Megac2b2 IV 9 Karl Marx Exzerpte Und Notizen Juli Bis September 1851 Text

KARL MARX
FRIEDRICH ENGELS
GESAMTAUSGABE
(MEGA)
VIERTE ABTEILUNG
EXZERPTE NOTIZEN MARGINALIEN
BAND 9
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON DER
INTERNATIONALEN MARX-ENGELS-STIFTUNG
KARL MARX
EXZERPTE
UND NOTIZEN
JULI BIS SEPTEMBER
1851
TEXT
Bearbeitet von einer Forschungsgruppe der

Martin-Luther-Universitt Halle-Wittenberg:
Ehrenfried Galander (Leiter), Wolfgang Jahn,
Klaus Fricke, Sonja Hausmann, Otto Schattenberg,
Klaus Stde und Gisela Winkler
DIETZ VERLAG BERLIN
1991
Internationale Marx-Engels-Stiftung A m s t e r d a m :
Begrndet von dem Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis Amsterdam,
dem Institut fr Marxismus-Leninismus beim ZK der KPdSU Moskau,
der Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin
und dem Karl-Marx-Haus Trier
Der vorliegende Band wurde noch unter der frheren

Redaktionskommission erarbeitet.
Marx, Karl: Gesamtausgabe : (MEGA) / Karl Marx ; Friedrich Engels.

Hrsg. von der Internationalen Marx-Engels-Stiftung. - Berlin : Dietz Verl. GmbH
[Sammlung].
Abt. 4, Exzerpte, Notizen, Marginalien
Bd. 9. Exzerpte und Notizen, Juli bis September 1851 / Karl Marx
Text. - 1991. - 54, 552 S.: 10 Abb.
Apparat. - 1991. - S. 553-808: 10 Abb.
IV. Abt. ISBN 3-320-00150-7

Bd. IV/9 ISBN 3-320-00159-0
Text und Apparat

Mit 20 Abbildungen
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Inhalt
Text Apparat
Einleitung 13*
Editorische Hinweise 49*
Verzeichnis der Abkrzungen, Siglen und Zeichen 559
L o n d o n e r Hefte 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 5 3 . Heft XI-XIV 3 563
Heft XI 5 563
Inhaltsverzeichnis 5
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hodgskin: Labour defended
against the claims of capital ... 9
Exzerpte aus Robert Owen: Observations on the effect
of the manufacturing system 13
Exzerpte aus: The oppressed labourers ... 14
Exzerpte aus William Copland: A letter to the Rev. C. D.
Brereton ... 15
Exzerpte aus Nassau William Senior: Three lectures on
the rate of wages 16
Exzerpte aus James H. Renny: Hints on wages ... 18
Exzerpte aus Robert Torrens: On wages and combina-
tion 20
Exzerpte aus Nassau William Senior: Letters on the fac-
tory a c t . . . 22
Exzerpte aus Charles David Brereton: A practical in-
quiry ... 25
5*
Inhalt
Text Apparat
Exzerpte aus Edward Carleton Tufnell: Character, ob-
ject, and effects of Trades' Unions 29
Exzerpte aus Thomas Henry Stirling: The question pro-
pounded 40
Exzerpte aus James Howard: The evils of England 41
Exzerpte aus William Logan: An exposure, from person-
al observation, of female prostitution 42
Exzerpte aus John Fielden: The curse of the factory sys-
tem 43
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress 48
Exzerpte aus: The Edinburgh Review. Vol. 67. 1838 51
Exzerpte aus: The Westminster Review. Vol. 37. 1842 57
Exzerpte aus: The Westminster Review. Vol. 38. 1842 59
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fort-
setzung) 61
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last
forty years 77
Exzerpte aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Outlines of pop-
ular economy 80
Exzerpte aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts und arti-

sans at home and abroad 82
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress
(Nachtrag) 93
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last
forty years (Nachtrag) 94
Exzerpte aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory sys-
tem ... 96
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (sen.): Notes of a traveller... 100
Exzerpte aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery 104
Heft XII 110 604

Inhaltsverzeichnis 110
Exzerpte aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery
(Fortsetzung) 113
6*
Inhalt
Text Apparat
Exzerpte aus James Anderson: An inquiry into the cau-
ses ... 119
Exzerpte aus James Anderson: Essays. Relating to agri-
culture and rural affairs 120
Exzerpte aus Christophe-Joseph-Alexandre Mathieu de
Dombasle: Annales agricoles de Roville 124
Exzerpte aus: An inquiry into those principles, respect-
ing the nature of demand ... 132
Exzerpte aus Samuel Turner: Considerations upon the
agriculture ... 135
Exzerpte aus John Stuckey Reynolds: Practical observa-
tions on Mr. Ricardo's Principles of political economy 136
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Economical enquiries ... 137
Exzerpte aus Thomas Perronet Thompson: The true
theory of rent 144
Exzerpte aus Thomas Perronet Thompson: Corn-law fal-
lacies ... 146
Exzerpte aus Edward West: Price of corn and wages of
labour 147
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: On rent of land ... 153
Exzerpte aus David Ricardo: An essay on the influence
of a low price of corn ... 159
Exzerpte aus David Ricardo: On protection to agricul-
ture 161
Exzerpte aus Charles Wentworth Dilke: The source and
remedy of the national difficulties ... 163
Exzerpte aus Robert Somers: Letters from the Highlands 166
Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie ... 172
Heft XIII 199 635

Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie ...
(Fortsetzung) 199
Exzerpte aus John Claudius Loudon: An encyclopaedia
of agriculture 214
7*
Inhalt
Text Apparat
Exzerpte aus Joseph Townsend: A dissertation on the
poor laws 215
Exzerpte aus Joseph Townsend: A journey through
Spain ... 219
Exzerpte aus Joseph Townsend: A dissertation on the
poor laws (Nachtrag) 220
Exzerpte aus Robert Wallace: A dissertation on the num-
ber of mankind ... 221
Exzerpte aus David Hume: Political discourses 224
Exzerpte aus Thomas Robert Malthus: An essay on the
principle of population 226
Exzerpte aus George Purves: Gray versus Malthus 230
Exzerpte aus William Thomas Thornton: Over-popula-
tion and its remedy 235
Exzerpte aus Robert Vaughan: The age of great cities 248
Exzerpte aus Thomas Doubleday: The true law of popu-
lation 250
Exzerpte aus William Pulteney Alison: Observations on
the management of the poor in Scotland 253
Exzerpte aus Archibald Alison: The principles of popula-
tion 256
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on
agricultural chemistry and geology 276
Exzerpte aus Archibald Alison: The principles of popula-
tion (Nachtrag) 318
Exzerpte aus: The Economist. Juni 1851 321
Exzerpte aus: The Economist. Juli 1851 323
Heft XIV 325 669

Exzerpte aus Adolphe-Jules-Csar-Auguste Dureau de
La Malle: conomie politique des Romains 325
Exzerpte aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen
ber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vor-
nehmsten Vlker der alten Welt 365
8*
Inhalt
Text Apparat
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Catechism of
agricultural chemistry and geology 372
Exzerpte aus William Johnston: England as it is, politi-
cal, social, and industrial 387
Exzerpte aus: The Economist. Juni bis August 1851 394
Exzerpte aus: The Times. August 1851 402
Exzerpte aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the
conquest of Mexico 403
Exzerpte aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the
conquest of Peru 416
Exzerpte aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on coloniza-
tion and colonies 435
Exzerpte aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen
ber die Politik ... (Fortsetzung) 454
Exzerpte aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on coloniza-
tion and colonies (Fortsetzung) 461
Exzerpte aus Felix Wakefield: Colonial surveying ... 482
Exzerpte aus Edward Gibbon Wakefield: A view of the
art of colonization 486
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hodgkin: An inquiry into the mer-
its of the American Colonization Society 492
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hodgkin: On the British African
Colonization Society 493
Exzerpte aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The African slave
trade 494
Exzerpte aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The remedy; being
a sequel to the African slave trade 499
Exzerpte aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Hand-
buch der Geschichte ... 502
Exzerpte aus William Howitt: Colonization and Christian-
ity 516
Exzerpte aus Juan Sempere y Guarinos: Considrations
sur les causes de la grandeur ... 527
Exzerpte aus Henry Brougham: An inquiry into the colo-
nial policy of the European powers 542
9*
Inhalt
Text Apparat
REGISTER
Literaturregister 755
I.Werke und Artikel 755
II. Periodica 773
Namenregister 775
Sachregister 796
Verzeichnis der Abbildungen
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Inhaltsverzeichnis 7

Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing {jun.): National distress. Heft XI.
Seite 21 63
Exzerpte aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system ... Heft XI.
Seite 37 97
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XII. Inhaltsverzeichnis 111
Exzerpte aus James Anderson: An inquiry into the causes ...
Heft XII. Seite 4 117
Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie in ihrer An-
wendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. Heft XII. Seite 32 173
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural
chemistry and geology. Heft XIII. Seite 39 289
Exzerpte aus Felix Wakefield: Colonial surveying, with a view to
the disposal of waste land. Heft XIV. Seite 68 483
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Titelblatt 581
Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last forty
years. Heft XI. Seite 30 582
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XII. Titelblatt 621
10*
Inhalt
Text Apparat
Exzerpte aus Adolphe-Jules-Csar-Auguste Dureau de La Malle:
conomie politique des Romains. Heft XIV. Seite 1 671
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultu-
ral chemistry and geology. Heft XIV. Seite 23 677
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultu-
ral chemistry and geology. Heft XIV. Seite 24 678
Exzerpte aus William Johnston: England as it is, political, social,
and industrial und Exzerpte aus dem Economist" von 1851. Heft
XIV. Seite 30 695
Exzerpte aus dem Economist" von 1851. Heft XIV. Seite 31 696
11*
KARL M A R X
EXZERPTE
UND NOTIZEN
JULI BIS S E P T E M B E R
1851
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853
Heft XI-XIV
H e f t XI
| Heft XI.
London. 1851. Juli.
| Inhalt.
I) Labour defended against the claims of capital. London. 1825. 2) Robert
5 Owen. Effects of the Manufacturing System. London. 1817. 3) The op-
pressed Labourers. London. 1819. 4) W. Copland. A letter to the Reverend
etc Brereton. Norwich. 1824. 5) N. W. Senior. Three Lectures on the Rate of
Wages. London. 1830 6) Hints on Wages etc London. 1832.
7) Torr ens. R. On Wages and Combination. London. 1834
10 8) N. W. Senior. Letters on the Factory Act. Lond. 1837.
9) Brereton. A practical Enquiry into Number, Means of Employment of
Agricultural Lab. London. 1825 (?)
10) Character, Object and Effects of Trades' Unions. London 1834.
I I ) Stirling. The Question propounded: How will Great Britain ameliorate
15 the Distress of its Workmen. London. 1849.
12) The Evils of England. Social and Economical. By a London Physician.
London. 1848.
13) W. Logan. An Exposure etc of female Prostitution. Glasgow. 1843.
14) J. Fielden. The Curse of the Factory System. London 1836
20 15) S. Laing. National Distress, its Causes and its Remedies. London
1844
16) Edinburgh Review. (No. 67) Trades' Unions and Strikes. 1838.
17) Hopkins. Great Britain for the last 40 Years. London. 1834
18) J. C. Symons. Outlines of Popular Economy. London. 1840.
5
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 Heft XI
19) J. C. Symons. Arts and Artisans. At Home and Abroad. Edinburgh.

1839.
20) Westminster Review. (1842) Industry and its Reward in Great Britain
and Ireland.
21) Charles Wing. Evils of the Factory System. London. 1836. 5
22) Laing (Samuel) Notes of a Traveller on the Social and Political State of
France etc London. 1842.
23) Gaskell (P.) Artisans and Machinery. London. 1836. |
6
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Inhaltsverzeichnis
Aus Thomas Hodgskin: Labour defended against the claims of capital
Iii Labour defended against the claims

of Capital; or the Unproductiveness
of capital proved. By a Labourer.
L o n d o n . 1825.
5 (with reference to t h e Present C o m b i n a t i o n s
amongst Journeymen.)
(Hodgskin?)
Theilung der Arbeit, sagt m a n , ist u n m g l i c h o h n e vorlufige A c c u m u l a -

tion von Capital. [8] A b e r the Effects attributed to a stock of c o m m o d i t i e s ,
10 u n d e r the n a m e of circulating capital, are caused by co-existing labour.
(9.) Do all the capitalists of E u r o p e possess at this m o m e n t o n e week's food
and clothing for all the labourers they employ? Let us first e x a m i n e t h e
question as to food. O n e portion of the food of t h e people is Bread, which is
never prepared till within a few h o u r s of t h e t i m e when it is eaten. ... T h e
15 p r o d u c e des baker c a n n o t be stored u p . In no case can the m a t e r i a l of
bread, whether it exist as corn or flour, be preserved without continual labour.
Die conviction des Arbeiters des c o t t o n s p i n n e r that he will o b t a i n b r e a d
when he requires it, a n d his master's conviction that the m o n e y he pays
h i m will enable h i m to o b t a i n it, arise simply from the fact that t h e b r e a d
20 has always b e e n o b t a i n e d w h e n required. (10) A n o t h e r article of the la-
bourer's food is milk, a n d milk is m a n u f a c t u r e d ... twice a day. If it be said
t h a t the cattle to supply it are already there;why the answer is, they re-
quire constant attention and constant labour, and their food, through the greater
part of the year, is of daily growth. T h e fields in which they pasture, require
25 the h a n d of m a n ... E b e n s o m i t d e m m e a t ; it c a n n o t be stored u p , for it be-
gins instantly to deteriorate after it is brought to market. (10) Selbst Klei-
dungszeuge wegen der M o t t e n only a very small stock is ever prepared,
9
compared to the general c o n s u m p t i o n s (11) the only thing w h i c h c a n be

said to be stored up or previously prepared, is the s k i l l of t h e l a b o u r e r .
(12) Mill sagt m i t R e c h t "what is annually p r o d u c e d is annually con-
s u m e d " , so that, in fact, to enable m e n to carry on all those operations
which extend b e y o n d a year, there c a n n o t be any stock of c o m m o d i t i e s 5
stored u p . Those who u n d e r t a k e t h e m m u s t rely, therefore, n o t on any com-
modities already created, b u t that other m e n will l a b o u r a n d p r o d u c e what
they are to subsist on till their own products are completed. T h u s , should
t h e labourer a d m i t that some a c c u m u l a t i o n of circulating capital is neces-
sary for operations t e r m i n a t e d within t h e year ... it is plain, t h a t in all o p - 10
erations w h i c h extend b e y o n d a year, t h e labourer does not, a n d he cannot,
rely on accumulated capital. (I.e.) all the effects usually attributed to accu-
m u l a t i o n of circulating capital are derived from the accumulation and stor-
ing up of skilled labour u n d this m o s t i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i o n is performed, as
far as the great mass of the labourers is c o n c e r n e d without any circulating 15
capital whatever. (13) If we duly consider the n u m b e r a n d i m p o r t a n c e of
those wealth-producing operations which are n o t completed within t h e
year, and the n u m b e r l e s s products of daily labour, necessary to subsist-
ence, which are c o n s u m e d as soon as produced, we shall be sensible t h a t
t h e success a n d productive power of every different species of labour is at all 20
times more dependant on the coexisting productive labour of other men than on
any accumulation of circulating capital. (I.e.) It is by the c o m m a n d the capi-
talist possesses over the labour of some men n o t by his possessing a stock of
c o m m o d i t i e s , that He is enabled to support a n d consequently employ other
labourers. (14) W a s nun das fixe Capital angeht, so: all i n s t r u m e n t s a n d m a - 25
chines t h e produce of labour. (14) As long as they are merely t h e result of
previous labour, a n d are n o t applied to their respective uses by labourers,
they do n o t repay the expense of m a k i n g t h e m . ... m o s t of t h e m d i m i n i s h
in value from being kept. ... Fixed capital does not derive its utility from previ-
ous, but present labour; a n d does n o t bring its owner a profit because it has 30
b e e n stored u p , b u t b e c a u s e it is a means of obtaining a command over labour.
([14,] 15) After any i n s t r u m e n t s have b e e n m a d e , what do they effect?
N o t h i n g . On the contrary they begin to rust or decay unless u s e d or applied
by labour. (I.e.) W h e t h e r an i n s t r u m e n t shall be regarded as productive
capital or not, depends entirely on its being used, or not, by s o m e p r o d u c - 35
tive labourer. (15, 16) O n e easily c o m p r e h e n d s why ... the r o a d - m a k e r
should receive some of the benefits, accruing only to the road user; b u t I
do n o t c o m p r e h e n d why all these benefits should go to the road itself, a n d be
appropriated by a set of persons who n e i t h e r m a k e n o r use it, u n d e r the
n a m e of profit for their capital. (16) Capital is a sort of cabalistic word, like 40
c h u r c h or state, or any other of those general t e r m s which are invented by
10
Aus Thomas Hodgskin: Labour defended against the claims of capital
those who fleece t h e rest of m a n k i n d to conceal t h e h a n d t h a t shears t h e m .

(17) s t e a m engine ... its vast utility does n o t d e p e n d on stored up iron a n d
wood, b u t on t h a t practical a n d living knowledge of t h e powers of n a t u r e
which enables s o m e m e n to construct it, a n d others to guide it. (I.c.) W i t h -
5 out knowledge they (die M a s c h i n e n ) could n o t be invented; without m a n -
u a l skill a n d dexterity they could n o t be m a d e , a n d without skill a n d la-
bour, they could n o t be productively used. But there is n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n
knowledge, skill, a n d l a b o u r requisite, on which t h e capitalist can found a
claim to any share of the p r o d u c e . (18) After he (the m a n ) h a s inherited t h e
10 knowledge of several generations, a n d w h e n he lives congregated i n t o great
masses, he is e n a b l e d by h i s m e n t a l faculties to complete t h e work of n a -
ture etc. (I.e.) circulating C a p i t a l . . . is created only for c o n s u m p t i o n ; while
fixed capital ... is m a d e , n o t to be c o n s u m e d , b u t to aid the l a b o u r e r in
producing those things w h i c h are to be c o n s u m e d . (19) it is n o t t h e quantity
15 b u t the quality of t h e fixed capital on which t h e productive industry of a
country depends. . . . A l t h o u g h t h e n u m b e r of labourers m u s t at all t i m e s
d e p e n d on the quantity of circulating Capital, or, as I should say, on t h e
quantity of the products of coexisting labour, which labourers are allowed to
c o n s u m e ; the quantity of c o m m o d i t i e s they p r o d u c e , will d e p e n d on t h e ef-
20 ficiency of their fixed capital. Circulating capital n o u r i s h e s a n d supports
m e n as its quantity is increased; fixed capital as a m e a n s of n o u r i s h i n g a n d
supporting m e n , d e p e n d s for its efficiency, altogether on the skill of the la-
bourer, a n d consequently t h e productive industry of a country, as far as
fixed capital is c o n c e r n e d , is in proportion to knowledge a n d skill of t h e
25 people. (19, 20) A m e r e glance m u s t satisfy every m i n d t h a t simple profit
does n o t decrease b u t increase in the progress of society, i.e., t h e s a m e
quantity of labour w h i c h at any former period p r o d u c e d 100 qrs of wheat,
and 100 steamengines, will now p r o d u c e somewhat m[ore,] ||2| or t h e value
of somewhat m o r e : or where is the utility of all o u r boasted i m p r o v e m e n t s ?
30 In fact, also, we find t h a t a m u c h greater n u m b e r of persons now live in o p -
u l e n c e on profit in this country t h a n formerly. It is clear, however, that no
labour, no productive power, no ingenuity, a n d no art, can answer t h e over-
whelming d e m a n d s of c o m p o u n d interest. But all saving is m a d e from t h e
revenue of t h e capitalist, so t h a t actually these d e m a n d s are constantly
35 m a d e , a n d as constantly the productive power of labour refuses to satisfy
t h e m . A sort of b a l a n c e is, therefore, constantly struck. (23) A l m o s t every
p r o d u c t of art a n d skill is t h e result of j o i n t a n d c o m b i n e d labour. So de-
p e n d e n t i s m a n o n m a n , a n d s o m u c h does this d e p e n d e n c e increase a s so-
ciety advances, that hardly any l a b o u r of any single individual ... is of t h e
40 least value b u t as forming a part of the great social task. ... W h e r e v e r t h e
division of labour is introduced, therefore, t h e j u d g m e n t of other m e n in-
11
tervenes before the labourer can realise his earnings, a n d there is no longer
any thing which we can call the n a t u r a l reward of individual labour. E a c h
labourer produces only some part of a whole, a n d e a c h part, having no val-
ue or utility of itself, there is n o t h i n g on which t h e labourer can seize, a n d
say: this is my product, this I will keep to myself. Between the c o m m e n c e - 5
m e n t of any j o i n t operation, s u c h as that of m a k i n g cloth, a n d the division
of its product a m o n g the different persons whose c o m b i n e d exertions have
p r o d u c e d it, the j u d g m e n t of m e n m u s t intervene several times, a n d the
question is, how m u c h of this j o i n t p r o d u c t should go to e a c h of the i n d i -
viduals whose u n i t e d labours p r o d u c e it? (25.) I know no way of deciding 10
this b u t by leaving it to be settled by the unfettered j u d g m e n t s of the la-
bourers themselves. (I.e.) I m u s t add that it is doubtful whether o n e species
of l a b o u r is m o r e valuable t h a n another; certainly it is n o t m o r e necessary.
(26) Masters are labourers as well as their j o u r n e y m e n . In this character
their interest is precisely the same as that of their m e n . But they are also 15
either capitalists or the agents of the capitalist, a n d in this respect their in-
terest is decidedly opposed to the interest of their workmen. (27) T h e wide
spread of e d u c a t i o n a m o n g the j o u r n e y m e n m e c h a n i c s of this country, di-
m i n i s h e s daily the value of the labour a n d skill of almost all masters a n d
employers, by increasing the n u m b e r of persons who possess their peculiar 20
knowledge. (30) D e r Capitalist ist der oppressive middleman zwischen d e n
verschiednen labourers. Schmeit m a n ihn beiseite so it is plain t h a t capi-
tal or the Power to employ labour a n d Co-existing Labour are One; u n d Pro-
ductive Capital u n d Skilled Labour are also One; consequently capital a n d a
labouring population are precisely synonymous. In the system of n a t u r e , 25
m o u t h s are u n i t e d with h a n d s a n d with i n t e l l i g e n c e s (33)
12
Aus Robert Owen: Observations on the effect of the manufacturing system
Robert Owen. Observations on the Effect

of the Manufacturing System.
2. ed. L o n d o n . 1817.
Vor 30 oder 40 J a h r e n war G r o b r i t a n n i e n wesentlich agricultural. ...

5 W e c h s e l seit d e n cotton trade inventions u n d der Cultur des cotton tree in
America. (3, 4) N o t m o r e t h a n 30 years since, t h e poorest parents t h o u g h t
the age of 14 sufficiently early for their children to c o m m e n c e regular la-
bour: a n d they j u d g e d well. (8) Since the general i n t r o d u c t i o n of expensive
machinery, h u m a n n a t u r e has b e e n forced far b e y o n d its average strength.
10 (16)
13
The Oppressed Labourers,

the means for their relief,
as well as for the reduction of their number
and of the Poorrates.
L o n d o n . 1819. 5
N a c h d e m Schlu des Kriegs 1814 die labourers in agriculture b e c a m e t h e

b u t t of oppression. ... I h r removal from places where they wished to dwell,
to a poorhouse, a n d there being viewed as the pest a n d b u r d e n of t h e state,
r e n d e r e d t h e m objects subject to t h e c o m m a n d of the overseers, to let o u t
for labour, as horses are let to hire, n o t having a choice of master, work, or 10
wages. (Preface.)
14
Aus William Copland: A letter to the Rev. C. D. Brereton
W. Copland:
A Letter to the Rev. C. D. Brereton,
in Reply to his "Observations
on the Administration of the Poor Laws
s in Agricultural Districts."
Norwich. 1824.
Das country is morally a n d o u g h t to be legally, b o u n d to afford t h e m (the

poor) a subsistence. (9) Packt d e n Pfaffen Brereton, der alles P e c h auf die
Armenuntersttzung schiebt.
0
15
Nassau William Senior.

Three Lectures on the Rate of Wages.
L o n d o n . 1830.
My principal object has b e e n to draw attention to the elementary proposi-

tion, that the rate of wages d e p e n d s on the extent of t h e fund for the m a i n - 5
t e n a n c e of labourers, c o m p a r e d with the n u m b e r of labourers to be m a i n -
tained. (Preface. [Ill, IV]) As marriage (des Arbeiters) has no t e n d e n c y to
increase the value of his labour, it has no t e n d e n c y to increase his r e m u -
neration. (I.e. IX) Pauper ... the m a n whose labour is n o t worth his subsist-
ence, who c o n s u m e s m o r e t h a n he produces. (XIX) (Die ganze Vorrede 10
rth Emigration auf Staatskosten. Jammer ber die Riots der labourers
etc.) the labourer's situation does n o t d e p e n d on the a m o u n t which he re-
ceives [at any] one t i m e , but on his average receipts during a given pe-
riod ... the longer the period taken, t h e m o r e accurate will be the estimate.
(7)I 15
| 3 | Das Jahr am besten als Periode. Umfat die S o m m e r u n d W i n t e r -
l h n e . (7) Few things are less u n i f o r m t h a n the n u m b e r of working days
during the year, or of working h o u r s during the day, or the degree of exer-
tion u n d e r g o n e during those hours. (10) T h e average a n n u a l wages of la-
b o u r in England are 3 x as high as in Ireland; but, as the labourer in Ire- 20
land is said n o t to do m o r e t h a n % of what is d o n e by the labourer in
England, the price of labour may, in b o t h countries, be a b o u t equal. (13)
T h e employer is interested in keeping down the price of labour; b u t while
that price r e m a i n s the same, while at a given expense he gets a given
a m o u n t of work d o n e , his situation r e m a i n s unaltered. If a farmer can get a 25
field trenched for 12 /. it is indifferent to h i m whether he pays the whole of
that s u m to three capital workmen, or to 4 ordinary ones. ... If the three
could be hired at 3 I. 10 s. a piece, while the 4 required 3 I. a piece, t h o u g h
16
Aus Nassau William Senior: Three Lectures on the rate of wages
t h e wages of t h e 3 would be higher, t h e price of t h e work d o n e by t h e m

would be lower. It is t r u e t h a t t h e causes which raise t h e a m o u n t of the la
b o u r e r ' s wages often raise t h e rate of t h e capitalist's profits. If, by i n c r e a s e d
industry, o n e m a n performs t h e work o f two, b o t h t h e a m o u n t o f wages a n d
5 t h e rate of profits will generally be raised. But t h e rate of profits will be
raised, n o t by t h e rise of wages, b u t in c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e additional supply
of labour having diminished its price, or having d i m i n i s h e d t h e p e r i o d for
which it h a d previously b e e n necessary to a d v a n c e that price. T h e labourer,
on the other h a n d , is principally interested in t h e a m o u n t of wages. T h e
10 a m o u n t of his wages b e i n g given, it is certainly his interest t h a t t h e price of
his labour should be high, for on t h a t d e p e n d s t h e degree of exertion i m p o s e d
on h i m . (14, 15) D i e Revenue of a large p o r t i o n of a country k a n n w a c h s e n
u n d die wages fallen. . B . w e n n I r l a n d n u r K o r n n a c h E n g l a n d ausfhrte
u n d pltzlich wrde die d e m a n d n a c h cattle etc so gro, d a die irischen
15 landlords u n d t e n a n t s ihr arable l a n d in p a s t u r e verwandeln. Statt 10 fami-
lies d a n n vielleicht 2 h i n r e i c h e n d fr je 200 acres: one to raise t h e subsist-
ence of t h e two, a n d the other to t e n d t h e cattle a n d sheep. A large p o r t i o n
der Arbeiter so aus Beschftigung geworfen. D e r fund for t h e m a i n t e n a n c e
of Irish labour would fall, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e increase of t h e r e v e n u e of
20 t h e landlords and farmers. ( 2 1 , 22) N u r in 2 F l l e n k a n n der general rate of
wages vermindert w e r d e n d u r c h E i n f h r u n g von M a s c h i n e r i e . Erstens:
when labour is employed in t h e construction of m a c h i n e r y , w h i c h l a b o u r
would otherwise have b e e n e m p l o y e d in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of c o m m o d i t i e s for
the u s e of labourers; a n d Zweitens w h e n t h e m a c h i n e itself c o n s u m e s c o m -
25 modities which would otherwise have b e e n c o n s u m e d by labourers a n d
that to a greater e x t e n t t h a n it produces t h e m . (40) U n s r e j h r l i c h e C o n -
s u m t i o n von Baumwolle vor E i n f h r u n g der spinning j e n n y a b o u t to
100,000 lbs, jezt 190,000,000 lbs. Seit E i n f h r u n g des powerloom, die
quantity of cotton cloth m a n u f a c t u r e d for h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n gewachsen
30 von 227,000,000 of yards (average a n n u a l a m o u n t von 1 8 1 6 - 1 8 2 0 ) zu
t e
400,000,000 of yards ( a n n u a l average von 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 8 ) . (43, 44) D e r 2 F a l l
pat n u r auf horses u n d working cattle. (44) Behauptet d a M a s c h i n e n ,
angewandt fr W a a r e die in d e n B e r e i c h \ C o n s u m des Arbeiters k m m t ,
seinen Arbeitslohn e r h h n m s s e n . [48]
17
Hints on Wages, the Corn Laws, High and

Low Prices, Paper Money and Banking arising
from a consideration of 3 Lectures
on the cost of obtaining Money etc
by N. W. Senior. 5
London.1832.
(By a British Merchant.)
Part I. On Wages.
In every n a t i o n , the q u a n t u m of wages received by the labourer is accord-

ing to the a m o u n t of the p r o d u c e of its soil; a n d his m o n e y wages, t h e 10
equivalent for such q u a n t u m , is according to t h e sale price of t h a t p r o d u c e
on the spot. (2) the cost of u n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d in A m e r i c a is % of t h e whole
s u m expended in clearing it. (5) Senior b e h a u p t e t that the wages o b t a i n e d
by the labourers, in return for whose labours the precious m e t a l s are i m -
ported, regulate the wages of all other labourers in t h e s a m e country". ... 15
N u n n a c h d e n parliamentary papers der session 1825 folgt, d a das G e -
wicht von Gold u n d Silber gegangen d u r c h das Bullionoffice in d e n 11 J a h -
ren von 1 8 1 4 - 1 8 2 4 war = 58,726,000 /. D a v o n exported in derselben Peri-
ode 34,963,000 /., leaving im L a n d 23,763,000 /. D i e quantity of b o t h
imported, beyond what is t a k e n to the bullion office, n i c h t % der hier 20
eingebrachten ... we require to supply n e w plate, the wear of the old, a n d of
m o n e y , or to be used in o u r manufactories the old plate being r e m e l t e d auf
1 million. ( 4 8 - 5 0 ) In denselben 11 J a h r e n von british p r o d u c e u n d m a n u -
factures exported jhrlich im D u r c h s c h n i t t 39,360,000/. Sollen n a c h Senior
18
Aus James H. Renny: Hints on wages
der 1/39 Theil der wages o b t a i n e d fr wages der labourers, in r e t u r n for

whose labour this o n e m i l l i o n was imported, die wages aller a n d r e n regu-
liren? (50)
19
Torrens. (R.)
On Wages and Combination.
L o n d o n . 1834.
Maximum der wages: that, which r e m a i n s after the capitalist's other ad-
vances have b e e n replaced, with the lowest rate of increase, for the sake of 5
which he will carry on his business. (8) M a c h i n e s work b u t do n o t eat.
W h e n they displace labour, a n d render it disposable, they at the s a m e t i m e
displace a n d render disposable the real wages, t h e food a n d clothing, which
m a i n t a i n e d it. T h e aggregate fund for the support of labour is n o t d i m i n -
ished. (39) In a country n o t d e p e n d i n g u p o n foreign markets, c o m b i n a t i o n s 10
m a y raise wages to their M a x i m u m , provided the supply of labour do not
increase. (57) ||4| W h e n wages are at their m a x i m u m , profits are at their
m i n i m u m . But when profits are at their m i n i m u m , an increase of wages
m u s t check production, d i m i n i s h the fund for the m a i n t e n a n c e of labour
etc. (58) In a country d e p e n d i n g u p o n foreign markets, c o m b i n a t i o n s for 15
raising wages beyond the limit d e t e r m i n e d by foreign competition, ulti-
mately occasion, not an advance, b u t a r e d u c t i o n of wages. (60) T h e m a r k e t
is occasionally understocked a n d occasionally overstocked, with m a n u f a c -
tured goods. W h e n the supply of s u c h goods is deficient their p r o d u c t i o n is
increased; a n d w h e n their supply is in excess, their p r o d u c t i o n is d i m i n - 20
ished. But when the production of m a n u f a c t u r e d goods diminishes, the
fixed capital of the manufacturer ceases to be fully employed. It is selfevi-
dent, therefore, that, a m i d the ebbings a n d flowings of the market, a n d the
alternate contractions a n d expansions of d e m a n d , occasions will constantly
recur, in which the manufacturer m a y employ additional floating capital, 25
without employing additional fixed capital. ... if additional quantities of
raw material can be worked up without incurring an additional expense for
buildings a n d machinery, t h e manufacturers of the country in which the
20
Aus Robert Torrens: On wages and combination
rate of profit is comparatively h i g h (d. h. wo der Arbeitslohn absolut nied-

riger), will have an interest in lowering their prices in the foreign m a r k e t ,
so as to b e a t out t h e fabrics of the country in which the rate of profit is
comparatively low. (d. h. der Arbeitslohn h o c h , wo also der Prei nicht
5 weiter herabgedrckt werden k a n n , es sei d e n n da der L o h n herabge-
drckt wrde.) (63, 4) So long as buildings a n d m a c h i n e r y , w h e n n o t in
work exist as dead stock, realizing no profit at all, so long will it be the in-
terest of producers to employ, at the customary rate of profit, as m u c h of
their floating capital as possible, without reference to the consideration
10 whether, by so employing it, they realize the customary profit u p o n their
fixed capital also. Diese consideration wird b e s t i m m e n ob new a n d a d d i -
tional buildings a n d m a c h i n e s shall be erected; b u t when o n c e they are
erected, it will be t h e decided interest of the manufacturer, to keep t h e m in
full work, provided he can thereby secure the customary profit u p o n t h e
15 floating capital employed in paying wages, a n d in p u r c h a s i n g raw m a t e r i -
als. H e n c e , when t h e foreign m a r k e t is overstocked, it will be the interest of
the manufacturer of the h i g h profit country to c o n t i n u e to supply it at
prices greatly below those ordinary prices w h i c h gave the customary r e t u r n
u p o n his whole capital, fixed a n d floating. (68) In a country possessing su-
20 periority in m a n u f a c t u r i n g for foreign m a r k e t s , wages m a y be raised within
the limits of such superiority. (73) T h e Cornlaws deprive t h e operatives of
England of the high comparative wages d u e to the superiority w h i c h E n g -
land possesses in m a n u f a c t u r i n g for the foreign market. (81)
21
Nassau W. Senior.
Letters on the Factory Act,
as it affects the Cotton Manufacture,
addressed to the right Honourable
The President of The Board of Trade. 5
To which are appended A Letter to Mr. Senior
from Leonhard Horner, Esq. and Minutes of a
Conversation between Mr. Edmund Ashworth,
Mr. Thomson and Mr. Senior.
L o n d o n . 1837. 10
D i e difference between the h o u r s of work u s u a l over t h e whole world in cot-

t o n factories u n d a n d e r n e m p l o y m e n t s rhrt aus 2 G r n d e n her: 1) t h e
great proportion of fixed to circulating capital, which m a k e s long h o u r s of
work desirable; u n d 2) the extraordinary lightness of the labour. (11) Das
fixe Capital gewhnlich = 4:1 z u m circulirenden, so da w e n n a m a n u f a c - 15
turer 50,000 l. hat, er 40,000 l. verausgabt in Errichtung seiner mill u n d fill-
ing it with m a c h i n e r y u n d n u r 10,000 I. to the purchase of raw m a t e r i a l
(cotton, flour a n d coals) u n d the p a y m e n t of wages. ( 1 1 , 12) the fixed capi-
tal is subject to incessant deterioration, n i c h t allein von wear u n d tear,
sondern a u c h von constant m e c h a n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t s , w h i c h in 8 oder 20
9 J a h r e n r e n d e r obsolete, m a c h i n e r y which when first used was the best of
its kind. D a h e r um netprofit von 10 % zu m a c h e n , ist a gross profit von
m e h r als 15 % nthig. (12) U n t e r d e m gegenwrtigen Gesetz no mill, worin
persons u n t e r 18 J a h r e n angewandt, can be worked m o r e t h a n 1 1 h o u r s
22
Aus Nassau William Senior: Letters on the factory act
d e n Tag, d. h. 12 S t u n d e n fr 5 Tage u n d 9 am Samstag. N u n die folgende

Analyse zeigt, d a in a m i l l so worked, t h e whole net profit is derived from
the last hour. E i n m a n u f a c t u r e r investirt 100,000 1.: - 80,000 I. in his m i l l
u n d machinery, u n d 20,000 i n raw m a t e r i a l u n d wages. D e r a n n u a l r e t u r n
5 der mill, supposing t h e capital to be t u r n e d o n c e a year, a n d gross profits to
be 15 %, m u sein goods worth 115,000 1., p r o d u c e d by the c o n s t a n t conver-
sion a n d reconversion of the 20,000 1., circulating capital, from m o n e y i n t o
goods a n d from goods into m o n e y , in periods of rather m o r e t h a n two
m o n t h s . V o n diesen 115,000 I. e a c h of t h e 23 half h o u r s of work p r o d u c e s
5
10 / 115 oder %. V o n d e n % (constituting the whole 115,000 I.) %, d. h.
100,0001, von d e n 115,000 ersetzen n u r das Capital; % (oder 5,000 I. o u t of
the 115,000) m a k e s up for t h e deterioration der mill u n d m a c h i n e r y . D i e
r e m a i n i n g % d. h. die last two of t h e 23 half h o u r s of every day, p r o d u c e
}
the n e t profit of 10 %. W e n n d a h e r (prices r e m a i n i n g the same) die factory

15 13 S t u n d e n at work g e h a l t e n w e r d e n k n n t e statt 11, by an a d d i t i o n of
about 2,600 I. to t h e circulating capital, t h e n e t profit would be m o r e t h a n
doubled. Anderseits, w e n n die A r b e i t s s t u n d e n tglich um 1 S t u n d e per day
reducirt (prices r e m a i n i n g the same) net profit would be destroyed, w e n n
reducirt um 1 ]/ S t u n d e n a u c h gross profits destroyed, das circulating capi-
2
20 tal would be replaced, b u t there would be no fund to c o m p e n s a t e the pro-

gressive deterioration of the fixed capital. (12, 13) ||5| Das Verhltni des
fixed capital z u m circulating wchst bestndig aus 2 G r n d e n . 1) D i e t e n d -
ency of m e c h a n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t to throw on m a c h i n e r y m o r e a n d m o r e of
the work of p r o d u c t i o n . 2) D a s i m p r o v e m e n t der m e a n s of transport, u n d
25 die c o n s e q u e n t d i m i n u t i o n of t h e stock of raw material in the m a n u f a c -
turer's h a n d s waiting for u s e . Formerly, w h e n coals a n d cotton c a m e by wa-
ter, the u n c e r t a i n t y a n d irregularity of supply forced h i m to keep on h a n d 2
oder 3 m o n t h s ' c o n s u m p t i o n . Now, a railway brings it to h i m week by
week, or rather day by day, from the port or the m i n e . U n d e r s u c h c i r c u m -
30 stances, I fully anticipate that, in a very few years, the fixed capital, instead
of its present proportion, will be as 6 or 7 or even 10 to 1 to the circulating;
and, consequently, t h a t the motives to long h o u r s of work will b e c o m e great-
er, as the only m e a n s by w h i c h a large proportion of fixed capital can be
m a d e profitable. " W h e n a labourer," said Mr. Ashworth to me "lays d o w n
35 his spade, he renders useless, for t h a t period, a capital worth 18 d. W h e n
o n e of our people leaves the mill, he renders useless a capital t h a t has cost
100,000 /." (13, 14) U n s r e cotton factories, at their c o m m e n c e m e n t , were
kept going the whole 24 h o u r s . T h e difficulty of cleaning a n d repairing t h e
machinery, a n d the divided responsibility, arising from the necessity of e m -
40 ploying a double staff of overlookers, bookkeepers etc have nearly p u t an
end to this practice; b u t u n t i l H o b h o u s e ' s A c t r e d u c e d t h e m to 69, our fac-
23
tories generally worked from 70 to 80 h o u r s per week. (15) D a s G a r n , das

40 Sh. ein Pfund kostete, w h e n we c o n s u m e d only 10,000,000 of p o u n d s of
cotton, now, when we c o n s u m e 280,000,000, costs 2 sh. Increase of price,
a n d d i m i n u t i o n of c o n s u m p t i o n , will therefore act a n d react on o n e a n -
other. Every increase of price will further d i m i n i s h c o n s u m p t i o n ; a n d every 5
further d i m i n u t i o n of c o n s u m p t i o n will occasion an increased relative cost
of production, a n d consequently a further increase of price. (16)
A us dem Brief von Horner (Leonard) an Senior.
Behauptet, d a in any period of 5 years, since the cotton trade rose into
c o n s e q u e n c e , der profit in well m a n a g e d factories m u s t have greatly ex- 10
ceeded 10 %. (31) Zeigt Herrn Senior berall, d a er sich v o n d e n Fabri-
kanten hat belgen lassen.
24
Aus Charles David Brereton: A practical inquiry
Brereton. (. M.) (Rev.)

