vaporizers are available in four different general categories:
Integral heated (fired)
Remote heated (fired)
Ambient heated
Process heated
Each type of vaporizer will be examined on the following pages.
Integral Heated Vaporizers
Integral heated vaporizers have a heat source that is integral to the exchanger. Of these
vaporizers, there are two types:
- Exchange of heat from the inert combustion products to the LNG (inert combustion)
- Exchange of heat from the combustion products through quenching water (submerged
combustion)
The second type of vaporizer is known as a submerged combustion vaporizer.
Inert Combustion Vaporizer
This vaporizer consists of:
 Fuel Reactor
Heat Exchanger
The process is as follows:
Inert products of combustion enter the heat exchanger and pass through a baffle
section at the bottom of the heat exchanger and create a venturi effect that causes
recirculation of the gases, thus creating turbulent mixing in the exchanger.
It has a compact design with low Capex and high Opex (relative to ambient heated
vaporizers).
Submerged Combustion Vaporizer (SCV)
Submerged combustion vaporizers (SCVs) have a simple and compact design.
Natural gas is used as a fuel to heat water that is recirculated.
The installed cost is normally much lower than that of "Open Rack Vaporizers" (ORVs),
but operating costs are much higher.
About 1.5% of vaporized natural gas will be consumed as fuel for combustion
burners.
The SCV vaporization system is ideal for covering sudden increases in demand. It can
be started up quickly and can respond to sudden load fluctuations.
It is also ideal for emergency and peakshaving applications.
Its exhaust gas is environmentally friendly, with low NO X and COD levels.
SCVs are very simple to install. Modularization makes them an attractive alternative
for expansion of vaporization capacity.
Combustion gases contain carbon dioxide and render the bath water acidic.
Alkaline chemicals are added to the bath water to control the pH.
Single-burner SCV units can handle up to 20 tph (180 MMscf/D).
Remote-Heated Vaporizers (RHVs)
Early LNG designs had remote heated vaporizers that were often used because:
The fired equipment was located in a part isolated from the rest of the plant and
ensured a safer operation.
The vaporizer heat exchanger was located close or adjacent to tanks, pumps,
odorizing, and metering equipment.
The vaporizer heat exchanger could be shell and tube or plate and fin heat
exchanger.
RHV Components
A typical system consists of a fired heat exchanger, which heats a secondary heat
transfer fluid that is pumped to a vaporizing heat exchanger, where it vaporizes LNG
and returns to the fired heater.
RHVs ensure non-freeze operation to LNG vaporizers.
The medium for fired heat can be one of the following:
Ethylene Glycol water mix, steam, or water, and Propane or Freon.
Early applications used Iso-pentane for the secondary heat transfer fluid. This and other
flammable heat transfer fluids negated the safety advantage of having the RHV in a
remote location.
Ambient Heated Vaporizers
These vaporizers are used primarily in baseload and satellite plant operations.
The source of heat is either water or air.
Seawater is usually the preferred source of terminal installations on a coast.
"Open Rack" Seawater Vaporizers (ORVs)
Open Rack Vaporizers normally use seawater for the heat transfer medium.
Over 60% of the LNG vaporizers in the world use seawater as a heat source.
"Once through" seawater is returned to the ocean. Environmental issues must be
addressed such as water temperature and any pre-treatment done to seawater, such
as chlorination, when it is discharged to the ocean.
Colder climates may require seawater be warmed in the winter before it is introduced
to the vaporizer to provide enough vaporization heat.
Materials for and construction of seawater vaporizers are important to prevent or
protect against corrosion.
LNG flows upward inside the heat transfer tubes.
The tubes are constructed of aluminum alloy and are configured in a panel
arrangement. The panels are manifolded to the inlet LNG and outlet natural gas pipeline
systems.
The effective heat transfer area is normally increased by using finned tubes in a
"star" configuration.
The term "open rack" is used because the panels are suspended in a rack,
facilitating access for maintenance.
Turndown can be easily accomplished by taking individual vaporizer units
(panels) out of service.
Seawater is corrosive and the heat transfer surface in contact is spray-coated with
an aluminum alloy with a small percent of zinc content. This acts as a sacrificial anode,
providing corrosion protection.
Open rack vaporizers are capital-intensive because they require extensive ancillary
equipment and facilities for supplying and returning seawater:
Intake structure, including necessary water treatment
Intake pumps
Large-diameter pipe, capable of delivering seawater reliably
Seawater holding pond or basin, including spent water treatment
Return channel or pipe to the sea
This increased capital cost is offset, however, by a low operating cost because the
seawater heat source is "free" energy.
Process Vaporizers
Vaporizers that derive their heat from another thermodynamic or chemical process are
classified as process vaporizers.
Several applications can be used that incorporate power plant integration.
Examples of applications are:
Process refrigeration, utilizing cold energy in ammonia, air separation, or ethylene
production
Cold storage and refrigeration.
Power Plant Integration: Process Vaporizers
Power plants have several cycle types that incorporate the use of available cold energy
from a receiving terminal. One of the most common and optimum is the combined-cycle
gas turbine shown here.
