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Ultrasonic testing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of

non-destructive testing techniques based
on the propagation of ultrasonic waves
in the object or material tested. In most
common UT applications, very short
ultrasonic pulse-waves with center
frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, An example of Ultrasonic Testing (UT) on blade roots of a V2500 IAE
and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are aircraft engine.
transmitted into materials to detect Step 1: The UT probe is placed on the root of the blades to be inspected
internal flaws or to characterize with the help of a special borescope tool (video probe).
materials. A common example is Step 2: Instrument settings are input.
ultrasonic thickness measurement, Step 3: The probe is scanned over the blade root. In this case, an
which tests the thickness of the test indication (peak in the data) through the red line (or gate) indicates a
object, for example, to monitor good blade; an indication to the left of that range indicates a crack.
pipework corrosion.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and

other metals and alloys, though it can also be used
on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less
resolution. It is used in many industries including
steel and aluminium construction, metallurgy,
manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and other
transportation sectors.

Contents
1 History
2 How it works
3 Features Principle of ultrasonic testing. LEFT: A probe sends a sound
3.1 Advantages wave into a test material. There are two indications, one
3.2 Disadvantages from the initial pulse of the probe, and the second due to the
4 Standards back wall echo. RIGHT: A defect creates a third indication
5 See also and simultaneously reduces the amplitude of the back wall
6 References indication. The depth of the defect is determined by the ratio
7 Further reading D/Ep
8 External links

History
On May 27, 1940, U.S. researcher Dr. Floyd Firestone of the University of Michigan applies for a U.S.
invention patent for the first practical ultrasonic testing method. The patent is granted on April 21, 1942 as
U.S. Patent No. 2,280,226, titled "Flaw Detecting Device and Measuring Instrument". Extracts from the first
two paragraphs of the patent for this entirely new nondestructive testing method succinctly describe the
basics of such ultrasonic testing. "My invention pertains to a device for detecting the presence of
inhomogeneities of density or elasticity in materials. For instance if a casting has a hole or a crack within it,

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my device allows the presence of the flaw to be detected and its position located, even though the flaw lies
entirely within the casting and no portion of it extends out to the surface. ... The general principle of my
device consists of sending high frequency vibrations into the part to be inspected, and the determination of
the time intervals of arrival of the direct and reflected vibrations at one or more stations on the surface of the
part."

James F. McNulty (U.S. radio engineer) of Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El Segundo, California, an
early improver of the many foibles and limits of this and other nondestructive testing methods, teaches in
further detail on ultrasonic testing in his U.S. Patent 3,260,105 (application filed December 21, 1962,
granted July 12, 1966, titled Ultrasonic Testing Apparatus and Method) that Basically ultrasonic testing
is performed by applying to a piezoelectric crystal transducer periodic electrical pulses of ultrasonic
frequency. The crystal vibrates at the ultrasonic frequency and is mechanically coupled to the surface of the
specimen to be tested. This coupling may be effected by immersion of both the transducer and the specimen
in a body of liquid or by actual contact through a thin film of liquid such as oil. The ultrasonic vibrations
pass through the specimen and are reflected by any discontinuities which may be encountered. The echo
pulses that are reflected are received by the same or by a different transducer and are converted into
electrical signals which indicate the presence of the defect. To characterize micro-structural features in the
early stages of fatigue or creep damage, more advanced nonlinear ultrasonic tests should be employed.
These nonlinear methods are based on the fact that an intensive ultrasonic wave is getting distorted as it
faces micro damages in the material.[1] The intensity of distortion is correlated with the level of damage.
This intensity can be quantified by acoustic non-linearity parameter (). is related to first and second
harmonic amplitudes. These amplitudes can be measured by harmonic decomposition of the ultrasonic
signal through fast Fourier transformation or wavelet transformation.[2]

How it works
In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a
diagnostic machine is passed over the object being inspected. The
transducer is typically separated from the test object by a couplant
(such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However, when
ultrasonic testing is conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic
Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform:

reflection and attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the
transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of the pulsed
At a construction site, a technician tests
waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected
a pipeline weld for defects using an
ultrasound comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the
ultrasonic phased array instrument. The
object or from an imperfection within the object. The diagnostic
scanner, which consists of a frame with
machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an
magnetic wheels, holds the probe in
amplitude representing the intensity of the reflection and the contact with the pipe by a spring. The
distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In wet area is the ultrasonic couplant that
attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends allows the sound to pass into the pipe
ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the wall.
amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling through
the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the space between
the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the
couplant increases the efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to
separation between the surfaces.

Features

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Advantages

1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws

deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small
flaws.
3. In many cases only one surface needs to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in
determining the depth of internal flaws and the thickness of
parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and
Non-destructive testing of a swing shaft
nature of defects.
showing spline cracking
6. Some capability of estimating the structure of alloys of
components with different acoustic properties
7. Non hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has
no effect on equipment and materials in the vicinity.
8. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.
9. Results are immediate. Hence on the spot decisions can be made.