Rector of Little Massingham, Norfolk.
A Practical Inquiry into the Number,
Means of Employment, and Wages
5 of the Agricultural Labourers.
L o n d o n . (1825?)
Am Schlu des 14* Jh. W a t Tyler, J a c k Straw, H o b Carter u n d T o m Miller,

n a m e s a s s u m e d by these spirited leaders of t h e peasantry, to d e n o t e t h e i r
origin a n d e m p l o y m e n t s , c o m m i t t e d with a m u t i n o u s p o p u l a c e great vio-
10 lence on t h e gentry a n d nobility. . . . Ihre insurrection war das grosse M i t t e l
of shaking off t h e servitude a n d oppression of t h e N o r m a n a n d feudal tyr-
anny. (11) V o n 1 6 9 0 - 1 7 9 4 sehr great decrease der p o p u l a t i o n der vil-
lages ... D u r i n g t h e last century grosser c h a n g e im woollen trade des
L a n d e s . Das c o m b i n g u n d s p i n n i n g von wool, w h i c h were during t h a t p e -
15 riod performed entirely by h a n d , are now d o n e by m a c h i n e r y u n d dieser
trade transferred a l m o s t entirely von Norfolk u n d d e n eastern districts
n a c h Lancashire, Yorkshire, N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e u n d Leicestershire. T h o u g h
t h e earnings from the s p i n n i n g of yarn a n d knitting of stockings were very
small, yet a great part of t h e female p o p u l a t i o n in diesen arts e m p l o y e d .
20 But I shall shew t h a t u n l e s s t h e female p o p u l a t i o n h a d b e e n disengaged
from these e m p l o y m e n t s , a n d b e e n t u r n e d to t h e labours of t h e field, t h e
l a n d of this c o u n t y could n o t have b e e n cultivated as it h a s b e e n , by t h e
male p o p u l a t i o n of t h e last 30 years. (26, 7) Norfolk ist n i c h t n u r b e r h m t
(die county) fr ihre Agricultur u n d i m p r o v e m e n t s in that art, b u t also for
25 its p a u p e r i s m . U n t e r s u c h e n wir, at different periods, die quantity of l a n d in
cultivation, t h e m o d e of tillage, u n d t h e p r o d u c e of t h e soil. (38) D i e Graf-
25
t e
schaft Norfolk enthlt 1,338,880 statute acres u n d ist die 5 county in ex-
l
tent, u n d die 8 in E n g l a n d as to p o p u l a t i o n . E n t h l t 33 h u n d r e d s , 20 m a r -
ket towns u n d 702 parishes u n d h a m l e t s . Norfolk e n t h l t 100 parishes
m e h r als Yorkshire oder any other county in E n g l a n d u n d m e h r als das
whole of Scotland. These divisions are of very a n c i e n t date, a n d h a v e per- 5
h a p s rather decreased t h a n increased during t h e last century. ... Nearly
10,000 I. h a v e b e e n spent in some years in law expences, (in this county) re-
specting removals a n d settlements. (38) In Norfolk m e h r als % der Bevlke-
r u n g u n t e r d e m workhouse system. (39) W h i l e the n u m b e r of parishes a n d
even the n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s in villages decreased w h r e n d des last cen- 10
tury, the quantity of land in cultivation greatly increased. W i t h i n the last
50 years m e h r als % der parishes inclosed d u r c h P a r l a m e n t s a k t e u n d
brought into a high state of cultivation. M a n y of the parishes of Norfolk are
t h e exclusive property of individuals, a n d in m o s t of these inclosures of
h e a t h a n d waste lands have t a k e n place to a great extent w i t h o u t the sane- 15
t i o n of P a r l i a m e n t . Since the Revolution the greater part of this western
district of the c o u n t y has b e e n converted from sheep's walk, of trifling val-
u e , to t h e highest pitch of cultivation. (I.e.) Also m u gewesen sein a great
increase of d e m a n d for labour. Jezt m e h r cattle genhrt in d e m Distrikt
u p o n t h e fallows, als frher supported u p o n the whole in a state of pastur- 20
age a n d waste. Solches L a n d erheischte weder draining n o r fencing. A u e r
diesen h i g h u n d light soils in Norfolk a great d e a l of fen u n d marshland, das
wurde e m b a n k e d u n d drained during this period u n d dessen Cultivation
d a h e r a great increase of e m p l o y m e n t bewirken m u t e . A considerable
quantity of saltmarsh also h a s b e e n e m b a n k e d a n d r e d e e m e d from the sea. 25
T h e great i m p r o v e m e n t der c o u n t y a u c h b e m e r k b a r von der erection of all
the principal m a n s i o n s during this period, - H o l k h a m , H o u g h t o n , Wolter-
ton, G u n t o n etc. D e r c l a m o u r of t h e dearth of e m p l o y m e n t , u n d von der
overflowing supply of labourers fand Statt, while these i m p r o v e m e n t s in the
country ||6| have b e e n in progress. N o t only has there b e e n a great increase 30
in the m e a n s of e m p l o y m e n t by the increased quantity of l a n d in cultiva-
tion, b u t the process of bringing it into a cultivated state, fencing, draining,
a n d improving, which require in m a n y cases l a b o u r to the a m o u n t of m o r e
t h a n y t h e value of the land, m u s t have enormously increased the fund
2
which supplies the wages of labour. (40, 41) T h e quantity of e m p l o y m e n t 35

supplied by agriculture has b e e n still further a u g m e n t e d by t h e changes
which have t a k e n place in the mode of tillage. W a h r s c h e i n l i c h d a die pro-
portion des arable l a n d to pasture grsser war als einige Zeit n a c h der R e -
formation. U n t e r der Herrschaft der Elisabeth u n d for s o m e t i m e after, the
inclosure of pasture was discouraged. Arable land was in fact converted 40
into pasture, a n d the p r o d u c e of corn increased by an improved h u s b a n d r y .
26
Aus Charles David Brereton: A practical inquiry ..
A greater supply of m e a t , dessen C o n s u m sehr wuchs n a c h der Reforma-

tion, wurde afforded by a t t e n t i o n to pastures. ( 4 1 , 2) Blomefield giebt d e n
following a c c o u n t der several estates at different periods:
131 arable
5 1324 a messuage, in Norfolk, c o n t a i n e d 7 meadow
1% p a s t u r e
140 arable
6 meadow
1370. ditto ditto
30 pasture
10 30 heath
200 arable
100 meadow
1567 ditto
300 pasture
10 wood
15 60 arable
20 m e a d o w
1569 ditto
40 p a s t u r e
300 furze &
h e a t h . (42.)
20 So at u n d after t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , die quantity des arable land in Propor-

tion z u h e a t h u n d p a s t u r e decreased. W u c h s erst b e d e u t e n d n a c h d e r R e v o -
lution. Z u r Revolutionszeit die Pfarre, d i e B[lomefield] b e w o h n t , n i c h t
b e r 2 o d e r % cultivated as arable land. J e z t von 2238 acres n u r 152 pas
t u r e u n d 2086 arable. D i e m u die quantity of labour, erheischt seit der
25 Revolution, v e r m e h r t h a b e n . E b e n s o das E i n f h r e n des fourcourse u n d six-
course system. In d e m fourcourse % des L a n d e s best m i t K o r n u n d in d e m
sixcourse % oder %. D e r leztre course n u r a n w e n d b a r w h e n the l a n d is of
the finest quality, a n d a d m i t s t h e growth of b e a n s , aber der erstre n u n
allgemein in d e n m i d d l i n g u n d inferior soils. Zwei V e r b e s s e r u n g e n b e s o n -
30 ders zu diesen courses gefhrt, n h m l i c h Das M a r l i n g of t h e l a n d u n d die
field culture of t u r n i p s . T h e m a r l i n g of l a n d erheischt viel m a n u a l labour,
a n d that of t h e highest value. Besonders aber die field culture of t u r n i p s .
T h e general culture of t u r n i p s i n t r o d u c e d t h e u s e of t h e h o e in agriculture,
which h a d till t h e n b e e n confined to gardening ... Das L a n d worauf die
35 turnips wachsen ist h o e d over 2 u n d oft 3 x im Jahr. By t h e system of drill-
ing also the hoe is very generally u s e d ; u n d so a n u m b e r of acres, = per-
haps nearly % dieser extensive county, is h o e d over by h a n d , like a garden,
in t h e course of t h e year. ( 4 2 - 4 5 ) D i e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s h a t t e n a u c h a great
effect in distributing t h e m e a n s of e m p l o y m e n t t h r o u g h t h e year. (45) Vor
27
der Reformation die average p r o d u c t i o n per acre, of all k i n d s of grain,

n i c h t b e r 12 bushels. V o n der R e f o r m a t i o n zur Revolution h u s b a n d r y i m -
proved, a n d t h e produce greatly increased. By m o d e r n i m p r o v e m e n t t h e
p r o d u c t i o n in m a n y parts d o u b l e d seit der Revolution. (47, 8) D e m I n s p e c -
tor der Cornreturns fr Norwich w u r d e n r e t u r n e d 1 8 0 1 : 17,159 qrs, 1814: 5
34,007, also doppelt die quantity u n d 1 8 2 1 : 78,219 oder m e h r als 4x die
n u m b e r of qrs. (49) In this village at this t i m e there are probably as m a n y
w o m e n a n d girls as m e n a n d boys employed. This change in the employ-
m e n t of the female population is of great m o m e n t in ascertaining the earn-
ings of labourers' families. (51) N i c h t zu beweisen, da der rural p a u p e r i s m 10
gegenwrtig is u p h e l d weder by a superfluity of workmen, n o c h a d e a r t h of
e m p l o y m e n t , n o c h i n a d e q u a t e wages, sondern n u n die poorlaws, ihre Ver-
waltung etc. (96)
28
Aus Edward Carleton Tufnell: Character, object, and effects of trades unions
|7| Character, Object and Effects

of Trades' Unions; with some remarks
of the Law concerning them.
L o n d o n 1834.
5 Die mchtigste, extensivste u n d bestorganisirte U n i o n in d e m U n i t e d

K i n g d o m scheint die der working cotton spinners. Alle oder fast alle work-
m e n dieser class in E n g l a n d , Schottland u n d Irland v e r b u n d e n in i h r e n re-
spective districts fr 30 J a h r e oder mehr. 1829 der erste V e r s u c h to form
one G r a n d G e n e r a l U n i o n " of all t h e spinners of the 3 k i n g d o m s . V o n da
10 an m e h r systematischen Plan. J e d e Stadt oder Dorf, e n t s p r e c h e n d d e n
n u m b e r s ihrer spinning p o p u l a t i o n , whlte representatives, die Parliaments
abhielten, levied taxes on their constituents, passed laws, p r i n t e d their
speeches a n d proceedings, a n d performed all the functions of a legislative
body m i t so viel F r m l i c h k e i t wie das h o u s e of c o m m o n s . D i e I n s t i t u t i o n
15 dieser assembly o h n e m a r k e d effect on the trade. Die strikes u n d a n d r e of-
fensive business der U n i o n were still for the m o s t part decided on by t h e lo-
cal committees, a n d the expense of sending delegates to some central spot,
such as the Isle of M a n or M a n c h e s t e r , the u s u a l place of M e e t i n g , h a s pre-
vented the holding of a general congress m o r e t h a n o n c e or at m o s t 2 x a
20 year, a n d t h e n the Session has n o t c o n t i n u e d longer t h a n 4 or 5 days. (2, 3)
Die spinners bilden n u r y der in d e n cotton mills Beschftigten, b u t their
w
labour is absolutely necessary to t h e working des establishment; folglich,

by refusing to work themselves, they force all their fellow-labourers out of
e m p l o y m e n t at the s a m e t i m e . ... diese Abhngigkeit of s o m e w o r k m e n on
25 others existirt berall, wo T h e i l u n g der Arbeit, b u t in no m a n u f a c t u r e
where the same quantity of fixed capital is employed (a c i r c u m s t a n c e
which will be shewn hereafter materially to aid the objects of a c o m b i n a -
29
tion) is t h e disproportion equally great. (12, 13) D e r m o s t extensive u n d

persevering strike der v o n 1810, w h e n all t h e spinners in all t h e mills in der
Nachbarschaft von Manchester, eingeschlossen Stockport, Macclesfield,
Stayley Bridge, A s h t o n , H y d e , O l d h a m , Bolton u n d so weit wie Preston, si-
m u l t a n e o u s l y left their work, a n d h a d t h e strike c o n t i n u e d a little longer, 5
t h e whole of Scotland would have j o i n e d it. 30,000 persons thrown o u t of
e m p l o y m e n t , m a n y of t h e m p a r a d e d t h e streets der obigen Stdte during
t h e day, s h o u t i n g u n d h o o t i n g at the residences der ihrer S a c h e feindlichen
Personen. Attacks oft g e m a c h t auf die factories, trotz der Polizei, die z u m
S c h u t z n i c h t h i n r e i c h t e ; m a n y masters u n a b l e ihre mills zu verlassen, for
fear of their lives u n d s u c h w o r k m e n as were got to supply t h e place of t h e
seceders, were held prisoners, in a state of almost c o n t i n u a l siege, in t h e es
t a b l i s h m e n t s where they worked. D a s Government dieses strike carried on
by a congress at M a n c h e s t e r , gebildet von Delegates sent from all t h e prin
cipal mills. An der Spitze Joseph Shipley, e i n vollstndiger M a s a n i e l l o , aber 15
a respectable m e c h a n i c . W h r e n d dieses t u r n o u t , t h e m e n who h a d
struck, were supported by the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of those who were in work u n d
die s u m s so collected beliefen sich fr eine betrchtliche Periode zu fast
1500 /. weekly, wovon M a n c h e s t e r allein an 600 zahlte. Dieser fund e i n e
Zeitlang h i n r e i c h e n d large, d e n Congress zu befhigen a weekly p a y m e n t 20
of 12 sh. d e n spinners, who h a d struck, zu m a c h e n , aber die c o n t r i b u t i o n s
u n d folglich die allowances t h a t flowed from t h e m , gradually fell off, till
they at length ceased altogether, a n d those who d e p e n d e d on t h e m , were
consigned to utter destitution. D a s H a u p t o b j e k t der w o r k m e n war to raise
t h e wages in country districts to a level with those in M a n c h e s t e r . . . . A b e r 25
die country masters, o h n e die advantages der M a n c h e s t e r m a s t e r s , are
obliged to r e d u c e t h e wages of their w o r k m e n to a lower rate, as otherwise
they would be u n a b l e to get the s a m e profit on their capital with t h e i r M a n -
chester rivals ... Zu j e n e r Zeit 4 d. gezahlt in d e n countryparts for s p i n n i n g
1
a p o u n d of cotton, N o . 40 u n d 4 / d. in M a n c h e s t e r , u n d to raise die c o u n -
2 30
try wages um % d. war das a i m der U n i o n . ... m o s t signal failure . . . Sobald
die contributions d e r e n in work failed, s u c h of t h e m e n as h a d laid by m o n -
ey in d e n T a g e n ihrer prosperity, resorted to it for support u n d so die h a r d -
earned savings von J a h r e n c o n s u m i r t in d i e s e m hopeless warfare. F u r n i -
ture, clothes, every article of comfort or c o n v e n i e n c e that their cottages 35
c o n t a i n e d , was t h e n disposed of u n d diese u n h a p p y victims of their own
folly u n d e r w e n t a series of privations, w h i c h would appear incredible to
those who do not know t h e force of pride u n d die e n d u r i n g pertinacity,
womit die english working classes will n o t unfrequently r e m a i n , w h a t they
call, true to e a c h other". N a c h 4 m o n t h s of misery k e h r t e n die m e n zu ih- 40
rer Arbeit zurck, s o m e even accepting e m p l o y m e n t zu 2 d. per p o u n d statt
30
d e n 4 d. ( 1 3 - 1 7 ) D i e hufigste U r s a c h e der strikes in d e m cotton trade war

die Einfhrung verbesserter M a s c h i n e r i e u n d speziell das e n l a r g e m e n t of
mules, wodurch die Z a h l der spindles a spinner is capable of s u p e r i n t e n d -
ing, has b e e n continually increasing. ... A m a s t e r on t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
5 solcher verbesserten M a s c h i n e r i e in sein tablissement stipulirt m i t s e i n e n
Spinners i h n e n less per piece zu zahlen, aber d o c h zu solcher rate, da, ow-
ing der greater power of t h e m a c h i n e , ihre w c h e n t l i c h e n earnings steigen
statt zu fallen ... A b e r dieser bargain injurious d e n m a s t e r s u n d m e n in
d e n manufactories ||8| where t h e improved m a c h i n e is not i n t r o d u c e d . (17,
10 18) 1824 alle spinners t u r n e d o u t in H y d e . (18) 1829 a serious t u r n o u t . A
little before this t i m e , several masters h a d erected m u l e s , carrying from
4 - 5 0 0 spindles, which e n a b l e d t h e spinners w h o worked at t h e m to receive
a less s u m in the proportion of 3 - 5 for a given quantity of work, a n d zu
gleicher Zeit to e a r n at least an e q u a l a m o u n t of wages, with those who
15 were employed on t h e old m a c h i n e r y . 21 mills u n d 10,000 persons were
thrown idle fr 6 m o n t h s d u r c h diesen strike. (19) D e r lezte grosse strike
u n t e r d e n S p i n n e r n D e c e m b e r 1830, w h e n 3000 spinners a t A s h t o n u n d
Stayley Bridge left their work, w o d u r c h 52 mills u n d 30,000 persons idle ge-
sezt fr 10 weeks. (20) In Schottland die strikes der Spinner ebenso hufig
20 u n d d e t e r m i n e d wie in E n g l a n d u n d a t t e n d e d with a greater degree of vio-
lence. (21) Sie h a b e n (diese U n i o n der spinners) d e n L o h n h o c h gehalten,
z u m D u r c h s c h n i t t w c h e n t l i c h von 30 sh., aber n u r nominell, d e n n : the
work n o t being sufficient for all, in order to prevent the s u p e r n u m e r a r i e s
from beating down the rate of wages, by working u n d e r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n
25 prices, the U n i o n is compelled to m a k e t h e m a weekly allowance for t h e i r
support; a n d the subscriptions for this purpose, as well as the other ex-
penses to which they are p u t in m a i n t a i n i n g their association are so
heavy ... da die s u m distributed a m o n g s t t h e m in wages, is n o t greater
t h a n i n other occupations u n d ihre earnings n u r n o m i n a l l y high, u n d really
30 n o t above the ordinary level. (27) Die Z a h l der zu i h r e m business Z u g e -
l a n e n zu b e s c h r n k e n gelingt i h n e n n i e . Im G e g e n t h e i l a strike invariably
introduces new w o r k m e n . M o r e t h a n 300 persons were instructed in spin-
ning, owing to the t u r n o u t in A s h t o n in 1825 u n d Mr. Lees states in his evi-
d e n c e that every general t u r n o u t without exception has e n d e d in a r e d u c -
35 tion of wages i m m e d i a t e l y after, on a c c o u n t of the influx of fresh h a n d s
causing a s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of labour. (27, 8) V o n diesen fresh h a n d s , s o m e
c a m e from the country u n d s o m e was big piecers what took to spinning.
(28) Schlielich heit es v o n dieser U n i o n der Spinner: Surely, if any
c o m b i n a t i o n could answer t h e expectations of the working classes, this
40 would be the one. It has brought the m o s t extensive m a n u f a c t u r e in t h e
world u n d e r its authority, it has e m b r a c e d in its power three k i n g d o m s , it
31
exercises by the peculiar n a t u r e of the trade, control over t e n t i m e s its own

n u m b e r of workmen, it has shewn t h e reality of these pretensions, by k e e p -
ing t h o u s a n d s out of employ for half a year at a t i m e , every favourable cir-
c u m s t a n c e has concurred to establish its efficiency, a n d it has kept up the
rate of wages, yet the m e m b e r s fail to draw from this result o n e iota of b e n - 5
efit. (26)
E i n e der extensivsten U n i o n s is t h a t formed by t h e Workmen in the Build-
ing Trades. Sehr thtig 1833, besonders in den nordwestlichen m a n u f a c t u r -
ing districts. Im spring 1833 b e g a n n dieser body operations in M a n c h e s t e r ,
Liverpool u n d d e n b e n a c h b a r t e n Stdten, by serving a requisition on t h e 10
masters, which d e m a n d e d an a b a n d o n m e n t of the practice of erecting
buildings on the system of contracts. Of late years n m l i c h die c u s t o m
eingefhrt in einigen b r a n c h e s des building d e p a r t m e n t . Contracte e i n z u -
g e h n m i t m i d d l e m a n or agent, who contracted for the entire building m i t
d e n B a u m e i s t e r n ... der contractor b o u n d himself to furnish whatever was 15
required for the construction of the whole edifice ... die masters led in
diese Praxis d u r c h d e n W u n s c h ihrer customers, d e n e n er sehr b e q u e m ,
since it enabled t h e m to obtain the estimate for any work from a single per-
son versed in such calculations, who would be responsible for its comple-
t i o n at the c o m p u t e d price, u n d m a c h t e die deception u n d inaccuracy bei 20
B e r e c h n u n g des Kostenpreisses m i t einer Masse n i c h t m i t e i n a n d e r ver-
knpfter trades u n m g l i c h . D i e m e i s t e n masters i n d e complied m i t der
request ihrer workmen to lay it aside. (29, 30) Ein Theil der Kerls n a n n t e n
sich: The Operative Societies of Bricklayers. Das C o m m i t t e e der U n i o n
issued a series of regulations, requiring the masters to abide by certain 25
rules respecting the equalization of wages, the n u m b e r of apprentices they
were to take, the use of m a c h i n e r y , a n d a variety of other m a t t e r s , all m o r e
or less restrictive, a n d consequently injurious to the free transactions of
business. D i e masters, die diesen laws n i c h t gehorchten, entweder ge-
zwungen to s u b m i t to t h e fine willkhrlich von der U n i o n i h n e n auferlegt, 30
oder ein Edict was issued by t h a t body to the w o r k m e n of any refractory
master", in Folge wovon er verlassen von seinen j o u r n e y m e n u n d u n a b l e to
complete the contracts a n d other work t h e n in progress. ( 3 1 , 2) T h e c o m -
m a n d s to cease working, issued by the C o m m i t t e e s of the U n i o n were in
every case implicitly obeyed. (34) U n t e r diesen U m s t n d e n beschlossen die 35
masters to employ no workmen, except such as should sign a declaration,
t h a t they did n o t belong to a T r a d e s ' U n i o n . ... D a r a u f general t u r n o u t ...
6 M o n a t e fast bestndig die grossen B a u t e n in M a n c h e s t e r , ||9| Liverpool
etc u n t e r b r o c h e n ... die c o n s u m p t i o n of bricks in Liverpool reducirt sofort
von a million weekly to 20,000. (34) D i e masters h a t t e n k e i n e n Versuch zur 40
R e d u c t i o n der wages g e m a c h t ... die earnings der j o u r n e y m e n in d e n
32
building trades war nie weniger als 24 sh. w h r e n d der lezten 20 J a h r e ; zur
very Zeit der strikes, die wages der bricklayers h a d b e e n increased 3 sh.
weekly u n d viele von dieser class of m e n were in the habit of earning 35 sh.
a week, whrend der s u m m e r m o n t h s , by working longer h o u r s t h a n u s u a l .
5 Betrachtet m a n die Preisse der provisions zu verschiednen P e r i o d e n - fol-
gende table of prices of provisions at M a n c h e s t e r - so sieht m a n , da der
L o h n erhht, fast verdoppelt.
1813. 1833.
s. d. s. d.
10 Flour (good seconds) per 12 pounds 4 2 2 2
Butcher meat, good, per pound 0 8 0 6
Dto coarse, per pound 0 6% 0. 5
Bacon per pound Oil 0. 6
Cheese per pound 0 9 0 7
15 Potatoes, per load of 240 pounds 12 0 4 6
Butter per 112 pounds 126 0 90 0
Soap per pound 0 9 0 6
Coals per pound 0 8 0 5%
Salt per pound 0 3 0 0
20 Candles per pound 1 0 0 6
In clothing diese wages g e m e s s e n ist n o c h grsser.
1810 1833.
s. d. s. d.
Linen per yard 1 8 0 9
25 Strong Calico per yard 0 10 0 4
Printed Calico, per yard 2 2 0 7.
Die masters versuchten frische Arbeiter aus a n d r e n T h e i l e n E n g l a n d s zu

verschaffen, aber in Folge der I n t i m i d a t i o n m i t wenig Erfolg. Die shops der
masters bestndig bewacht d u r c h Piquets von 3 - 4 m e n , die abgelst wur-
30 den at certain intervals, u n d d e n e n es im D u r c h s c h n i t t gelang d u r c h D r o -
h u n g e n n e u e Arbeiter z u v e r h i n d e r n fr e m p l o y m e n t sich z u m e l d e n , u n d
wenn any such irgend wie engagirt wurden, the buildings where they
worked were s u r r o u n d e d by U n i o n i s t s , who, by hooting u n d a n d r e effectua-
lere m o d e s of a n n o y a n c e , d e n progress der work zu v e r h i n d e r n s u c h t e n . In
35 der Zwischenzeit die w o r k m e n in d e m b u i l d i n g trade von ganz E n g l a n d
vom Geist der c o m b i n a t i o n ergriffen u n d beschlossen eine allgemeine
U n i o n zu g r n d e n , wahrscheinlich instigated by their Lancashire b r e t h r e n .
A scheme von R e p r e s e n t a t i w e r f a s s u n g entworfen, m e m b e r s gewhlt in d e n
verschiednen counties u n d in S e p t e m b e r last (1833 oder 34?) Builders' Par-
40 Uament sizt in England. 275 delegates, reprsentirend 30,000 wie sie sag-
ten. ( 3 5 - 3 8 ) N a c h 6 M o n a t e n m u t e n die Lancashire m e n reuig zu ihren
33
masters zurckkehren. D e r U n i o n f u n d s hatte an 18,000 /. in allowances

verzehrt u n d as the p a y m e n t s to workmen, who have t u r n e d o u t nie b e r %
ihres L o h n s , im D u r c h s c h n i t t , 4x diese s u m or 72,000 was the loss, which
t h e working builders sustained in pursuit of their i n s a n e project. Die m e i -
sten erhielten ihre Arbeit nicht zurck. Viele der buildings were discontin- 5
u e d ; die gute saison frs B a u e n war vorbei; m a n c h e ersezt d u r c h fresh la-
bourers brought from distant parts u n d d u r c h die i n t r o d u c t i o n of
m a c h i n e r y ... in the false h o p e of attaining their object, they h a d e n d u r e d
deprivations only second to actual starvation ... die failure des strike war
complet. (40, 41) T h e Derby work people are at this m o m e n t erecting facto- 10
ries by the aid of subscriptions, collected a m o n g themselves, a n d also from
brother Unionists in all parts of England, hoping by these m e a n s to draw to
their own body the profit, bis jezt von i h r e n masters g e n o m m e n . (45) |
1101 N a c h der Repeal der C o m b i n a t i o n laws in 1824 die Yorkshire workmen,
beschftigt im woollen cloth trade, s u c h t e n eine U n i o n to establish. D i e 15
d a m a l i g e n Versuche m i g l c k t e n i n d e . Die c o m b i n a t i o n s , die lately so
viel Schaden gethan in d i e s e m county, n i c h t on foot gesezt vor 3 J a h r e n
u n d begriffen im Anfang in sich n u r die w o r k m e n employed in d e m was
technically is t e r m e d the manufacturing" of woollen cloth, n m l i c h slub-
bers, spinners u n d weavers. (46, 7) E i n e der largest F a b r i k e n in Leeds, der 20
H e r r e n Gott was the first to feel the power of the U n i o n . H a t t e e b e n
e n o r m e F a b r i k m i t M a s c h i n e r i e etc fr W e b e n von fine woollen cloth er-
richtet, als alle Weber, 210 an der Z a h l t u r n e d out. Sie b e h a u p t e t e n niedri-
gere wages zu erhalten als die von a n d e r n F a b r i k a n t e n . Unwahr, averaged
17 sh. weekly. V i e l m e h r Versuch ihre n e u e power zu erproben, ob sie n i c h t 25
d e n rate of wages steigen m a c h e n k n n t e n ... D i e E s t a b l i s h m e n t gewhlt
wegen des large fixed capital. Einige W o c h e n vergeblicher t u r n o u t , till at
length die m e n , die c o n t i n u e d at their work solchen t r e a t m e n t s unterwor-
fen on entering a n d leaving the factory, being hooted, pelted, u n d a n n o y e d
in other ways, da die proprietors, receiving no support or c o u n t e n a n c e 30
from other manufacturers, auf die vorgeschlagnen t e r m s eingingen. A b e r
die H e r r e n G o t t n a h m e n n u r die h i n r e i c h e n d e Z a h l von W e b e r n zurck t o
work the looms in the old part of their establishment, leaving their newly
erected building u n u s e d . They soon after disposed of all the m a c h i n e r y it
contained ... Der success dieses contest fhrte zu einer coalition der U n - 35
ion m i t d e n w o r k m e n engaged in d e n various processes of finishing" as
well as milling or fulling" woollen cloth, a n d since t h a t period, the trade
has hardly ever b e e n free from strikes, a n d t h e w o r k m e n have wielded an
almost irresistible power over the property of their masters. ( 4 7 - 4 9 ) D e r
n e x t step der U n i o n was to draw up a list of wages to be paid for spinning, 40
weaving etc, publicirt in d e n newspapers u n d also on sheets of paper, z u m
34
purpose of being t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e millowners a n d small m a n u f a c t u r e r s .

Das d o c u m e n t was h e a d e d "A scale of prices to be observed by millowners,
manufacturers etc" u n d h a t t e als A n h a n g einige regulations b e r die ad-
mission of boys u n d die p r o p o r t i o n worin sie a n z u w e n d e n relatively to t h e
5 n u m b e r of adults. ... D e r grssere T h e i l der m a s t e r s gab n a c h u n d their
n a m e s were carefully set forth in t h e 3 newspapers published at Leeds. D i e
w o r k m e n c o n t e n d e d d a dieser scale k e i n rise of wages, s o n d e r n n u r eine
e q u a l i z a t i o n " derselben, it b e i n g a principal object of their association to
c o m p e l the m a s t e r s to pay every operative, good or b a d , an e q u a l s u m for
10 his labour. (49, 50) Trotz dieses advance h a t t e n die w o r k m e n n i c h t d e n er-
warteten G e w i n n . Sie either sent their yarn to be woven in t h e n e i g h b o u r -
ing villages, or stopped part of their works entirely ... Einige m a n u f a c t u r e r s
entschlpften d e n losses by m a k i n g alterations in spinning t h e yarns a n d
setting t h e webs, was leztres h e i t t h e fixing of the geer or reed in w h i c h
15 t h e cloth is woven, a n d w h i c h varies from 36 to 110 portions of 38 t h r e a d s
each. D u r c h diese alterations gewann der m a n u f a c t u r e r dieselbe q u a n t i t y
G a r n converted into cloth of t h e s a m e n o m i n a l quality as before, u n d for
the s a m e cost per yard. . B. w e n n er vor d e r P r o m u l g a t i o n d e r scale z a h l t e
2 s. for an 80 geer u n d die scale fixed 2 s. 3 d. as t h e price of weaving per
20 string, he would weave t h e s a m e quality of wool in a 76 geer, at 2 s., m a k i n g
s u c h alterations in the s p i n n i n g of yarn as were requisite. D i e U n i o n
m a c h t e n e u e regulations to m e e t this contrivance, c o u n t e r a c t e d by fresh
evasions der m a n u f a c t u r e r s , a n d t h u s a war of c u n n i n g was carried on be
tween m a s t e r s u n d m e n , worin die leztren m a n c h m a l geschlagen ... T h e
25 worst davon, d a die goodness des T u c h s was i m p a i r e d by t h e alteration of
the geer and spinning, a n d t h u s t h e p u b l i c h a d to pay in t h e deteriorated
quality of t h e cloth they p u r c h a s e d . (50, 1) D i e U n i o n m a c h t e n u n weitre
F o r d e r u n g e n . Verlangten von d e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s , in case of a c o n t r a c t i o n
of their scale of p r o d u c t i o n , n o t to discharge any of their w o r k m e n , b u t to
30 keep every l o o m a n d j e n n y going, dealing o u t t h e work, however small
might be its quantity, in e q u a l proportions to their m e n . Z u m T h e i l h i e r i n
i h n e n nachgegeben. N u n verlangten sie, n o t to stop a single o n e of t h e m a -
chines u s e d in t h e process preparatory to spinning, though, from t h e fall-
ing | | 1 1 | off of their orders, it should not be necessary to keep t h e m in work.
35 H i e r i n i h n e n vigorously W i d e r s t a n d geleistet u n d die m e n m u t e n d a v o n
abstehn. (52) N u n d e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s befohlen to get all their weaving a n d
spinning d o n e in Leeds a l o n e ; E i n m a s t e r pledged sich schriftlich d a z u , to
weave a n d spin all t h e cloth he m a d e on his own prmisse, at t h e prices
fixed by t h e U n i o n . D a s R e s u l t a t i h n e n n i c h t gnstig. Er r e d u c i r t e sofort
40 seine M a n u f a k t u r um % u n d took in work instead from t h e country m a n u -
facturers to scribble a n d slubb u n d folglich seiner W e b e r earnings reducirt
35
von 17 s. zu 7 s. per week u n d his spinners von 27 s. auf 10 s. N a c h 3 M o n a -

ten wollten sie, er solle wieder in der alten M a n i e r anfangen, aber vergeb-
lich. (52, 3) Da die U n i o n nie ihre Regulations publicirt hat, k a n n ein m a s -
ter sie wider W i s s e n brechen. D a n n s u m m a r y p u n i s h m e n t . Vielleicht
m i t t e n in der W o c h e a signal is suddenly given by o n e of t h e m e n , every 5
o n e of w h o m , without m e n t i o n i n g the grievances, will instantly leave his
work, and in 5 m i n u t e s the factory will be deserted. So E i n F a b r i k a n t ge-
straft durch a t u r n o u t von 8 Tagen, weil er discharged a w o r k m a n for negli-
gence u n d changed an overlooker from o n e d e p a r t m e n t to another. (55, 6)
T h e most effectual m o d e of compelling every w o r k m a n to j o i n the c o m b i - 10
n a t i o n , consisted in proscribing any factory where o n e of these "black
sheep," as the n o n - U n i o n i s t s were called, was employed. (56) Various rules
were laid down m i t Bezug auf die admission von apprentices in any m a n u -
factory, the n u m b e r being regulated by t h a t of the adults employed u n d
n i e m a n d allowed to enter as s u c h above the age of 15. E b e n s o die Z a h l der 15
boys beschrnkt u n d if any one of t h e m employed on work usually per-
formed by a m a n , he was to be paid m a n ' s wages. K e i n e m erlaubt to work
at any of the trades exercised by their body, unless he h a d served a regular
apprenticeship to t h e m , n o r could a w o r k m a n leave one d e p a r t m e n t des
business to enter another; a weaver could not b e c o m e a spinner, n o r a gig- 20
ger a s h e a r m a n etc. T h u s an excess or deficiency of w o r k m e n in any partic-
u l a r e m p l o y m e n t could not be easily r e m e d i e d . (57) T h e regulation of
these various matters implies of necessity, t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a j u d i c i a l
character, a n d the C o m m i t t e e have t a k e n u p o n themselves to decide in all
disputes between the w o r k m e n a n d their employers. ... Ihr einziges Mittel 25
ihre orders zu enforce is by ordering a strike. (58) N u n , da der strike i m m e r
populr the power of the C o m m i t t e e ist confined to m e a s u r e s of active
hostility u n d fast useless for purposes of restraint. (59) Die Organisation
der w o r k m e n in d e n stuff und worsted trades, deren m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes
ganz distinct from the woollen, is as perfect u n d prcis auf d e n s e l b e n Prin- 30
cipien begrndet. (59) D e r strike (1833) bei Messrs. H i n d e s u n d D e r h a m ,
der dieser U n i o n (die Distrikte in Leeds, Halifax, Bradford etc) an 4000
kostete verursachte die invention of a wool-combing machine, which wholly
superseded the labour of t h a t class of m e n , who were the chief ringleaders
in this affair, and which has struck a blow at their c o m b i n a t i o n , that it can 35
never recover. (61, 2) W h e n a strike takes place, a n d any of those who j o i n
in it are m u c h in arrear with their subscriptions, they are disabled by the
rules from receiving any assistance from the general funds. T h e enforcing
of this regulation is obviously necessary to prevent bankruptcy, a n d yet it
never can be enforced, for the manifest reason, that a refusal to support 40
those who are in arrear, would c o m p e l t h e m to accept e m p l o y m e n t at any
36
w
price, a n d the object of a t u r n o u t would be defeated. (64, 5) F r c h t e r l i c h e

Eide etc i m m e r geschworen bei d e m Eintritt in diese U n i o n s . (74 u n d
alias) Im Lauf von 3 J a h r e n , 10 lives were lost in D u b l i n in Folge von c o m -
binations, u n d in no instance were the m u r d e r e r s brought to justice. (76)
5 Die hatters in L o n d o n struck in 1820, d e m a n d i n g an increase of 1 sh. per
12 h a t s ; a n d after staying o u t for 15 weeks, they accepted e m p l o y m e n t from
their masters at a decrease of 1 sh., instead of a rise of t h a t s u m . (77) Wo
die L o h n e r h h u n g erreicht, sie n u r n o m i n e l l e n Vortheil davon; sei es d a
die high wages m o r e labourers in diesen trade zogen als can be supplied m i t
10 work u n d die folglich m u s t be supported von d e n e n die get work, else the
competition of their n u m b e r s will beat down the advance t h a t has b e e n o b -
tained; oder von der expense of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e various b u r d e n s w h i c h a
c o m b i n a t i o n entails, wie clerks, secretaries, delegates, m e e t i n g r o o m s , von
d e m falling off of c o n s u m p t i o n in Folge des Steigens des Preisses, v o m
15 Wegtreiben der M a n u f a c t u r etc. (77, 78) |
|12| Die U n i o n in d e n W o r s t e d M a n u f a c t u r e s von der e b e n gesprochen
u n d die sich n a n n t e The N a t i o n a l Friendly Society of operative worsted
manufacturers (die b r i g e n U n i o n s in d e n clothing districts n a c h densel-
b e n Prinzipien established) war folgendermaassen eingerichtet: das c o u n -
20 try divided in districts", j e d e deren c o n t a i n s a certain n u m b e r of lodges" or
separate clubs of workmen. J e d e r District whlt a governing c o m m i t t e e u n d
sendet Delegaten (deren Z a h l proportionirt der quantity of lodges" it c o m -
prises) zu der grandlodge", h e l d twice a year. In d i e s e m grandlodge m e e t -
ing ist das grand c o m m i t t e e " or council of direction gewhlt, das allein
25 das R e c h t hat of deciding u p o n strikes, w h e n the object is to raise wages; to
prevent reductions the district authorities are empowered to order strikes.
Der place of M e e t i n g der grandlodge jhrlich gewechselt; die Delegates, die
it bilden, bezahlt n a c h der distance they have to travel. M o n a t l i c h e r Be-
richt jeder lodge, w h i c h c o n t a i n s an a c c o u n t of all its receipts a n d disburse-
30 m e n t s , a n d also of its general condition. Diese reports c o m m u n i c a t e d d e m
Sekretr der grandlodge", der sie d e n several districts vertheilt. F u l l m e m -
bers h a b e n zu zahlen 1 s. e n t r a n c e money, u n d 3 d. weekly u n d are entitled
to receive, when they have struck work, a weekly allowance of 7 s. ausser
1 s. for a wife u n d 1 sh. for each child u n d e r 10, that is u n e m p l o y e d . (62,
35 3)
Herr Jackson, a m a n u f a c t u r e r von Sheffield, sagt vor d e m C o m m i t t e e
des H o u s e of C o m m o n s : "if t r a d e has b e e n remarkably brisk, a n d the de-
m a n d m a d e by the w o r k m e n has mostly b e e n for an exorbitant price, this
price has been m a i n t a i n e d for a very short t i m e , for a m o n t h , perhaps, to
40 execute the orders on h a n d , b u t t h e price of goods was in c o n s e q u e n c e so
far a u g m e n t e d , as to stop the d e m a n d in our foreign markets, a n d a subse-
37
q u e n t reaction taking place, it has b e e n ascertained, that after a t u r n o u t of

workmen, a n d a c o n s e q u e n t a u g m e n t a t i o n in t h e price of goods, every
third season, or every third half year (as t h e A m e r i c a n orders c o m e usually
2x a year) t h e price h a s fallen m u c h below t h e previous level." (78, 9)
(Trotz a l l e d e m s a g t er a n d e r s e i t s w i e d e r (p. 78) d a die c o m b i n a t i o n s d e n 5
rate of wages aufrecht h a l t e n , w e n n das a u c h n i c h t d e m e i n z e l n e n Arbeiter
zu G u t k o m m e ) Paisley u n d Macclesfield owe their rise to t h e high wages
d e m a n d e d i n Spitalfields; u n d Macclesfield i n t u r n h a t aus d e n s e l b e n
G r n d e n e i n e n Theil seines silk trade an M a n c h e s t e r verloren, ( b e r h a u p t
in der Nachbarschaft von Leeds etc etc oft die n e i g h b o u r i n g villages in 10
dieser Art in die H h e gebracht.) ... Irland h a t vielleicht am m e i s t e n in
dieser Art verloren. Owing der U n i o n in D u b l i n , planks c a n be cut into
boards 35 % wohlfeiler in Liverpool als in that town; d a d u r c h der Schiffbau
i m m e r m e h r i n Irland a b n e h m e n d etc etc. (80) Z h l t d a n n (83 sqq F l l e
auf, z . B . N g e l m a c h e n in Sheffield etc wo in Folge der c o m b i n a t i o n s die 15
M a n u f a c t u r e s n a c h fremden L n d e r n ausgewandert u n d der h o m e trade
decayed.) Zwei curious facts bewiesen d u r c h die history of t u r n o u t s : 1) that
they are hardly ever resorted to, except by those, who habitually receive
high wages, u n d 2) t h a t t h e t i m e of their o c c u r r e n c e is almost invariably
w h e n trade is prosperous. . B. in c o t t o n s p i n n i n g mills i m m e r die S a c h e 20
v o n d e n spinners a u s g e h e n d . Als 1829 die fine spinners in M a n c h e s t e r an
1000 t u r n e d out, they refused work, w o d u r c h sie v o n 3 0 - 3 5 sh. clear e i n e
W o c h e m a c h e n k o n n t e n . Als 52 mills u n d 30,000 persons were t h r o w n idle
w h r e n d 10 W o c h e n 1830, zu A s h t o n u n d U m g e g e n d , by t h e t u r n i n g out of
3000 coarse spinners, these m e n could earn weekly von 28 s. bis 31 sh. 25
clear. Im woollen trade die weavers u n d im worsted die C o m b e r s , die von
1 6 - 2 0 s. weekly, sind die ringleaders. (86, 7) Jackson sagt vor d e m C o m m i t -
tee of M a n u f a c t u r e s a n d C o m m e r c e , 1833, von d e n c o m b i n a t i o n s in Shef-
field: S o m e of these c o m b i n a t i o n s have lasted o h n e U n t e r l a seit 1810;
b u t others have b e e n b r o k e n up every r e t u r n i n g period of b a d t r a d e ; b u t as 30
soon as trade b e c o m e s better, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s spring up afresh." Mr. Dun-
lop sagt vor d e m C o m b i n a t i o n C o m m i t t e e 1824: "they never t u r n out w h e n
t h e trade is b a d . " (87[, 88]) E i n e der worst features dieser Societies ist
ihre hostility to piece or task work a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t d i s c o u r a g e m e n t
they give to t h e exercise of superior skill a n d industry. "The m a n who does 35
task-work," sagt das T r a d e s - U n i o n M a g a z i n e "is guilty of less defensible
c o n d u c t t h a n a drunkard. T h e worst passions of o u r n a t u r e are enlisted in
support of y 131 taskwork. Avarice, m e a n n e s s , c u n n i n g , hypocrisy, all excite
a n d feed u p o n the miserable victim of taskwork, while debility a n d destitu-
t i o n look out for the last morsel of their prey. A m a n , who earns by task- 40
work 40 s. per week, t h e u s u a l wages by day being 20 s., robs his fellow of a
38
week's e m p l o y m e n t . " Sie wollen e q u a l i z a t i o n of wages". (92, 3) In d e n

meisten Statuten d a h e r the penalty of 2 s. 6 d. or expulsion from the So-
ciety, on any m e m b e r , who should "be k n o w n to boast of his superior abil-
ity as to either the quantity or quality of work he can do, either in public or
5 private Company". (93) In those places where c o m b i n a t i o n s h a v e b e e n
most frequent a n d powerful, a c o m p l e t e separation of feeling seems to h a v e
taken place between masters a n d m e n . E a c h party looks on the other as an
enemy. (97)
In some places Benefit Societies, legally enrolled, have b e e n m a d e the
10 cloak for c o m b i n a t i o n s . (103) S o m e of the m o s t valuable a n d i n g e n i o u s
m a c h i n e s ... actually owe their existence to t h e operation of T r a d e s ' U n -
ions.Selfacting m u l e . (107) D e r T u r n o u t der Lancashire w o r k m e n in
d e m building trade (1833) has i n t r o d u c e d a curious application of t h e
steamengine. Diese M a s c h i n e n u n i n einigen Stdten angewandt, statt
15 m a n u a l labour, in hoisting the various building materials to the top of t h e
edifice, where they are i n t e n d e d to be used. (109)
39
Th. H. Stirling. The Question Propounded:

or, How will Great Britain ameliorate and
remedy the distresses of its workmen etc.
L o n d o n 1849.
Bldsinn. 5
40
Aus James Howard: The evils of England
The Evils of England. Social and