Heat from the turbine exhaust is recovered in a heat recovery steam generator
(HRSG).
Seawater is used to condense the steam. The warm seawater from the condenser is
then used as a medium to vaporize LNG.
Efficiencies normally reach about 55% compared with 38-41% for conventional power
plants.
Combined-cycle power plants with gas turbine drivers offer an excellent method of using
cold energy in the vaporization of LNG.
Gas turbine efficiency is greatly affected by pre-chilling the air inlet.
Output power can be increased by 10% if the air inlet is chilled to 50 oF.
 Heat integration with cooling the air inlet is shown in the drawing on the previous page.
Heat recovery from the gas turbine is used to make steam and generate more power.
Seawater is used to condense the steam, and the heated seawater is then used to
vaporize LNG.
Operational Issues With Vaporizers
The temperature and velocity of the heating fluid must be monitored to ensure that the
medium does not freeze.
If water is the medium used in tube side of an exchanger, the water could expand and
burst the tubes.
Ethylene glycol in solution lowers the temperature where the solution will freeze.
Increased velocity of the heating medium will also reduce this freeze tendency.
If the diameter of the tube in the tube sheet for an open rack vaporizer is not the correct
size, LNG will "channel" with cold gas, thus forming an insulation barrier for the LNG.
This results in LNG not completing the vaporization process.
Increasing the diameter of the tube will allow more surface area for vaporization and
is the solution to this problem.
Pay close attention to piping materials used downstream of vaporizers. Stainless
steel should be installed for a sufficient distance downstream to allow the temperature
of the cold gas exiting the vaporizers to heat up and be at sufficient temperature for
carbon steel service.
Take a review test for this chapter
1. LNG pumps are normally what type of pumps: - centrifugal
2. LNG pumps have characteristics similar to other centrifugal pumps, except for: -
temperature service
3. The head of a pump equals the pressure rise from suction to discharge divided
by the density of the fluid pumped. true
4. The efficiency for a centrifugal pump increases with increasing flow rates and
then: - decrease
5. NPSH stands for Net Positive Suction Head. true
6. What happens if there is insufficient NPSH? cavitation
7. The flow rate of a pump has an effect on the NPSH requirement. true
8. What does cavitation do to a pump? causes damage to the impeller casing
9. LNG pumps in an LNG plant may pump LNG to or from a tank, a ship, a
vaporizer, or a truck loading station. true
10. For a receiving terminal or Peakshaving plant, LNG is pumped from the tank to
the vaporizers. true
11. For an LNG pump, the driver is normally a: - submerged electric motor
12. The bearings and other moving parts are lubricated in an LNG pump with: LNG
13. The vent on an external LNG pump may be necessary to: - vent vapor during
pump cool down or operation
14. Pumps for LNG tanks today are normally installed: - inside of tank
15. An internal tank pump normally has a foot valve. true
16. Most internal tank pumps can be taken out of service without emptying LNG
from the tank. - true
1- Why is reliability for refrigerant compressors critical in a Peakshaving or Baseload
facility? to maintain LNG production
2- The primary types of compressors for LNG facilities are either reciprocating or
centrifugal. true
3- An advantage of a centrifugal versus reciprocating compressor is: - lower maintenance
and less operating attention
4- An advantage of a reciprocating versus centrifugal compressor is: - higher efficiency
5- How do Peakshaving plants assure the reliability of their refrigerant compressors?
perform preventative maintenance program during off-season when LNG is not being
produced
6- The production capacity of an LNG liquefaction facility is normally determined by the
size of the compressors. - true
7- The material selection of the rotor should be: - able to handle low temperature
8- What is the normal construction period for a "new build" refrigerant compressor? 14
months
9- What happens if the BOG compressor goes down? BOG is flared or vented
10- What can improper piping alignment do to a compressor? damage the rotor
11- Gas turbine drivers can be a good selection for a refrigerant compressor because they
are: - cost effective
12-Boiloff compressors are usually powered by a: - electric motor
1. The sources of heat for ambient vaporizers are either water or air: - true
2. Baseload receiving terminals cannot justify a high capex to reduce the opex of the
vaporizers. false
3. Plants close to the sea normally use which medium as a heat source to vaporize LNG: -
sea water
4. Vaporizers are available in four different general categories:

Integral heated (fired)

Remote heated (fired)
Ambient heated
Process heated
- true
5. Submerged combustion vaporizers use: - heated water
6. Submerged combustion vaporizers use what percentage of natural gas vaporized as a
fuel to vaporize LNG: - 1,5%
7. Operating costs of a Submerged Combustion Vaporizer (SCVs) are much lower than
those of ambient vaporizers. false
8. Submerged Combustion Vaporizers are difficult to start up and meet a sudden increase
vaporization demand. false
9. Submerged Combustion Vaporizers are not easy to expand to add additional
vaporization. false
10. Remote heated vaporizers (RHVs) are now the predominant vaporizer of choice for
Baseload receiving terminals. false