Disadvantages

1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians. The transducers alert to both
normal structure of some materials, tolerable anomalies of other specimens (both termed noise) and
to faults therein severe enough to compromise specimen integrity. These signals must be distinguished
by a skilled technician, possibly requiring follow up with other nondestructive testing methods.[3]
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc., although paint that is
properly bonded to a surface need not be removed.
5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between transducers and
parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique is used. Non-contact techniques include Laser
and Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT).
6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants that do not contain rust
inhibitors. In these cases anti-freeze liquids with inhibitors are often used.

Standards
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

ISO 2400: Non-destructive testing - Ultrasonic testing - Specification for calibration block No. 1
(2012)
ISO 7963: Non-destructive testing Ultrasonic testing Specification for calibration block No. 2
(2006)
ISO 10863: Non-destructive testing of welds -- Ultrasonic testing -- Use of time-of-flight diffraction
technique (TOFD) (2011)
ISO 11666: Non-destructive testing of welds Ultrasonic testing Acceptance levels (2010)
ISO 16809: Non-destructive testing -- Ultrasonic thickness measurement (2012)
ISO 16831: Non-destructive testing -- Ultrasonic testing -- Characterization and verification of
ultrasonic thickness measuring equipment (2012)
ISO 17640: Non-destructive testing of welds - Ultrasonic testing - Techniques, testing levels, and

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assessment (2010)
ISO 22825, Non-destructive testing of welds - Ultrasonic testing - Testing of welds in austenitic steels
and nickel-based alloys (2012)
ISO 5577: Non-destructive testing -- Ultrasonic inspection -- Vocabulary (2000)

European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

EN 583, Non-destructive testing - Ultrasonic examination

EN 1330-4, Non destructive testing - Terminology - Part 4: Terms used in ultrasonic testing
EN 12668-1, Non-destructive testing - Characterization and verification of ultrasonic examination
equipment - Part 1: Instruments
EN 12668-2, Non-destructive testing - Characterization and verification of ultrasonic examination
equipment - Part 2: Probes
EN 12668-3, Non-destructive testing - Characterization and verification of ultrasonic examination
equipment - Part 3: Combined equipment
EN 12680, Founding - Ultrasonic examination
EN 14127, Non-destructive testing - Ultrasonic thickness measurement

(Note: Part of CEN standards in Germany accepted as DIN EN, in Czech Republic as CSN EN.)

See also
Non-Contact Ultrasound
Phased array ultrasonics
Time-of-flight diffraction ultrasonics (TOFD)
Time-of-flight ultrasonic determination of 3D elastic constants (TOF)
Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes
EMAT Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer
ART (Acoustic Resonance Technology)

References
1. Matlack, K. H.; Kim, J.-Y.; Jacobs, L. J.; Qu, J. (2015-03-01). "Review of Second Harmonic
Generation Measurement Techniques for Material State Determination in Metals"
(https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10921-014-0273-5). Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation.
34 (1): 273. ISSN 0195-9298 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0195-9298).
doi:10.1007/s10921-014-0273-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10921-014-0273-5).
2. Mostavi, Amir; Kamali, Negar; Tehrani, Niloofar; Chi, Sheng-Wei; Ozevin, Didem; Indacochea, J.
Ernesto (2017). "Wavelet Based Harmonics Decomposition of Ultrasonic Signal in Assessment of
Plastic Strain in Aluminum" (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263224117302282).
Measurement. 106: 66. doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2017.04.013 (https://doi.org
/10.1016%2Fj.measurement.2017.04.013).
3. U.S. Patent 3,260,105 for Ultrasonic Testing Apparatus and Method to James F. McNulty at lines
37-48 and 60-72 of Column 1 and lines 1-4 of Column 2.

Further reading
Albert S. Birks, Robert E. Green, Jr., technical editors ; Paul McIntire, editor. Ultrasonic testing, 2nd
ed. Columbus, OH : American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1991. ISBN 0-931403-04-9.
Josef Krautkrmer, Herbert Krautkrmer. Ultrasonic testing of materials, 4th fully rev. ed. Berlin;
New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990. ISBN 3-540-51231-4.

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J.C. Drury. Ultrasonic Flaw Detection for Technicians, 3rd ed., UK: Silverwing Ltd. 2004. (See
Chapter 1 (http://www.silverwinguk.com/en/technical%20pdfs/ultrasonics_pdf/article_1.pdf) online
(PDF, 61 kB)).
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third ed.: Volume 7, Ultrasonic Testing. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing.
Detection and location of defects in electronic devices by means of scanning ultrasonic microscopy
and the wavelet transform measurement, Volume 31, Issue 2, March 2002, Pages 7791, L. Angrisani,
L. Bechou, D. Dallet, P. Daponte, Y. Ousten
Charles Hellier (2003). "Chapter 7 - Ultrasonic Testing". Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation.
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-028121-1.

External links
Ultrasonic testing (http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics
/cc_ut_index.htm)
Film about Russian ultrasonic testing unit ASK-132 in Kalinin NPP (http://www.atomndt.com
/index.php?q=node/6)
Ultrasonic Testing on NDTWiki.com (http://www.ndtwiki.com/index.php/Ultrasonic_Testing)
Video on ultrasonic testing (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UM6XKvXWVFA), Karlsruhe
University of Applied Sciences

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