Economical. By a London Physician.
L o n d o n . 1848.
In der Vorrede heits: The object of the a u t h o r in these pages is, to enter
5 a strong a n d earnest protest against M e n d i c a n c y , u n d e r all its disguises;
against Charities, in m a n y of their forms; against Poor Laws, in every possi-
ble or conceivable s h a p e ; a n d against all kinds of waste. Weiser D a n i e l s !
Waste is the great cause of n a t i o n a l as of individual i m p o v e r i s h m e n t ...
T h e m o s t m o n s t r o u s waste of m a t e r i a l yet c o m m i t t e d i s t h e waste of the
10 refuse of our large towns, a n d of the liquid matters which drain away from
our farmsteads. D a s ist waste of manure. (107) waste of smoke. (108) waste
land, by millions of acres ... sturdy emigrants, by tens of t h o u s a n d s , leav-
ing our shores; a n d t h e best of all m a n u r e s , in the best a n d m o s t available
of forms, to the value of several millions a year, flowing into the sea,what
15 a picture of n a t i o n a l extravagance! (109) Emigration = waste of m e n . (120)
In England, at the present t i m e , we have n o t half the population we want to
m a k e things cheap. E m i g r a t i o n is an i n d e x of the pressure of idleness on
industry. (120) T h e aristocracy takes typhus fever u n d e r its peculiar patron-
age; the trading a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g interest adopts c o n s u m p t i o n . (132)
41
William Logan (City Missionary)

An Exposure, from Personal Observation,
of Female Prostitution.
In London, Leeds, and Rochdale,
and especially in the City of Glasgow. 5
Glasgow. 1843.
F e m a l e s h a u p t s c h l i c h der Prostitution geliefert % from being servants in

taverns a n d public houses. % from the i n t e r m i x t u r e of the sexes in facto-
ries, and those employed in warehouses, shops etc, % by procuresses, or fe-
males who visit country towns, m a r k e t s a n d places of worship, for t h e pur- 10
pose of decoying goodlooking girls, % endlich die von I n d o l e n z u n d b a d
t e m p e r leave their situations, d a n n von y o u n g m e n Betrogne, endlich
children who have b e e n urged by their m o t h e r s to b e c o m e prostitutes for a
livelihood. (13, 14) 80,000 H u r e n in L o n d o n , 4000 in Liverpool, 3000 in
Glasgow. [27] 15
42
Aus John Fielden: The curse of the factory system
John Fielden.
(Manufacturer at Todmorden in Lancashire)
The Curse of the Factory System.
L o n d o n . 1836.
5 Arkwrights inventions took m a n u f a c t u r e s o u t of the cottages a n d farm-

houses of England, where they h a d b e e n carried on by m o t h e r s , or by
daughters u n d e r t h e m o t h e r s eye, a n d assembled t h e m in the c o u n t i e s of
Derbyshire, N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e u n d besonders Lancashire, where t h e newly
invented m a c h i n e r y was u s e d in large factories built on the sides of streams
10 capable of turning the waterwheel. T h o u s a n d s of h a n d s were suddenly re-
quired in these places, r e m o t e from towns; a n d Lancashire, in particular,
being till t h e n b u t comparatively thinly p o p u l a t e d a n d barren, a p o p u l a t i o n
was all she ||14| now wanted. T h e small a n d n i m b l e fingers of little children
being by very far t h e m o s t in request, the c u s t o m instantly sprang up of
15 procuring apprentices from the different parish workhouses of L o n d o n , Bir- -
m i n g h a m and elsewhere. M a n y t h o u s a n d s of these little hapless creatures
were sent down into t h e N o r t h , being from the age of 7 - 1 3 or 14 years old.
T h e c u s t o m was for the m a s t e r to clothe his apprentices, a n d to feed a n d
lodge t h e m in an "apprentice h o u s e " n e a r the factory; overseers were a p -
20 pointed to see to the works, whose interest it was to work the children to
the utmost, because their pay was in proportion to the quantity of work t h a t
they could exact. Cruelty was, of course, the c o n s e q u e n c e ... in m a n y of
the manufacturing districts, besonders aber in Lancashire ... cruelties t h e
most heart-rending were practised u p o n the unoffending a n d friendless
25 creatures who were t h u s consigned to the charge of m a s t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s ;
they were harassed to the brink of d e a t h by excess of labour; they were
flogged, fettered, and tortured in the most exquisite refinement of cruelty; they
43
were, in m a n y cases, starved to the b o n e while flogged to their work, a n d

even in some instances, they were driven to c o m m i t suicide ... T h e b e a u t i -
ful and r o m a n t i c valleys of Derbyshire, N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , a n d Lancashire,
secluded from the public eye, b e c a m e the d i s m a l solitudes of torture, a n d
of m a n y a m u r d e r . (5, 6) D i e Profits der manufacturers waren enorm; das weite 5
nur ihren Appetit; sie begannen die Praxis of night working", i.e. having tired
o u t one set of h a n d s , by working t h e m t h r o u g h o u t t h e day, they h a d an-
other set ready to go on working t h r o u g h o u t the night; the day-set getting
into the beds that the nightset h a d j u s t quitted u n d vice versa. It is a com-
m o n tradition in Lancashire, that the beds never got cold! T h e s e outrages on 10
n a t u r e N a t u r e herself took in h a n d ; contagious m a l i g n a n t fevers broke out
a n d began to spread their ravages a r o u n d ; n e i g h b o u r h o o d s b e c a m e
alarmed; correspondences appeared in the newspapers, a n d a feeling of
general horror was excited when t h e atrocities c o m m i t t e d in those r e m o t e
glens b e c a m e even partially known. D i e masters selbst wurden von d e n 15
m a l i g n a n t fevers ergriffen, a u s s e r d e m die public voice u n d therefore they
instituted a board of H e a l t h in M a n c h e s t e r , der 1796 e i n e n R e p o r t m a c h t e ,
worin es unter anderm heit: 1) It appears that the children a n d others
who work in the large cotton factories are peculiarly disposed to be affected
by the contagion of fever u n d es rasch zu propagiren. 2) the large factories 20
are generally injurious to the constitution of those employed in t h e m , even
where no particular diseases prevail, from the close c o n f i n e m e n t which is
enjoined, from the debilitating effects of hot or i m p u r e air, a n d from want
of the active exercises which n a t u r e points out as essential in childhood
a n d youth, to invigorate t h e system, a n d to fit our species for t h e employ- 25
m e n t a n d for the duties of m a n h o o d . 3) T h e u n t i m e l y l a b o u r of the night,
a n d the protracted labour of the day, with respect to children, n o t only
t e n d s to d i m i n i s h future expectations as to the general s u m of life a n d in-
dustry, by impairing the strength a n d destroying the vital s t a m i n a of the
rising generation, b u t it too often gives e n c o u r a g e m e n t to idleness, extra- 30
vagance, and profligacy in parents, who, contrary to the order of n a t u r e ,
subsist by the oppression of their offspring. It appears t h a t children e m -
ployed in factories are generally debarred from all opportunities of educa-
tion, a n d from m o r a l and religious instruction. (6, 7) G e s c h a h i n d e nichts
bis 1802, wo Sir R. Peel procured an Act (42 G e o . 3. c. 73) to regulate the 35
l a b o u r of apprentice children worked in factories. (7) D e r A p p r e n t i c e Akt,
b u t gradually, wore out the newly-adopted m o d e of taking factory appren-
tices; for, as the masters would work the long hours, they now h a d recourse
to the children of parents on the spot; which it b e c a m e easier for t h e m to
do, as, about this time, the application of steam power to cottonfactories, by 40
Watt, was getting into vogue; so that the moving power, which before h a d
44
b e e n waterfalls, a n d which, of course, could only be h a d by building t h e

factory on the stream, was now, an engine, that could be p u t up in t h e
m i d s t of ||15| the people wherever they could be found; u n d da sich auf
diese Kinder der vorige A k t n i c h t bezog, 1816 Sir R. Peel procured a C o m -
5 mittee of the H o u s e of C o m m o n s to e x a m i n e into the expediency of a Bill
to apply the provisions of the Act above n a m e d to all children worked in
factories. (8, 9) A u s der E v i d e n c e des Sir R. Peel selbst geht hervor that, af-
ter the passing of the Factory A p p r e n t i c e Act, the children of very poor
people were brought into t h e mills, and, n o t being apprenticed, were
10 worked during the long h o u r s prohibited to apprentices. (10) N a c h der Evi-
d e n c e von J o h n Moss, overseer of Backbarrow Mill, bei Preston, der A p -
prentice Akt constantly set at n o u g h t . T h e witness did n o t even know of it.
Die children in der mill waren fast alle apprentices von L o n d o n parishes;
they were worked von 5 Morgens bis 8 in der N a c h t , das ganze J a h r durch,
15 mit n u r 1 S t u n d e fr die 2 m e a l s ... invariably they worked von 6 am S o n n -
tag M o r g e n bis 12, in cleaning the m a c h i n e r y for the week. D a b e i m u t e n
sie w h r e n d der g a n z e n Zeit s t e h n ; keine seats in der mill. D i e K i n d e r
fielen oft h i n u p o n the mill floor u n d schliefen dort ein. (10) It is evident
that the long h o u r s of work were brought a b o u t by t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e of so
20 great a n u m b e r of destitute children being supplied from the different parts
of the country, that the masters were i n d e p e n d e n t of the h a n d s ; a n d that,
having once established t h e c u s t o m by m e a n s of the miserable materials
which they procured in this way, they could i m p o s e it on their n e i g h b o u r s
with the greater facility. (11) Am 6 J u n e 1815 Sir R. Peel (der Vater des
25 B e r h m t e n ) first m o v e d to bring in his bill. An d i e s e m Tag sagte
Mr. Horner: "It h a d b e e n k n o w n t h a t with a b a n k r u p t ' s effects, a gang, if he
might use the term, of these children h a d b e e n p u t up to sale, a n d were ad-
vertised publicly, as a part of the property. A m o s t atrocious instance h a d
c o m e before the King's B e n c h 2 years ago, in which a n u m b e r of t h e s e
30 boys, apprenticed by a parish in L o n d o n to o n e manufacturer, h a d b e e n
transferred to another, a n d h a d b e e n found by s o m e benevolent persons in
a state of absolute famine. A n o t h e r case, m o r e horrible, h a d c o m e to his
knowledge, while on a c o m m i t t e e upstairs; that, n o t m a n y years ago, an
agreement h a d b e e n m a d e between a L o n d o n parish a n d a L a n c a s h i r e
35 manufacturer, by which it was stipulated t h a t with every 20 sound children,
one idiot should be taken." (11, 12) Obgleich die M o t i o n Peel's carried,
1815, die Bill erst passed 1819. Aufgeschoben d u r c h das appointing of t h e
c o m m i t t e e to inquire. T h e provisions des Act were: 1) that no child u n t e r
9 Jahren in einer cotton s p i n n i n g factory angewandt werden solle; 2) d a
40 kein Kind u n t e r 16 J a h r e n in einer solchen Fabrik m e h r als 12 S t u n d e n
whrend des Tages, exclusive of the m e a l t i m e s , angewandt w e r d e n solle.
45
(12) universal is the c o m p l a i n t of "sair tired," a n d of swelled legs, ankles,

feet, h a n d s , a n d arms, t h a t it almost seems as if o n e voice spoke t h e facts.
(21) it is t h e factory system of overworking, which, in its purest state, t e n d s to
corrupt t h e m o r a l s of y o u n g people, a n d in its t o o general state, is t h e cause
of languor so excessive, that exciting drink and o p i u m e a t i n g are b u t too of- 5
ten resorted to for relief. (28) T h e labour now u n d e r g o n e in t h e factories is
m u c h greater t h a n it used to be, owing to t h e greater a t t e n t i o n a n d activity
required by t h e greatly increased speed which is given to t h e m a c h i n e r y
t h a t t h e children have to a t t e n d to, w h e n we c o m p a r e it with what it was 30
or 40 years ago. (32) as i m p r o v e m e n t s in m a c h i n e r y have g o n e on, t h e "ava- 10
rice of m a s t e r s " h a s p r o m p t e d m a n y to exact m o r e labour from their h a n d s
t h a n they were fitted by n a t u r e to perform. (34) 1832, wo Dr Kay sein B u c h
schrieb, Cholera b r a c h t e die F a b r i k a t e n in M a n c h e s t e r wie in 1796 wieder
in grosse Angst u n d zu e i n e m Special Board of H e a l t h . (38) E i n K i n d in
einer factory hat tglich to walk, in following t h e s p i n n i n g m a c h i n e , 15
20 miles in 12 hours, u n d w e n n d i e M a s c h i n e n rascher g e h n 2 5 - 3 0 . (40)
W e n n 3 N a t i o n e n , . B. England, F r a n k r e i c h , ||16| N o r d a m e r i k a in M e x i c o
c o n c u r r i r e n , so m s s e n sie zu denselben Preissen verkaufen. W h a t these
m a n u f a c t u r e r s take in r e t u r n from M e x i c o , m u s t be sold at such a price in
their respective countries, as will e n a b l e t h e m to go on m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A n d 20
t h u s , t h e a p p a r e n t dearness of m a n u f a c t u r i n g in one country, as c o m p a r e d
with another, falls on t h e c o n s u m e r s in that country, a n d is paid in t h e
price charged on the returns that t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r brings back. (55)
Dr Bowring statuirt: C o n s u m t i o n von cotton in E u r o p a u n d A m e r i c a
1,500,000 bales, jhrlich, die bales, von 300 lbs im D u r c h s c h n i t t . D a v o n 25
c o n s u m i r t fast %, 940,000 bales, in G r e a t Britain, % 280,000 bales in
x
F r a n c e , 216,000 bales oder nearly % in A m e r i c a , 64,000 bales, nearly / in u
other parts. A d d i t i o n a l cost of french cotton goods above those of E n g l a n d ,

average 3 0 - 4 0 % . Inferiority of french m a c h i n e r y , 2 5 % . Ditto of french la-
b o u r 20 %. (57) 30
Die A m e r i c a n s , w h r e n d a period von 18 J a h r e n vor 1833 could pur-
chase in England, m i t d e n proceeds of 300 lbs of U p l a n d cotton, on an av-
erage of these years, n u r 24 pieces of 74-cloth; aber 1833 k o n n t e n sie m i t
d e n s e l b e n proceeds 30 pieces kaufen. 1834 k o n n t e n sie 29 pieces kaufen
u n d 1835 - 32 pieces. An increase of 33%. W h r e n d der 18 J a h r e vor 35
1833 k o n n t e n die A m e r i c a n s m i t d e n proceeds of 300 lbs cotton n u r
131 lbs of 30 h a n k s water twist kaufen; 1833, 177 lbs; 1834, 178 lbs, 1835,
190 lbs. Increase of 45 %. W h r e n d der 18 J a h r e vor 1833 k o n n t e n die A m e -
ricans m i t d e n proceeds von 300 lbs of cotton n u r 86 lbs'of half-ell velvet-
eens kaufen, 1835, 136 lbs. An increase of 58 %. W h r e n d der 18 J a h r e vor 40
1833 k o n n t e n sie, m i t d e n 300 lbs cotton kaufen n u r 15% pieces of 2 8 - i n c h
46
72 powerloom cloth. D e r average, 1836, war 24 pieces for the s a m e . I n -

crease of 53 %. 1826 u n d 7, die A m e r i c a n s , m i t d e n 300 lbs, could p u r c h a s e
n u r 344 yards of domestic, or stout cloth.
1828-9 365 yards, an increase of 6 per cent

5 1830-1 388 12
1832-3 464 34
1834-5 564 64.
Die 5 hier gewhlten Artikel sind leading articles, into which a very great
proportion of the cotton i m p o r t e d in E n g l a n d is worked up ... H a d t h e
10 manufacturers a n d the cottongrowers c o m e in close contact with e a c h
other, a n d exchanged a n d t a k e n away e a c h of t h e m their c o m m o d i t i e s in
bulk, the eyes of the british m a n u f a c t u r e r s would long ago h a v e b e e n
opened, a n d a stop would have b e e n p u t to the losing g a m e we h a v e pur-
sued. (60)
47
Samuel Laing:
National Distress. Its Causes and Remedies.
Atlas Prize Essay.
L o n d o n . 1844.
( A u s der V o r r e d e g e h t hervor, d a d a s B u c h g e s c h r i e b e n 1842, O c t o b e r 5

u n d N o v e m b e r , towards t h e e n d of a crisis of u n e x a m p l e d severity et dura-
tion.) [V, VI]
Part I. Nature and Extent of the Existing Distress.
Declared value of exports of british produce a n d m a n u f a c t u r e s to the Brit-

ish West I n d i e s : 10
Years of Slavery. Years of freedom

1830 2,838,448 1838 3,393,441
1831 2,581,949 1839 3,986,598
1832 2,439,808 1840 3,574,970. (4 Note)
Der a m o u n t of i n c o m e actually assessed to the property tax in 1 8 1 4 - 1 5 be- 15

lief sich auf 166,222,128 I. exclusive of all i n c o m e s below 50 I. a year. D i e
returns of Sir R. Peel's property tax show that in 1842 das i n c o m e des c o u n -
try, exclusive of i n c o m e s below 150 1., exceeded 180,000,000 I. (5 N o t e ) D a s
jhrliche E i n k o m m e n Englands m i n d e s t e n s 350 Millionen. N u n die N a -
tionalschuld = 760 Mill., also k a u m two years' purchase of the n a t i o n a l in- 20
c o m e ; u n d der jhrliche Zins darauf = 29,000,000 m a c h t n u r 8 - 9 % u p o n
this i n c o m e . N i m m t m a n die ganze Steuerlast zu 50 Mill., so berschreitet
sie nicht 15 % on the n a t i o n a l i n c o m e . (6)
48
Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress
1841 - u n t e r der strengen A n w e n d u n g des n e u e n A r m e n g e s e t z e s , offiziel-

ler Pauperismus in E n g l a n d u n d W a l e s 1,300,928 persons, 1 auf 12 in einer
Bevlkerung von 15,911,725 oder 8%. (9) Captain Miller, s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
of police, 11171 sagt von d e m Hauptlumpenproletarierviertel von Glasgow:
5 There is concentrated every thing t h a t is wretched, dissolute, l o a t h s o m e ,
and pestilential. (11) In Glasgow v o m T y p h u s attacked:
1836 10,092
1837 21,800
1838 9,792
10 1839 8,085
1840 15,290
Total 62,051. (12)
In Liverpool auf 25 Arbeiter 1 Typhuskranker; 8000 bewohnte Keller, de-

ren occupants geschzt werden auf 3 5 - 4 0 , 0 0 0 . N a c h Dr D u n c a n % der wor-
15 king classes in Liverpool leben in courts. (13) (175,000 Arbeiter in Liver-
pool. [13]) Zieht m a n d u r c h das C e n t r u m v o n Leeds eine Linie v o m
N o r d e n z u m S d e n , so sind die deaths on the east side of the line = 1:24
(wo die r m r e n Klassen wohnen), in d e m a n d r e n Theil = 1:36. Beide ratios
high, the average mortality of E n g l a n d being only about 1:48. (15) In Bir-
20 m i n g h a m leben 49,016 persons in courts narrow, filthy, illventilated u n d
badly drained. D i e police returns show 122 m e n d i c a n t s ' lodging houses,
252 Irish lodging houses, 314 i n h a b i t e d by c o m m o n prostitutes, 81 h o u s e s
noted als D i e b s w a a r e n h e h l e r r u m e u n d 228 als Resort fr thieves. (I.e.)
Scotch destitution has g o n e a step b e y o n d english, a n d arrived, like that of
25 Ireland, at a point at which all other evils are swallowed up in t h e u r g e n t
a n d everpresent danger of literal d e a t h from starvation. (17 Note) in W h i t e -
chapel, m i t a p o p u l a t i o n von 71,758 die average a n n u a l mortality is
= 1:26, a ratio as h i g h as t h a t of the m o s t u n g e s u n d e n Fabrikstadt. D i e
Durchschnittsmortality in d e n 4 districts von W h i t e c h a p e l , Bethnalgreen,
30 St. Giles, St. George, Southwark u n d Bermondsey, die z u s a m m e n eine p o p -
ulation von 281,264 der labouring, m a n u f a c t u r i n g u n d poorer classes ent-
halten, ist = 1:30 u n d in allen diesen Distrikts das typhus fever, t h e u n e r -
ring sign of social misery and degradation, is firmly established, a n d m a k e s
periodical ravages ... In d e m aristocratic parish of St. George's, H a n o v e r -
35 square die Sterblichkeitsrate = 1:51, u n d in d e n respectable districts of M a -
rylebone u n d St. Paneras = 1:49. (17)
49
Extent of Destitution in large towns etc.

Condition of Handloom weavers and other classes
of unskilled manufacturing operatives.
In Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester, Leeds u n d eastern parts von L o n d o n a

large proportion, in m a n y instances % der c o m m o n labouring population, 5
are compelled to live u n d e r circumstances w h i c h necessarily imply an ex-
t r e m e degree of suffering a n d degradation. ... In d e n agricultural districts
von Yorkshire, D u r h a m , N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , C u m b e r l a n d u n d W e s t m o r e -
land, die average n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s von je 1000 who arrive at t h e age
of 70, is 204, in L o n d o n 104, in B i r m i n g h a m 8 1 , in Leeds 79, in Liverpool 10
u n d M a n c h e s t e r 63. I n L o n d o n u n d d e n Fabrikdistrikts die D u r c h s c h n i t t s -
sterblichkeit der K i n d e r u n t e r 5 J a h r e n fast doppelt als in d e n healthy rural
districts. (19, 20) Folgende analysis der p o p u l a t i o n of Leeds, given von R o -
bert Baker, Esq., in the Sanitary Reports, zeigt folgendes:
Persons having sedentary occupations 1,586 15

Persons having perambulatory occupations 967
Professions 292
Merchants 427
Persons working in mines 130
General outdoor labour and handicraft 3,988 20
Indoorlabour and handicraft 13,455
Dyers 665
In trade 2,799
Not in business 1,905
Persons under 15 years without occupations 31,056 25
Other persons without occupations 21,990
Persons employed in manufacture 8,363
Total 87,613. (20)
( c o n t i n u a t i o p. 21) |
50
Aus Edinburgh Review. Vol. 67. 1838
Ii8| Edinburgh Review, (vol. 67 April 1838)

Trades' Unions and Strikes.
The G o t h i c ages b e q u e a t h e d to m o d e r n E u r o p e a very peculiar organiza-
tion of the industrious ranks. T h e y were arranged over the whole of E u r o p e ,
into incorporations or G u i l d s , which were erected into legal incorporations
by Royal Charters, a n d were invested with a large proportion of t h e politi-
cal power, conceded in those t i m e s to t h e Burghs of the K i n g d o m . (211)
But with the gradual decay of the incorporated trades, the progressive cur-
tailing of their exclusive privileges, a n d the total merging of their political
influence sprangen auf die T r a d e s ' U n i o n s ... Mr H u m e ' s Act, passed in
1824, first gave t h e m t h e sanction of law. (212) Vor d e m C o m m i t t e e b e r
die c o m b i n a t i o n laws (1824) h e i t es von der evidence u. a.: "the evidence
a d d u c e d before this C o m m i t t e e proved that the C o m b i n a t i o n laws h a d
b e e n inefficient in repressing those associations of workmen, which h a d so
often dictated to their masters the rate of wages, t h e h o u r s a n d m a n n e r of
working. There was hardly a t r a d e in the three k i n g d o m s (the typefounders
in L o n d o n excepted) in which t h e j o u r n e y m e n were n o t regularly organ-
ized a n d were n o t prepared to assist with m o n e y , to a great extent, any
body of workmen, who chose to stand o u t against their employers. Of these,
the tailors were the best organized. It appeared that the whole body of
j o u r n e y m e n tailors is divided into two classes, d e n o m i n a t e d flints a n d
dungs; the former work by the day, and receive all equal wages; t h e latter
work generally by the piece. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of houses of call for the
flints, each of which elects a delegate; the delegates again elect five of their
n u m b e r s , called t h e town, who rule the whole trade with u n l i m i t e d power.
T h e whisper is spread a m o n g t h e b o d y that there is to be a strike; a n d , with-
out discussing the subject, they strike whenever they are ordered to do so."
(212, 13) T h e old Corporations were defensive Associations, by t h e masters
51
a n d w o r k m e n in particular trades, t a k e n as a whole, against the violence

a n d injustice of the feudal lords, or t h e arbitrary exactions of t h e Sover-
eign; die C o m b i n a t i o n s sind Union, or C o m b i n a t i o n of the w o r k m e n
against their masters. (213) (defensive c o m b i n a t i o n s , of the w o r k m e n
against their own employers. 214) they are p e r m a n e n t l y in operation, a n d 5
the fetters they impose, especially on the working class i m m e d i a t e l y below
the skilled operatives, are often galling a n d oppressive in the highest de-
gree. (214) Will der m a s t e r e i n e n w o r k m a n a n w e n d e n , der n i c h t zur Asso-
ciation gehrt, the whole c o m b i n e d w o r k m e n in his e m p l o y m e n t i m m e d i -
ately strike; a n d he is left with his new h a n d , in the m i d s t perhaps of s o m e 10
important operation. Till the obnoxious w o r k m a n is dismissed, no other
m e m b e r of the c o m b i n a t i o n is permitted to enter the master's e m p l o y m e n t .
(215) There are different gradations in these Associations, a m o u n t i n g
sometimes to 2, sometimes to 3 classes. There are the skilled workmen, a n d
the apprentices or beginners. In order to secure the m o n o p o l y of the skilled 15
part of trade, it is usually enacted by t h e ruling c o m m i t t e e , that no m a s t e r
shall employ m o r e t h a n a small proportion of apprentices to t h e skilled
workmen. In some trades, he is only p e r m i t t e d to employ o n e for 3 skilled
workmen, in some, one for four; in others, one for five. In all however, the
proportion of skilled to unskilled m u s t be very large. Will er nicht, so strike 20
verordnet. E b e n s o w e n n er d e n Trades' U n i o n s miliebige overseer oder
m a n a g e r anstellt. (215) Die ruling c o m m i t t e e s m a a s s e n sich a u c h an die
Z a h l der A r b e i t s s t u n d e n u n d die wages zu b e s t i m m e n . ... die colliers von
Lanarkshire, b e n u t z e n d die great d e m a n d for iron whrend der E i s e n b a h n -
m a n i e von 1835 u n d 1836, issued a m a n d a t e , t h a t no collier should work 25
m o r e t h a n 3 days, or 4, in the week, a n d at the u t m o s t 5 h o u r s in t h e day.
This order was implicitly obeyed by the whole of the c o m b i n e d colliers
a r o u n d Glasgow u n d n i c h t n u r von i h n e n , sondern von allen colliers in
Renfrewshire, D u m b a r t o n s h i r e u n d Stirlingshire, z u s a m m e n 2 - 3 0 0 0 . T h e
wages which the m e n were to get for working 1 2 - 1 5 S t u n d e n a week, wech- 30
selten von 30 zu 35 sh., according to the quantity of coals they p u t out. Die
coalmasters begnstigten das. Die coals von Glasgow stiegen von 8 s. 6 d.
zu 16 oder 17 sh. each t o n u n d dieser extravagante Prei d a u e r t e an
18 M o n t h s , die lezten 9 wovon, von J a n u a r - October 1837, was a period of
u n e x a m p l e d commercial and m a n u f a c t u r i n g distress. T r o t z d e m die 35
w o r k m e n stood out for the old rate of wages; u n d da die ironmasters auf |
|19| einer R e d u c t i o n bestanden, als der Prei ihres Products fiel M r z 1837
von 7 10 sh. auf 4 a ton, the greater part of t h e m struck work u n d con-
t i n u e d idle for about 5 m o n t h s , bis ihre funds erschpft u n d the whole
t u r n e d out coal in the country, even of the worst kinds having b e e n con- 40
sumed, m u t e n sie zu d e n rates der ironmasters arbeiten, which was,
52
8 hours a day for 5 days a week, wozu a u c h die inferior h a n d s 5 u n d die

bessern 6 sh. tglich earn k o n n t e n . (216, 17) D i e u n i f o r m practice der c o m -
bined workmen, is, to fix a rate below which, n o t only no m e m b e r of t h e
u n i o n , b u t no person whatever, shall work to any m a s t e r ... the scale which
5 they generally adopt, is n o t so m u c h for every day, b u t in proportion to t h e
a m o u n t of work d o n e by the m e n . (217) n o b " heit der deserter, der U n -
gehorsame Arbeiter der U n i o n . (I.e.) A n o t h e r principle which is very gen-
erally acted u p o n by these U n i o n s , is, t h a t t h e m a s t e r is n o t allowed a
choice of workmen, if he requires to take in additional h a n d s . He is n o t
10 permitted to choose those w h o m he would prefer, b u t m u s t go to a certain
office, called a m o n g the tailors "a h o u s e of call," a n d there take t h e first
m a n who stands u p o n the list for e m p l o y m e n t . This principle is established
i n L o n d o n , Dublin, E d i n b u r g h a n d Glasgow, b o t h a m o n g tailors a n d m a n y
other trades. Its levelling a n d injurious effect etc ... T h e majority in all
15 trades almost always will be gainers by the i n t r o d u c t i o n of s u c h a system of
rotation in e m p l o y m e n t . (217, 18) Um sich gegen d e n influx von new
h a n d s in ihren trades zu sichern very effectual m e t h o d s n m l i c h of
heavy restrictions u p o n the admission of any persons to the benefits of
their associations werden g e n o m m e n . (218) Lange apprenticeship ge-
20 wohnlich verlangt; w h r e n d der g a n z e n Zeit m u der apprentice pay a
stated contribution to t h e funds of the association. In vielen a u c h entry-
m o n e y zu zahlen by every apprentice or skilled h a n d , for admission, from
any distant quarter. Die Glasgow Spinners verlangten von entrants der lat-
ter description 5 I. Several trades h a b e n a u s s e r d e m a p e r m a n e n t system of
25 offering bounties to s u c h persons as will leave t h e trade and the country al-
together. T h e associated cottonspinners in the W e s t of Scotland h a v e a per-
m a n e n t b o u n t y of 10, which is offered to every person in the trade who
will emigrate to A m e r i c a ; a n d a standing reward of 5 payable to every idle
h a n d who will get o n e of the skilled h a n d s , any how, to leave his employ-
30 m e n t , or to " u n s h o p " h i m . ([218,] 219 Da sie d e n L o h n h h e r halten, str-
m e n natrlich h a n d s aus allen E c k e n in die privilegirten trades) W i r d m i t
N i e m a n d e m gearbeitet, der n i c h t seinen regulren Beitrag zahlt oder re-
fractory gegen die C o m m a n d s des C o m m i t t e e . W e n n er bei e i n e m m a s t e r
Arbeitet, sendet das C o m m i t t e e d i e s e m N o t i z i h n z u entlassen. W e n n
35 nicht, strike. (220) Erstens a weekly regular c o n t r i b u t i o n is levied from
every m e m b e r according to the rate of wages he receives. ... Das C o m m i t -
tee der Glasgow C o t t o n s p i n n e r s gab, whrend des latter part of 1836 u n d 4
ersten m o n t h s von 1837, 11,881 1. aus (220, 1) Secret oaths, which b i n d
them, 1) to keep secret the taking of the o a t h ; a n d 2) to obey in all m a t t e r s ,
40 legal or illegal, the will of the majority, as expressed by the ruling c o m m i t -
tee. (221) In der Eidformel, proved von d e m late Mr. R o b i n s o n , Sheriff of
53
Lanarkshire, vor d e m C o m b i n a t i o n C o m m i t t e e des H o u s e of C o m m o n s

J u n e , 1825, wovon Huskisson C h a i r m a n war, heit es: "I etc swear, in the
awful presence of Almighty god a n d before these witnesses, that I will ex-
ecute etc every task or injunction which the majority of my brethren shall
i m p o s e u p o n me in furtherance of o u r c o m m o n welfare; as the chastise- 5
m e n t of n o b s , the assassination of oppressive a n d tyrannical masters, or t h e
d e m o l i t i o n of shops t h a t shall be d e e m e d incorrigible etc." (222) Sehr
wichtiger Effect dieser secret oaths u n d des sense entertained of their oblig-
atory n a t u r e , ist die ausserordentliche Leichtigkeit, womit, in trials wegen
M o r d etc, befohlen von der U n i o n , the defence of a l i b i , however false, is 10
successfully m a d e out. (223) Das lezte u n d H a u p t m i t t e l for m a i n t a i n i n g
the authority u n d enforcing the c o m m a n d s des ruling c o m m i t t e e , is tenor
and intimidation. (225) W e n n a strike Platz h a t u n d new h a n d s are at-
t e m p t e d to be introduced, werden guards r o u n d each mill stationirt, von
5 - 1 5 persons. "The guards' duty was to try to take out the new h a n d s who 15
were working at r e d u c e d rates, a n d to prevent others going in. T h e m e a n s
wereby advising, treating to drink, or assaulting. D i e guards were re-
lieved a b o u t the m i d d l e of the day by a n o t h e r party a n d at other t i m e s ; b u t
guards c o n t i n u e d from t h e earliest h o u r in the m o r n i n g till the work was
dismissed." (226) ||20| D i e Spinners' U n i o n s liessen in Glasgow d u r c h b e - 20
zahlte assassins e i n e n n o b u n d e i n e n F a b r i k a n t e n m o r d e n . Glessen von
Vitriol ins Gesicht. (230 sqq.) F e u e r a n l e g e n an F a b r i k e n . (233) Die grosse
Differenz zwischen d e m L o h n der spinners, colliers etc einerseits u n d d e n
besten Agriculturarbeitern u n d W e b e r n (hand) anderseits is quite impossi-
ble to explain ausser d u r c h d e n effect of m o n o p o l y p r o d u c e d by conspir- 25
acy. (235) W h e n an insulated strike occurs in a single factory, the w o r k m e n
are generally victorious. ... they are supported by contributions from the
whole associated trade, whereas the m a s t e r is left to his own resources.
(236, 37) Bei general strikes dagegen die m a s t e r s Sieger. (I.e.) D e r Liberator
v o m 1 Februar, 1834, das great organ der Trades' U n i o n s in Scotland, sagt: 30
"Theirs will n o t be insurrection; it will be simply passive resistance. T h e
m e n m a y r e m a i n at leisure; there is, and can be, no law to c o m p e l t h e m to
work against their will. T h e y m a y walk the streets or fields with their a r m s
folded, they will wear no swords, carry no m u s k e t s , assemble no train of ar-
tillery, seize u p o n no fortified places. They will present no c o l u m n for an 35
a r m y to attack, no m u l t i t u d e for the Riot Act to disperse. They merely ab-
stain, w h e n their funds are sufficient, from going to work for o n e week, or
o n e m o n t h , through the 3 kingdoms. A n d what h a p p e n s in c o n s e q u e n c e ?
Bills are dishonoured, the G a z e t t e teems with bankruptcies, capital is de-
stroyed, the revenue fails, the system of G o v e r n m e n t falls into confusion, 40
a n d every link in the c h a i n which b i n d s society together is broken in a
54
m a n n e r by this inert conspiracy of t h e p o o r against t h e rich." (237, 8) D i e

so v o m Liberator e m p f o h l n e n principles in Praxis gesezt u n d der west of
Scotland convulsed with a series of strikes in m a n y skilled trades, b e s o n -
ders die calico-printers, J a n u a r 1834, which lasted 9 m o n t h s . (238) V o n
5 1 8 2 2 - 1 8 3 7 , u n d e r t h e alternations of extravagantly high wages a n d total
destitution, steht die m o r a l u n d vital statistics der Bevlkerung v o n G l a s -
gow wie folgt:
Population has increased von 151,000 zu 253,000

oder a b o u t 66 %
10 Serious crime gewachsen von 98 auf 392 400 d t o
Fever von 229 zu 3,680 oder 1,600 d t o
Deaths von 3,690 zu 10,888 oder 300 dto
Consumption of spirits gewachsen um 500 %
Chance of life decreased von 1:40 auf 1:24 oder 44 %. (247)
15 T h e rapid and now u n p r e c e d e n t e d application of s t e a m to weaving in t h e

steam-power looms, w h i c h h a s superseded within these ten years to such an
extent t h e u s e of h u m a n l a b o u r ... is in a great m e a s u r e to be ascribed to
the strength of t h e U n i o n s a m o n g t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s there e m p l o y e d ; a n d
the harassing repetition of t h e strikes which took place 12 or 15 years ago
20 a m o n g t h e w o r k m e n . (254) G r a n t i n g to t h e T r a d e s ' - U n i o n s their favourite
position, that the wages of skilled labour have b e e n raised by the effects of
c o m b i n a t i o n , w h a t effect m u s t that have h a d u p o n the r e m u n e r a t i o n of
unskilled labour? ... T h e class of unskilled labourers is, in every country,
5 zahlreicher als die der skilled u n d viel m e h r der oppression ausgesezt;
25 because the persons c o m p o s i n g it are, from their extent a n d scattered posi
tion, incapable of c o m b i n i n g , a n d from t h e short instruction requisite to
enable any o n e to engage in t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t , the m o s t exposed to exten
sive a n d depressing c o m p e t i t i o n . Wir h r e n n i e von C o m b i n a t i o n s u n d
strikes u n t e r d e n ordinary or unskilled operatives. W i r h r e n bestndig v o n
30 c o m b i n a t i o n s u n t e r d e n p o w e r l o o m weavers, tenters, cottonspinners, col-
liers, m i n e r s , ironfounders, engineers, tailors, bakers u.d.g. aber n i e v o n
solchen u n t e r daylabourers, h o d m e n , p l o u g h m e n , carders, reelers, piecers,
pickers, or others engaged in such inferior e m p l o y m e n t s ; n o r it is possible
that such c o m b i n a t i o n s ever c a n exist. W h a t t h e n are T r a d e s ' U n i o n s ,
35 taken in the m o s t favourable p o i n t of view, . . . b u t monopolies of skilled
against unskilled labour? a n d m u s t n o t any forced elevation of t h e wages of
the former produce an u n d u e depression in t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n of the lat-
ter? ... By forcibly elevating at t i m e s the wages of t h e skilled classes, they
have compelled t h e m a s t e r s to depress t h e wages of t h e m o r e n u m e r o u s u n -
40 skilled class of persons in their e m p l o y m e n t ; by debarring industry in gen-
55
eral an access to t h e skilled trades, except u n d e r very heavy restrictions,

they have | | 2 1 | thrown a vast m u l t i t u d e of their fellow w o r k m e n back u p o n
the unskilled d e p a r t m e n t s . (256, 7)
M a n sieht aus Mr. Fielden's tables, published 1833, d a die wages of
handloomweavers u n d prices of wheat u n d oats seit 1815, have stood as fol- 5
lows:
Wages per piece Wheat per qr Oats per qr

to handloomweavers
1815 4 sh. 6 d. 63 s. 8 d. 22 sh. 11 d.
1824 2 s. 3 62 s. 24 s. 1 10
1831 Is. 4 66 sh. 25 s. 4
1832 Is. 6 61 sh. 24.
So der L o h n der handloomweavers um % gefallen seit 1815. Sie sind at

the starving point. Diese deplorable r e d u c t i o n fand Statt w h r e n d cotton-
spinners von 2 5 - 3 5 sh. u n d colliers von 30 to 40 sh. a week m a c h t e n . D i e 15
W e b e r dagegen 6 - 1 0 s. (258) D a r a n sollen n u n natrlich die combina-
tions Schuld sein.
/
56
Aus Westminster Review. Vol. 37. 1842
|23| Westminster Review. (1842) vol. 37.

Industry and its reward in Great Britain
and Ireland.
An agricultural labourer, who toils 12 a n d s o m e t i m e s 14, h o u r s per day
5 in cold, rain, frost, sun, fogalternately frozen, bleached, a n d
drenched, earns for his week's labour, for the support of himself, his wife,
and his four y o u n g children the wretched pittance of 12 shillings ... these
12 sh. are expended, wie folgt:
s. d.
10 Rent 2
Flour 5
Wood or coals 1 2
Cheese 0 7
Tea 0 7
15 Potatoes 0 10
Sugar 0 7
Bacon 0 8
Candles and Soap 0 7
12 0
20 no butter, no milk, no meat, no red herrings even, no clothing, no m e d i c i n e

for the children, no shoes or boots, no provision p u t by for the t i m e s when
the h u s b a n d m a y be u n a b l e to work from sickness or accident; a n d yet the
12 sh. are G o n e . Yes, G o n e ; a n d in what? In insufficient food for the
body. We visited lately 50 of s u c h cases. T h e r e are 500,000 m o r e to be
25 looked to, and 500,000 m o r e b e y o n d t h e m . So here is a p o p u l a t i o n a n d in
some of our best districts, existing on bread, potatoes, from year's e n d to
year's end, b u t 2 o u n c e s of tea a n d a p o u n d of moist sugar for h u s b a n d ,
a n d wife, a n d 4 children for a whole week; a n d this n o r m a l state is viewed
57
not only without horror, b u t even with a sort of complacency. (219) T h e r e

is no step, but simply a hair's breadth, between t h e c o n d i t i o n of our agri-
cultural labourers a n d p a u p e r i s m ... 12 sh. sind brigens ein M a x i m u m
which it would be impossible for us to sustain, threshers e r h a l t e n selten
weniger u n d oft m e h r , aber die wages of p l o u g h m e n u n d waggoners sind 5
sehr inferior ... if English agricultural labour could now be averaged, it
would not a m o u n t to m o r e t h a n 10 s. 6 d. per family, i.e. for the support of
a m a n , his wife, a n d 3 or 4 small children. (222, 3) T h e cottagers of Eng-
land ... are m e l a n c h o l y a n d mournful. T h e voice of singing is never h e a r d
within their walls. Their u n h a p p y i n m a t e s vegetate on potatoes a n d h a r d 10
d u m p l i n g s , and keep themselves warm with hot water p o u r e d over o n e
small teaspoonful of tea, which barely colours t h e water a n d w h i c h is ad-
m i n i s t e r e d to the fretful children by their a n x i o u s and impoverished par-
ents. ... They are ground down by iron a n d searching poverty, a n d their
meals are neither nutritive in quality n o r a d e q u a t e in solid a m o u n t . 15
(226)
58
Aus Westminster Review. Vol. 38. 1842
vol. 38 (1842) First Report of the

Children's Employment Commissioners: Mines
and Collieries. Presented to both Houses
of Parliament etc April 21,1842.
5 (Unter young p e r s o n s " versteht der Factories A c t b e r die childhood, aber
u n t e r 18 Jahren.) [88] D i e coal u n d iron m i n e s geben das chief employ-
m e n t fr K i n d e r u n d y o u n g persons u n d e r g r o u n d . ([90,] 91) U n d e r the
competition which exists a m o n g the coal owners a n d coal proprietors in
each district for the supply of their several markets, no m o r e outlay is in-
10 curred t h a n is sufficient to overcome the most obvious physical difficulties;
and u n d e r that which prevails a m o n g the labouring colliers, who are ordi-
narily m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n the work to be d o n e requires, a large a m o u n t of
danger a n d of exposure to the m o s t n o x i o u s influences will gladly be en-
countered for wages a little in advance of those of the agricultural popula-
15 tion a r o u n d t h e m , in an occupation, in which they can moreover m a k e a
profitable use of their children. This double competition is certainly n o t so
great as in m a n y other b r a n c h e s of industry, b u t it is quite sufficient to
cause a large proportion of the pits to be worked with the m o s t imperfect
drainage a n d ventilation; often with illconstructed shafts, bad gearing, in-
20 competent engineers, a n d illconstructed a n d illpropped bays a n d roadways;
causing a destruction of life, a n d limb, a n d health, the statistics of w h i c h
would present an appalling picture. (102) Bei den Arbeitern, speziell a u c h
den K i n d e r n u n d j u n g e n Leuten, Effects of Overworking, Extraordinary
muscular Development, Stunted Growth, Crippled Gait, Irritation of the
25 Head, Back etc. (134) D i e bergrosse m u s c u l a r exertion in der K i n d h e i t
(bei den colliers) producirt a preternatural m u s c u l a r development. S u c h a
disproportionate m u s c u l a r development, instead of being an i n d i c a t i o n of
59
s o u n d a n d robust health, is really a proof t h a t the general system is starved

by the overnourishment of this o n e particular part of it; and that the system
is weakened, not strengthened, by this u n d u e e x p e n d i t u r e of its n u t r i m e n t
u p o n t h e muscles, is shown by the evidence now collected, which proves in-
dubitably that the body in general is stunted in its growth, ... peculiarly 5
p r o n e to disease, u n d that it p r e m a t u r e l y decays and perishes. ... in the
coal m i n e s die A n w e n d u n g der K i n d e r protracts the period of childhood,
shortens the period of m a n h o o d , a n d anticipates the period of old age, de-
crepitude, a n d death. (134) Viel besser stehts in d e n m i n e s of tin, copper,
lead u n d zinc, wo das e m p l o y m e n t ganz anders. (135) | 10
|24| T h e e m p l o y m e n t of t h e adult colliers is almost exclusively in t h e
"getting" of the coal from its n a t u r a l resting place, of which there are vari-
ous m e t h o d s , according to the n a t u r e of the seams a n d the habits of t h e
several districts. T h a t of the children a n d y o u n g persons consists princi-
pally either in t e n d i n g the air doors where the coal carriages m u s t pass 15
t h r o u g h openings the i m m e d i a t e l y s u b s e q u e n t stoppage of which is neces-
sary to preserve the ventilation in its proper channels, or in the conveyance
of the coal from the bays or recesses in which it is hewn, along the subterra-
n e a n roadways, to the b o t t o m of the pit shaft; a distance varying from abso-
lute contiguity even to miles in the great coalfield of the n o r t h of England, 20
where the depth requires that the same expensive shaft shall serve for the
excavation of a large tract of coal. (107) Startling as t h e fact m a y appear, it
is into the pits, which "never can be worked without inflicting great a n d
irreparable injury on the health of children," that children are t a k e n at the
earliest ages, if only to be used as living a n d moving candlesticks, or to 25
keep rats from a dinner; a n d it is in pits of this worst character, too, in
which female children are employed. (I.e.)
1
60
Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fortsetzung)
/ 2 1 / Laing. contin. von p. 17.

So in der grossen M a n u f a c t u r s t a d t Leeds betrchtlich m e h r als % der gan-
zen adult p o p u l a t i o n h a t no regular occupation. W o v o n leben sie? V o n oc-
casional jobwork, by sending their children to factories or into the streets to
5 beg, by hawking petty articles for sale, by casual charityespecially of
those who are only o n e degree better off t h a n themselves. W i t h such re-
sources, can we w o n d e r t h a t no cellar or lodginghouse is too u n h e a l t h y or
disgusting to fail in finding nightly its 20 or 30 occupants? Can we wonder
that pilfering a n d prostitution are habitually resorted to as a m e a n s of ek-
10 ing out a wretched existence? (20, 21) A n d r e s remarkable result ist die ex-
tremely small n u m b e r of persons, die direkt in manufactures verwandt
sind, selbst in d e n Stdten, die m a n als exclusively m a n u f a c t u r i n g betrach-
tet. Dasselbe zeigt sich b e i allen principal seats of m a n u f a c t u r e . In G l a s -
gow, m i t 250,000 Einwohner, n u r 29,287 direkt oder indirekt c o n n e c t e d
15 m i t der cotton m a n u f a c t u r e , u n d in all the factories of every description,
n u r 5,585 m a l e s employed. (20 N o t e ) Mr. S y m o n d s u n d Captain Miller, in
their a c c o u n t of the wynds of Glasgow, state ausdrcklich da der grre
Theil der Bevlkerung, an 30,000 persons, have no visible m e a n s of support
ausser plunder u n d prostitution". In M a n c h e s t e r giebt Dr Kay a similar
20 description of a large district; u n d in Liverpool wenigstens % der g a n z e n
Bevlkerung vertheilt between the cellars and lodging houses. In Liverpool
(Parliamentary Tables of Population, 1841) zeigen die Police returns (in
Paris 3800 regular prostitutes, 8000 thieves, swindlers etc, 1500 vagabonds,
243 low lodging houses) 212 m e n d i c a n t s ' lodging houses, 591 brothels,
25 2404 prostitutes, 5007 thieves a n d suspected characters known to the po-
lice. B i r m i n g h a m , wie gesehn, 374 lodging houses devoted to the reception
der loose population of Irish and m e n d i c a n t s u n d 228 houses b e k a n n t als
die resorts of thieves etc. These facts s c h e i n e n zu beweisen, t h a t a large
proportion of the dense masses of p o p u l a t i o n crowded together in the low
61
Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress.
Heft XI. Seite 21
districts of our large towns have absolutely no regular u n d recognised occu-

pations, and live, as it were, as outlaws u p o n society. (21, 2) D i e m a n n e r ,
worin diese Klasse bestndig recrutirt u n d vermehrt wird will be only too
apparent, w e n n m a n erforscht die Lage der n u m e r o u s classes i m m e d i a t e l y
above t h e m in the social scale, who earn an existence by c o m m o n a n d 5
comparatively unskilled labour. Am lowest in dieser class s t e h n die hand-
loom weavers. D i e n u m b e r of persons, including their families, d e p e n d e n t
on handloomweaving for existence, ist geschzt von d e m C o m m i t t e e von
1835 auf 840,000 u n d in d e m report der h a n d l o o m weavers' c o m m i s s i o n -
ers, publicirt 1841, auf b e r 800,000. 30 oder 40 J a h r e vorher diese Klasse 10
an der Spitze der british operatives in a m o u n t of earnings, intelligence, ed-
u c a t i o n u n d general respectability. (22) D e r folgende a c c o u n t of wages be-
zahlt 1839 u n d 1840 to the cotton weavers von Lancashire u n d Glasgow:
Ashton-under-Lyne-District: H e a d s of family visited 483, N u m b e r of per-
sons employed 813, N u m b e r of looms idle 213, n u m b e r of persons d e p e n d - 15
ent on the earnings of those employed 1955, average per family per week
4 s. 11 d.
Zu Huddersfield der average von 402 weavers, m a i n t a i n i n g 1655 per-
sons, 5 s. 6% d. per week, or 2 d. p e r day for each individual. Zu W i g a n
der average von 113 persons employed 3 s. 11 d. a week for each. (22) | 20
|22| In Schottland folgende Tafel gegeben von Symonds, the first class being
the average net a m o u n t of wages earned by adult skilled artisans on the fin-
est fabrics; the second, the a m o u n t e a r n e d by less skilled a n d younger arti-
sans:
Fabrics Chief Place Number Clear ws;ekly Wages 25

of Manufacture of Looms 1 Class 2 Class
s. d. s. d.
Pullicates,
Ginghams etc Glasgow und Lanarkshire 18,420 7 4 6
Shawls etc Paisley und Renfrewshire 7,750 10 6 6 30
Plain muslins Glasgow, Lanarkshire etc 10,080 7 6 4 6
Fancy muslins,
silk gauzes etc Paisley und Glasgow 7,860 9 6 6
Thibets und tartans Glasgow und Howiek 2,980 7 5 6
Die n u m b e r of families corresponding to this n u m b e r of looms geschzt 35

auf 26,160; ergiebt, 4 per family. 104,640 individuals u n d n a c h S y m o n d s %
der g a n z e n Z a h l der weavers belong to the second class of wages. (23) Als
Durchschnittswages der M e h r z a h l der Scottish weavers, giebt S y m o n d s fr
M a n n , W e i b u n d 5 children 16 s. 2 d., fr m a n , wife u n d 2 children 7 s.
l i d . E x t r e m e cases wo families von 7 persons n u r earn 7 s . 2 d. per week 40
oder i s . 3 - 7 d . per person. T o earn these wages, die Durchschnittsarbeits-
62
s t u n d e n sind 70 per week. (23) Fletcher schzt die earnings der r i b b o n

weavers of Coventry u n d der Nachbarschaft auf 5 sh. a week; die der best
employed linenweavers of Yorkshire, during a period of comparative pros-
perity, n a c h d e n n t h i g e n d e d u c t i o n s fr winding, dressing etc auf 5 s. 6 d.
5 for a m a n ' s earnings, wchentlich, u n d weniger als half d e n Betrag fr boys
a n d girls. In d e m D u n d e e d i s t r i c t die highest earnings von ablebodied lin-
enweavers n i c h t b e r 7 s. 6 d. a week. In d e n finer descriptions der woollen
u n d silk fabrics u n d b e r h a u p t wo besondrer skill oder strength, oder
beides z u s a m m e n erfrderlich, der rate of wages betrchtlich hher, a b e r
10 die trifft n u r small proportion der total n u m b e r of handloomweavers u n d
selbst m i t dieser n o m i n e l l h o h e n rate of wages oft m e h r als compensirt by
the extreme inconstancy of t h e e m p l o y m e n t . ([23,] 24) D i e obigen wages
n o c h zu hoch, um die actual c o n d i t i o n der weaving p o p u l a t i o n zu beur-
theilen. Sehr grosse irregularity of e m p l o y m e n t , die slightest fluctuation in
15 c o m m e r c e never fails to throw m u l t i t u d e s of looms o u t of work. ... A u f d e n
average of m a n y years der W e b e r m i n d e s t e n s % der g a n z e n Zeit ausser Be-
schftigung. Selbst, w e n n in full work, Zeitverlust in changing fabrics on
the loom, a n d going to the m a n u f a c t u r e r for work etc, which, we are told,
a m o u n t s , on the very lowest average, to 1 week in 8. Taking the average
20 rate of earnings, n a c h d e n n o t h w e n d i g e n deductions, evident da der bulk
der Bevlkerung von 800,000 d e p e n d i n g on handloomweaving m u s t exist,
u n t e r den gnstigsten U m s t n d e n , in a state of extreme destitution. (I.e.)
Die class der h a n d - l o o m weavers constituirt %, at least, of the adult m a l e
manufacturing p o p u l a t i o n . ([25,] 26) N a c h Baines, acceptirt von M a c C u l -
25 loch folgende Liste, wo die wages n o c h zu h o c h angegeben:
Estimate of the number and wages of different classes

of Operatives employed in the Cotton Manufacture.
No. of Operatives Average weekly wages
s. d.
30 237,000 engaged in spinning and
powerloom weaving 10
250,000 handloom weavers 7
159,300 lace workers 2 5
45,000 calico printers 10
35 33,000 makers of cotton hosiery 6
M a n sieht hier, d a wenig b r a n c h e s der c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e der l a b o u r a

sufficient r e m u n e r a t i o n gaben. Die R e t u r n s der Factory C o m m i s s i o n e r s |
/ 2 4 / zeigen, da von 220,134 in d e n cottonfactories beschftigten P e r s o n e n
n u r 58,053 oder about % des G a n z e n were males b e r 18 J a h r e . (26) (Fer-
40 n e r sieht m a n a u s d e m F a c t o r y C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' R e p o r t v o n 1841: d a
65
von 424,209 operatives angewandt in der cotton, wool, worsted, flax u n d

silk n u r 96,752 oder weniger als 2 3 % des G a n z e n males b e r 18 J a h r e wa-
r e n ; 130,218 waren females b e r 18 u n d 114,603 females u n t e r 18.) (I.e.)
A u f die comparativ kleine Z a h l von spinners, carders, powerloom weavers,
engineers, overlookers u n d einige few der best paid calico printers, b o b b i - 5
n e t m a k e r etc ist die assertion zu b e s c h r n k e n , d a in an ordinary state of
t r a d e " die in der c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e beschftigten operatives b e r die c o m -
forts etc zu gebieten h a b e n . (27) Dasselbe gilt fr die woollen, l i n e n u n d
silk m a n u f a c t u r e s . F o l g e n d e s m a y be t a k e n as a fair a n d impartial general
s t a t e m e n t of the c o n d i t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a b o u t 2% millions, who ap- io
pear from t h e r e t u r n s to derive their subsistence directly from M a n u f a c -
tures, u n d e r ordinary c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d in an average state of t r a d e :
A b o u t % plunged in e x t r e m e misery, and hovering on t h e verge of actual
starvation; a n o t h e r %, or m o r e , earning an i n c o m e s o m e t h i n g b e t t e r t h a n
t h a t of the c o m m o n agricultural labourer, b u t u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s very 15
prejudicial to health, morality, a n d d o m e s t i c comfort, viz, by t h e l a b o u r of
y o u n g children, girls, and m o t h e r s of families, in crowded factories; and, fi-
nally, )/ earning high wages, amply sufficient to support t h e m in respecta-
3
bility u n d comfort. (27) D i e der state of things u n d e r ordinary circum-

stances. (I.e.) 20
Condition of the Class of Agricultural Labourers.
N a c h d e m lezten Census die Z a h l der a d u l t m a l e labourers (Agrikultur) i n

G r e a t Britain 887,167; m i t ihren families, a p o p u l a t i o n of 3,500,000 o d e r
a b o u t y der g a n z e n Bevlkerung u n d % m e h r als die p o p u l a t i o n der labour-
s
ers directly employed in m a n u f a c t u r e s . In E n g l a n d im A l l g e m e i n e n die ag- 25

ricultural labourers sind daylabourers, hired by the week or j o b , m e i s t by
week, possessing no property, a n d living in r e n t e d cottages. D e r rate of
wages earned by an ablebodied labourer wechselt von 8 zu 12 sh. a week
u n d im D u r c h s c h n i t t 9 oder 10 sh. D i e u s u a l r e n t der cottages ist von 3 zu
5 /. a year. T h e extra earnings einer family w h r e n d Herbstzeit etc m a y 30
a m o u n t von 4 I. 10 s. zu 6 I. 10 s., w h i c h m a y be set against t h e rent of t h e
cottage, fuel etc, obgleich in m a n c h e n T h e i l e n E n g l a n d s this source of
earnings sehr reducirt w o r d e n ist d u r c h d e n influx von irish labourers. (28,
29) In . C. Tuffneil, Esq, Assistant P o o r law Commissioner, Sanitary R e
ports, v . I p. 37 h e i t s : im workhouse, where strict e c o n o m y is studied, a n d 35
where we are constantly told that we give t h e i n m a t e s too little to eat, it is
well k n o w n that a m a n , his wife a n d 5 children, c a n n o t usually be kept u n -
der 11, per week u n d d a b e i n i c h t s g e r e c h n e t fr h o u s e r e n t ; u n d all t h e arti-
66
cles required, being purchased in large contracts, are obtained 2 0 % u n d e r

the shop prices. In A n b e t r a c h t dieses solche family ausser d e m workhouse
m i t denselben comforts n u r zu erhalten zu 25 sh. a week, which is m o r e
t h a n double the general agricultural weekly wages in England. (29) Fol-
5 gendes ist die actual weekly e x p e n d i t u r e eines labouring m a n , m i t 1 wife
a n d 6 children, in M a r c h , 1841, given von Tuffnell, which will afford a fair
average view of the m a n n e r of living der agricultural p o p u l a t i o n der south-
ern u n d m i d l a n d c o u n t i e s of E n g l a n d :
s. d.
10 6 gallons of flour 8
yeast 3
1 lb. of meat
and Y lb of suet
4 8
l i b of butter 1 0
15 1 lb of cheese 0 6
Y lb of candles
2 0 3
% lb of soap 0 3
Potatoes 1
Worsted, starch,
20 cotton, and tape 3
Zusammen 12 sh. 3 d. (30)
D i e lt nichts fr rent, clothing, e d u c a t i o n . Offenbar d a any suspen-
sion der Beschftigung, rise in the price of provisions, or unforeseen casu-
alty, m u s t of necessity compel t h e m to resort to charity, or to descend to a
25 coarser diet, and exchange the habits of an english for those of an Irish
peasant. (30) |
|25| Der englische Agriculturarbeiter h a s no c h a n c e of rising in the world
aber sehr viele of falling. (31) H a t er Pech, so wird er Pauper oder he will be
starved out of the country into s o m e large town, a n d absorbed in the float-
30 ing population who t e n a n t the cellars a n d lodging houses, a n d live by the
worstpaid description of m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry, or by thieving, prostitu-
tion, and casual e m p l o y m e n t . Let it always be r e m e m b e r e d , that w h e n we
read in Poorlaw Reports, a n d Treatises on Political E c o n o m y , of l a b o u r be-
ing absorbed, a n d distress disappearing by refusing relief, this is, in 9 cases
35 out of 10, what the thing practically m e a n s . (31) T h e t e n a n t s at will, i.e. die
Highland peasantry are often driven out in great n u m b e r s , a n d sent in
u p o n the large cities u n d speziell Glasgow (wo 20,000 poor Highlanders)
where their condition is m o s t miserable; they are particularly subject to the
worst diseases on c o m i n g to a city - besonders fever u n d small-pox. (33)
40 W e n n der general rate des increase der Bevlkerung u n i f o r m gewesen
wre u n d n i c h t migration von e i n e m district in d e n a n d e r n in search of
subsistence, the p o p u l a t i o n der m e h r agricultural counties wrde grsser
67
gewesen sein als sie ist (1842) in E n g l a n d u n d Wales um 289,487, in

Schottland um 60,512. (34) Diese results werden bewiesen d u r c h d e n fact,
da in Schottland, wo keine poorlaws, der proportionate rate of increase zu
G u n s t e n der m a n u f a c t u r i n g counties h a d b e e n double t h a t i n England.
O h n e Armengesetz in E n g l a n d w r d e es sich hier ebenso verhalten ... the 5
bulk of the aged, infirm u n d destitute ... in Scotland wurden starved into
the large towns. In Glasgow n i c h t 15 % der in die Hauptfieberhospitler Z u -
gelanen waren natives der town; 40 % von d e n H i g h l a n d s u n d agricultu-
raldistricts of Scotland; 65 % der individuals zugelassen in das H o u s e of
Refuge zu E d i n b u r g h sind n i c h t natives der town. In D u n d e e von 944 p a u - 10
pers, n u r 344 natives der town; u n d in A b e r d e e n n u r 420 aus 1517. (Dr Ali-
son, J o u r n a l of Statistical Society of L o n d o n , for year 1840, p. 214.)
In Schottland die Lage des Agricultural labourer wesentlich verschieden
von der same class in England. F o l g e n d e Aussage von a practical witness:
(Report of the C o m m i t t e e on Agriculture, 1836, p. 218): Servants are en- 15
gaged half yearly. U n m a r r i e d p l o u g h m e n have from 5 I. to 6 I. 10 s., with
two pecks of o a t m e a l weekly, a n d an allowance of milk a n d potatoes, with
lodging and fuel generally in a bothie, i.e., a h o u s e attached n e a r to the
steading, where they all live together and m a k e their @wn food. O t h e r u n -
married labourers get 4 I. 10 s. to 5 I. half yearly. Married m e n s e r v a n t s are 20
engaged by the year; they generally get a h o u s e a n d garden, a n d m a i n t e -
n a n c e for a cow, a n d a b o u t 8 I. of wages, 6% bolls of oatmeal, a n d an allow-
ance of potatoes, or ground for raising them, with a few barrels of coals or
brushwood for fuel. F a r m l a b o u r e r s by t h e day get about 1 s. 3 d. in winter;
in s u m m e r 1 s. 8 d. to 2 s. (34) D i e das frher u s u a l system in Schottland 25
u n d n o c h in m a n y districts vorherrschend. Diese class natrlich viel besser
dran als die englische. Sicher respectable etc. A b e r there is too m u c h rea-
son, to fear that this class, the pride of Scotland ... ist fast disappearing.
D i e oben beschriebnen conditions, of late years, sehr generally infringed,
z u m N a c h t h e i l der weaker party. In m a n y counties das privilege of keeping 30
a cow entzogen u n d selbst die allowance of milk substituted for it has b e e n
discontinued as t r o u b l e s o m e and expensive. D i e Z a h l der m a r r i e d cottars
living on the farm sehr reducirt u n d das bothie-system, or e m p l o y m e n t of
u n m a r r i e d m e n living together in a bothie or hovel attached to the stead-
ing, sehr extended. ... a m o r e effective m e a n s of brutalising u n d demoralis- 35
ing a peasantry could n o t be devised, t h a n t h a t of crowding together a par-
cel of y o u n g m e n , half of t h e m perhaps strangers, Irish, or b a d characters,
in a hovel ... It is, in fact, transplanting the lodging h o u s e from the wynds
of Glasgow to the heart of the rural districts. Dieses eins der worst evils at-
t e n d e d der Einfhrung des large farmsystem. Das L a n d cultivirt m i t m e h r 40
skill u n d economy. M e h r p r o d u c e g e w o n n e n m i t less h a n d s . A b e r von der
68
so aus Beschftigung geworfnen rural population, ein Theil in der o b e n b e -

schriebnen Weise in die great towns geworfen ins L u m p e n p r o l e t a r i a t u n d
to glut the m a r k e t of m a n u f a c t u r i n g labour; der andre gezwungen to accept
worse and worse terms, bis zulezt der standard of comfort u n d respectabil-
5 ity has b e e n b r o k e n down. ([35,] 36) U n t e r der agricultural p o p u l a t i o n von
Scotland aufzuzhlen die class of crofters, or peasants, living on a small
p a t c h of g r o u n d barely sufficient to employ their labour. This class n u m -
bers von 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 in d e n H i g h l a n d s u n d Hebrides, whose c o n d i t i o n in
keiner H i n s i c h t besser als die der rmsten Irlnder. (36) D e r reale Arbeits-
10 lohn gefallen. Beweis folgendes D o c u m e n t given by one of the assistant
poorlaw commissioners, being an actual a c c o u n t of t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h a
labourer's family, m i t 4 children, lived zwischen 50 u n d 60 years ago, on
the t h e n current wages of 6 s. a week: 4 gallons of flour at 6 d., = 2 s. 3 d.,
grinding, baking, a n d yeast 5 d., 7 p o u n d s of beef at 2 d. = 1 s. 5 d.,
15 2 p o u n d s of cheese oder 1 p o u n d of butter 6 d., o a t m e a l u n d salt
2% d., one oz. of tea 2 d., % p o u n d of sugar 3 d., firing (meist h e a t h turf, cut
free from the c o m m o n or wood) 3 d., candles 3 d., soap 3 d. (37) Vergleich
die mit der obigen e x p e n d i t u r e einer family in 1841. (I.e.)
Condition of classes of labouring population

20 employed in Mines, Fisheries, Canals, Railways etc.
N a c h den Population returns von 1831 sind 608,712 males, ber 20 J a h r e ,

employed as m i n e r s , quarriers, fishermen etc. N a c h M c C u l l o c h
240,000 persons direkt engagirt im irontrade, 150,000 im coal trade, 71,000
in d e n m i n e s of Cornwall u n d Devonshire u n d 8 000 in d e n saltmines von
25 Cheshire etc. ||26| D a z u gerechnet females u n d boys: population of a b o u t
1,200,000 persons d e p e n d i n g on m i n i n g industry. (Die Z a h l der m e n u n d
boys employed in british fisheries ungefhr 220,000) Mit A u s n a h m e des
e m p l o y m e n t of w o m e n u n d e r ground, u n d e r circumstances revolting to de-
cency a n d destructive of morality, a n d of children at too early an age,
30 scheint die Lage der m i n i n g class viel besser als die der agricultural u n d
manufacturing population. U s u a l rates of wages for m e n ber 18 J a h r e
werden von d e n Commissioners stated wie folgt: Staffordshire, coal u n d
iron works, 1 5 - 1 8 s. a week; Warwickshire, 18 sh. a week; Yorkshire
2 0 - 2 5 sh.; D u r h a m u n d N o r t h u m b e r l a n d 2 0 - 3 0 s.; Cornwall 4 0 - 6 5 s . per
35 m o n t h ; South Wales 2 5 - 6 0 s. a week; Lanarkshire 2 4 - 4 0 s. a week. D a z u
die labour aller boys von 9 - 1 0 J a h r e n available at a rate seldom lower als
die der handloomweaver ( 4 - 5 s. a week) which increases regularly zu 15
oder 20 s. a week by t h e t i m e the boy reaches 18, evident d a die p e c u n i a r y
69
m e a n s der most collier u n d m i n i n g families very a m p l e sind. D a s F o l g e n d e

gegeben as a fair average i n s t a n c e der earnings u n d e x p e n d i t u r e einer col-
lier family in d e m Tyne u n d W e a r district in 1841, by o n e of the c o m m i s -
sioners employed in the late inquiry:
Earnings per fortnight. s.
d. 5
Father, two weeks 2 4
Putter, one boy, 17 years of age 1 16 8
Driver, one boy, 12 dto 13 9
Trapper, one boy, 8 dto 9 12
5 3 7 10
Outlay per Fortnight. s. d.
Mutton 14 lb 8 9
Flour, 5 stone 13
Maslin, or mixed grain, 3 stone 7 6
Bacon 14 lb 9 4 15
Potatoes, % boll 2 3
Oatmeal 6
Butter 2 lb.; milk 3 d. per day 6
Coffee 1 lb 3
Tea % lb 1 6 20
Sugar, 3 lb 2
Candles 6%
Soap 1 8
Pepper, salt, mustard etc 6
Tobacco and beer ... 4 25
3 0 6
Shoes 9 s. per month 4 6

Clothes, flannels, stockings etc 17 6
Sundries 2 6
4 5 0. 30
C o n t r i b u t i o n to benefit fund, generally 1 s. 3 d. per m o n t h . R e n t u n d fuel
free. ([38,] 39) Invention of the hotblast, or use of h e a t e d air statt der cold
air, in the smelting of iron. Im Westen von Schottland in Folge dieser Erfin-
d u n g der Iron trade sehr rasch entwickelt. In J u n e , 1835, waren 29 furnaces
in blast in Scotland; M a y 1 8 4 1 : 68 in blast u n d 10 building. Properties, ein 35
p a a r J a h r e vorher n u r einige H u n d e r t e a year werth; now yield d e m pro-
prietor an 12,000 jhrlich. D i e Population der 2 parishes von Old u n d
N e w M o n k l a n d , wo die wichtigsten dieser works liegen, angewachsen von
19,447 in 1831 zu 40,193 in 1841. A b e r diese Bevlkerung zeigt d e m A u g e
n u r slavish labour u n i t e d to brutal i n t e m p e r a n c e . K i n d e r in rag u n d filth 40
etc. D i e domestic discomfort seems attributable u. a. d e m crowded state
der habitations, die, from the want of buildings ||27| to c o n t a i n the rapidly
increasing population, were filled with lodgers. In einigen H u s e r n , bei
70
einer family m i t n u r 2 r o o m s , 14 single m e n als lodgers h e r e i n g e n o m m e n .

An infatuated love of m o n e y , for no p u r p o s e b u t to m i n i s t e r to a d e g r a d i n g
passion for a r d e n t spirits, s e e m s t h e allpervading motive for a c t i o n in this
quarter. (43) Die e c o n o m i c a l c o n d i t i o n der fishing p o p u l a t i o n beweist d a
5 der Besitz von E i g e n t h u m oder s o m e interest in property wesentlich to p r e -
serve the c o m m o n unskilled l a b o u r e r from falling into t h e c o n d i t i o n of a
piece of m a c h i n e r y , b o u g h t at t h e minimum m a r k e t price at w h i c h it c a n be
produced, d. h. at w h i c h labourers c a n be got to exist and propagate t h e i r
species, to which he is invariably r e d u c e d sooner or later, w h e n t h e inter-
10 ests of capital a n d labour are q u i t e distinct, a n d are left to adjust t h e m -
selves u n d e r t h e sole o p e r a t i o n of t h e law of supply a n d d e m a n d . ([45,] 46)
Die Z a h l der s e a m e n employed in navigating british vessels am 1 J a n u a r
1841 war 160,509, representing m i t i h r e n families, a considerable T h e i l der
Bevlkerung. Ihre c o n d i t i o n gut, i m Vergleich z u m b u l k der m a n u f a c t u r -
15 ing u n d agricultural p o p u l a t i o n , der u s u a l rate of wages being 3 1. a m o n t h ,
in addition to subsistence, a n d e m p l o y m e n t tolerably certain. (46)
Condition of Classes Superior to Common Labourers.
"employed in retail t r a d e or in handicraft, as masters or w o r k m e n . " Shop-

keepers, Schuster, Z i m m e r l e u t e , Handwerker m i t e i n e m Wort. Diese class,
20 n a c h der der agricultural labourers die most numerous single class in Eng-
land, n a c h d e n returns von 1831 einschliessend 1,159,863 m a l e s b e r
20 Jahre oder fast % der whole n u m b e r of m a l e s o f t h a t age u n d folglich re-
presenting % der g a n z e n Bevlkerung. Diese class, m i t d e n farmers, d e r e n
Z a h l 187,075 m a l e s b e r 2 0 u n d von einigen der best paid u n d m o s t re-
25 spectable operatives, b i l d e n die great m i d d l e class des L a n d e s . D i e lower
m e m b e r s dieser class, wie bricklayers, m a s o n s etc k a u m d a z u zu r e c h n e n .
Die whole division of handicraft or skilled labour n i m m t eine mittlere P o -
sition ein zwischen der c o m m o n labouring class u n d der der retail dealers.
I h r e wages generally good. 1 4 - 4 0 sh. wchentlich, m i t e m p l o y m e n t i m
30 D u r c h s c h n i t t von 11 m o n t h s jhrlich. (49) D i e g a n z e Z a h l der m a l e s b e r
20 Jahre, die zur Kapitalistenklasse gehren, ( a u c h professional a n d o t h e r
e d u c a t e d m e n ) betrug n a c h d e m Census von 1831 n i c h t b e r 214,390 o d e r
z4o der G e s a m m t b e v l k e r u n g . (50) D i e T o t a l z a h l der l a n d e d proprietors in
Schottland, worunter a r e n t a l of 5 Mill. I. St. vertheilt, ungefhr 7800, wo-
35 von m e h r als 6000 h a b e n properties worth less als 600 I. a year. (51) Im
G a n z e n k a n n m a n r e c h n e n die n u m b e r der m a l e s b e r 2 0 J a h r e gehrig z u
d e n capitalists (professional, l a n d e d gentry, m o n i e d m e n , a few literary
m e n ) 250,000 wovon % in easy c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d [0 o p u l e n t . D i e giebt
71
l
y der g a n z e n Bevlkerung belonging to t h e u p p e r or genteel class u n d / oo
20 2
zur aristocracy of r a n k u n d wealth. (51) T h e middleclass includes 1) die

m e m b e r s der lower b r a n c h e s der professions, literature, c o m m e r c e etc, who
form a sort of transition class b e t w e e n this a n d t h e upper. 2) shopkeepers
u n d retail t r a d e s m e n j e d e r Art. 3) farmers. 4) skilled artisans u n d h a n d i - 5
craftsmen of superior description. 5) c o m m o n handicraftsmen, or m e n liv-
ing by t h e exercise of a craft which requires s o m e apprenticeship, a n d c o m -
m a n d s wages decidedly superior to those of c o m m o n labour. T h e latter
class is a transition o n e between t h e m i d d l e a n d labouring classes. (I.e.)
D i e alles z u s a m m e n g e r e c h n e t beluft sich die Mittelklasse auf % - % der 10
g a n z e n Bevlkerung. (52) Die arbeitende Klasse besteht aus folgenden di-
visions, deren Z a h l e n u n d Proportions zur g a n z e n Bevlkerung b e r e c h n e t
sind n a c h d e n returns von 1 8 3 1 .
Proportion to Total numbers

total population at present 15
Agricultural labouring population 1.-3.7 5,000,000
Manufacturing ditto 1.-6.6 2,800,000
Mining, fishing, and labour
not agricultural 1.-6.6 2,800,000
Servants etc 1.-3.7 500,000 20
Total of population dependent on
ordinary labour 11,300,000(52)
Die Z a h l der m a l e servants j e d e r Art ist 144,188; of female servants

6 7 0 , 4 9 1 ; total 814,679, aber der b u l k of female servants schon eingeschlos-
sen in die families of agricultural u n d other labourers. N e h m e n wir zu d e n 25
11,300,000 n u n 1,000,000 fr die genteel p o p u l a t i o n u n d 4,650,000 fr die
middleclass im obigen Sinn, so h a b e n wir a b o u t 17 Mill. Bleiben 1,500,000
u n a c c o u n t e d for. 1,300,000 persons sind in d e m official r e t u r n fr 1 8 4 1 .
V o n diesen a large proportion will be i n c l u d e d in t h e p o p u l a t i o n returns,
u n d e r t h e h e a d of agricultural a n d other descriptions of labourers u n d their 30
families. Die n i c h t als labourers aufgefhrte class of paupers ist ||28| 1) die
receiving outdoor relief die ganz unfhig sind zu arbeiten, 2) Wittwen, de-
serted wives u n d their families; 3) a majority of those receiving i n d o o r r e -
lief. D i e n u m b e r dieser classes sind stated respectively wie 170,069;
165,267 u n d 159,118, was giebt a total of paupers not i n c l u d e d in die e n u - 35
m e r a t i o n of labourers von a b o u t half a million. Lt a residue von a b o u t a
m i l l i o n fr die criminal, destitute, u n d vagrant p o p u l a t i o n , die in d e n gro-
ssen S t d t e n als Pariah Caste existiren. (52) Sicher, if we estimate t h e class
u n t e r der lowest i n d e p e n d e n t labour, including paupers receiving relief,
criminals, prostitutes, vagrants u n d poor living m a i n l y on private charity, 40
zu 2 Mill, we should be far u n d e r t h e m a r k u n d 2,500,000 oder zwischen /
u n d $ der total p o p u l a t i o n m e h r correkt estimate. (53)
72
Part II. Causes of Existing Distress.
Es ist etablirt d u r c h official evidence, d a eh die Factories R e g u l a t i o n bill

in Operation kam, folgender Stand der D i n g e existirte: 1) A n w e n d u n g von
K i n d e r n u n t e r 9 J a h r e n c o m m o n . 2) D e r average t e r m der Arbeit oft
5 14 S t u n d e n tglich, m a n c h m a l fortgesezt d u r c h die N a c h t u n d selbst
40 S t u n d e n n a c h e i n a n d e r , o h n e intermission. 3) D a h e r excessive a m o u n t
of labour oft extracted v o n d e n K i n d e r n d u r c h strenge Strafen, inflicted at
t h e discretion of reckless u n d irresponsible overseers. 4) K e i n e E r z i e h u n g .
5) no preservation of decency a m o n g a p r o m i s c u o u s assemblage of every
10 age u n d sex. 6) K e i n e Vorsorge fr die thrown out of e m p l o y m e n t by t h e
want of d e m a n d for a d u l t labour, or disabled in the service by a c c i d e n t or
illness. (61) D e r Z u s t a n d auf d e m country u n t e r d e n A c k e r b a u a r b e i t e r n
ging voran until t h e Swing riots in 1830 revealed to u s , by t h e light of
blazing cornstacks, that misery a n d black m u t i n o u s d i s c o n t e n t s m o u l d e r e d
15 quite as fiercely u n d e r t h e surface of agricultural as of m a n u f a c t u r i n g E n g -
land. (62) W i t h t h e m o r e practical intellect of E n g l a n d der U n g l a u b e an
spiritual things took t h e form of indifference to m o r a l influences, a n d a
hard m e c h a n i c a l way of thinking, which would recognise n o t h i n g as real
which was n o t tangible a n d material. (63) No good was ever yet d o n e by
20 wasting t i m e in vain regrets, by kicking against t h e pricks, a n d refusing to
accept accomplished facts. (I.e.)
Economical Causes of Existing Distress.

Population. Theory of Malthus.
1801 war die P o p u l a t i o n von G r e a t Britain 10,472,048; 1841 aber

25 18,664,761. Dieser rate of increase adds 260,000 souls jedes J a h r zu G r e a t
Britain u n d w e n n c o n t i n u e d at t h e s a m e rate, verdoppelt die Bevlkerung
in a b o u t 50 J a h r e n . (64) 1754 Irland was c o m p u t e d to c o n t a i n
2,372,634 Einwohner, 1791, 4,206,642 u n d e n t h l t n u n 8,205,382. So in
less als 90 J a h r e n fast vervierfacht u n d die exclusive seiner emigrations
30 n a c h England, Schottland, A m e r i c a , die sich zwischen 1801 u n d 1821 a u f
1,000,000 belief. Gleichzeitig 3 Mill, i m m e r an d e m verge des H u n g e r t o d e s
b e i der slightest failure der potatoe crop. U n d in Irland t h e p o p u l a t i o n in-
creases fastest grade in d e n m o s t distressed districts. . . In der Provinz
Leinster zwischen 1821 u n d 1831 der Z u w a c h s n u r 9%, in Ulster 14%, wh-
35 rend in C o n n a u g h t 22%. H i e r finden wir wieder Galway u n d M a y o , die
2 m o s t destitute counties, exhibiting die eine an increase of 27, die a n d r e
73
von 25 %. In M u n s t e r finden wir Clare, Kerry u n d Tipperary an der Spitze

der Liste. (66, 67) In Lancashire, der rate of increase, zwischen 1831 u n d
1841 ist 24,7%, in W e s t m o r e l a n d dagegen n u r 2,5 u n d in C u m b e r l a n d 4,8.
(67) N i e m a n d heirathet unvorsichtiger als die rmsten Weber, weil sie die
K i n d e r schon von d e m 6' J a h r an m i t z u m V e r d i e n e n b r a u c h e n ... Evi- 5
d e n c e a b o u n d s of the t e n d e n c y der m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts generally zu
improvident marriages, ebenso so in d e m m o s t wretched u n d degraded
T h e i l der Agriculturbevlkerung. (68) It is a m a t t e r of d e m o n s t r a t i o n , from
t h e genealogies of patrician families in various countries, that if the people
were all in easy circumstances the world would soon be depopulated. (69) Im D e - 10
p a r t e m e n t du N o r d , d e m focus der french destitution, wuchs die Bevlke-
r u n g von 1 8 2 6 - 1 8 3 6 von 962,848 zu 1,086,417 oder um 1 3 % , whrend der
general increase in F r a n c e w h r e n d derselben Periode n u r 5,2 %. (69) Mis-
ery, up to the extreme point of famine a n d pestilence, instead of checking,
tends to increase population. (69) In F r a n c e von 1 7 8 9 - 1 8 4 0 die Bevlkerung 15
n u r gewachsen um 40%, aber der n a t i o n a l wealth sich verfnffacht. (72) In
Irland: L a n d arable 5,389,040; pasture 6,736,240; wastes capable of i m -
p r o v e m e n t 4,900,000. Die Population zu 8 Mill, giebt 1 acres of culti-
vated u n d 2% acres of cultivable land per h e a d . In parts des C a n t o n of Z -
rich u n d des Pays-de-Vaud, wo die Lage der peasantry die beste in Europa, 20
ist der average nicht V/ acres per head. An acre of land producirt im
4
l
D u r c h s c h n i t t 2 / qr wheat u n d 1 qr ist j h r l i c h an a m p l e allowance fr j e d e
2
Person. In Great Britain sind ungefhr 1,500,000 horses, die c o n s u m e im

D u r c h s c h n i t t as m u c h grain as would support 8 m e n . E n g l a n d allein h a t
15,379,200 acres in pastures u n d supports seine present p o p u l a t i o n von 25
1 0 , 2 5 2 , 8 0 0 a r a b l e a c r e s . ([72,] 73) W e n n England h e u t e i n small prop-
erties zu parzelliren, wie Frankreich, so k n n t e n 5,000,000 families oder
eine Population von 20 Millionen erhalten j e d e family 2% acres arable,
4 acres of pasture u n d 2 acres of improvable waste each. (I.e.) |
|29| Maschinen. Extension of Manufactures. 30

Factory System.
N a c h Baines a firstrate cottonspinning factory c a n n o t be built, filled m i t

M a s c h i n e r i e , u n d fitted m i t steamengines u n d gasworks, u n t e r 100,000 I. A
steamengine of 100 horsepower will turn 50,000 spindles, which will pro-
d u c e 62,500 miles of fine cotton thread per day. In such a factory 1000 per- 35
sons will spin as m u c h thread as 250,000 persons could without machinery.
(75) D e r powerloom, obgleich schon 1787 d u r c h Cartwright erfunden, seine
i n t r o d u c t i o n gradual u n d erst general in d e n lezten 10 oder 15 J a h r e n .
74
MacCulloch schzt die Z a h l der powerlooms in G r e a t Britain auf 130,000,

was in productive power = a b o u t 300,000 h a n d l o o m s . Der use des power-
loom noch, in a great m e a s u r e , confined to plain cloths, figured a n d fancy
goods being woven by h a n d . Der handloomweaver inde has become a m e r e
5 outdoor member of the factory, with no pretensions to be considered as an inde-
pendent manufacturer. (75)
There is no effective d e m a n d for o u r m a n u f a c t u r e s a m o n g the l a z z a r o n i
of Naples, n o t b e c a u s e they do n o t prefer good clothes to rags, b u t b e c a u s e
they prefer idleness with rags to l a b o u r with good clothes. W i t h a n o t h e r n u -
10 m e r o u s class there is no d e m a n d for foreign manufactures, b e c a u s e their
time is of so little value, t h a t it is impossible to undersell the h o m e m a d e
produce of d o m e s t i c industry. (76) Being left at full liberty by the legisla-
ture to buy labour like cotton wherever they could get it cheapest, they suc-
ceeded to such an extent t h a t the e m p l o y m e n t of the adult m a l e l a b o u r
15 m a y almost be said to be superseded. In 4213 factories which p r o d u c e t h e
bulk der e n o r m o u s p r o d u c t i o n in d e n 4 staple m a n u f a c t u r e s of cotton,
wool, flax u n d silk, out of 422,209 h a n d s employed, n u r 96,752 are m a l e s
b e r 18 J a h r e , w h r e n d 244,821 are females, wovon 162,256 u n t e r 2 1 . (78)
I n r u n d e n Z a h l e n 270,000 h a n d s u n t e r 2 1 J a h r e n verwandt i n d e n facto-
20 ries, while the whole n u m b e r , m a l e a n d female, b e r 21 Jahre, ist n u r
150,000; klar daher, da, ein J a h r u m s andre, 40 oder 50,000 persons,
trained from early childhood to factory labour, m u s t be cast adrift. W h a t
becomes of t h e m ? handloomweavers etc etc. (80) In A m e r i c a the law pro-
vides that if children are employed in factories, 3 m o n t h s at least out of
25 every year shall be devoted to e d u c a t i o n . This, with the force of public
opinion, a m o u n t s to a prohibition of infant labour. (81) A u s d e m R e p o r t of
C o m m i t t e e on M a c h i n e r y , 1841, ersieht m a n , d a 1831 there were 700 per-
sons in d e m N o t t i n g h a m trade working their own m a c h i n e s in their respec-
tive houses; 1836 aber nur mehr 302 so situated. (83)
30 In dem Second Report of Committee on Machinery statuirt, da labour, esti-

mated by p r o d u c t i o n , is decidedly cheaper in England than in any country on
the continent. (87) "The weavers of Spitalfields are rapidly descending to t h e
size of Lilliputians; a n d yet, 40 years ago, the r e g i m e n t of volunteers raised
in Bethnal G r e e n u n d Spitalfields were goodlooking m e n . Bad air, b a d
35 lodging, a n d bad food, cause the children to grow up an enfeebled a n d di-
minutive race of m e n ; b u t of 613 m e n enlisted at B i r m i n g h a m and the
neighbouring towns, only 238 were approved for service." (Chadwick, Sani-
tary Report.) [90]
Gregg giebt die folgende division der gross proceeds of a farm in t h e Loth-
40 ians: R e n t 3 3 % , Expenses 47%, Profit u n d Interest 20%, Total 100. (97)
75
Emigration.
D i e a n n u a l average n u m b e r of emigrants v o m U n i t e d K i n g d o m fr die

12 J a h r e e n d e n d 1837 war 57,000 n a c h d e m Report des Agent G e n e r a l for
l
Emigration. (122) At the present rate, nearly / des annual increase of popula-
3
tion in Great Britain is absorbed by emigration. (122) D e r a m o u n t der e m i - 5

gration n a c h Australia n i c h t b e r % des n a c h America. (123)
Building.
Mercenary speculators have been allowed to do what they like with their own,
i.e., to take advantage of the influx of population, in order to r u n up rows
of wretched hovels, streets built back to back, without drains or sewers, 10
courts a n d wynds without ventilation, cities without playground or breath-
ing place. They have b e e n allowed to crowd lodgers together pellmell, with-
o u t distinction of sex or age, to stow t h e m away in cellars, to pack t h e m 5
or 6 together in b e d s yet warm with the contagion of typhus feverin a
word to work the mine of misery as they could with most profit a n d least ex- 15
pense. In no particular have the rights of persons been so avowedly a n d
shamefully sacrificed to the rights of property, as in regard to the lodging of
the labouring class. Every large town m a y be looked u p o n as a place of hu-
man sacrifice, a shrine where t h o u s a n d s pass yearly t h r o u g h the fire as offer-
ings to the Moloch of avarice. ([149,] 150) 20
76
Aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last 40 years
Hopkins. (Thomas.) Great Britain

for the last 40 Years etc
L o n d o n . 1834.
C. I. Introduction.
5 rent is a tax levied by the landowners as monopolists u n d t h a t tax is

charged on the c o n s u m e r s of l a n d e d p r o d u c e in an addition to its price, in
the same way that a tax u p o n tea, malt, hops, oder irgend eine andre W a a -
re, is charged in an increased price of the article. N u r im ersten Falle die
tax paid to o n e class of the c o m m u n i t y by the whole of the r e m a i n d e r . (25)
10 Every thing that tends to raise up obstacles to the a c c u m u l a t i o n of capital
has a tendency to cause profit to be high, a n d every thing t h a t stimulates to
a c c u m u l a t i o n has a t e n d e n c y to cause profit to be low. (38) |
|30| A loan, then, to a government, to carry on a war, is to be considered
as a tax on wages, levied t h r o u g h the agency of the capitalists of t h e c o u n -
15 try, who collect the tax in the form of additional profit, a n d they or a part
of t h e m , pay the a m o u n t to the government in the loan which they ad-
vance. (43) Profit h a s a selfadjusting power, a n d adapts itself to t h e supply
of capital in such a way as to e n s u r e s o m e supply u n d e r almost every va-
riety of circumstances. 1253 der Zinsfu in E n g l a n d 50 % per Jahr. ... Dis-
20 tress on the part of the labouring class, does n o t prevent profit from rising
to an extravagant h e i g h t . . . In m o d e r n e u r o p e a n countries profit is compar-
atively low. (44) If you r e d u c e the labouring population, n o t only will t h e
capital be reduced, but, it will be r e d u c e d in a greater degree t h a n the p o p -
ulation. (57) (Die Herren v o n der Populationstheorie n e h m e n dazu an,
25 da das Capital dasselbe bleibt, w e n n die Bevlkerung abnimmt.)
77
Von 1793-1802.
D e r extent des rise in der Profitrate u n d die c o n s e q u e n t r e d u c t i o n in d e m

general rate of wages, m a y be seen from the prices of t h e 3 % consols, which
were:
7
91 im J a h r 1792, 76 im J a h r 1793, 67 / im J a h r 1794, 66 im J a h r 1795,
8 5
62 im Jahr 1796, 50% im J a h r 1797, 51 im J a h r 1798, 56 im J a h r 1799, 61
3
im J a h r 1800, 58 im J a h r 1801 u n d 70 / im J a h r 1802. D i e capitalists, in
4
their additional profits, h a t t e n die m e a n s b o t h of paying their taxes a n d of

creating annuities for themselves by feeding t h e loans. (83) Also das whole
des wealth expended von der Regierung furnished von der labouring class. 10
(84) In countries supplied with gold in exchange for other c o m m o d i t i e s ,
the value of gold will d e p e n d on the cost of procuring it. In Siberia m a g es
5, in Polen 2, in F r a n c e 1, in G r e a t Britain 1 qr of wheat kosten, to pro-
cure an o u n c e of gold u n d in diesen countries respectively, the exchange-
able value of the gold would be d e t e r m i n e d by the cost of procuring it. 15
(113) It should be recollected t h a t t h o u s a n d s of ingenious contrivances
have b e e n tried a n d laid aside, before spinning m a c h i n e s were brought to
their present state of perfection (i.e. in 1815) ... their u n i t e d effects
a m o u n t to this, that t h e labour of o n e person, aided by t h e m , can now pro-
d u c e as m u c h yarn, in a given t i m e , as 200 could have p r o d u c e d 50 years 20
ago. [134] (Kennedy in a paper published in the M e m o i r s of the Literary
a n d Philosop. Societ. of Manchester, v. 3)
H t t e n u n die cotton i m A u s s e n m a r k t i m m e r n o c h z u d e m s e l b e n Prei,
i.e. Q u a n t u m Gold verkauft gold would have c o m e into the country in
such a b u n d a n c e , as to cause the moneyprices of labour, a n d of all articles 25
p r o d u c e d in an u n i m p r o v e d way, to be doubled. ([135,] 136) W h e n profit
falls, circulating is disposed to b e c o m e , to s o m e extent, fixed capital. W e n n
Z i n s 5%, capital n i c h t used in m a k i n g new roads, canals or railways, bis
diese works yield a corresponding large %; b u t w h e n interest n u r 4 oder
3 % capital would be advanced for such i m p r o v e m e n t s , if it o b t a i n e d only a 30
proportional lower percentage. Jointstock C o m p a n i e s , to accomplish great
improvements, are t h e n a t u r a l offspring of a falling rate of profit. It also in-
duces individuals to fix their capitals in t h e form of buildings a n d m a c h i n -
ery. (232)
M c C u l l o c h schzt so die n u m b e r s u n d i n c o m e s derer engaged in der cot- 35
ton manufacture:
78
w
Aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last 40 years
833,000 weavers, spinners, bleachers, etc

at 24 I. each (a year) 20,000,000
111,000 joiners, engineers, machine makers 3,333,000
etc at 30 I. each
5 Profit, superintendence, coal and
materials of machines 6,667,000
944,000 30,000,000
V o n d e n 6% millions, 2 millions are supposed to go for coal, iron, a n d

other materials, for m a c h i n e r y a n d other outgoings, which would give e m -
10 ployment, at 30 a year each, to 66,666 m a k i n g a total of people e m p l o y e d
of 1,010,666; diesen h i n z u z u f g e n % der Zahl of children, aged etc d e p e n d -
ent on those who work, or an additional 505,330, so a total, supported on
wages, of 1,515,996 persons. D i e s e n h i n z u z u f g e n die die are supported,
directly or indirectly, by the 4 millions of profit, at 2 0 a head, -
15 233,350 - u n d wir h a b e n a total p o p u l a t i o n of 1,749,346 persons supported
by the 30 millions o b t a i n e d in the cotton m a n u f a c t u r e s . (336, 7) E b e n s o
viel essen die Staatsglubiger. [337]
79
1
| 3 i | Outlines of Popular Economy,

by Jelinger C. Symons.
L o n d o n . 1840.
4 cardinal elements of p r o d u c e : 1) the a b u n d a n c e of material, s u c h as land,

minerals, wood, a n d water; 2) the quality of material, such as fertility of 5
soil a n d mines, goodness of climate etc. 3) the a b u n d a n c e of labour c o m -
pared with population, in other words the fewness of n o n p r o d u c t i v e con-
sumers 4) the skill of l a b o u r a n d the l a b o u r of m i n d , as applied to p r o d u c -
tive invention a n d m a c h i n e r y . Flschlich fgt m a n d i e s e m h i n z u t h e
produce applied to further p r o d u c t i o n in the shape of m a t e r i a l a n d suste- 10
n a n c e of labour, this, however c o n t a i n s no fresh element, b u t merely con-
stitutes a c o m p o u n d m a t e r i a l into which the e l e m e n t s already n a m e d have
alone entered, acting a n d reacting on e a c h other in the process a n d r o u t i n e
of production. ... This application of the savings of p r o d u c e is merely the
P h o e n i x law of n a t u r e , equally operative in the arts of life as in t h e a n i m a l 15
a n d vegetable world, in which there is no c o n t i n u o u s vitality, a n d where
the existence of creation is kept up by a series of reproductions, the older
p r o d u c e wasting as the newer waxens, again in its t u r n to decline a n d dis-
appear with the growth of its successor. (16) Profits are the increases of
wealth, a n d the only sources of wages, a n d it is alone eventually by increasing 20
these that wages are encreased, a n d by d i m i n i s h i n g t h e m that wages are di-
m i n i s h e d . (25)
80
Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Outlines of popular economy
5 Class of labourers Weekly wages Difference after adding

France and England 1 s. 3 d. for difference of
Belgium money value to France
und Belgium
f. c. s. d. s. d. s. d.
1 Class of Mechanics 15 12 6 20 3 4
2 Class of Mechanics 10 80 9 14. 2
10 Farm labourers 7 80 6 6 10. 1 4
Spinning Factory
Labourers, men,
women, and children 7 50 6 3 10. 6 2 2 (26)
81
J. C. Symons.
(One of the Assistant Commissioners
on the Handloom Inquiry)
Arts and Artisans at Home and Abroad.
E d i n b u r g h . 1839. 5
1) Wages at Home.
F o l g e n d e rates of wages in d e n Lancashire Factories sind nearly an average

for the whole country, a n d were drawn up by the M a n c h e s t e r C h a m b e r of
Commerce:
Spinners men 20 to 25 10
women 10 15
Stretchers 25 26
Piecers (boys u n d girls) 4/7 7
Scavengers 1/6 2/8
In the Card Room 15
Men 1 4 / 6 - 17
Young w o m e n 9 - 9/6
Children 6 7
Throstle Spinners 5 9/6
Reelers 7 9 20
82
Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts and artisans at home and abroad
Weavers by Power.
Men 13 - 16/1(
Women 8 - 12
Dressers' m e n 28 30
5 W i n d e r s u n d warpers 8 11
Mechanics 24 26
Weaving by Hand.
Quality W o v e n by
N a n k i n g s (fancy) men 9 - 15
10 common children a n d
women 6 8
best men 10 13
Checks, fancy men 7 7/6
common children 6 7
15 Cambrics all ages 6 6/6
Quiltings men and
women 9 12 ( 1 , 2) I
|31[a]| In a n d r e n trades folgende Durchschnittswages in E n g l a n d :
F u s t i a n cutters all ages 10 - 12

20 Machinemakers men 26 30
Ironfounders men 28 30
Dyers u n d Dressers men 15 20
Young men 12 14
boys 5 10
25 Tailors men 18 20
Porters men 14 16
Shoemakers men 15 18
Whitesmiths dto 22 24
Sawyers dto 24 28
30 Carpenters dto 20 25
Stone M a s o n s dto 18 22
Bricklayers dto 17 20
Bricklayers' labourers dto 12
Painters dto 18
35 Slaters dto 3/8 per day
Plasterers dto 19 21
Spadesmen dto 10 15
Blacksmiths dto 18 22
Compositors dto 24
83
Wages in Sheffield von 2 5 - 3 5 per week fr die w o r k m e n in skilled de-

p a r t m e n t s u n d oft zu 40. In den ironworks in a B i r m i n g h a m district von 20
zu 30 fr die c o m m o n labourers. In d e n Leeds flaxmills: M a l e adults
1 7 - 1 9 per week, females 5/6 bis 6/6, children zwischen 9 u n d 10 J a h r e n
3/6 bis 4. In d e n Gloucestershire clothfactories m a l e adults von 1 2 - 1 4 , fe- 5
males 4 - 5 , children 2 - 3 / 6 . (2, 3 )
In u n d bei Glasgow m a s o n s , bricklayers, h o u s e carpenters, b l a c k s m i t h s
etc earn von 1 9 - 2 2 per week, engineers von 2 0 - 3 0 , tailors, cabinet makers,
hatters, p l u m b e r s , shoemakers etc von 2 0 - 2 5 . In d e m country die wages
um 1 0 - 2 0 % niedriger. (3, 4) In d e n C o t t o n mills das following ist a fair 10
general average:
per week
s.
Picking room, females 20 years u n d upwards 7
A t t e n d i n g cards, males a n d females, 15
13 J a h r e bis 15 4/6
drawing frames, females, 16 J a h r e
u n d upwards 6/6
slobbing frames dto do 6/6
finishers do do 7 20
stretchers do do 8/6
throstle spinners do 13 J a h r e
u n d upwards 7
reelers do 16 6/6
toppers males 20 J a h r e 25
u n d upwards 14
spinners do do 25-29
outside piecers do 16-20 6
inside piecers do 13-16 3/6
cleaners do 9-13 21. 30
In Lancashire fast dieselbe Distribution der Arbeit, aber der average rate
of wages fr Weiber, m e n , children z u s a m m e n , wchentlich 10/6 per h e a d .
(4) J132.1 Die stocking makers of Leicester average 8/3 per week. In D u m -
fries die workmen are paid at so m u c h per d o z e n of the fabric woven,
whether stockings, drawers or shirts. M e n ' s stockings of 24 gage are paid 35
9/6 per dozen, and an average w o r k m a n will m a k e 18 pair in the week;
gross wages 14/3 wovon a b z u z i e h n fr framerent u n d seaming 2/2, bleibt
12/1 clearwages u n d die der average rate in this trade. Fast alle bisherge-
n a n n t e n trades sind more or less c o m b i n e d . V o n d e n n i c h t c o m b i n i r t e n die
handloomweavers die hauptschlichsten. ([5,] 6) D i e woollen weavers work 40
84
almost entirely in factories where t h e h a n d l o o m s are placed, belonging to

the manufacturer; u n d wo die der Fall ist m i t den ginghams, checks u n d
other cotton fabrics die wages invariably von 4 0 - 8 0 % higher. (7) engineers etc
etc.
5 2) Wages in Belgium.
J o h n Cockerill zu Seraing (Maschinenfabrik). Zu Seraing bei Liege,

3000 w o r k m e n employed. Die wages sind wie folgt: Dessinateurs
1 5 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 fcs jhrlich oder 6 0 - 8 0 . D i e w o r k m e n sind divided in bri-
gades. There are 40 in d e m ersten process who earn von 3 - 4 f. tglich; die
10 founders 4 - 5 fc tglich; die nailmakers 200 sehr y o u n g m e n , b e z a h l t per
weight of nails, u n d earn von 3 - 4 fr b e i n g responsible for losses. D i e m a n u -
facture of furnaces sehr b e d e u t e n d , von 5 0 0 - 6 0 0 w o r k m e n employed, earn-
ing von 4 - 5 fcs; this work is very laborious, a n d deafens m o s t of t h e m e n .
etc etc ([17,] 18) Die average wages der adult w o r k m e n in d i e s e m establish-
15 m e n t an 3f. 50 c. Die others in B e l g i u m 10% niedriger. Die gewhnliche
Arbeitszeit 11 S t u n d e n per Tag. Die miners gain as follows: Die superin-
tendents 2 f. 30 c. per day, die first class w o r k m e n 2 f. 25 c, Zweite class 2 f.
10 c, Y o u t h s 1 f. 90 c, U n t e r 12 J a h r e n 1 f. 30. Age of admission ist
10 Jahre. Period of work 6 S t u n d e n per Tag. (19) In Cotton s p i n n i n g facto-
20 ries, deren h a u p t s c h l i c h e zu G e n t , ist der general rate of wages: for adult
m e n , spinners etc von 2 f. 50 c. zu 3 f. per day; fr apprentices von 12 zu
16 J a h r e n 75 c. bis 1 f., fr girls 75 c. bis 1 f. (22) In d e n l i n e n s p i n n i n g fac-
tories den m e n are paid 1 f. 35 cent, fr je 12 h o u r s work. Die children e m -
ployed % der Zahl der m e n . (23)
25 Trades Townwages Country Wages Hours usually worked

f. ct. f. ct.
Masons, Carpenters
und Blacksmiths 2 5 1 60 11
Daylabourers 1 35 11
30 Saddlers 2 25
Wheelwrights 2 25
Compositors 3
Lithographic
Printers 5
35 Cabinetmakers 3
Bleachers 2 16 in summer
Taylors und
Shoemakers 2 50 1 60 11-12
oder mit
40 food 75 c.
-85
[Trades] [Townwages] [Country Wages] [Hours usually

worked]
f. ct. f. ct.
Sawyers 3 25
Forgers 6 5
Coach Painters 2 25
Paviers 1 80
Labourers at
Canal wharfs 1 70
Miners 2 50 10 10
Agricultural Labourers
Provinces Conditions Men Women
f. c. f. c.
Brabant "1 with food 63 31
Westpellier J |_ without food 91 80 15
f with food
West Flanders \ without food 1 20 80
J with food 1 18 0 88
Liege \ without food 20
Luxemburg without food 1 85
D i e wages der agricultural labourers wechseln sehr in Westflandern; n o c h

niedriger in Ostflandern, weil hier weniger factories. In Liege u n d N a m u r ,
im H e r z des Fabrikdistricts, die agricultural wages fast doppelt was in d e n 25
purely agricultural provinces. (24, 25)
D i e handloomweavers sind divided in classes, die exceedingly v o n ein
a n d e r abweichen: D i e c o t t o n weavers b e w o h n e n chiefly Ostflandern, G e n t ,
St N i c o l a s etc. D i e 1' class v o n c o t t o n weavers 12 fc per W o c h e , die 2 t e 8
o d e r 9fcs, die 3 t e , b e s t e h e n d aus apprentices, old m e n v o n 3%-4%f. per 30
week. S t u n d e n 1 2 - 1 5 , selten weniger als 13. D e r l o o m u n d its a p p e n d a g e s
at t h e cost des weaver, aber d e r m a n u f a c t u r e r finds t h e winding. D e r aver
age n e t gain per week fr adults 8 fc. (25, 26) In V e n d e r s die wages von
1 2 - 2 0 fcs wchentlich fr weavers. M e i s t 12 fc d a h e r clear earnings. ([26,]
27) Die silkweavers besonders zu A n t w e r p e n , average 1 f. 50 c. per day, 35
weben n u r plain silks. (I.e.) Die m e i s t e n l i n e n weavers weave the plain
shirting a n d ||33| sheeting. Sie are completely i n t e r m i x e d m i t d e n agricul-
turists. A small farmer has generally 2 oder 3 l o o m s which he or his ser-
vants u s e w h e n n o t employed o u t of doors. W h e r e a m a n weaves con-
stantly, he can earn von 1 f. 25 c. bis 1 f. 50 c. per day. (27) Einige d a m a s k 40
weavers zu Courtrai etc who work solely in factories u n d von 6 - 1 4 f. per
W o c h e verdienen, je n a c h i h r e m skill. (I.e.) Die food der working classes,
n i c h t n u r von Belgien, s o n d e r n des C o n t i n e n t s b e r h a u p t consists of veg-
etables; m e a t is not the food of t h e working classes ... It is the relish u s e d
86
with food. Die Italiener essen m a c a r o n i , die french u n d G e r m a n h a b e n als

staple food bread or cabbage, die Irish Potatoes, % selbst von J o h n Bull lebt
auf vegetable diet. D i e I n d i e r essen Reis, die W e s t i n d i e r Y a m s u n d b r e a d
tree, die Africans dates; in fact, a fraction, a n d that a very small one, of
5 m a n k i n d are carnivorous. ... Die l i n e n weavers u n d c o m m o n labourers in
Belgien c o n s u m e potatoes u n d ryebread, vegetable soup, rarely flavoured
with meat, coffee of chicory, beer etc. Die cottonweavers u n d factory work-
m e n (leben schlechter als die in d e n iron works of H a i n a u l t , Liege u n d die
der m a c h i n e m a k i n g factories von Seraing, Bruxelles, G h e n t . A u c h schlech-
10 ter als die m a s o n s , blacksmiths, carpenters etc der towns. D i e ersten n m -
lich live on potatoes u n d vegetables, m i t a piece of m e a t a m o n g t h e m , for
dinner regularly; coffee of chicory; u n d an Sundays, spirits in m o d e r a t e
quantity. Dieses die best paid. D i e m a s o n s etc, ebenso die woollen factory
u n d domestic weavers c o n s u m e either a less portion of m e a t oder n e h m e n
15 es 3 oder 4x n u r per Woche.) h a b e n Potatoes u n d vegetable soup fr ihr
chief food, m i t bread half rye u n d half wheat; coffee u n d gelegentlich a
glass of spirits, a n d c o m m o n l y brown beer - execrably boiled. ( 2 7 - 2 9 ) M i t
7 d. k a n n an ablebodied m a n in d e m country in Belgien leben. Bread, wie
es die Arbeiter essen, \% d. per lb in the country. (29)
20 3) Wages in France.
D u p i n statuirt m i t R e c h t 2 f. 26 c. per day fr die n o r t h e r n u n d 1 f. 90 c. fr

die Sdprovinzen. (36) Elsa der Hauptcottondistrikt. Bei d e n H e r r e n
Schlumberguer u n d Bocard's zu Guebwillers: m e n (spinners) 1 f. 40 c . - 2 f.,
W o m e n 1 f . - l f. 20 c, children 4 0 - 7 0 cent. A r b e i t s s t u n d e n b e r 13 u n d oft
25 14, Kinder wie adults. In der Normandie u n d einigen Pltzen des Elsa die
wages der h a n d l o o m w e a v e r so niedrig wie in Schottland, in allen b r i g e n
Fllen hher. ([36,] 37) Die h o m e s der working classes meist dirty, c o m -
fortless and evincing every s y m p t o m of b a d m a n a g e m e n t a n d poverty c o m -
bined. (38) Die Elsssischen W e b e r im A l l g e m e i n e n nicht o h n e sufficiency
30 of food, aber in allen a n d e r n respects ill off. In d e n m o u n t a i n s der Vosges
die peasantry n o c h schlechter d r a n u n d there l o o m s also found, b u t chiefly
on the system of the customer" weavers von Schottland, obgleich n i c h t ex-
clusively. (39) D i e Lyoner W e b e r sind an emaciated, miserablelooking set
of beings. They are diseased u n d u n d e r s i z e d . (43) Tarare, bei Lyon, is der
35 chief muslin district of F r a n c e . E i n e Portion dieser W e b e r in d e m country
verdient n u r 75 cent. (7 d.) bis 1 f. 25 c. (1 s.) per day; die der Stadt von
2 f . - 2 f. 50 u n d m a n c h m a l 3 fc. n a c h i h r e m skill. D e r m a n u f a c t u r e r liefert
n u r den reed u n d das u p p e r m o u n t i n g , all the rest being at the expense of
87
the workmen. Die in t o w n weben das ganze Jahr, die des country n i c h t
b e r 7 M o n a t e . D i e r e m a i n i n g 5 beschftigt in agricultural e m p l o y m e n t .
Fast all the fathers dieser weavers in d e m country sind small proprietors
themselves. (44) A townweaver im average 30 sous per day u n d der c o u n -
tryweaver 25, fr 14 hours work. Sie sind a quiet simple people, who have 5
few wants, and b u t limited intelligence. (45) Normandy produces pullicates,
domestics u n d andre coarser articles. Die schlechtesten off in F r a n c e . D i e
peasants live chiefly on vegetable soup, a n d the coarsest sort of bread. (46)
In den Norman spinning mills, Spinners von 1 5 - 2 0 fcs per week, working
von 8 0 - 8 4 hours. W o m e n u n d Girls, employed at t h e carding a n d drawing 10
operations, von 7 - 1 0 fcs. Die power loomweavers von 1 2 - 1 6 fcs wchent-
lich. (47)
4) Wages in Switzerland.
In Switzerland grosse i n t e r m i x t u r e of agricultural u n d artisan o c c u p a t i o n s ,

a vast n u m b e r of the working classes p r o d u c i n g a portion of their own sub- 15
sistence. (59) R h m t d i e S y s t e m s e h r . |
|34| Bread fluctuates von 1 zu \% d. per lb. of 17 o u n c e s ; the average is
l
1 d. for c o m m o n bread, i.e. o n e batz of Zrich. M e a t varies von 2 / d. zu 2
4]/ d. per Swiss lb. average price 3 d. Potatoes 20 d. per sack of 33 gallons.
2
Milk, von 5 - 7 farthings per pot of 3 pints. (72) Die Swiss h a b e n eingesehn, 20
that a handicraft, at least, as far as plain weaving is concerned, requiring
the skill of children a n d the strength of w o m e n , m u s t necessarily be r e m u -
nerated by the wages of children's and w o m e n ' s labour. Weaving, therefore,
except, in the fancy work, has long ceased to be a separate e m p l o y m e n t .
([72,] 73) 25
5) Wages in Austria und Prussia.
Die wages der factory labourers in Austria: Spinners 1 fl. (1/8) per day.
women von 3 0 - 4 0 kr. (10 d.) bis (1/1 d.) per day; children 1 3 - 1 6 kr.
(4 d.) bis (5 d.) per day. Die h o u r s of factory labour oft 15 h o u r s per day,
exclusive of the m e a l t i m e s u n d oft 17 S t u n d e n . (74, 75) 30
In d e n dye-works zu Elberfeld die m e n receive an 4 Th. = 12 s. p e r
W o c h e , fr die hardest work, m i t long h o u r s , u n d 3 dollars = 9/1 fr die
second class work. (77) D i e weavers, die Majoritt der a r b e i t e n d e n classes
dieses Platzes, sind die best paid u n d earn von 8 - 1 6 s. per week, n a c h ih-
r e m skill u n d der class of work, besonders silks u n d velvets. (77[, 78]) In 35
88
Nordpreussen, M e c h a n i c s , as carpenters u n d blacksmiths, earn in d e n

towns von 1/6 zu 1/10 per day. S h o e m a k e r s , tailors etc an 1/2; c o m m o n la-
bourers in towns 1 s. per day in s u m m e r u n d 9 d. in winter u n d in d e m
country von 5 - 8 d. Agricultural labourers, ausser houserent, fuel u n d
5 m a n c h m a l % acre land, von 5 - 7 d. per day. (78) Coarse m e a t costs in Wur-
temberg im D u r c h s c h n i t t 8 kr. per lb = 2% d., bread von 3 zu 4 kr. = 1% d.
per lb. (81)
l
S. b e h a u p t e t da die working class of E n g l a n d wenigstens um / besser 6
dran als auf d e m C o n t i n e n t . (84) whilst very great disparity exists between
10 the rates of p a y m e n t in t h e different d e p a r t m e n t s of labour at h o m e , an u n -
iformity prevails abroad, varied alone by the variations of skill required,
and by the local d e m a n d for a n d supply of labour. (83) D a s factory
workpeople Englands das bestbezahlte i m Vergleich m i t d e m A u s l a n d . D i e
wages in d e n Lancashire factories average 10 s. 6 d. per week per h e a d . In
15 France, Switzerland, Austria u n d B e l g i u m von 6 f. zu 9 f., averaging 7 f.
50 c. = 6 s. 3 d., was in j e n e n districts in real value = 8 s. 4 d., so d a cotton
factory workpeople of Lancashire h a b e n 26% or a quarter m e h r wages als
dieselbe class abroad. D i e disparity less in allen a n d e r n Zweigen der I n d u -
strie u n d die Differenz nimmt ab in each b r a n c h of industry, in t h e s a m e
20 proportion in which that b r a n c h is unfortified by c o m b i n a t i o n s at h o m e ...
the agricultural wages differing very little u n d die handloomweavers being
somewhat higher abroad. (84) In F r a n c e wages as low if not lower t h a n in
most countries; a n d the people live in a state of discomfort, n u r surpassed
in d e n r m s t e n parts of Austria and W u r t e m b e r g . (85) In Schottland ist die
25 Sache on a par m i t Prussia. (86)
7) On the elements which govern wealth and wages.
Der Arbeitsprei regulirt d u r c h supply u n d d e m a n d . Diese aber d e t e r m i n e

n u r the labourer's share: b u t there are another set of agencies, which deter-
m i n e the a m o u n t of wealth to be shared. (88) I n a s m u c h as trade is re-
30 stricted c o m m o d i t i e s are d i m i n i s h e d , a n d with c o m m o d i t i e s wages, since
wages can alone consist in c o m m o d i t i e s . (91)
Die n u m b e r of w o m e n who perish by prostitution in G r e a t Britain exceeds

that of any other country in the whole world, m i n d e s t e n s = 3:1 in propor-
tion to the population. (119)
89
11) Combinations at Home and Abroad.
D e n englischen hnliche C o m b i n a t i o n s h a u p t s c h l i c h n u r i n R o u e n u n d
Lyons. (135) n o t h i n g can benefit the labourer's share in the aggregate, ex-
cept what increases the a m o u n t of c o m m o d i t i e s or lessens the n u m b e r of
C o n s u m e r s , in proportion to that a m o u n t . C o m b i n a t i o n s viewed in their 5
operation on the whole body of a people do neither. (136) the c o m b i n a t i o n s
h a v e b e e n beneficial in teaching knowledge. (137) |
|35| 12) Die Handloomweavers of Scotland.
Zerfallen in 2 distinct classes. D i e ltre Klasse h a t n o c h b e t r c h t l i c h e n

Theil der frher dieser Klasse eignen Bildung. (146) D i e j n g r e G e n e r a t i o n 10
far less educated u n d lasterhafter ... I am (nach seinen B e o b a c h t u n g e n u n -
ter den schottischen W e b e r n ) well convinced, that poverty has the s a m e ef-
fect on the m i n d that d r u n k e n n e s s has on t h e body. I believe it to be a
m a i n i n s t r u m e n t in the d e b a s e m e n t of m a n k i n d . (147)
In Oestreich kostet das erecting a cotton mill of 16,000 spindles m i n d e - 15

stens 2 I. per spindle oder f 32,000. In England, zu 17 s. 6 d. per spindle
wrde die n u r kosten 14,000. (200) (Aber die long hours, die low wages,
die waterpower costing n o t h i n g fully c o m p e n s a t e s for the cost of erection.)
[201] In Oestreich die F a b r i k a n t e n 1 1 - 1 2 % Netprofit. [199] E b e n s o in
Frankreich in der Spinnerei 1 1 % . (216) 20
Ein manufacturer of Glasgow giebt d e m S. folgende N o t i z e n : " E x p e n s e of

erecting a powerloom factory of 500 looms, calculated to weave a good fab-
ric of calico or shirting, such as is generally m a d e in Glasgow, would be
about 18,000.
A n n u a l produce, say 150,000 pieces 25

of 24 yards at 6 s. 45,000
W h i c h cost as u n d e r :
Interest on sunk capital, a n d for
depreciation of value of the m a c h i n e r y 1,800
Steampower, oil, tallow etc, 30
keeping up machinery, utensils etc 2,000
Yarns a n d flax 32,000
Wages to w o r k m e n 7,500
Suppose profit 1,700
45,000 35
90
In d i e s e m s t a t e m e n t des M a n u f a c t u r e r , wie die in Glasgow, aber n i c h t

in Lancashire hufig, unterstellt sein G a r n im M a r k t zu kaufen. (233) "Af-
ter" f h r t d e r s e l b e M a n n fort "a s p i n n i n g or weaving factory h a s b e e n
wrought for a few years, if b r o u g h t to t h e m a r k e t for sale, t h e price to be got
5 is generally 20 oder 30 % less t h a n t h e cost; a n d if forced u p o n t h e m a r k e t
in a t i m e of dull trade, even little m o r e t h a n half t h e cost s o m e t i m e s c a n be
got. W h e n trade is good, if a new going mill, either s p i n n i n g or weaving,
h a p p e n to c o m e into t h e m a r k e t for sale, it is very s e l d o m t h a t first cost c a n
be got for it, though, p e r h a p s , n o t h i n g worse for any tear a n d wear, a n d in
10 every respect fitted up with t h e m o s t approved m a c h i n e r y . " (233, 4)
Probable expense of erecting a spinning cottonmill m i t h a n d m u l e s , calcu-
lated to p r o d u c e N o . 40 of a fair average quality, 2 3 , 0 0 0 . If p a t e n t selfac-
tors 2000 additional. Das p r o d u c e annually zu d e n present prices of cot-
ton, and t h e rates at w h i c h t h e yarns could be sold
15 25,000
Cost of which as follows:

Interest of s u n k capital, a n d allowance for
depreciation of value of m a c h i n e r y zu 10 % 2,300
Cotton 14,000
20 Steampower, oil, tallow, gas, a n d
general expense of keeping up utensils
u n d m a c h i n e r y in repair 1,800
Wages to workers 5,400
Profit 1,500
25 25,000
Das Produce der mill t a k e n at 10,0001b weekly." (234) ||36| "Cost of a

cotton spinning mill of 10,000 throstles, calculated to p r o d u c e a fair qual-
ity of N o . 24 would be a b o u t 20,000. Taking present value of produce, t h e
a m o u n t annually would be ,,, _
30 2 3 , 0 0 0
r
Costing as u n d e r :
Interest on s u n k capital, a n d for
d e p r e c i a t i o n of value of m a c h i n e r y , zu 1 0 % 2,000
Cotton 13,300
35 Steampower, tallow, oil, gas,
keeping m a c h i n e r y in repair etc 2,500
Wages to Workers 3,800
A s s u m e profit 1,400
2 3 , 0 0 0 " (235)
91
Symons. ( I m o b i g e n B u c h e . ) In Frankreich, there is, generally speaking

sufficient m a n l y o c c u p a t i o n to be h a d ; a n d consequently, m e n are n o t re-
d u c e d to the necessity of having recourse to trades which require children's
skill a n d strength, n o r are they r e m u n e r a t e d with children's wages. (241)
92
Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Nachtrag)
Laing. (Im obigen Buch.)

T h e only articles in w h i c h any effective c o m p e t i t i o n from foreign countries
has yet b e e n experienced in n e u t r a l m a r k e t s are: 1) fine a n d expensive
printed G o o d s from F r a n c e , owing to t h e superiority in taste and design. 2)
5 Coarse cottons from the U n i t e d States, owing to the advantage in the raw-
material. 3) Certain descriptions of cotton hosiery from Saxony, where u n -
skilled h a n d l a b o u r is t h e chief e l e m e n t of cost. 4) a few Swiss cottongoods,
owing to the s a m e cause, a n d the superiority of certain dyes. 5) A little
hardware a n d other miscellaneous articles from the R h e n i s h provinces, Bel-
10 gium, and Westphalia. (In silk n a t r l i c h F r a n c e superior in m o s t depart-
ments.) Also in s o m e descriptions of woollen cloths, F r a n c e , Belgium, a n d
G e r m a n y , are on a footing of equality with u s . (87, 88)
93
Hopkins. (Das oben citirte Buch.)

Von C o t t o n war der average a n n u a l export, for
official declared Mean price of
value value bowed cotton
d. 5
The 5 years ending mit 1819 20,271,567 18,202,179 18
the 5 years ending mit 1824 23,562,359 16,161,422 9
the 6 years ending mit 1830 31,460,860 17,113,485 7
D e r value des rawmaterial unterstellt zu sein % (andre sagen %) des val

ue des m a n u f a c t u r e d article. S a n k von der ersten bis zur 3* P e r i o d e to
nearly 2/s when we c o m p a r e t h e declared values of t h e 2 periods, we m u s t
a d d die other % of t h e price of t h e c o t t o n , w h i c h would raise t h e declared
value der last period zu 20,000,000, in r o u n d n u m b e r s . U n d so von 1817,
d e m m i d d l e J a h r der ersten Periode, bis 1827, d e m Mitteljahr der lezten,
nthig fast 50 % m e h r m a n u f a c t u r e s zu exportiren, in r e t u r n for an e q u a l 15
a m o u n t of m o n e y . 1815 betrug der official value 17,655,378 u n d der d e -
clared value 20,033,132, 1830 betrug der official value 37,269,395 u n d der
declared 17,394,584. This is an extent of r e d u c t i o n in price, for which t h e
r e d u c t i o n in t h e price of t h e raw material, a n d t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e
m e t h o d s of producing articles, will not a c c o u n t . Die improve||37|ments 20
waren h a u p t s c h l i c h i m spinning d e p a r t m e n t . A u s M r K e n n e d y s s t a t e m e n t
of t h e extent of t h e m 1 8 1 2 - 1 8 3 0 , sieht m a n , d a in d i e s e m D e p a r t m e n t
die Hauptverbesserung in N o . 40 u n d da die increased p r o d u c t i o n at t h e
end of 19 J a h r e n n u r 3 auf 8, while t h e decline in t h e declared value of the
whole of t h e goods, exported at t h e e n d of 16 J a h r e n , was 42 millions to 25
only a little m o r e t h a n seventeen millions. ( 2 7 3 - 7 5 )
D e r o b e n citirte Hopkins b e m e r k t n o c h i n B e z u g a u f w a g e s : I n a c o u n -
try possessing m u c h fixed capital in m a c h i n e s where difficult processes re-
94
Aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last 40 years (Nachtrag)
quire great skill a n d care, and, of course, confidence in t h e persons e m -

ployed, skilful labour m a y c o n t i n u e to be paid at a good rate, while t h e
wages of c o m m o n l a b o u r are declining. A n d when the state of the c o m m o n
labourer is m u c h r e d u c e d , t h e difference between the rates of p a y m e n t for
5 the two kinds of labour m a y increase. ... T h e comparatively h i g h wages
which yet r e m a i n to t h e superior class of labourers in G r e a t Britain, are,
therefore, no evidence that c o m m o n l a b o u r is even moderately well paid.
The c o n s u m p t i o n of certain taxed articles is s o m e t i m e s pointed o u t as evi-
dence of the undeteriorated, or of t h e improved condition of the people,
10 but the c o n s u m p t i o n of these articles m a y be kept up by the skilled labour-
ers in town, who are increasing in n u m b e r s , and are yet tolerably well paid.
(298, 99)
95
Exzerpte aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system
Heft XI. Seite 37
Charles Wing, (Surgeon to the Royal

Metropolitan Hospital for Children etc)
Evils of the factory System demonstrated
by Parliamentary Evidence.
L o n d o n 1837. 5
Das bischen i m p r o v e m e n t im factorysystem hervorgebracht d u r c h perpet-

u a l agitation of the question, d u r c h die frequent strikes der operatives,
d u r c h legislative e n a c t m e n t s u n d die voice of public opinion. (IV) Wing
giebt sowohl Sadler's Report wie den der government commissioners, die
d e n manufacturers sehr gnstig waren, als compelled, in spite of t h e m - 10
selves, to give their verdict against the factory system by the sheer force of
truth. (V) W i t h regard to the age at which children begin to work, it ap-
pears in evidence, that in s o m e rare instances children begin to work in fac-
tories at 5 years old; it is n o t u n c o m m o n to find t h e m there at six; m a n y
are u n d e r seven; still m o r e u n d e r eight; b u t the greater n u m b e r are n i n e ; 15
while some, b u t comparatively few, b r a n c h e s of m a n u f a c t u r e do n o t a d m i t
of the e m p l o y m e n t of children u n d e r ten years of age. (XXIII) Herr Poulett
T h o m s o n (1837) tried to obtain an act to substitute 12 for 13 years, d a m i t
K i n d e r von 12 J a h r e n (nach d e n inspectors 35,000) gesetzlich 69 S t u n d e n
die W o c h e statt 48 angewandt werden k n n t e n . (XXIV) (Dr Kay's 20
P a m p h l e t on the M o r a l a n d Physical C o n d i t i o n of the Working Classes e m -
ployed in the Cotton M a n u f a c t u r e in M a n c h e s t e r . Dieser Kay sagt u. a.:
"There is a state of physical depression which does n o t t e r m i n a t e in fatal
organic changes, which, however, converts existence into a prolonged dis-
ease, a n d is n o t only compatible with life, b u t is proverbially protracted to 25
an advanced senility.") [LXXV] Between the weight of the factory a n d n o n
factory children, there is a considerable difference in favour of the latter,
96
Aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system
being, with regard to t h e boys 3.5 lbs, m i t regard to the girls only 0.3 lbs.
... factory e m p l o y m e n t prevents m u s c u l a r development. (LXXXI) D a s
B u c h v o n W i n g , als M a t e r i a l i e n s a m m l u n g wichtig fr die, die d i e m e d i -
zinischen Aussagen ber das factorysystem z u s a m m e n h a b e n wollen. |
99
|38| Samuel Laing. Notes of A Traveller

On the Social and Political State of France,
Prussia, Switzerland, Italy, and other Parts
of Europe, during the present century.
2 . e d . L o n d . 1842 5
In Italy, a n d in Holland, the social c o n d i t i o n of great c o m m e r c i a l wealth,

with comparatively little e m p l o y m e n t given by it to the m a s s of the people,
called into existence painters, sculptors, architects; furnished artists, a n d
e n c o u r a g e m e n t for t h e m . (11) M o n e y rent deteriorates the c o n d i t i o n of a
small t e n a n t in two ways. ... He m u s t sell all his best p r o d u c e , his grain, his 10
butter, his flax, his pig, a n d subsist of the m e a n e s t of food, his worst pota-
toes a n d water, to m a k e sure of m o n e y for his rent. It thus deteriorates his
standard of living. He is also t e m p t e d by m o n e y r e n t out of the p a t h of cer-
tainty into that of c h a n c e . It thus deteriorates his m o r a l condition. (44) In
the social E c o n o m y of France, o n e family in every 46 lives by functionar- 15
ism, and at the public expense; there is o n e functionary family for every
46 families of the people. (69) In t h e ratio of population, 189 paid function-
aries in F r a n c e live u p o n the public, by doing t h e duties which, at the ut-
most, from 30 to 35 paid functionaries live by doing in Scotland. (71)
Abroad, the e m p l o y m e n t u n d e r G o v e r n m e n t , in the present age, attracts to 20
it, as the c h u r c h of R o m e did in t h e m i d d l e ages, all the m i n d , industry,
a n d capital of the m i d d l e classes, on w h o m the wealth a n d prosperity of a
country are founded. (73, 4)
Die Bauernfamilie in D e u t s c h l a n d hat its own raw material, d. h. flax,
h e m p , wool, hides, raised by itself; has h o u s e - r o o m a n d t i m e i d l e t i m e in 25
winterto work t h e m up ... T h e whole agricultural population, if n o t m a n -
ufacturing in some wayspinning, weaving, m a k i n g h o u s e h o l d s goods,
100
Aus Samuel Laing (sen.): Notes of a traveller
working in iron, wood, or cloth, for t h e i r own use, during t h e winter

m o n t h s w o u l d be totally idle all t h e winter half year. It is a saving of t i m e
with us to b u y all, a n d m a k e n o t h i n g at h o m e . It would be a waste of t i m e
o n t h e C o n t i n e n t n o t t o m a k e a t h o m e all t h a t can b e m a d e . ... owing t o
5 this c i r c u m s t a n c e in t h e social E c o n o m y of G e r m a n y t h e h o m e m a r k e t , on
which alone any great i n d u s t r i a l prosperity c a n be founded, is, a n d always
will be, i n c o n s i d e r a b l e . (286[, 287]) Exclusiveness, t h e soul of fashion, c a n
n o t exist in t h e p r e s e n t c h e a p , extensive p r o d u c t i o n of clothing m a t e r i a l .
This greater steadiness of fashion with t h e great m a s s of c o n s u m e r s of
10 cloth, c o t t o n a n d silk, a n d t h e longer e n d u r a n c e , a n d greater e x t e n s i o n of
t h e d e m a n d for a n y fashion t h a t o n c e gets established, enable m a c h i n e r y
a n d large capital to work even u p o n objects which would have b e e n left for
merly to h a n d w o r k ; a n d t h e field for h a n d l o o m w e a v e r s is n a r r o w e d to t h e
p r o d u c t i o n of a few fancy articles. (364) It costs a vast deal m o r e t i m e a n d
15 labour to bring all this finely cooked food together: it costs, at t h e least,
twice as m u c h of h u m a n t i m e a n d l a b o u r to d i n e 5 m i l l i o n s of french or
g e r m a n people, as to d i n e 5 m i l l i o n s of English; a n d t i m e a n d l a b o u r are
the basis of all n a t i o n a l wealth a n d prosperity. T i m e a n d l a b o u r e m p l o y e d
unproductively are capital t h r o w n away. (368) In m a n y b r a n c h e s of i n d u s -
20 try, . B. glassmaking, i r o n founding, s o a p m a k i n g , c o t t o n s p i n n i n g h a b e n
die grossen Capitalisten in E n g l a n d s c h o n das M o n o p o l . D i e excessive tax
a t i o n h a t die n o c h befrdert, d e n n sie vergrssert d e n a m o u n t des vorzu-
streckenden Capitals. (374) t h e s h e p h e r d a n d h u n t e r states are t h e retro-
grade, and n o t the progressive steps of t h e h u m a n race from o n e stage of
25 civilisation to another. (416) Im alten R o m The saving of l a b o u r a n o b -
ject which has led to t h e perfection of labour in all t h e useful arts in o u r
state of societywas no object in their state of society. All was d o n e by
slaves, and great m u l t i t u d e s of t h e m ||39| at c o m m a n d , and by overseers or
freed m e n entertained a b o u t t h e families of t h e great. Any thing m a y be
30 produced, if waste of t i m e , labour, h u m a n life, a n d happiness, be left out of
the estimate of t h e cost of p r o d u c t i o n s (418) H a u p t p e c h fr Italien: T h e
great source of industry a n d civilisation in F r a n c e , is the cultivation of t h e
vine, a n d its n a t u r a l exclusion from all t h e N o r t h of F r a n c e . ... It n o t only
gives within F r a n c e itself a c o n s t a n t interchange of industry for industry
35 etc etc. Italy has n o t this advantage. W i t h her e q u a l or nearly e q u a l p r o d u c -
tiveness of soil a n d climate over all, b o t h in the kinds and q u a n t i t i e s of h e r
products, no considerable m a s s of her p o p u l a t i o n are d e p e n d i n g on e a c h
other's industry for t h e supply of their m u t u a l wants, a n d inseparably
b o u n d u p with e a c h other b y c o m m o n interests. Italy has n o n a t u r a l capa-
40 bilities of raising up s u c h a division in t h e m a s s e s of her p o p u l a t i o n by
manufacturing or c o m m e r c i a l industry. T h e r e is little c o m m a n d over wa-
101
terpower, a n d n o n e of firepower, in the Italian p e n i n s u l a for moving m a -

chinery. T h e Po, the Adige, the T e c i n o , a n d all t h e A l p i n e rivers; the Tiber,
the A r n o , a n d all from t h e A p e n n i n e s , owing to the melting of the snow at
their m a i n s o u r c e s , partake of the character of m o u n t a i n - s t r e a m s , having
s u c h difference of level at different seasons, that millseats on their b a n k s , 5
at which waterpower can be always available, are extremely rare. Italian
a u c h schlecht fr c o m m e r c i a l industry oder zu supporting a seafaring pop-
ulation. She h a s little coasting trade, b e c a u s e all parts of h e r territory pro-
d u c e nearly the same articles in sufficient a b u n d a n c e for the inhabitants,
a n d has little trade, for t h e same reason, with t h e other countries, on the 10
M e d i t e r r a n e a n . ... Cities u n d towns, zu 5 0 - 6 0 , 0 0 0 E i n w o h n e r sehr hufig
in Italy, vielleicht m e h r als irgend wo in Europa, within so small an area.
Aber of a very peculiar character. T h e country is so fertile, that each of
these masses of population draws its subsistence from, a n d extends its in-
fluence over, a very small circle beyond its own town walls. All capital, in- 15
dustry, intelligence, civil authority, and business, public or private; all
trade, m a n u f a c t u r e or c o n s u m p t of the objects of trade a n d m a n u f a c t u r e ,
a n d it m a y be said all civilisation, are centralised within these cities, a n d
the small circles of country a r o u n d t h e m from which they draw the articles
of their c o n s u m p t . ... E a c h city or town, within its own circle, suffices for 20
itself, is a metayer family u p o n a great scale living u p o n its own farm, a n d
having no d e p e n d e n c e u p o n , or c o n n e x i o n with, the industry, interests,
prosperity, or business of its neighbours in the land; a n d very little c o m m u -
n i c a t i o n or traffic with any other masses of population, by carriers, wag-
gons, carts, diligences or water conveyances, the objects of interchange be- 25
ing, from the general b o u n t y of n a t u r e , b u t very few between t h e m . T h e y
are m o r a l oases, beyond which, all is desert. W i t h i n t h e m people are re-
fined, intelligent, wealthy, i m b u e d with a taste for the fine arts, a n d in-
spired with liberal ideas of the constitutional rights of the people, a n d na-
tional i n d e p e n d e n c e of their country; a n d without, the people belong to a 30
different country, age, a n d state of civilisation, are ignorant, poor, halfcivi-
lised, clothed in sheepskins, or u n s c o u r e d , brown, woollen cloaks, or are
halfclothed etc ... Here, the townpopulation, draw the m e a n s of buying as
well as what they buy, from the Country, leaving on the l a n d the cattle a n d
the peasantry to reproduce next year their own food, a n d the incomes of 35
the town populations. ||40| T h e princes, nobility, or other landholders,
where the land is not, as in Tuscany, divided a m o n g the peasantry, the
higher clergy, the military a n d civil establishments of government, local
a n d general, with their armies of functionaries, live in the towns a n d cities
with the t r a d e s m e n who live by supplying t h e m . The traffic between town 40
a n d country is small, b e c a u s e there are no c o n s u m e r s in t h e country; its
102
Aus Samuel Laing (sen.): Notes of a traveller
produce is c o n s u m e d in the towns without any return. ... Italy is dotted

over with these separate a n d distinct masses of population, forming, no
whole of power, wealth, c o n n e c t e d industry, c o m m o n interests, objects or
feeling; a n d this state of d i s u n i o n in the social e c o n o m y of the Italian p e o -
5 pie is ... the effect of n a t u r a l , n o t of political causes. ... social u n i o n , n a -
tional spirit, interests a n d industry exist only in masses of people living by
each other. ... T h e power of the sword in the t i m e of t h e R o m a n s , t h e
power of c o m m e r c i a l capital in t h e m i d d l e ages, the power of t h e sword
again in the days of N a p o l e o n compressed Italy, or distinct portions of
10 Italy, into n a t i o n a l m a s s e s in form a n d g o v e r n m e n t ; b u t when the pressure
was removed, the parts started a s u n d e r again ... the b o u n t y of n a t u r e en-
ables m a n to live u n c o n n e c t e d with m a n by ties of c o m m o n interests a n d
necessities, and exchanges of industry. ( 4 7 8 - 4 8 1 ) T h e e n o r m o u s capital
which superstition in t h e m i d d l e ages, a n d down even to m o d e r n times,
15 drew to R o m e , the vast wealth which the c o m m e r c e of the East brought, in
the same ages, to Florence, Pisa, G e n o a , V e n i c e , have all b e e n laid out u n -
productively ... It has b e e n r e c k o n e d t h a t the churches of Italy, with their
embellishments, their marbles, jewels, gold a n d silver o r n a m e n t s , paintings
and statuary, have cost m o r e , t h a n t h e fee-simple of t h e whole l a n d of t h e
20 Italian peninsula would a m o u n t to, if sold at the present average price per
acre. This e n o r m o u s outlay of capital has b e e n altogether u n p r o d u c t i v e .
Ebenso die vast u n d splendid palaces, with their o r n a m e n t a l architecture,
their magnificent galleries of precious paintings, statues, fine marbles, a n d
all the costly glory displayed, even now in their decay etc. (482) t h e beset-
25 ting error of c o m m e r c i a l wealth, in the ages a n d countries which p r e c e d e d
England a n d her rise, has b e e n to overbuild a n d overdisplay itself in u n r e -
productive objects, instead of retaining their capitals as working m e a n s or
capitals in trade or m a n u f a c t u r e s . (483, 4)
103
Gaskell, P. (Surgeon.) The Manufacturing

Population of England.
L o n d o n 1833.
ist n u r die erste Auflage v o n
P. Gaskell (Surgeon):
Artisans and Machinery:
The Moral and Physical Condition of the
Manufacturing Population considered with
Reference to Mechanical Substitutes for
human Labour.
London.1836.
1) Domestic Manufacture.
T h e distaff, the spinning wheel, producing a single thread, a n d subse-

quently the j e n n y and m u l e , were to be found forming a part of the comple-
m e n t of h o u s e h o l d furniture in the majority of the cottage h o m e s of G r e a t
Britain, whilst every h a m l e t a n d village r e s o u n d e d with the clack of the
h a n d l o o m . (12) Die domestic manufacturers were scattered over the entire
surface of the country. ... T h e yarn which they spun, a n d which was want-
104
Aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery
ed by the weaver, was received or delivered, as the case m i g h t be, by |

|41| agents, who travelled for the wholesale h o u s e s ; or depots were estab-
lished in particular n e i g h b o u r h o o d s , to which they could apply at weekly
periods. (13) Some surprise m a y be excited by the assertion ... t h a t sexual
5 intercourse was almost universal prior to marriage in the agricultural dis-
tricts. (20) Various circumstances h a d b e e n for a considerable period pro-
ducing important modifications in the c o n d i t i o n of the m a n u f a c t u r i n g p o p -
ulation, prior to the i n t r o d u c t i o n of s t e a m as an antagonist to h u m a n
power. (23) Der distaff u n d spinning wheel, producing a single thread,
10 lange die only m e t h o d s of spinning. G e n M i t t e des 18' Jh. die d e m a n d for
cloth so increased, d a die inventive faculties of those interested in it were
called into activity, a n d improved m a c h i n e s for spinning were very s o o n
the result. Sehr viel Vorurtheile dagegen. Einige driven durch Verfolgung
in fremde Lnder. T r o t z d e m zwang die w a c h s e n d e Nachfrage n a c h cloth
15 die manufacturers to the a d o p t i o n verbesserter S p i n n m e t h o d e n ; for the dif-
ficulty h a d always lain in producing an a d e q u a t e supply of materials in a
state fit for the loom. D i e s e m abgeholfen d u r c h die m u l e u n d j e n n y , b o t h
of which enabled t h e spinner to p r o d u c e a greatly increased quantity of
yarn. (23, 24) D e r h a n d l o o m w e a v e r gewann sehr durch diese improve-
20 m e n t s , without any extra outlay of capital ... A family of 4 adult persons,
with 2 children as winders, e a r n e d at the e n d of the last a n d at t h e c o m -
m e n c e m e n t of the present century, 4 /. per week, w h e n working 10 h o u r s
per day; when work was pressed they could earn m o r e . (24) E i n e r der ersten
effects der constant d e m a n d u p o n t h e labour of the weaver, resulting from
25 a m o r e extensive a n d p e r m a n e n t supply of yarn, was the gradual a b a n d o n -
m e n t of farming as an accessory, which h a d b e e n very c o m m o n with t h e
m o r e respectable portion of the weavers. His labour, when employed on his
loom, profitabler u n d m e h r i m m e d i a t e in its return, t h a n w h e n devoted to
agricultural pursuits. Die led zu dem new order of farm tenants, at will. (25)
30 So wurde der weaver a simple labourer. (I.e.) Die great body of h a n d l o o m
weavers i m m e r in zwei Klassen zertheilt; die, die landholders zugleich,
u n d die entirely d e p e n d a n t u p o n weaving for their support. Leztre h a t t e n
i m m e r gelitten von der impossibility of supplying themselves with m a t e r i -
als for their labour. Considerable vacations oft occurring in d i e s e m respect
35 u n d d a n n sie in privations. Diese Klasse also hob sich, whrend die erste sank.
(26) Die ganze Klasse raised on the whole their general character as a body,
rendered t h e m m o r e u n i t e d , u n d gab i h n e n c o m m u n i t y o f interests a n d
feeling. (27) Sehr m a t e r i a l i m p r o v e m e n t d a h e r gradually operating wh-
r e n d des h a l b e n Jh. u n m i t t e l b a r vor Einfhrung der s t e a m power. N i c h t
40 v o m increase in d e m rate of p a y m e n t for labour, sondern from a m a r k e t
generally understocked, and a constantly increasing p r o d u c t i o n of yarn,
105
which enabled t h e m to work full hours, a n d consequently to throw off a reg-

ular a n d sufficient quantity of cloth. (I.e.) In d e n early t i m e s of m a n u f a c -
turing, the spinner and the weaver were to some extent s y n o n y m o u s , - the
distaff, the wheel, and the loom being all called into requisition by a single
family. At a later period, als die S p i n n m a s c h i n e n verbessert, u n d als diese 5
m a c h i n e s m i t j e d e m Schritt m o r e bulky, m o r e complicated, and conse-
quently m o r e expensive wurden, division zwischen weaver u n d spinner ...
Zu dieser Periode, when spinning was b e c o m e ||42| a separate b r a n c h , a n d
when the division between the two bodies was well defined, the spinners
were j o i n e d by another class of persons, who h a d heretofore h e l d aloof from 10
m a n u f a c t u r e ; these were the yeomen, the small freeholders. ([28,] 29) D e r yeo-
m a n bisher s u r r o u n d e d by petty farmers, die h a d generally eked out their
l a n d cultivation by being weavers, a n d who h a d served h i m as bulwarks or
breakwaters against the i m p e n d i n g storm. Diese removed o n e by one, gab
[ g e g e n ] andre race of m e n auf who gave a considerably increased rent, u n d 15
by improved m o d e s of husbandry, soon drove t h e small proprietor from the
m a r k e t s which he h a d so long supplied. So der y e o m a n was driven to e m -
bark some portion of his m e a n s in the p u r c h a s e of spinning machines, u n d
before very long, great quantities of yarn were p r o d u c e d by the i n m a t e s of
old farmhouses, in which previously the most sluggish inertness h a d pre- 20
s
vailed. / derselben, die purchased diese machines muten zu loan, meist Hypo-
7
thek, ihre Zuflucht nehmen, to raise money. ([29,] 30) D e r Prei der complicir-
teren Spinnmaschinen sehr betrchtlich u n d removte ihn aus d e m r e a c h der
inferior class of weavers. Zugleich m o n i e d m e n b e g a n to fix their attention
on a b r a n c h of trade, the returns from which were very rapid. D i e b r o u g h t 25
a farther accession of capital into it, a n d led to the erection of milk, c o n t a i n -
ing a less or greater n u m b e r of spinning m a c h i n e s , propelled by water
power; with the assistance of h u m a n labour. Diese mills g e b a u t in einiger
distance von den towns, doch so n a h als U m s t n d e erlaubten for the conve-
n i e n c e of markets, u n d readiness of transport for the raw a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d 30
material. Their site, sonst, durch 2 U m s t n d e b e s t i m m t : 1) die Existenz
eines stream of sufficient volume u n d p e r m a n e n c e u n d 2) die neighbour-
h o o d of suitable workmen. (30, 1) Diese mills ausschlielich devoted d e n
first processes of m a n u f a c t u r e , carding u n d spinning. Ihr gradual increase
wirkte bald auf den domestic manufacturer, his profits quickly fell, w o r k m e n 35
being readily found to s u p e r i n t e n d the mill labour, zu einer h o h e n Arbeits-
rate aber viel lower als der estimated rate of h o m e labour. A n o t h e r cause
which t e n d e d to injure the private spinner was the incessant and expensive
improvements in the construction of machines, (wie h e u t e dieselbe cause of
distress wirkt auf die woollen und bobbin-net manufactures.) W e r E i n J a h r 40
eine b e d e u t e n d e S u m m e im A n k a u f der besten J e n n y ausgelegt, im folgen-
106
den Jahr so behindhand, da mit dem ussersten Flei er k a u m G a r n genug

s p i n n e n k o n n t e to repay him for his present labour, in Folge von alterations
which threw the productive power of his machine in the background. T h e
price of yarn b e c a m e of necessity depreciated in proportion to the q u a n t i t y
5 produced, which was now m o r e t h a n sufficient to supply the h o m e de-
m a n d . The number of machines which at this period were thrown back into the
market, gave a strong impulse to the growth of the mills; a machine which was
not sufficiently perfect for the purpose of domestic manufacture doing well
enough in a mill in conjunction with others, worked at a less rate of wages, and
10 assisted by water power, when its use was valueless to its original owner; he was
consequently left in many cases, pekunir, schlimmer dran als beim Beginn sei-
ner new vocation, no time having been given him to cover its first cost. (31, 2) |
|43| D i e meisten der y e o m e n gingen so caput. Ihre little estates b e k a m e n in
wenigen J a h r e n so e n c u m b e r e d as to be utterly worthless to t h e m u n d a
15 very rapid u n d very extensive c h a n g e griff Platz in der l a n d e d proprietor-
ship von 1 7 9 0 - 1 8 1 0 . Einige arbeiteten sich durch Energie zu d e n m o s t
successful s t e a m m a n u f a c t u r e r s herauf, wie die Peels, die Strutts etc. ...
Eew of the m e n who entered the trade rich were successful. W h r e n d die,
c o m m e n c i n g in an h u m b l e way, generally from exercising s o m e handicraft,
20 as clockmaking, h a t t i n g etc aufkamen. (32, 3) V o n 1738 (invention of t h e
fly shuttle by J o h n Kay) bis 1800 diese series of changes vollendet. N u n a n d -
rer grosser change in d e n relative situations der 2 divisions of m a n u f a c t u r -
ers. Die improved m a c h i n e s , ihre increased n u m b e r , das establishment of
mills, the accession of capital, p r o d u c i r t e n alle z u s a m m e n viel m e h r G a r n
25 t h a n could by any possibility be converted into cloth by the t h e n h a n d -
loom weavers. Das surplus in die F r e m d e versandt oder r e m a i n e d a dead
weight u p o n the maker. Die d e m a n d for cloth inde n o c h u n s u p p l i e d u n d
it b e c a m e necessary to i n t r o d u c e great n u m b e r s of new h a n d s as weavers.
Solange die supply of G a r n begrenzt oder u n t e r der d e m a n d oder j u s t e q u a l
30 ihr war, die weavers h a d felt b u t little competition. Ihre wages d a h e r sta-
tionr geblieben. Jezt, w h e n der outcry for cloth c o n t i n u e d u n d G a r n
a b u n d a n t , a large body of weavers immigrated into the manufacturing districts:
great numbers of agricultural labourers deserted their occupations u n d a n e w
race of h a n d l o o m weavers ... w u r d e n producirt, of a still lower grade als die
35 primitive; sie hatte geerndtet e i n e n viel g e r i n g e m a m o u n t of wages u n d
waren accustomed to be mere labourers. Die m a s t e r spinners fanden sie pa-
rat zu e i n e m n i e d r i g e m Prei zu arbeiten a n d t h u s discovered an outlet for
their extra quantity of yarn. D i e fhrte zu grosser Depreciation im Prei
der h a n d l o o m Arbeit. (33, 4) Die ersten manufacturers, who h a d to trust
40
entirely t o h a n d labour, were subjected periodically t o severe i m m e d i a t e
losses durch den refractory spirit of their h a n d s , who timed their opportu-
107
nity, when the m a r k e t s were particularly pressing, to urge their claims. ... a
crisis was rapidly approaching die d e n progress of m a n u f a c t u r e s wrde ge-
checkt haben, when steam u n d its application to machinery at once turned the
current against the men. (34, 35) (first s t e a m engine applied to cotton spin-
n i n g errichtet 1783. Sir R. Arkwright's first u s e of this power 1790. 1800 5
a b o u t 32 s t e a m engines in M a n c h e s t e r . D i e s t e a m l o o m s i n t r o d u c e d von
1800 bis 1806 u n d followed by serious riots, a n d breaking a n d destroying of
machinery.) V o n der Zeit der I n t r o d u c t i o n der steampower painful change
in der condition der handloomweavers ... sie have b e e n crushed b e n e a t h
the steamengine. (35) W a r u m w u r d e n diese W e b e r n i c h t die first workers 10
on steam looms, and in other factory labours? ... Erst sie feindlich gegen
die Maschinerie, die sie b e t r a c h t e t e n als infringement u p o n their proper
d o m a i n of industry. D i e hielt sie entfernt von d e n ersten spinning u n d
weaving mills; so that these were furnished with their c o m p l e m e n t of h a n d s
from other sources. ( 3 5 , 6 ) D a n n die majority of workers in den early spin- 15
ning establishments were children; partly on a c c o u n t of the m a c h i n e s be-
ing small, a n d partly from ||44| a difficulty of procuring adult labour. D a n n
verbesserte sich die M a s c h i n e r i e sehr rasch u n d die geschicktre Arbeit ber-
all XXXweichend ... die steam looms erheischen k e i n e n adult labourer, sondern
sind ganz supplied by y o u n g w o m e n u n d girls ... there is no r o o m for the 20
m a l e h a n d l o o m weaverthe factories are closed against h i m by the stern-
est necessity. (36, 7) Families, fast 1 Million von h u m a n beings, d e p e n d e n t
on handloomweaving, die ganze F a m i l i e 14 S t u n d e n tglich arbeitend, m i t
stets fallendem Lohn. (37) N a c h Mr. Felkin, in d e m Factory C o m m i s s i o n
Report, the net weekly earnings of the h a n d s engaged in the cotton stock- 25
ing trade von 4 zu 7 s. A u f diese S u m m e , a m a n , his wife u n d ihre children
have to be supported. (38) E i n e andre large u n d interesting class of d o m e s -
tic manufacturers ist connected m i t d e m bobbin-net trade. An
200,000 young w o m e n darin engagirt. (lace-embroidering) "They begin
early a n d work late, and during this long daily period their bodies are con- 30
stantly b e n t over the frame on which the lace is extended, the h e a d being
usually kept within 5 or 6 inches of the frame, the edge of which presses
against the lower part of the chest. O n e effect, universally p r o d u c e d is
short-sightedness, and often a general weakness of the eyes, with c o n s u m p -
tive tendency, distortion of the limbs, a n d general debility, from the con- 35
finement a n d the posture." (38)
108
ch. 2. Factory System.
M o d e geworden d e n K i n d e r n selbst ihre wages a u s z u z a h l e n . Z a h l t so sei-

n e n Eltern n u r a stated s u m for food a n d lodging. (64) Ist reiner lodger
im lterlichen H a u s . (I.e.) (Separation of Families, breaking up of t h e
5 home)
ch. 3. ch. IV. ch. V. Social Condition.
ch. VI. Infant Labour. Female Labour.
T h e m a c h i n e s for s p i n n i n g were, day after day, b e c o m i n g m o r e bulky, a n d

requiring greater skill a n d exertion for producing fine n u m b e r s , so t h a t
10 adults gradually found their way to t h e m . (140) Nearly the whole of the
h a n d s employed in the silk factories are females, as well as in t h e Scotch
flax, cotton, and woollen mills. (143) Vast n u m b e r s der factory children are
hired out at the rate of 1 s. 6 d. per week. (153) Das K i n d geboren von F a -
brikeltern: wieder n u n selbst Fabrikarbeiter, n o t only is its m u s c u l a r sys-
15 t e m flaccid, supplied with t h i n watery blood; its m u c o u s surfaces u n -
healthy; its glandular system deranged; b u t the groundwork u p o n which
these are built, the frame u p o n which they are arranged, is i n c o m p l e t e in
comparison. T h e b o n y fabric has h a d no opportunity for b e c o m i n g proper-
ly solidified ... c o n t a i n s as yet too large a proportion of cartilaginous m a t -
20 ter. (158, 9) W h e r e the b o n y system is still imperfect, the vertical position it
is compelled to r e t a i n influences its direction; the spinal C o l u m n b e n d s
b e n e a t h the weight of t h e h e a d , bulges o u t laterally, or is dragged forward
by t h e weight of the parts composing the chest; the pelvis yields b e n e a t h t h e
opposing pressure downwards, a n d the resistance given by t h e t h i g h - b o n e s ;
25 its capacity is lessened, s o m e t i m e s m o r e a n d sometimes less; [the legs]
curve, and the whole body loses height, in c o n s e q u e n c e of this general
yielding a n d b e n d i n g of its parts. (159) |
109
H e f t XII
I Heft XII.
London. 1851. Juli. |
I Inhalt.
1) Gaskell. Artisans and Machinery. London. 1836.
2) Anderson (James) An Enquiry into the Causes that have hitherto re- 5
tardea the advancement of Agriculture. Edinb. 1779.
3) Anderson: (James) Essays relating to Agriculture and Rural Affairs.
3 vol. Edinb. 1777-1796.
4) Mathieu de Dombasle: Annales Agricoles de Roville. Paris. 1825 bis
1830. 10
5) An Enquiry into those Principles respecting the Nature of Demand and
the Necessity of Consumption. London. 1821.
6) Samuel Turner. Considerations upon the Agriculture etc London 1822.
7) Thomas Hopkins. Economical Enquiries. London. 1822.
8) Thompson (Perronet) The true theory of Rent. 2 ed. London. 1832. 15
9) Sir Edward West., Prices of Corn and Wages of Labour. London. 1826.
10) Thomas Hopkins. On Rent of Land and its Influence on Subsistence
and Population. London. 1828.
11) Ricardo. (David) An Essay on the Influence of the low Price of Corn on
the Profits of Stock etc London. 1815. 20
12) Ricardo. (D.) On Protection to Agriculture. London. 1822.
13) The Source and Remedy of the National Difficulties etc London 1821.
14) Somers (Robert) Letters from the Highlands or, the famine of 1847.
London. 1848.
15) Liebig (Justus) Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricul- 25
tur und Physiologie. Braunschweig. 1842. \
110
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XII. Inhaltsverzeichnis
Aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery (Fortsetzung)
Iii Gaskell (Contin. von Heft 11)

There are, in the Cotton factories Male ... Female
in Lancashire and Cheshire 100 to 103
Cottonfactories in Scotland 100 to 209
Flaxfactories in Leeds 100 to 147
Flaxfactories in Dundee
and East Coast of Scotland 100 to 280. (173)
ch. VII, ch. VIII, ch. IX. Physical Condition.
Die population of G r e a t Britain frher gesnder als jezt trotz d e m d i m i n -

10 ished rate of mortality. T a k e n as individuals they were m o r e robust, fuller
of organic activity, enjoyed in m u c h higher degree the feelings of exist-
ence; but, in c o n s e q u e n c e , their diseases were of a m u c h m o r e a c u t e char-
acter, and infinitely m o r e fatal in their t e n d e n c y . (201) In d e n Fabrikstd-
ten disease generally assumes a chronic type; its progress is slow, a n d often
15 interferes but little with the proper functional actions which are essential to
life. Neither, in m a n y instances, does it, of necessity, shorten its d u r a t i o n ;
b u t rather, by keeping the standard of vital energy somewhat below par, it
abstracts the system from the impression of m o r e fatal affections, w h i c h
kill by disturbing the circulation. (205) 1831 h a t t e L o n d o n 1 m e d i c a l m a n
20 auf je 345 i n h a b i t a n t s , Paris auf je 900 u n d M a n c h e s t e r auf je 1 2 1 - 3 in-
habitants. (208 Note) In M a n c h e s t e r m o r e t h a n % of all children born to
the lower class perish before they have completed their 5 years. (212) (Ptis-
sier: Sur les Maladies des Artisans. Thackrah: On the effect of the Principal
Arts, Trades, Professions etc, u p o n H e a l t h a n d Longevity. [222]) T h e singu-
25 larly miserable aspect presented by m a n y of the operatives, shewing, as it
were, an epitome of every thing that m e l a n c h o l y can impress on t h e h u m a n
face, is owing to these bowel affections. (235) Dieser tribe of diseases in
113
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 Heft XII
n e u r e r Zeit sehr hufig u n t e r d e n higher classes of society, having their ori-

gin in too nourishing a n d s t i m u l a n t a diet. [236] (235 die R e d e v o n d e n
d e r a n g e m e n t s in d e n digestive organs.)
ch. X. Education etc.
ch. XI. Combinations. 5
ch. XII. Truck and Cottage System.
D i e s e b e i d e n A u s g e b u r t e n d e s factory S y s t e m : the a p p r o x i m a t i o n w h i c h
these show of the c o n d i t i o n of the labourer, u n d e r the factory system, to t h e
t i m e s of feudal t e n u r e a n d vassalage in E n g l a n d is Singular. (293) D i e cot-
tages, gruppirt besonders um countryfactories, m e i s t das property des mill- 10
owner, a n d the o c c u p a n t s are universally his d e p e n d e n t s . Oft diese d e p e n d -
e n c e viel absoluter als je u n t e r d e m feudal lord. D i e social existence des
d e p e n d e n t hngt von diesem lord ab. A r o u n d m a n y mills a fixed p o p u l a t i o n
has arisen, which is as m u c h a part a n d parcel of the property of the m a s t e r
as his machinery. T h e rapid i m p r o v e m e n t in this last has p u t an end to the 15
necessity for new labourers, a n d t h u s little colonies are formed u n d e r the
absolute government of the employer. Combination amongst the great body of
the operatives has as yet checked, or rather overpowered, the growing superiority
of the master. (294) Das cottagesystem, ist in fact an offset des truck system. Erst-
res sich rapidly entwickelnd. (298) This system of cottagebuilding is n o t 20
universal: in towns where masses of labourers are already collected, a n d ,
w h e n considerable expense would attend u p o n it, it is very little practised. It
is chiefly in out-districts; a n d it is a striking ||2| proof of the advantages to
the master, that the great manufacturers are gradually creeping to the out-
skirts, or into localities a few miles from the great towns. D i e extension a n d 25
influence of this system m a y be very distinctly seen in the now p o p u l o u s
township of Hyde and N e w t o n , Duckenfield, etc about 7 miles from M a n -
chester etc. Die population dieser districts 1801 k a u m 3 0 0 0 , 1 8 3 0 zu 26,000
angewachsen ... die dwellings dieser population in einer large proportion in
d e n h a n d s der manufacturers, als owners oder als general t e n a n t s . (299) Al- 30
l e r d i n g s : They have b e e n forced to build, a n d are still building; b u t it does
not lessen the evils a t t e n d a n t u p o n the System. (300) Die masters, m a n y of
w h o m have 80, 100, 200 or m o r e of those cottages surrounding, are i m -
m e n s e gainers by the arrangement. Die cost of building a range of h o u s e s ,
such as these, z.B. 100, nicht, u p o n the m o s t liberal average, m e h r als 35
5000; im Durchschnitt, d e m very best, 50 /. will over a n d above cover the
114
Aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery (Fortsetzung)
outlay fr every cottage. N o w for the outlay of 5000 /. the capitalist draws an
a n n u a l i n c o m e of 800 1., or 13%, a n d completely covers himself in little
more t h a n 6 years. This profitable return is b u r d e n e d with no drawback; no
rent is lost, every paynight it is d e d u c t e d from t h e wages. (302) Also erstens:
5 dieser disproportionate rate of interest. D a n n erleichtert i h m die congre-
gating his m e n , u n d e r his i m m e d i a t e control 1) das trucksystem, d e n n er
b a u t 2 oder 3 shops, u n d h o u s e s calculated fr taverns u n d beerhouses u n d
if he has no direct dealing in t h e m , he abstracts an equivalent rent. 2) it en-
ables h i m to shorten t h e h o u r s allowed for m e a l s , to begin earlier in t h e
10 m o r n i n g , to c o n t i n u e later at night. (I.e.)
Ch. XIII. Influence of Machinery on Human Labour.
T h e surplus h a n d s wrden die manufacturers befhigen to lessen the rate

of wages; b u t the certainty that any considerable r e d u c t i o n would be fol-
lowed by i m m e d i a t e i m m e n s e losses from turnouts, extended stoppages,
15 a n d various other i m p e d i m e n t s which would be thrown in their way, m a k e s
t h e m prefer the slower process of m e c h a n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t s by which,
though they m a y triple p r o d u c t i o n , they require no new m e n . (314) w e n n
die improvements n o t quite displace the workman, will render o n e m a n
capable of producing, or rather of superintending, the p r o d u c t i o n of q u a n -
20 tity now requiring 10 or 20 labourers. (315) M a c h i n e s have b e e n invented
which enable o n e m a n to p r o d u c e as m u c h yarn as 250, or 300 even, could
have produced 70 years ago, which enable 1 m a n a n d 1 boy to print as
m a n y goods as a 100 m e n a n d a 100 boys could have printed formerly. D i e
150,000 w o r k m e n in the spinning mills p r o d u c i r e n so viel G a r n als
25 40,000,000 an d e m onethreadwheel h t t e n produciren k n n e n . (316) 2 Mil-
lions of handloomweavers in H i n d u s t a n have b e e n driven from their labour
by m a c h i n e r y here, m u l t i t u d e s of w h o m have perished by famine. (324)
Mr G o r d o n an engineer sagt v o m S t e a m : "Considered in its application to
husbandry, the cottager looks forth u p o n the n e a t paling which fences his
30 dwelling; it was sawed by steam. T h e spade with which he digs h i s garden,
the rake, the hoe, the pickaxe, the scythe, the sickle, every i m p l e m e n t of ru-
ral toil which ministers to his necessities, are p r o d u c e d by steam. S t e a m
bruises the oilcake which feeds the farmers cattle; m o u l d s the ploughshare,
which overturns his fields; forms the shears which clip his flock; a n d cards,
35 spins, and weaves the p r o d u c e . Applied to architecture, we find t h e Bria-
rean arms of the steam engine every where at work" etc. ([325,] 326) | | 3 | In
the weaving d e p a r t m e n t the c o n s e q u e n c e of m e c h a n i c a l a d a p t a t i o n is n o w
beginning to be felt in its full force. H i t h e r t o the depression which h a s
115
Exzerpte aus James Anderson:
An inquiry into the causes ...
Heft XII. Seite 4
crept over this d e p a r t m e n t has resulted from c o m p e t i t i o n with s t e a m l o o m s ,

from cheap yarn, from this yarn being exported, and h e n c e compelling t h e
English m e r c h a n t , in order to c o m p e t e with t h e foreign manufacturer, to
bring down the price of cotton cloth below h i s ; a n d from the a m a z i n g pro-
ductiveness of spinning m a c h i n e r y constantly choking the market, whilst 5
h u m a n labour being driven from this d e p a r t m e n t , and having no other re-
source, has b e e n forced to keep itself on the loom. H e n c e it is t h a t the
h a n d cotton manufacturers have kept on t h e increase, the n u m b e r actually
employed far exceeding the factory labourers, a n d that the former are in a
far greater proportion adults t h a n the latter; yet t h e h a n d l a b o u r e r s are 10
charged with being the authors a n d perpetrators of their own r u i n . A b e r
a u c h diese resource will be withdrawn from the operatives. D e r powerloom
n i m m t sehr zu; every new mill which is built contains t h e m , a n d additions
to old mills of weaving r o o m s are going on in every direction. ([329,] 330)
If the 150,000 spinners of the present day s u p e r i n t e n d the p r o d u c t i o n of as 15
m u c h yarn as would have required the l a b o u r of 40 millions of m e n a cen-
tury ago, what is to prevent 1000 doing that which is now d o n e by 150,000?
... If o n e powerloom is 6 x as effective as a h a n d l o o m , why should n o t the
powerloom be doubled in capability in 10 years? These things are yet in their
infancy. ([332,] 333) A b e r B a i n e s : A very good h a n d weaver, 25 oder 20
30 years of age, will weave 2 pieces of 9 - 8 t h s shirting per week. In 1823 a
s t e a m l o o m weaver, about 15 years of age, attending 2 looms, could weave
7 similar pieces in a week. In 1826, a steamloomweaver von 15 J a h r e n , at-
tending 2 looms could weave 12 similar pieces in a week, some a u c h 15. In
1833, a steamloonweaver, von 1 5 - 2 0 J a h r e n , assisted by a girl about 25
12 Jahre, attending 4 looms, can weave 18 similar pieces in a week, s o m e
20. Also 1823 an adult handloomweaver can produce, at the u t m o s t , n i c h t
% von d e m was a girl at steam l o o m ; 1826 n i c h t %\ 1833 nicht % so m u c h .
(334) machinery, in the first place, destroyed d o m e s t i c spinning; in the sec-
ond, it has opened up an i m m e n s e export trade in yarn; a n d in the third, it 30
c o n d e m n s the domestic weaver to clothe the whole world, while he himself
is working 14 hours a day in rags and poverty. (340) D e r Iron Man of R o -
berts zerstrt d e n Factory Spinner. (352)
Year Crime Pauperism Drunkenness Cotton Trade Exports

Commit- Poor Rates Spirits Official Declared 35
ments consumed value value
Gallons
1821 13,155 6,674,938 8,798,655 22,522,079 16,516,758
1822 12,242 6,102,253 8,754,281 23,541,615 16,094,807
1831 19,647 7,929,608 21,845,309 33,682,400 17,182,936 40
1832 20,829 8,255,315 21,778,559 37,060,750 17,344,676 (399)(
116
Aus James Anderson: An inquiry into the causes
Anderson (James) An Inquiry into the

Causes that have hitherto retarded the
Advancement of Agriculture in Europe.
E d i n b u r g h . 1779.
5 D i e Agricultur schwieriger als irgend eine M a n u f a c t u r . Agricultur die abso

lut nothwendige, die n t z l i c h s t e der arts; w a r u m bis j e z t n i c h t weiter ent-
wickelt? (1) Erstens. D i e N o t h w e n d i g k e i t vieler E x p e r i m e n t e . (2, 3) D i e ex-
p e n c e d u r c h dieselben in agriculture. (4) Infinite diversity of soils, die m a y
be so m u c h altered from their original state by t h e m o d e s of c u l t u r e they
10 have formerly b e e n subjected to, by t h e m a n u r e s etc we have no t e r m s
capable of expressing t h a t great diversity of soils, differing from o n e a n -
other by such delicate a n d u n o b s e r v e d peculiarities etc. (5) D i e m a c h t die
N t z l i c h k e i t der E x p e r i m e n t e grer als in a n d r e n arts. U n d die B o d e n der
4 grossen Klassen, clayey, loamy, sandy u n d gravelly u n t e r s c h e i d e n sich
15 wieder sehr. (6) E x p e r i m e n t e r t h er a n , v o n d e r g a n z e n G e s e l l s c h a f t g e -
macht.
119
Anderson (James) Essays relating to

Agriculture and rural affairs.
3 vol. 1 7 7 7 - 1 7 9 6 .
vol. III.
Essay I. On the Obstacles 5

to the Advancement of Agriculture in England,
and the means of removing them.
Obstacles sind:
1) Commonable lands. (8)
Sie sind schdlich, d e n n sie unterwerfen in regard to their culture a n d 10

m o d e of cropping, gewisses I n d i v i d u e n gehriges L a n d , to certain regula-
tions, which were adopted at a very distant period, wenn Agrikultur n o c h in
ihrer K i n d h e i t u n d ein very dissimilar state of society. (9, 10) In m e h r e n
counties in England m e h r als % des arable land in d i e s e m state. (10) U e b r i -
gens lst sich die common-field h u s b a n d r y n u r im G r u n d auf in die i n a d e - 15
quate size of farms. (20)
120
Aus James Anderson: Essays Relating to agriculture and rural affairs
2) Commons. (31 sqq.)
3) the minute division of land.
Ein L a n d von 100 acres, w e n n j e d e F a m i l i e 3 K i n d e r hat, wrde in der

I l t e n G e n e r a t i o n n u r 2 yards auf d e n M a n n fallen lassen, e a c h m a n ' s
5 property would be barely sufficient to m a k e a grave to hold himself. ([59,]
60)
4) Inadequate size of farms, (p. 76 sqq.)
W h e r e there are two fields, the p r o d u c e of which is nearly as above stated,

n m l i c h das Eine 12 bushels, grad r e m u n e r i r e n d die Auslage, das andre 20,
10 without requiring any i m m e d i a t e outlay for their improvement, t h e farmer
would pay even m o r e rent als 6 . . fr das erste, w h r e n d fr das a n d r e
keine, (wenn 12 b u s h e l s j u s t sufficient for the expence of cultivating, no
rent whatever can be afforded for cultivated land that yields only 12 b u s h -
els, p. 107) Yet it c a n n o t be expected that, if the superior p r o d u c e has b e e n
15 i m m e d i a t e l y occasioned by his own outlay of capital, and exertions of in-
dustry, he can pay nearly the s a m e proportion of it as rent; b u t after t h e
land has b e e n for s o m e t i m e in a p e r m a n e n t state of fertility to t h a t degree,
t h o u g h it even originally derived t h a t fertility from his own industry, he
will be content to pay s u c h a proportion of rent as is here stated. ( 1 0 9 , 1 0 )
20 5) Want of Capital among Farmers.
Existirt fast berall in d i e s e m Eiland dieser want. (124)
6) Andres obstacle: Church lands, lands in Mortmain

and Entails. (146 sqq.)
7) Indefinite claims upon land
25 (tithes, poorrates etc) (157 sqq.)
121
8) want of easy means of communication. (209 sqq.)
9) want of markets. (210)
10) fiscal regulations.
(Salzsteuer . .) 220 sqq.
11) law of entails. 5
12) want of means of circulating agriculture knowledge. (228)
13) Die tenantry at will,
ueberhaupt die Unsicherheit der l e a s e s etc. Kurz das Verhltni des

Pchters z u m Landlord, there c a n be no doubt, t h a t while t h e obstruc-
tions above ||5| e n u m e r a t e d shall c o n t i n u e to operate, it would be nearly 10
with equal justice, that we should revile a m a n for his i n d o l e n c e a n d aver-
sion to work, while he was b o u n d h a n d a n d foot so as to r e n d e r h i m incapa-
ble of moving, as to c o m p l a i n of t h e d e t e r m i n e d obstinacy of farmers, for
n o t doing those things that were equally b e y o n d their power. (229)
Essay II On Waste Lands, and the Means of 15

their Improvement.
W a s t e lands k n n e n b e improved, entweder i n d e m m a n sie i n cultivated

fields verwandelt oder i n d e m m a n sie m i t B u m e n bepflanzt. (239)
Part first. Verbesserung durch means of culture.
Fast alle soils k n n e n d u r c h m e n s c h l i c h e A n s t r e n g u n g in Kornfelder ver- 20

wandelt werden. Aber viele zu grrer expence, als d e m improver a reason-
able indemnification gewhren wird. (240[, 241]) Es ist in Betracht g e z o -
g e n worden: 1) Die N a t u r des soil u n d des subsoil. 2) D i e physical
obstructions that stand in t h e way of cultivating that soil, as arising from
rocks or stones, brushwood, trees etc, hurtful m o i s t u r e , inequalities of sur- 25
122
Aus James Anderson: Essays Relating to agriculture and rural affairs
face etc. (241) 3) Clima. 4) D i e F e r n e oder N h e der M r k t e u n d ihr ex-

tent. 5) the Arten, Preisse, Beziehungsart, Zeiten, Q u a n t a wie the k i n d s of
extraneous m a n u r e s can be p u r c h a s e d . 6) the n a t u r e of the roads or other
m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . 7) what conveniencies die premises afford for
5 erecting houses, rearing fences, m a k i n g drains etc wie es m i t d e m water b e -
stellt ist; m i t d e m fuel; der state des L a n d s m i t Bezug auf servants u n d la-
bourers. 8) D e r Stand des L a n d s in Bezug auf m e c h a n i c arts. 9) D i e n a t u r e
der t e n u r e by which t h e lands are held. ( 2 4 1 - 4 5 ) In the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of
large towns alone, the e x p e n c e incurred in improving t h e most barren
10 wastes, can be repaid. As you r e c e d e from these great marts, it is necessary
that the soils be of a greater degree of fertility, before the expence of culti-
vating t h e m can be repaid ... je weiter ab, je less a b u n d a n c e of e x t r a n e o u s
m a n u r e can be o b t a i n e d etc desto smaller will be the proportion of waste
land that can be b r o u g h t into cultivation. (251, 2)
15 Part II. Plantation of Trees.
Wo der soil dry u n d infertile, oder wo sein chief or only produce is h e a t h ;

oder wo voll von rocks u n d stones rising to the surface, oder a stiff o b d u r a t e
clay, having little surface p r o d u c e , b e r h a u p t wo der soil poor, p l a n t a t i o n s
am besten, am ertrglichsten, w h r e n d gleichzeitig the ground itself, while
20 the trees c o n t i n u e to grow u p o n it, undergoes, for the most part, a gradual
amelioration, which it would n o t have d o n e in its n a t u r a l state. (353, 4)
123
Mathieu de Dombasle. Annales

Agricoles de Roville.
Paris. 1829.
2. livraison. 1825.
De l'Etendue des Exploitations rurales dans 5

ses rapports avec la prosprit de l'Agriculture.
Lorsque l'extrme division parcellaire se c o m p l i q u e avec l ' e n c h e v t r e m e n t

des pices qui les r e n d r c i p r o q u e m e n t serves, c o m m e on l'observe dans
u n e partie considrable de la F r a n c e , elle forme un des plus puissans obsta-
cles fr das p e r f e c t i o n n e m e n t de l'agriculture. (206) Klar d a die culture
sera d ' a u t a n t meilleure u n d die profits d ' a u t a n t plus considrables, que le
capital pcuniaire et le capital de connaissances seront plus e x a c t e m e n t pro-
portionns l ' t e n d u e de c h a q u e exploitation, g r a n d e ou petite. (213) Die
grosse Kultur folgenden avantage: Mglich die Theilung der Arbeit d'tablir,
so da c h a q u e h o m m e soit c o n s t a m m e n t occup au m m e genre 15
d'ouvrage. ||6| (213, 14) Ferner: die dpense des attelages verhltnimssig
m o i n d r e in einer g r a n d e ferme als in einer petite. W e n n 10 Pferde nthig
fr eine Exploitation von 100 hectares, 15 oder 16 h i n r e i c h e n d fr eine von
200. E b e n s o verhltnimssig geringer die dpenses de construction et de r-
parations des btimens, die ducation des btes laine n u r b e i grossen exploi- 20
tations mglich, bei k l e i n e n n u r l'aide d ' u n t r o u p e a u c o m m u n , ce qui
suppose la vaine pture, et par c o n s q u e n t l'tat de culture le plus misra-
ble. Die exploitations de g r a n d e culture, lorsque les amliorations de la
culture alterne s'y introduisent, o c c u p e n t un b e a u c o u p plus grand n o m b r e
124
Aus Christophe-Joseph-Alexandre Mathieu de Dombasle: Annales agricoles de Roville
de bras que dans le systme d'assolement triennal, m a i s b i e n m o i n s que les

fermes de petite ou m o y e n n e culture ; M a s c h i n e n u n d I n s t r u m e n t e k n n e n
hier z u m Theil die H a n d a r b e i t ersetzen. (215, 16) Also die grosse K u l t u r
giebt d e m M a r k t le plus grand e x c d a n t possible de produits disponibles
5 relativement au n o m b r e d'individus employs le crer u n d elle fournit,
relativement la p o p u l a t i o n totale d ' u n pays, u n e b e a u c o u p plus g r a n d e
quantit des matires p r e m i r e s q u i servent d'aliment l'industrie m a n u -
facturire. Pat am besten fr L n d e r d ' u n e p o p u l a t i o n m o y e n n e , wovon
ein Theil die Stdte b e w o h n t u n d m a n u f a c t u r i r t u n d wo folglich la m a i n
10 d'oeuvre theuer. (216) Die g r a n d e culture n'exige pas u n e plus g r a n d e
masse de capitaux q u e la petite ou la m o y e n n e culture ; elle en exige m o i n s
au contraire, aber, in diesen v e r s c h i e d n e n Systemen, m s s e n die Capita-
lien verschieden distribuirt sein; d a n s la g r a n d e culture, les c a p i t a u x appli-
qus l'agriculture doivent se trouver entre les m a i n s d ' u n petit n o m b r e
15 d ' h o m m e s q u i salarient les bras qu'ils emploient ; die in England der Fall,
wo die grands propritaires grosse A u s l a g e n zur Verbesserung des B o d e n s
m a c h e n u n d wo eine Klasse de fermiers riches u n d die Kredit h a b e n ...
D a n s de telles circonstances, la petite culture ne peut soutenir la concur-
rence avec la grande. Car il ne faut pas oublier que, par la force irrsistible
20 de la n a t u r e des choses, les terres t e n d e n t toujours se ranger entre les
m a i n s de ceux q u i en tirent le profit le plus lev, parce que ce sont ceux-l
qui peuvent y m e t t r e le plus h a u t prix d'achat ou de loyer. ([217,] 218) In
Frankreich dagegen die Capitalien der propritaires u n d spculateurs n i e
dirigs vers l'agriculture. Die i m m e n s e majorit qui se livrent cet art
25 braucht n u r sehr kleine p e c u n i r e M i t t e l dazu, k e i n e n Credit u n d ihre
Kenntnisse im A l l g e m e i n e n n i c h t grsser als la fortune qu'ils possdent.
... A b e r les plus petites proprits sont celles auxquelles on consacre pres-
que toujours le capital le plus considrable, relativement leur t e n d u e .
(218, 19) Die K e n n t n i s s e dieser K l e i n e n a u c h gro, im Verhltni z u m U m -
30 fang. D a h e r gedeiht die kleine Agricultur. (220 [, 221]) U n t e r d e n U m s t n -
den daher dans lesquelles se trouvent placs les h o m m e s q u i se livrent
l'agriculture im grten Theil F r a n k r e i c h s sind die petits propritaires in
der gnstigsten Position p o u r les cultiver avec avantage et ils p e u v e n t par
c o n s q u e n t y mettre un prix d ' a c h a t tel q u e les propritaires q u i dsirent
35 acqurir un d o m a i n e p o u r l'affermer, ne peuvent entrer en c o n c u r r e n c e
avec eux. Les terres r u n i e s en corps de ferme acquirent ainsi par u n e
vente en dtail, u n e a u g m e n t a t i o n de valeur. (221, 2) Aber w e n n der culti-
vateur von grandes exploitations kmpfen k n n e n armes gales m i t d e n
kleinen, d. h. wenn sie p o u r r o n t appliquer Kapital u n d K e n n t n i s s e propor-
40 tionellement gaux d e n e n die der Bauer anwendet, ||7| m s s e n die G r o s s e n
i m m e r siegen u n d die exploitations t e n d r a i e n t c o n s t a m m e n t s'agrandir
125
u n d die petites proprits werden sich y r u n i r successivement. (222, 3)

D i e petite culture favorise e x t r m e m e n t la culture des rcoltes-racines et
des plantes potagres, qui fournissent, sur u n e t e n d u e de terre d o n n e ,
u n e si grande m a s s e de substances alimentaires, m a i s q u i doivent tre
c o n s o m m e s tout prs du lieu de production, et q u i ne peuvent gure sup- 5
porter de transports q u e du c h a m p la d e m e u r e du cultivateur, cause de
leur volume et de leur poids. D a h e r in d e n pays excessivement peupls, la
petite culture prsente le seul m o y e n de fournir la subsistance de la p o p u -
lation. (223, 4) E b e n s o sicher da die petite culture fournit le m o i n s d'ex-
c d a n t disponible p o u r le m a r c h ; elle p e u t a l i m e n t e r u n e trs n o m b r e u s e 10
population agricole, m a i s elle emploie tous les bras, et elle c o n s o m m e tout
ou presque tout ce qu'elle produit ; elle n'est d o n c n u l l e m e n t favorable au
dveloppement des autres branches d'industrie, grossen Stdten etc. (224)
La petite culture elle m m e , telle qu'elle est p r a t i q u e o r d i n a i r e m e n t en
F r a n c e , emploie un b e a u c o u p m o i n s grand n o m b r e de bras q u e la 15
m o y e n n e culture ne le fait dans les c a n t o n s les m i e u x cultivs de la F l a n -
d r e : aussi les bnfices q u ' o n en obtient sont ils b e a u c o u p m o i n s levs,
quoiqu'ils soient b i e n suprieurs ceux que prsentent en gnral, chez
n o u s , la grande et la m o y e n n e culture. (227, 8) En supposant q u e de grands
perfectionnements s'introduiraient en F r a n c e dans la petite et la m o y e n n e 20
culture, le rsultat serait ncessairement, d ' u n e part, u n e g r a n d e surabon-
d a n c e de produits alimentaires, suivie d ' u n extrme avilissement dans les
prix, et de l'autre d ' u n r e n c h r i s s e m e n t excessif de la m a i n d ' u v r e . Un tel
tat de choses ne pourrait se soutenir. Je crois avoir suffisamment d m o n -
tr que, dans l'tat actuel de la p o p u l a t i o n de la F r a n c e , le systme de 25
grande culture est le seul qui puisse a d m e t t r e g n r a l e m e n t les perfection-
n e m e n s q u e l'art agricole a reus chez d'autres n a t i o n s de l'Europe. (228,
9) (Si la petite et la m o y e n n e culture taient pratiques en F r a n c e avec
toute la perfection dont elles sont susceptibles, elles p r o d u i r a i e n t u n e
masse d'alimens disproportionne la population, parce qu'elles ne 30
peuvent aussi facilement et avec a u t a n t d'avantage q u e la grande culture,
tourner leurs spculations vers les productions des a l i m e n s de n a t u r e a n i -
m a l e , qui font c o n s o m m e r un n o m b r e d o n n d'individus les produits
d ' u n e t e n d u e de terre b e a u c o u p plus considrable q u e les a l i m e n s vg-
taux.) (228) 35
126
w
Quatrime livraison. 1828.
Du systme de fermage suivi dans la Grande-Bretagne.

Traduit de l'anglais de Robert Brown.
In d e n ersten Zeiten, als die Agrikultur n o c h sehr roh, die Erde cultivirt,
5 fr R e c h n u n g der E i g e n t h m e r , d u r c h die personnes engages leur ser-
vice et qui avaient en j o u i s s a n c e ou recevaient u n e partie d t e r m i n e du
produit c o m m e un salaire de leurs travaux et pour l'entretien du btail et
des i n s t r u m e n s employs la culture des terres. D i e System graduell
a b a n d o n n , im M a a als die cultivateurs e u r e n t amasss des c a p i t a u x u n d
10 fhig waren die terres fr ihre eigne R e c h n u n g zu pachten. D i e R e n t e die-
ser fermes bestand ursprnglich in services u n d corves excuts p a r le fer-
mier ... d a n n change en redevance, payable en grains oder j e d e m a n d r e n
Agrikulturproduct, d'aprs u n e q u a n t i t fixe par les d e u x p a r t i e s ; u n d
schlielich Geldrente. Im ersten tat des ||8| choses die t e n d u e des fermes
15 sehr resserre, tandis q u e la c o n d i t i o n du t e n a n c i e r tait abjecte et m a l h e u -
reuse. Ein eben erst emancipirter tenancier, k o n n t e sich n i c h t leicht von
den G e w o h n h e i t e n der esclavage l o s m a c h e n etc. Die tenanciers im Mittel-
alter obligs de suivre leurs matres la guerre, sous peine d'tre chasss de
leurs fermes. Vor 1449 k o n n t e ein fermier cossais o h n e formalit a u c u n
20 chass werden ... die fermiers des biens de l'glise taient traits avec plus
de d o u c e u r que leurs frres tenanciers des seigneurs laques. ( 2 4 5 - 2 4 7 )
Q u a n t aux prjudices occasionns par ce q u ' o n appelle a s s o l e m e n t
contraire aux rgles de la b o n n e agriculture, n o u s en d o u t o n s tout--fait, et
n o u s confessons q u e n o t r e o p i n i o n est q u e la valeur primitive du sol ne
25 peut tre d i m i n u e par a u c u n systme d'assolement quelque m a u v a i s qu'il
puisse tre, q u o i q u ' i l soit hors de d o u t e q u e la valeur artificielle du sol qui
provient de l'emploi des pturages et du fumier puisse tre dissipe par un
assolement vicieux. ... die conventions restrictives z w i s c h e n f a r m e r u n d
l a n d l o r d daher ganz berflssig, m o i n s qu'elles n ' a i e n t pour b u t de dter-
30 m i n e r la rotation suivre la fin du bail, et de m a i n t e n i r la ferme en b o n
tat l'entre du fermier qui succdera. (297)
127
Des Baux Partage des fruits.

(Par M. de Dombasle.)
(Metairiewirthschaft) Le propritaire fournit le d o m a i n e , les b t i m e n s , et

o r d i n a i r e m e n t t o u t ou partie du btail et des i n s t r u m e n s ncessaires l'ex-
ploitation ; le colon, de son ct, apporte son travail, et rien ou presque rien 5
de p l u s ; les produits de la terre se partagent par moiti. (301) les colonspar-
tiaires sont g n r a l e m e n t des h o m m e s plongs d a n s la misre et l'insou-
ciance etc. (302) W e n n der m t a y e r ein accroissement de produit brut de
1500 fcs erhlt, au m o y e n d ' u n e avance de 1000 fcs, a l s o 5 0 % b r u t t o G e -
w i n n , m u er zur Hlfte theilen m i t d e m propritaire, zieht also n u r 750, 10
verliert also 250 fcs von seinen avances ; c'est encore b i e n pis, si la s o m m e
place en amlioration n ' a produit q u ' u n e a u g m e n t a t i o n de 10 ou de 15 % ;
le colon qui aurait t assez dupe pour faire cette avance, en perdrait prs
de la moiti, ds la premire a n n e . (304) D i e Agricultur in s o l c h e m Con-
tract daher misrable, parce q u ' a u c u n capital ne p e u t s'y appliquer, et 15
parce qu'elle ne peut tre exerce q u e par des h o m m e s retenus dans un tat
de misre, par la n a t u r e m m e des stipulations qui leur d o n n e n t le droit de
cultiver le sol. (305) M a n m u u n t e r s c h e i d e n zwischen d e m produit brut
u n d d e m produit net der Agricultur. E i n Theil des ersten = d e n Produc-
tionskosten c. d. les dpenses qu'il a t ncessaire de faire p o u r obtenir 20
la rcolte ; cette portion, ni le propritaire, ni le colon ne p e u v e n t en dispo-
ser, c'est u n e partie du capital d'exploitation, et elle appartient la terre,
car elle doit lui tre restitue p o u r la p r o d u c t i o n de l ' a n n e suivante. La
proportion de cette part du produit brut varie c o n s i d r a b l e m e n t d a n s les di-
vers systmes de l'agriculture : elle est p e u considrable dans l'assolement 25
triennal, et d a n s le systme agricole imparfait, n o c h gebruchlich im grs-
seren Theil du r o y a u m e , elle ne dpasse peuttre pas alors, d a n s b e a u c o u p
de cas, le quart du produit brut, q u i l u i - m m e reste toujours, d a n s ces cir-
constances, port au minimum. Cette part du produit ||9| brut, qui repr-
sente les frais de production, s'accrot c o n s i d r a b l e m e n t d a n s les systmes 30
agricoles perfectionns qui aussi a u g m e n t e n t , dans u n e grande proportion,
le produit brut l u i - m m e : d a n s quelques cas particuliers, les dpenses de
9
production galent les / du produit brut, et c e p e n d a n t celui-ci prsente
10
encore un bnfice net plus considrable q u e d a n s l'assolement triennal,

o il a t o b t e n u presque sans dpenses. D a n a c h k a n n m a n juger, si un 35
m o d e q u e l c o n q u e de partage du produit brut, entre le propritaire et le co-
lon, pourrait tre applicable ces divers systmes agricoles. (306) D a n s
l'ancien systme de culture, la dpense ou les frais de p r o d u c t i o n sont pris
128
presque e n t i r e m e n t sur les produits e u x m m e s en n a t u r e , par la c o n s o m -

m a t i o n des bestiaux, du cultivateur et de sa famille ; il ne se fait p r e s q u e
a u c u n e dpense en cus. N u r dieser U m s t a n d a pu d o n n e r lieu de croire
que le propritaire et le colon p o u v a i e n t partager entre eux t o u t le produit
5 des rcoltes qui n ' e s t pas c o n s o m m d a n s l'exploitation; a b e r dieser
Process n u r applicable d i e s e m genre d'agriculture, d. h. der agriculture mis-
rable, aber sobald m a n eine Verbesserung in der Cultur a n b r i n g e n will,
merkt m a n da die n u r m g l i c h d u r c h q u e l q u e s avances d o n t il faut rser-
ver le m o n t a n t sur le produit brut, p o u r l'appliquer la production de l'an-
10 ne suivante, en sorte q u e tout partage du produit brut, entre le propri-
taire et le colon, forme un obstacle i n s u r m o n t a b l e toute amlioration.
(307) Um Fortschritt in der Agricultur zu m a c h e n selbst nthig q u ' u n e par-
tie du produit n e t ou bnfice puisse tre a n n u e l l e m e n t appliqu l'ac-
croissement du capital d'exploitation ; cette c o n d i t i o n est r i g o u r e u s e m e n t
15 ncessaire, pour q u ' u n d o m a i n e s'amliore graduellement par l'accroisse-
m e n t des produits, et par c o n s q u e n t de la valeur foncire. Ce d o m a i n e ne
peut donc, au contraire, q u e dchoir successivement, lorsque par l'effet du
partage opr sur le produit brut, on d t o u r n e c h a q u e a n n e de l'exploita-
tion u n e portion du capital l u i - m m e employ la production, et lorsque,
20 par les stipulations du bail, on place le cultivateur dans u n e position o il y
aurait lsion manifeste p o u r lui, s'il appliquait son exploitation ein an-
deres Capital als son travail personnel, oder la portion de bnfice qu'il
pourrait avoir o b t e n u d u r c h b e s o n d e r s gnstige U m s t n d e d a n s u n e a n n e
de son exploitation. (309) In F r a n k r e i c h der tat de misre dans lequel ce
25 systme a plong plusieurs de nos d p a r t e m e n s , que l'on p e u t considrer
c o m m e possdant les sols les plus fertiles du r o y a u m e , et o les d o m a i n e s
ruraux les plus t e n d u s ne p r o d u i s e n t presque rien p o u r le propritaire.
(310) D a n s le Berry z . B . (311) D a n s un c a n t o n divis en grandes proprits
territoriales, et o les cultivateurs n ' o n t j a m a i s su faire a u c u n e avance p-
30 cuniaire pour les travaux de la terre, nothwendig sehr wenig zahlreiche Be-
vlkerung u n d diese p o p u l a t i o n se trouve invitablement dgrade par des
habitudes de fainantise p r o f o n d m e n t enracines. U n e p o p u l a t i o n de co-
lons partiaires ne p e u t tre e n t o u r e que d ' u n e population de ce genre ...
wo fainantise, misre, ignorance u n d dgradation morale. (311, 12) A u c h
35 im Poitou die Mtairie. Im Poitou u n d Berry v e r m i e t h e n sich d o m a i n e s
von 300 hectares fr 1 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 fcs, die in weniger als 20 J a h r e n , bei gu-
tem System zu 100 fcs per hectare, d. h. zu 15 x du produit n e t actuel.
(325) I
129
|10| Sixime Livraison. 1830.
De la r e n t e de la terre et de l'impt foncier.

(M. de D o m b a s l e )
La rente de la terre est de la m m e n a t u r e q u e l'intrt d ' u n capital p c u -

niaire ; car cet intrt, chez u n e n a t i o n livre l'industrie, n'est autre chose 5
q u e l'excdant du produit q u e l'on p e u t tirer du capital d a n s u n e entreprise
industrielle, aprs avoir p a y les dpenses de p r o d u c t i o n , et aprs le prl-
v e m e n t des profits de l'industrie, au t a u x ordinaire d a n s le pays. S e u l e m e n t
la rente de la terre est b i e n plus variable q u e l'intrt, parce q u e d e u x
s o m m e s de 1000 fcs sont toujours applicables a u x m m e s choses l ' u n e q u e 10
l'autre, et peuvent d o n n e r naissance des produits gaux, was n i c h t bei
2 hectares de terre der Fall ist: la situation, le degr de fertilit, et mille
autres causes, p e u v e n t tablir entre e u x d ' n o r m e s diffrences ; d r u m k a n n
die R e n t e von e i n e m H e c t a r 10, die v o m a n d r e n 100 fcs [oder] m e h r werth
sein. (307, 8) D i e Rente ist n i c h t der Z i n s des Capitals employ l'acquisi- 15
tion du fonds, plus le m o n t a n t de l'impt ; car elle ne varie a u c u n e m e n t se-
lon q u e la terre a t a c h e t e un prix plus ou m o i n s lev ; et si le propri-
taire qui a achet trs bas prix un terrain marcageux, es wohlfeil
verzehnfacht im W e r t h hat, wird die R e n t e von 100 auf 150 fcs per hectare
steigen, q u o i q u e le propritaire l'ait acquis m o y e n n a n t un capital peuttre 20
infrieur cette s o m m e . E b e n s o u m g e k e h r t . (308) La rente est l ' l m e n t
essentiel qui fixe la valeur vnale des terres ... le t a u x de la r e n t e p e u t faire
baisser celui de l'impt ; m a i s j a m a i s le t a u x de l'impt ne p e u t apporter ni
h a u s s e ni baisse dans le prix de la r e n t e . (309) Le loyer d ' u n e ferme p e u t
tre suprieur ou infrieur la rente, selon que le propritaire, n ' a pas su 25
ou n ' a pas voulu la porter au prix qu'il aurait pu en prtendre, ou selon
qu'il a trouv un fermier q u i a consenti le payer audessus du t a u x ordi-
naire. Le loyer n'existe q u e pour les terres affermes, tandis q u e la rente ...
est inhrente au sol, et y reste attache d a n s le cas o elle est exploite par
le propritaire lui m m e , tout aussi b i e n q u e lorsqu'elle l'est par un fer- 30
mier. (316) Q u e la rente soit paye intgralement au propritaire, ou q u e le
fermier en fasse l u i - m m e la rpartition entre le propritaire, le fisc et le
crancier hypothcaire, cela est e n t i r e m e n t indiffrent relativement la
production agricole. (318) Um d e n valeur vnale oder d e n t a u x de la r e n t e
des terres zu verstehn, in Betracht zu ziehn, d a : le^sol est u n e q u a n t i t 35
fixe et invariable; il ne p e u t ni s'tendre avec l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n de la de-
m a n d e , ni se rtrcir lorsqu'elle d i m i n u e ; il ne p e u t ni se dplacer p o u r al-
ler chercher ailleurs la d e m a n d e , ni s'employer d'autres usages q u e la cul-
130

ture, ni tre r e m p l a c e par r i e n d a n s cet usage. ... Ainsi, p e n d a n t q u e la

d e m a n d e p e u t varier par l'effet d ' u n e m u l t i t u d e de causes, l'offre est tou-
jours, p o u r ce genre de proprit et d a n s c h a q u e localit, renferme d a n s
des limites i n v a r i a b l e s : q u e la d e m a n d e s'accroisse ou qu'elle d i m i n u e ,
5 elle ne p e u t exercer a u c u n e influence sur la m a s s e des offres. (324, 25)
Also folgt q u e la proprit foncire est place dans u n e position o toutes
les circonstances qui p e u v e n t accrotre la d e m a n d e , t o u r n e n t ncessaire-
m e n t son profit. (325) A n d e r s e i t s : l'lvation de la rente accroissant les
charges de ||11| la p r o d u c t i o n , t e n d alors d i m i n u e r la d e m a n d e , et la ra-
10 m e n e r au niveau de l'offre : le t a u x de la rente est ici le seul t e r m e variable
qui puisse rtablir l'quilibre, p u i s q u e l'offre est i m m o b i l e par sa n a t u r e .
... c'est finalement au profit de la proprit, q u e se fait tout ce q u i favorise
la p r o d u c t i o n agricole, ( d e n n c o m m e la d e m a n d e des terres s'accrot p a r
l'effet m m e de l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n des benefits des fermiers, la rente s'lve
15 l'expiration des bail) C'est p o u r cela q u e d a n s les c a n t o n s p o p u l e u x et b i e n
cultivs, c o m m e p. e. la F l a n d r e , le bnfice des fermiers n ' e s t certaine-
m e n t pas plus lev q u e d a n s les c a n t o n s les plus arrirs, c o m m e le P o i t o u
ou la Bretagne, en p r o p o r t i o n de l ' i m p o r t a n c e du capital q u e les u n s et les
autres emploient leur exploitation ; m a i s la r e n t e et la valeur vnale de la
20 terre sont, degr gal de fertilit, cinq ou six fois plus leves d a n s la pre-
m i r e de ces provinces, q u e dans la majeure partie des d e u x autres. L,
c o m m e partout et dans t o u s les t e m p s , c'est la proprit foncire q u i re-
cueille i n v i t a b l e m e n t t o u t le profit des circonstances qui v i e n n e n t favori-
ser la p r o d u c t i o n agricole. L ' i n d u s t r i e productive s'efforce de j o u i r m o m e n -
25 t a n m e n t de ces avantages et elle y parvient, surtout dans un tat
a s c e n d a n t de l'art agricole, et d a n s u n e situation sociale qui en favorise les
dveloppemens ; m a i s elle ne p e u t luder la ncessit de lguer la p r o -
prit foncire le fruit de ses succs ; car ce sont ces succs e u x m m e s q u i
c h a n g e n t ces rapports avec la proprit foncire, en fournissant celle ci le
30 m o y e n de lui dicter des lois plus favorables p o u r elle m m e . ([326,] 327)
Anderseits m u d i e proprit foncire en dfinitive tragen le poids des cir-
constances q u i e n t r a v e n t la p r o d u c t i o n industrielle applique la terre, q u i
d i m i n u e n t ses produits, en abaissant le prix, ou q u i lvent les dpenses de
la production, m i t e i n e m Wort, toutes les circonstances d i m i n u a n t les d e -
35 m a n d e s de la terre. (328) D a n s le Berri, la r e n t e de l'hectare de terre ne
s'lve gure plus h a u t q u e l ' i m p t foncier q u e supporte l'hectare sembla-
ble dans quelques parties de la F l a n d r e ou de la N o r m a n d i e ; q u e l'on es-
saie d'lever la r e n t e des terres du Berri, en d o u b l a n t , triplant, q u i n t u p l a n t
l'impt foncier q u i pse sur elles, et l'on verra si la rente s'lvera d ' u n seul
40 c e n t i m e . (330) la r e n t e est, n o n p a s la r e d e v a n c e des fermiers envers les
propritaires, m a i s la r e d e v a n c e de l'industrie agricole envers la proprit
foncire. (332)
131
An Inquiry into those Principles

respecting the Nature of Demand and
the Necessity of Consumption, lately
advocated by Mr Malthus.
L o n d o n 1821. 5
A. S m i t h glaubte, da a c c u m u l a t i o n or increase of stock in general lowered

the rate of profits in general, on the s a m e principle which m a k e s the in-
crease of stock in any particular trade lower the profits of that trade. But
such increase of stock in a particular trade means an increase m o r e in pro-
portion t h a n stock is at the same t i m e increased in other trades: it is rela- 10
tive. (9) I
1121 Herr Say sagt: "There is a glut of english goods in Italy, because
there is n o t e n o u g h produced in Italy." But fewer goods have not b e e n pro-
d u c e d in Italy t h a n formerly. It would be simpler to say, the English should
n o t have p r o d u c e d which was possible, t h a n to say, as he does, t h a t the Ital- 15
ians should. (15) T h e i m m e d i a t e m a r k e t for capital, or field for capital, m a y
be said to be labour. T h e a m o u n t of capital which can be invested at a
given m o m e n t , in a given country, or the world, so as to return n o t less
t h a n a given rate of profits, seems principally to d e p e n d on t h e quantity of
labour, which it is possible, by laying out that capital, to i n d u c e the t h e n 20
existing n u m b e r of h u m a n beings to perform. (20) Profits do not depend on
price, they depend on price compared with outgoings. (28) 1) So far, as de-
m a n d m e a n s an exchange of goods, it is insured by increased general pro-
d u c t i o n ; it is ... the same with production, supposing the m e a n s of commu-
nication to r e m a i n the same, oder, as is probable u n d e r such circumstances, 25
to be increased: the increased d e m a n d for one article would be the in-
creased supply of another, a n d the d e m a n d for the whole is ... u n m e a n i n g .
132
Aus An inquiry into those principles, respecting the nature of demand ...
T h e n there is, besides goods, n o t h i n g in which d e m a n d c a n consist, except

land, and labour of all k i n d s . 2) T h e d e m a n d on the part of the land c a n n o t
be increased; the land has a certain extent, a n d no m o r e . ... A b e r die
R e n t e der landholders, der collectors (der taxes) der stockholders, oder der
5 useless pensioners zu vergrssern, um d e m a n d zu schaffen k o m i s c h ... t h e
upshot of it is, t h a t you are minus so m u c h of your goods without any re-
turn. This is not an increased demand; or ... it is no increased i n d u c e m e n t ,
from gain, to produce. It m a y be an increased i n d u c e m e n t from necessity ...
We are continually puzzled, in H e r r n M a l t h u s speculations, between the
10 object of increasing p r o d u c t i o n a n d that of checking it. ( 5 3 - 5 5 ) W h e n a
m a n is in want of a demand, does Mr M a l t h u s r e c o m m e n d h i m to pay s o m e
other person to take off his goods? (55) t h e very m e a n i n g of an increased
d e m a n d by the labourers is, a disposition to take less themselves, a n d leave
a larger share for their employers; a n d if it be said that this, by d i m i n i s h i n g
15 c o n s u m p t i o n , increases glut, I c a n only answer, that glut t h e n is synony-
m o u s with high profits. (59) This distinction between capital and profits is
in a great degree merely in t e r m s . Profits d e p e n d on the quantity I receive
back in return for my whole capital expended. If, at t h e e n d of a certain pe-
riod, that quantity is less t h a n what I e x p e n d e d at first, or greater in b u t a
20 small degree, am I to say t h a t my capital is less but my profits fair profits,
or to say that I have t h e s a m e capital, or nearly so, b u t have m a d e no prof-
its? A n d what period am I to take for this purpose? It is impossible for the
n a t i o n to take stock till these fluctuations are over. M a n y transactions ex-
tend over m a n y years. We m u s t wait to see how they are w o u n d u p , before
25 we can pretend to say what o u r capital is. (78, 79) ||13| D i e G r s s e d e s A r -
b e i t s l o h n s n i c h t g u t fr die A r b e i t . Increase the value of t h e encourage-
m e n t of the m i n i n g labour compared to t h a t of farming labour, m i n i n g in-
dustry will increase at the expense of t h a t of farming. Sprechen wir aber
von allen Sorten of Arbeit: H e (der Arbeiter) will work a for b wages; b u t
30 n o t 2 a for 2 b wages. T h e n if y o u give h i m 2 b for 1 a, m a y it n o t follow, t h a t
he will be content with less, a n d therefore n o t work even a? (97) W e n n
einer food producirt, and he h a d p r o d u c e d 2x as m u c h as every b o d y
could eat, in this case no new creation of products would open a d b o u c h
for his stock, till t h e numbers h a d also increased. (99) A m a n m a y r e d u c e
35 the rate of his profits by the c o m p e t i t i o n of his capital with itself, i n d e -
pendently of that of others. I m e a n , by adding to his capital in order to
gain. He will not gain so m u c h m o r e in proportion as he adds. (103) W h e r e
the advantage possessed by the owner of capital is m o r e felt in p r o d u c i n g
one commodity, t h a n it is in p r o d u c i n g another, in proportion to t h e l a b o u r
40 employed of course, when capitalists c o m e to take less r e m u n e r a t i o n for
the assistance of their capital, t h e former c o m m o d i t y will e x c h a n g e at a
133
less rate with the latter t h a n before. T h e advantage possessed by t h e owner

of capital, who can afford to sink it for a long t i m e , i.e., by the owner of
fixed capital, is greater t h a n that possessed by h i m who only sinks it for a
short t i m e ; i.e. by the owner of circulating capital, or of fixed capital of less
durability. Therefore, w h e n profits fall, c o m m o d i t i e s will exchange with 5
o n e another at a new rate, a given quantity of those, which are in a greater
degree p r o d u c e d by fixed capital (and which therefore are, in a greater de-
gree, b e h o l d e n to the assistance of capital on the whole), exchanging now
for a less quantity of such as are p r o d u c e d in a less degree by fixed, a n d in
a greater degree by circulating capital. (103, 4) Unterstellt alle h a b e n in 10
e i n e m L a n d so viel zu essen als sie b r a u c h e n , still, if industry a n d capital
increase, the d e m a n d for raw produce, as materials, will rise, t h o u g h n o t the
d e m a n d for raw produce, as food. T h a t land, w h i c h raises the former sort of
raw produce, will rise t h e n , in t i m e , to an exchangeable value; and, if the
land be convertible, it will encroach on the corn land, and straiten that, 15
a n d give that an exchangeable value too. (106, 7) If land of the n e x t degree
h a d no where existed, the high price u n d high profits would have contin-
u e d (auf d e m b e s t e n L a n d ) and, probably, increased on t h e land of the
first degree; a n d the excess of it above profits in other lines, being an ad-
vantage n o t derived from capital, b u t ownership of land, would have b e e n 20
separated very soon in the form of rent. R i c a r d o m a c h t an inversion of
cause a n d effect. (107) R e n t m a y arise on the former a m o u n t of capital, by
an increased d e m a n d for corn. (108) the proposition of M. Say does n o t at
all prove t h a t capital opens a m a r k e t for itself, b u t only t h a t capital a n d la-
b o u r o p e n a m a r k e t for one another. ( I l l ) 25
134
Aus Samuel Turner: Considerations upon the agriculture
Samuel Turner. Considerations upon the

Agriculture, Commerce and Manufactures of
the British Empire etc
London.1822.
5 It is the m o s t easily cultivated, a n d n o t always the best, lands w h i c h are

first cultivated, (enclosed); b u t as society advances, i m p r o v e m e n t s t a k e
place, and lands which, in the earlier stages of society, would p e r h a p s h a v e
yielded a very i n a d e q u a t e r e t u r n for such labour as m a n could have t h e n
bestowed u p o n t h e m , m a y , w h e n new i n s t r u m e n t s are devised, a n d w h e n
10 the labours of the drainer, the lime-burner, a n d others, are brought to the
assistance des cultivator, b e c o m e considerably m o r e fruitful t h a n any l a n d s
before cultivated. (10) |
135
Ii4| Reynolds. (John Stuckey) Practical

Observations on Mr. Ricardo's Principles of
Political Economy.
L o n d o n 1822.
Wages. 5
(Nichts.)
D a s ganze Buch Hohler Bldsinn.
136
Aus Thomas Hopkins: Economical enquiries
Thomas Hopkins. Economical Enquiries

relative to the Laws which regulate Rent,
Profit, Wages and the Value of Money.
L o n d o n . 1822.
5 1) Production and Value.
If t h e borrower paid only for the degree of d a m a g e t h a t h a d b e e n d o n e to

the i m p l e m e n t , or replaced it w h e n it was worn out, the lender could derive
no p e r m a n e n t revenue from lending it; he would have restored to h i m only
what was precisely e q u a l to what he h a d lent. (4, 5) In the general principle,
10 that cost of p r o d u c t i o n regulates the exchangeable value of all c o m m o d i -
ties, original materials are n o t i n c l u d e d ; b u t the claim which the owners of
these have u p o n p r o d u c e , causes r e n t to enter into value. (11) Food being
considered the original e l e m e n t of value, the quantity of that e l e m e n t n e c -
essary to the p r o d u c t i o n of any c o m m o d i t y d e t e r m i n e s its value ... Taxes,
15 rent, profit and wages, m a y all be e s t i m a t e d in food; and the whole cost in
food, to the government, the landlord, the capitalist a n d the labourer, or to
any of t h e m , which is indispensably necessary, in order to have an article
produced, constitutes t h e cost of production, a n d t h e exchangeable value
of t h a t article. (12)
137
2) On the General Law of Rent, or Charge for Use.
R e n t , or a charge for use, arises naturally o u t of ownership, or the establish-

m e n t of a right of property. (13) Any thing m a y yield a rent if possessed of
t h e following qualities:First, it m u s t exist in a degree of scarcity; Sec-
ondly, it m u s t have the power to aid l a b o u r in the great work of p r o d u c t i o n . 5
(14)
Rent of Land.
t h e existence of a second quality of l a n d is not necessary to t h e formation of

a rent, the relative a m o u n t of p r o d u c e c a n n o t be the cause of it. (20) Infe-
rior soils, so far from being the cause of rent, w h e n they exert an influence, 10
limit or retard the advance of it. (I.e.) M a n darf n a t r l i c h n i c h t d e n case
setzen where land so plentiful, c o m p a r e d with t h e labour a n d stock to be
employed u p o n it, that no charge for rent could be m a d e , b e c a u s e it was
not scarce. (21) successive portions of capital may, instead of a less, pay a
greater rent for the use of land. (21) without the application of labour, 15
land would pay no rent. Let t h e portions of labour and capital employed be
small, a n d the rent will be low; n o t in absolute a m o u n t only, b u t on the
capital employed. (22) T h e cause of successive portions of labour a n d capi-
tal affording an increased rate of rent for the land, is to be found in the su-
perior productiveness of sufficient capital a n d wellcombined labour, to iso- 20
lated a n d u n a i d e d labour. (23) T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r would pay their share of
the rent of land, in the advanced price they would pay for the raw p r o d u c e ;
in precisely t h e same m a n n e r that a c o n s u m e r pays the t a x on any particu-
lar article, in the additional price consequently charged for it. W h e n t h e
four producers were b o t h agriculturists a n d manufacturers, the landowner 25
received, as rent of land, a value of 10 I. Suppose this rent to have b e e n
paid Y in raw produce, a n d the other % hi m a n u f a c t u r e s ; - on the division
2
of the producers into the 2 classes of agriculturists a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s ,

k n n t e die fortgesezt werden. In practice, however, it would be found
m o r e convenient for the cultivators of the land, to pay the rent, a n d to 30
charge it on their produce, when exchanging it against t h e p r o d u c e of the
labour of the manufacturers; so as to divide the p a y m e n t into 2 equitable
proportions between the 2 classes, a n d to leave wages a n d profits equal in
each department. (26) ||15| Ist geschzt worden, d a das productive land of
England pays im D u r c h s c h n i t t 11, an acre per a n n u m . (28) In einigen L n - 35
138
d e m k a n n der Lord 50 % a u s d r c k e n , in a n d r e n n i c h t 10. In einigen der

fruchtbaren G e g e n d e n des Osten, m a n can subsist auf % des p r o d u c e of his
labour employed u p o n the l a n d ; b u t in parts of Switzerland a n d Norway,
an exaction of 10% m i g h t d e p o p u l a t e the country. ... we see no n a t u r a l
5 b o u n d s to the rent t h a t m a y be exacted, b u t in the limited abilities of t h e
payers. (31) T h e great regulators of r e n t of land in a p o p u l o u s country are,
inability on the part of t h e cultivators to pay m o r e , and, where inferior soils
exist, t h e c o m p e t i t i o n of those inferior soils against t h e superior. (33, 34)
In E n g l a n d viel c o m m o n land, the n a t u r a l fertility of which is e q u a l to
10 what a large part of the l a n d now cultivated was prior to its being t a k e n into
cultivation; a n d yet t h e e x p e n c e of bringing such c o m m o n lands into culti-
vations is so great, as to cause t h e m not to yield the ordinary interest for
t h e m o n e y expended in improving t h e m , leaving n o t h i n g as rent for the
n a t u r a l fertility of the soil: a n d this m i t all the advantages of an i m m e d i a t e
15 application of labour, aided by stock skilfully applied, and furnished m i t
manufactures cheaply p r o d u c e d ; a u e r d e m good roads in der N a c h b a r -
schaft etc ... T h e present l a n d proprietors m a y be considered the owners of
all the a c c u m u l a t e d labour which has for ages b e e n expended, in bringing
the country to its present productive state. (35)
20 Rent of Mines and other things, the Gift of nature.
W h e r e irrigation of land is practised, a rent is paid for water, as well as for

land. In the rice grounds of L o m b a r d y , it is not u n c o m m o n for a r e n t to be
paid to one owner for water, a n d to a n o t h e r for t h e l a n d : b u t a stream, fa-
vourably situated, furnishes an instance of a r e n t being paid for an appro-
25 priated gift of nature, of as exclusive a kind as any t h a t can be n a m e d . T h i s
is well u n d e r s t o o d in m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts, where considerable rents are
paid for small streams of water, particularly if t h e fall is considerable. T h e
power obtained from s u c h streams being equal to that afforded by large
steamengines, it is as advantageous to use t h e m , t h o u g h subject to the pay-
30 m e n t of a heavy rent, as it is to e x p e n d large s u m s in the erection a n d work-
ing of steamengines. Of streams, too, there are some larger, s o m e smaller.
Contiguity to the seat of m a n u f a c t u r e is also an advantage, w h i c h c o m -
m a n d s a higher rent. In t h e c o u n t i e s of York a n d Lancaster there is proba-
bly a m u c h greater difference between the rents paid for the smallest a n d
35 the largest streams of water, t h a n there is between the rents paid for 50 of
the least and 50 of the most fertile acres that are in c o m m o n cultivation.
(37, 8) Beim L a n d fr H u s e r b a u e n the c o m p e t i t i o n always turns u p o n
a m o u n t of rent d e m a n d e d , c o m p a r e d with advantage of situation. As land,
139
generally, in m a r k e t towns is of high value, b e c a u s e those towns enable in-

dividuals to effect their exchanges with less labour, the central situations in
those towns are of the highest value ... scarcity a n d productiveness are the
2 great qualities which cause rent to be given for the u s e of any thing. (39)
By doubling the labour a n d capital employed in working the coal m i n e , a 5
double quantity of coal could be h a d ; b u t by doubling the quantities e m -
ployed on the stream (in e i n e r mill) only the s a m e quantity of power would
be obtained. In a limited fishery, a n d in t h e cultivation of a certain extent
of land, in the same way limited quantities of labour a n d capital yield the
highest rent to the owner; a n d any a d d i t i o n a l quantities employed, at the 10
s a m e rate of wages and profits, would n o t add to the rent. A fall in wages
a n d profits m u s t take place, before an ||16| increased rent could be paid for
t h e land or the stream; but a large increase of rent is possible for a coal-
m i n e , even with a rise of wages a n d profits. (42)
Rent of Stock or Profit. 15
U n t e r Profit schliet m a n sonst a u c h ein, n i c h t n u r die charge fr mere use;

b u t a periodical charge also for the wear of the thing, a n d wages of labour
in the m a n a g e m e n t . Diese 2 latter are principally wages of labour. (43) La-
b o u r a n d stock being b o t h scarce, relatively to t h e land, would obtain larger
shares of the produce. ... If the doctrine of Mr. Ricardo were true, that, at 20
all times, a n d u n d e r all circumstances, profits a n d wages alone enter into
the value b o t h of raw p r o d u c e and m a n u f a c t u r e s , a rise in profits m u s t be
a t t e n d e d by a fall in wages ... a b e r w e n n R e n t m i t in die P r o d u c t i o n s k o -
s t e n e i n g e h t , a r e d u c t i o n of rent would leave labour as well rewarded after
as before the ... rise of profits. (48) 25
Different Rates of Rent.
Competition will assign to capital its proper rate of profit, in whatever way
it m a y be employed: b u t this renders it u n e q u a l : it is in the n a t u r e of
things, where c o m p e t i t i o n is the m o s t free a n d active, t h a t the rates of
profit should be u n e q u a l . (53) 30
140
3) Wages of Labour.
A t t e n d i n g to these n a t u r a l causes of inequality of supply of labor (. B.

weaving has a t t a c h e d to itself an excessive supply of labourers; d e n n o t h e r
e m p l o y m e n t s t h a t afford advantages to children, t h o u g h n o t at so early an
5 age, receive their average c o m p l e m e n t of n e w h a n d s , b u t t h e supply is m o r e
scanty, as t h e peculiar n a t u r e of t h e trade a p p r o a c h e s those w h i c h afford
little r e m u n e r a t i o n for t h e labor of learners, u n t i l years of application, a n d
an a p p r o a c h to m a t u r i t y , qualify t h e m for their employments.) to various
b r a n c h e s of industry, a scale m i g h t be formed w h i c h would shew t h e grada-
10 tions of wages, a n d p o i n t at t h e different degrees of force with w h i c h l a b o u r
is d e t e r m i n e d to different e m p l o y m e n t s . (60) W h e n t h e wages of t h e p a r e n t
are high, he c a n b e t t e r afford to support a child o u t of those wages, u n t i l he
arrives at a sufficiently m a t u r e age to learn t h e profession which h a s t h e
highest rate of wages; b u t in a c o u n t r y where t h e wages of t h e great m a s s of
15 labourers are low, t h e poverty of t h e p a r e n t i n d u c e s h i m to place his child,
n o t at t h e profession in w h i c h he will be able to earn t h e most, b u t at t h a t
which affords wages t h e soonest. (61) D a s W a c h s t h u m der Bevlkerung
k a n n n u r d a n n die wages fallen, statt steigen m a c h e n , w e n n es bis zu d e m
P u n k t geht, wo an a d d i t i o n a l labourer will not increase t h e productive
20 power of the others. T h e wages of l a b o u r m a y t h e n be considered as having
arrived at t h e highest rate, in t h a t state of t h i n g s : and should labourers still
increase in n u m b e r s , wages m i g h t decline; b e c a u s e t h e a d d i t i o n a l labourer
would n o t increase t h e whole p r o d u c e e q u a l to t h e highest rate of wages of
one m a n : a n d supposing t h e a d d i t i o n a l labourer to receive only to t h e ex-
25 tent that his labour increased the general p r o d u c e , he would have less
wages for his labour t h a n t h e former labourers h a d ; or supposing that, as
t h e new labourer works as m u c h as t h e old, the whole p r o d u c e is equally
divided, t h e n the rate of wages of all would be d i m i n i s h e d in a small de-
gree. (63) T h e gross p r o d u c e of labour being increased by t h e u s e of stock,
30 it is the a d d i t i o n a l part that is divided between t h e owner of t h e stock a n d
the labourer. ... T h e degree ||17| of scarcity in which those rentable articles
exist, which have t h e general n a m e of stock, seems to be the p r i n c i p a l
cause which d e t e r m i n e s t h e r a t e of rent that is paid for t h e m . If p l o u g h s ,
carts a n d looms are scarce, c o m p a r e d with t h e labourers who w a n t t h e m ,
35 the owners will require, a n d t h e labourers will give, a larger p r o p o r t i o n of
p r o d u c e as rent for t h e u s e of t h e m ; b u t this rent c a n never a m o u n t to m o r e
t h a n t h e whole of t h a t surplus w h i c h is o b t a i n e d by t h e u s e of the m a c h i n e .
(64) As the degree of scarcity is t h e i m m e d i a t e cause, those c i r c u m s t a n c e s
which affect scarcity or plentifulness of stock, are t h e r e m o t e influencing
141
causes. They are various, and e m b r a c e all those w h i c h affect industry, a n d

t h e inviolability of property, as liberty, security, frugality etc. (65) A farmer
m a y live by spade husbandry, t h o u g h n o t so well as by the plough; b u t , to
the i n h a b i t a n t s of Manchester, superior m a c h i n e r y is indispensably neces-
sary. (68) every improved m a c h i n e to aid l a b o u r in the task of producing, 5
a n d every additional portion of stock, benefited the labourer, b e c a u s e a
greater p r o d u c e was thereby obtained, a n d the labourer shared in t h e sur-
plus. (67, 68) ... stock of all kinds u s e d in p r o d u c t i o n increases the wages
of labour, a n d the m o r e stock there is, t h e higher would be the wages of la-
bour, were it n o t for other counteracting causes ... T h u s t h e labourer is 10
m a d e a k i n d of j o i n t owner of, a n d participator in, the benefits arising from
all the a c c u m u l a t e d stock in the country. (68, 9)
4) Of taxes.
5) On Money.
the causes which d e t e r m i n e the different values of gold in different c o u n - 15

tries ... are the same as those which regulate its value in the country where
it is p r o d u c e d from the m i n e s , namely, t h e cost of procuring it. W e n n es in
E n g l a n d 5 sh. sich a u s t a u s c h e n fr a b u s h e l of wheat, in F r a n k r e i c h n u r 2,
so ists because it costs E n g l a n d a b u s h e l of wheat to procure a supply of
gold a n d silver to the a m o u n t of 5 sh etc. If all n a t i o n s h a d to give wheat in 20
exchange for gold, the difference in the value of t h a t metal, in wheat, in
different countries, would be proportioned to the difference in the expence
of conveying t h e wheat to the gold market. (83) An english manufacturer,
by expending a b u s h e l of wheat, or the price of it, is able to get a yard of
cloth m a d e , which he can export, and, in return, bring back 5 sh., after pay- 25
ing his own expences. E n g l a n d is t h e n supplied with gold or silver at t h a t
R a t e . A R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t has 4 bushels of wheat at Moscow, which he ex-
ports and sells; and, after paying all expences, he finds that he brings back
to Moscow five sh. It is, therefore necessary to export 4 bushels of wheat
from Moscow, and 1 from England, to obtain an e q u a l quantity of gold or 30
silver5 sh: that quantity will consequently exchange regularly in the
2 countries at those rates. W h e a t will, in England, be 5 s. a bushel, a n d in
Moscow 1 s. 3 d. a bushel. ... 1st m a n u f a c t u r i n g skill u n d capital soweit in
Frankreich entwickelt, d a es i h m vortheilhafter m a n u f a c t u r e s als wheat
auszufhren u n d d o c h so hinter E n g l a n d zurck, da es zwei b u s h , of 35
wheat in m a k i n g of a yard of cloth verausgabt, wo j e n e s n u r 1, so, da der
original p r o d u c e r of gold would n o t give a higher price for t h e yard of
142
french cloth, t h a n for t h e yard of english, i.e. 5 sh., F r a n c e would o b t a i n h e r

supply of gold at t h a t rate ... H e r e , t h e cost, in wheat, of procuring gold in
England, F r a n c e , a n d Russia, would be as 1, 2 a n d 4; a n d ist t h e m o n e y
price of wheat in R u s s i a 1 s. 3 d., in F r a n c e 2 s. 6 d., in E n g l a n d ||18| 5 sh.
5 per bushel. ... Also das M e t a l c h e a p u n d m o n e y prices high, where supe-
rior m a n u f a c t u r i n g skill, capital a n d industry exist, as in E n g l a n d ; a n d t h e
gold dear, or m o n e y p r i c e s low, in countries ill situated for exporting raw
produce, a n d without m a n u f a c t u r e s , as in parts of Russia. ( 8 4 - 8 6 )
143
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 Heft Xil
Thompson. (T. Perronet.)

The True theory of Rent etc
9 Edition. L o n d o n 1832.
Der wahre G r u n d der R e n t e ist der lngst von A. S m i t h pointed out. It is

the limited quantity of the land, in C o m p a r i s o n with the competitors for its 5
p r o d u c e ; or, as it is s o m e t i m e s called, t h e monopoly. (6) It is the rise in
the price of produce t h a t enables a n d causes inferior land to be b r o u g h t
into cultivation; and n o t the cultivation of inferior l a n d that causes the rise
of rent. (8) T h e effect of all agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t s is to increase the
quantity of produce and lower its price; but, i m p r o v e m e n t s which consist 10
in a saving of expense, do this in a m u c h less degree t h a n those which re-
quire an a u g m e n t e d outlay. I m p r o v e m e n t s of the first kind d i m i n i s h the
quantity of capital d e m a n d e d from the t e n a n t , a n d consequently t h e final
a m o u n t of the profits that will be left h i m ; i m p r o v e m e n t s of the latter kind
increase t h e m . In i m p r o v e m e n t s of the first kind, the landlord finally ob- 15
tains the whole of the gain, and a part of what used to be the profits of the
t e n a n t besides. In those of the latter kind, he obtains only t h a t part of the
gain which is left after paying the increased a m o u n t of profits of the t e n a n t .
An i m p r o v e m e n t of this last kind is always advantageous to the t e n a n t ;
and, except in the lowest class of cases where n o t h i n g is left after paying 20
the necessary profits of the tenant, to the landlord also. An i m p r o v e m e n t of
the other kind is always very advantageous to the landlord; but it is against
the tenant, in the same way as a d i m i n u t i o n in the quantity of capital that
can be employed with a profit is against any other dealer. (10) If any m a n
were to assert that proof spirit sold for a high price because there were 25
weaker spirits that were selling for a lower, a n d was t h e n c e to d e d u c e some
practical inference ... klar die fallacy, (13) R e n t would increase still m o r e
rapidly, if there was no disposable l a n d with any difference of productive
144
Aus Thomas Perronet Thompson: The true theory of rent
powers at all. ... t h e relation between rent a n d the productive power of t h e

disposable land, is o n e of opposition, n o t of c o n n e x i o n . (13, 14) it is n o t
true that m e n are living on a fixed quantity of food, which will n o t be di-
m i n i s h e d on an increase of price. ... (oder v e r m e h r t b e i m F a l l e n d e s
5 Preisses.) ... sufficient to a t t e n d to the fact, t h a t w h e n there is a necessity
for the c o n s u m p t i o n being d i m i n i s h e d because the corn is n o t t h e r e to be
c o n s u m e d , an increase of price is the engine which carries it into effect; a
clear proof that increase of price d i m i n i s h e s c o n s u m p t i o n s (24) T h e secret
(eines glut (general)) lies in t h e slowness of the increase of t h e p r o d u c e of
10 land, compared with t h e increase of m a n u f a c t u r e s which m i g h t otherwise
be created to t e m p t the agriculturists withal. It would be easy to d o u b l e t h e
quantity of goods m a n u f a c t u r e d , if the offer of t h e m would t e a c h t h e agri-
culturists to produce food for 2 m e n where they p r o d u c e for o n e now, a n d
leave a certain rate of profit for the m a n u f a c t u r i n g capitalists besides.
15 ... There is then, in any given state of m a n u f a c t u r i n g skill a n d of the sup-
ply of corn, a certain q u a n t i t y of all kinds of m a n u f a c t u r e s which can be
produced a n d sold with a living profit. A n d if m o r e are produced, they c a n -
not be sold with a living profit; a n d this is a G e n e r a l Glut. It is not true
that there would be no glut, if there was only less of o n e k i n d of m a n u f a c -
20 tures a n d m o r e of s o m e other. T h e cause of the glut extends to all k i n d s ,
and c a n n o t be r e m e d i e d by altering their proportions. (30) M a n u f a c t u r e s
are t h e application of industry in a direction where the p r o d u c e varies as
the labour applied, a n d agriculture where it does not. (I.e.)
145
| i 9 | Cornlaw fallacies with the answers.

By T. P. Thompson. 2. ed.
L o n d o n 1839.
U n m g l i c h z u lesen.
146
Aus Edward West: Price of corn and wages of labour
Sir Edward West.

Price of Corn and Wages of Labour.
L o n d o n . 1826.
T h e price will d e p e n d n o t only u p o n the actual quantity exposed to sale,

5 b u t also u p o n the quantity ... in the different stages of its progress of
growth, or m a n u f a c t u r e , or towards t h e m a r k e t ; u p o n the period also within
which the supply can be increased, a n d various other circumstances, as
whether the c o m m o d i t y is durable or perishable etc. (21) T h e price of corn
then, in a given state of the supply, will be settled by the d e m a n d , or t h e
10 wants a n d m e a n s of t h e lower orders of the c o m m u n i t y ; a n d supposing
their wants to be u n c h a n g e d , any variation in the a m o u n t of their m e a n s
m u s t affect the price of corn. (31) Es ist klar d a die lower classes nicht so
viel Brod h a b e n as they desire in average years, for if they h a d , the smallest
addition of a more a b u n d a n t year would n o t be c o n s u m e d . (31, 2) T h e only
15 m e d i u m through which the price of corn, the quantity remaining the same,
can be increased, is an increase of the wages of labour. (35) the price of
corn depends m u c h m o r e u p o n the wages of labour, a n d follows any varia-
tion of the wages of l a b o u r m u c h m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y t h a n the wages of la-
bour follow any variation in the price of corn. (38) A n d r e U r s a c h e n affi-
20 ciren natrlich a u c h d e n K o r n p r e i , besonders die fluctuation der supply,
caused by the variety der seasons; u n d diese different powers wirken
m a n c h m a l z u s a m m e n , m a n c h m a l in opposition to e a c h other. (44, 45) As
the deficient crop sells for an actually larger s u m t h a n the average crop, t h e
price rises m o r e t h a n in proportion to the deficiency. ... E b e n s o an a b u n -
25 dant crop sells for a smaller aggregate s u m t h a n an average crop. (56)
U m g e k e h r t bei n i c h t n t h i g e n Artikeln, wie T h e e , Z u c k e r etc. W e n n ihr
Prei gestiegen, n i c h t n u r der C o n s u m a b g e n o m m e n , sondern die a c t u a l
aggregate s u m e x p e n d e d u p o n t h e m has also decreased; u n d w e n n der
147
Prei gefallen, nicht n u r der C o n s u m davon gestiegen, s o n d e r n die aggre-

gate s u m e x p e n d e d u p o n t h e m has also increased. An increase of duty (auf
Zucker, T h e e etc) has actually d i m i n i s h e d t h e aggregate a m o u n t of t h e
duty, and a r e d u c t i o n of rate of duty has actually increased the aggregate
a m o u n t of the duty. (57) Aber an excess of supply drckt d e n Prei n i c h t 5
so sehr unter d e n average, (da in a plentiful year a part of the excess m a y be
kept over to the following year) wie ein Mangel of supply i h n b e r d e n aver-
age Prei hebt; d e n n in e i n e m scarce year keine Mittel zu helfen der sup-
ply, es sei da d a n n fremder I m p o r t mglich ist oder U e b e r s c h u von ei-
n e m vorhergehenden reichen Herbst existirt. (57) D i e Kriegsnachfrage wird 10
n u r d a n n d e n Prei h e b e n , if the d e m a n d of g o v e r n m e n t for soldiers a n d
sailors constitutes an additional, a n d n o t a substituted d e m a n d . (58) the
price of labour is the s u m paid for a given quantity of labour; the wages of
labour is the s u m earned by the labourer. ... the wages of labour d e p e n d
u p o n the price of labour a n d the quantity of labour performed. (67, 8) 15
B e i m taskwork fallen diese S a c h e n z u s a m m e n . Hier aber zu u n t e r s c h e i d e n
zwischen d e m rate of wages u n d d e m amount of wages, da leztrer abhngt
von der Z a h l der Tage, die ein I n d i v i d u u m arbeitet, oder der S t u n d e n am
Tag; von der Z a h l der Stcke die es m a c h t etc. (68, 9) the increase of the cap-
ital which constitutes t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of labour, s u c h as food, clothing etc 20
is generally the effect a n d not t h e cause, of the increased d e m a n d for la-
bour, there m a y be an additional d e m a n d for labour without any preceding
increase of capital, such increased d e m a n d for labour causes an increase of
the m o n e y wages of labour, and that ||20| increase of the m o n e y wages ef-
fects an additional d e m a n d for a n d an increase of the quantity of s u c h cap- 25
ital. (79) We m i g h t j u s t as well say, t h a t the d e m a n d for coats d e p e n d s
u p o n the quantity of cloth, as that t h e d e m a n d for labour d e p e n d s u p o n the
quantity of capital. T h o u g h the n u m b e r of coats c a n n o t be increased with-
out an increase of the quantity of cloth, increase the d e m a n d for a n d the
price of coats, a n d the cloth will soon be m a n u f a c t u r e d ; so increase the de- 30
m a n d for and the price of labour a n d the necessaries which the labourers
require will soon be raised a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d . (81)
T h e larger the portion of the labour expended in Luxusartikeln for the
rich, the less will be the portion of labour e x p e n d e d fr den Theil des capi-
tal for the m a i n t e n a n c e of labour, a n d the less the a m o u n t the capital pro- 35
duced for the m a i n t e n a n c e of the labourer. (85) T h e general c o i n c i d e n c e of
the high price of corn with a flourishing state of trade, and of the low price
with a depression of trade c a n n o t be disputed. (89) the same increase of
price or other cause which calls fresh soils into cultivation, forces a d d i -
tional and improved culture u p o n those already u n d e r tillage. (97, 8) Ask 40
den farmer whether every considerable increase of price does n o t m a k e it
148
answer to cultivate his farm at a larger expense t h a n would have answered

[at] the old price; whether every considerable rise of price does n o t m a k e it
worth his while to m a k e i m p r o v e m e n t s u p o n his lands in order to increase
the produce, to apply m o r e labour a n d m o r e m a n u r e , n o n e of which would
5 have answered at the old price; a n d he will n o t hesitate to answer you in
the affirmative. (98) Allerdings: in an improved state of agriculture pro-
duce m a y be raised on t h e second or third quality of land at as little cost as
it could u n d e r the old system u p o n t h e first quality. (98) Zweierlei Art v o n
agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t s : E i n s p a r u n g von expense, wodurch der Pchter
10 sein Produkt v e r m e h r e n k a n n o h n e increase of rate of the e x p e n s e ; zwei-
tens die which increase the p r o d u c e but at an increased rate of expense.
Die erste Art der Verbesserung n t z l i c h in every state of the m a r k e t ; die
leztre n u r called into action u n d e r particular circumstances, a n d is n o t al-
ways applicable. (99) M a n h a t generally b e m e r k t , da die english farmers
15 who have taken lands in A m e r i c a have n o t prospered; die i h n e n gewohnte
Art von high cultivation pate n i c h t fr den Z u s t a n d von A m e r i k a . In a
cheap m o d e of cultivation the n e t p r o d u c e bears a m u c h larger proportion
to the expense and to the gross p r o d u c e t h a n in an expensive m o d e of culti-
vation. ... weil every a d d i t i o n a l portion of p r o d u c e is raised at a greater
20 cost. Der a m e r i k a n i s c h e Pchter legt wenig Capital aus u n d sein Profit auf
die Capital ist e n o r m . D e r E n g l n d e r - a large capital m i t a small profit.
(99, 100) Da jede a d d i t i o n a l portion of p r o d u c e m e h r kostet, e a c h a d d i -
tional portion of capital yields a less return, solang der Prei derselbe
t e
bleibt. Liefert die erste Portion a gross return von 150%, die 2 von 140%
25 u n d so on, so klar, da das Capital so v e r m e h r t werden k a n n , d a at the
given price der gross r e t u r n weniger ist als das capital expended u n d der
Pchter, instead of deriving any profit, m a y actually sustain a loss. D a h e r
m a n y m o d e s of cultivation u n d m a n y i t e m s of cost, die in E n g l a n d m i t
d e m english price of labour u n d d e m english price of corn entsprechend, in
30 America, m i t d e m a m e r i c a n price, selbst e i n e n Verlust verursachen k n -
nen. Klar, da in every state of cultivation and of price, es mglich ist, so
to overlay a farm with capital as that a great portion of the expense shall
not answer, and shall even occasion a loss u n d die der Fehler vieler n a c h
A m e r i c a gewanderter english farmers. (100) M a n h a t ferner b e o b a c h t e t ,
35 da little farmers u n d die der less improved parts des L a n d e s , did n o t sus-
tain so great a loss als die der larger farms u n d die die higher m o d e of
farming adopted u n d alle m o d e r n i m p r o v e m e n t s a n g e n o m m e n h a t t e n . D e r
large farmer, hatte whrend der Periode der high prices sein Land gesttigt
mit Capital, Verbesserungen g e m a c h t bis zu d e m u t m o s t extent, den die
40 h o h e n Preisse erlaubten, u n d h e a p e d m a n u r e u n d expense j e d e r Art u p o n
the land to the very verge of | | 2 1 | profit ... Der small farmer dagegen, blieb
149
hartnckig im alten System, legte n u r kleines Capital aus, raised a m u c h

smaller p r o d u c e , aber larger im V e r h l t n i zur expense als das des intelli-
gent farmer. Er litt also weniger von der Revulsion of prices, da sein n e t
profit e i n e n grssern A b z u g tragen k o n n t e without t o u c h i n g his capital ...
D e r erstre b e n u z t e die gute Zeit besser, war d a r u m a u c h m e h r d e m S t u r m 5
ausgesezt. N e h m e n wir eine farm, zu 100 sh. a qr of corn, bringe 160 %
gross produce fr die erste auf es angelegte P o r t i o n von Capital u n d 10 %
less on every successive additional portion of capital (Aber wie H o p k i n s
sagt: Ist die Eintheilung des Capitals in besondere Portionen nicht rein
willkhrlich) u n d der ordinary rate of profit sei 10 %. D a s Capital u n d gross 10
u n d net produce u n d rent w r d e n sein wie folgt:
Capital Gross Return Net Return Rent

1st 100 160 60 50
2 100 150 50 40
3 100 140 40 30 15
4 100 130 30 20
5 100 120 20 10
6 100 110 10 0
600 810 210 150
Dieser intelligente farmer legt 600 aus, sein ganzes Capital, u n d k a n n 20

150 R e n t e zahlen. D e r small, aus M a n g e l an Capital oder aus I n d o l e n z u n d
inveterate habits u n d prejudices legt n u r 200 Capital aus, k a n n n u r
3
90 R e n t e zahlen. D e r Prei falle n u n / at o n c e oder 30 sh. per qr, so das
10
gross produce im selben Verhltni vermindert u n d die R e c h n u n g steht

wie folgt: 25
Capital Gross Return Net Return Rent (Loss)

1< 100 160-48 = 112 12
2 100 150 - 45 = 105 5
3 100 140-42= 98 -2
4 100 1 3 0 - 39= 91 -9 30
5 100 120 - 36 = 84 -16
6 100 110-33= 77 -23
600 567 17-50 -33
Der farmer, der sein ganzes Capital ausgelegt h a t e i n e n actual loss of

capital von 3 3 . Der farmer, der 200 ausgelegt h a t k e i n e n loss, n u r der N e t 35
R e t u r n reducirt auf 17. S u c h was the effect of the fall of price in the years
which succeeded the F r e n c h wars, t h o u g h in a greater degree from the
greater fall of price. ( 1 0 1 - 4 ) Die supply war nicht increased i m m e d i a t e l y
in a quantity sufficient to r e d u c e the price to its n a t u r a l price. T h o u g h
s o m e of t h e m e a n s of increasing the growth of corn a n d other r u d e p r o d u c e 40
m a y be i m m e d i a t e l y resorted to, a n d be m a d e i m m e d i a t e l y productive,
150
other m e a n s of increasing erheischen considerable Zeit eh sie wirken u n d

sind oft erst n a c h m e h r e n J a h r e n produktiv. So bei der V e r m i n d e r u n g [der
d e m a n d ] u n d d e m Preissefallen. Einige Mittel d e n growth z u v e r m i n d e r n
u n d d e m L a n d Capital z u e n t z i e h n , u n m i t t e l b a r zugnglich u n d effectiv,
5 andre erfordern Z e i t eh sie any effect p r o d u c e . ||22| Steigt der Prei, so
k a n n new land b e i m m e d i a t e l y t u r n e d u p u n d a n additional p r o d u c e
raised; ebenso wirken direkt expensive m a n u r e s . A b e r einige Zeit, viel-
leicht Jahre, before a whole farm were clayed or m a r l e d ; Verbesserung alter
oder A n l e g u n g n e u e r W e g e u n d farmbuildings, draining v o n l a n d u n d be-
10 sonders, wie der Fall direkt u p o n t h e rise of price in 1794, to i n t r o d u c e the
new a n d improved m o d e s of h u s b a n d r y . Viele farmers u n t e r d e m alten Sys-
t e m h a t t e n nicht Capital g e n u g fr das n e u e u n d expensive; Vorurtheile
s t a n d e n i m Wege, die n u r d u r c h die Zeit z u besiegen; Feudalfeelings
hielten einige landlords auf die old t e n a n t s m i t n e w capitalists zu ver-
15 t a u s c h e n ; andre b e s t a n d e n n i c h t u p o n their full rents, which would h a v e
forced the farmer to greater exertions. So m a c h t e n die m o d e r n improve-
m e n t s ihren Weg n u r slowly u n d gradually, a n d have never pervaded t h e
whole country. In m a n c h e Theile des K i n g d o m das turnip system of h u s -
bandry n o c h nicht eingedrungen, selbst wo die lands am geeignetsten d a z u .
20 Alle diese i m p r o v e m e n t s waren partial: in einigen districts das L a n d m i t
Capital gesttigt, in a n d r e n n o c h sehr bedrftig desselben. H a d t h e capital
expended u p o n l a n d during the h i g h prices b e e n m o r e equally distributed,
there can be no d o u b t t h a t a larger p r o d u c e m i g h t have b e e n raised at a less
expense. ... bei dieser gleichmssigren Vertheilung, h a d s o m e of t h e capi-
25 tal which was laid on almost to excess in s o m e districts, b e e n applied to
others where it was deficient, a larger p r o d u c e m i g h t have b e e n raised at a
lesser cost. 1819 bei d e m F a l l e n der Preisse, k a n n t e m a n das P r o d u c t u n d
verminderte m a n es effectiv sofort, i n d e m m a n weniger Arbeit a n w a n d t e
u n d less m a n u r e ; aber nahm, viele Verbesserungen, die m a n nie g e m a c h t
30 u n d nie erneuert h a b e n wrde u n t e r d e n reducirten Preissen, p r o d u c i r t e n
fortwhrend fr viele J a h r e e i n e n b e t r c h t l i c h e n Effect, obgleich das pro-
duce raised by m e a n s of t h e m should n o t fetch a r e m u n e r a t i n g price u n d
das ausgelegte Capital n i c h t . . . d e n gewhnlichen Profit zahlt. As t h e capi-
tal expended c a n n o t be withdrawn, the farmer c o n t i n u e s to avail himself of
35 the improvements effected by it, t h o u g h he would n o t renew or keep t h e m
up at any great fresh expense. Beispiel das marling or claying of land, sehr
expensive, b u t if d o n e well, a very p e r m a n e n t m o d e of i m p r o v e m e n t ...
when the chief expense is o n c e incurred, m a g es answer to take advantage
of it whilst the effects c o n t i n u e . So auf der e i n e n Seite die U m s t n d e
40 preveniren an i m m e d i a t e increase of the supply in proportion to the in-
crease of d e m a n d , u n d auf der a n d r e n Seite, retard the r e d u c t i o n of t h e
151
supply in proportion to the r e d u c t i o n of the d e m a n d . (105 - 9) T h e cost of

p r o d u c t i o n (des Korns) d e p e n d s on the price of labour, and an increase of
the wages of labour does n o t necessarily imply an e n h a n c e m e n t of t h e
price of labour. F r o m fuller e m p l o y m e n t , a n d greater exertions the wages
of labour m a y be considerably increased, whilst the price of labour m a y
c o n t i n u e the same, or the price of labour m a y be e n h a n c e d , wie sicher der
Fall w h r e n d des Kriegs u n d zugleich die wages of l a b o u r vermehrt in viel
grrer Proportion. Die Productionskost in s o l c h e m Fall v e r m e h r t im Ver-
h l t n i z u m price of labour, aber die d e m a n d for a n d the price of corn fol-
lowing the wages of labour, would be increased in a still greater proportion.
(112) Dasselbe gilt fr die r e d u c t i o n der wages of labour. A l s o Kost der
P r o d u c t i o n fllt u n d steigt nicht m i t d e m Fallen u n d Steigen der wages,
also a u c h Nachfrage nicht. (111[, 112]) Ist die Nachfrage sehr b e r der Z u -
fuhr, so das produce jedes Jahrs m e h r closely c o n s u m e d , a less portion of it
left fr das folgende J a h r u n d folglich, w e n n in d i e s e m der crop falls short
von e i n e m Durchschnittsjahr, der Prei m e h r e n h a n c e d als w e n n m e h r
Rest von Vorigem J a h r geblieben wre. Ist die d e m a n d less als die supply
u n d der price u n t e r d e m n a t u r a l one, the sale m e h r languid, die dealers
keep more back v o m Markt in Erwartung eines besseren Preisses, a larger
surplus will be thrown u p o n the n e x t year's crop u n d w e n n der plentiful,
the supply will ||23| be still m o r e increased, a n d the price u n u s u a l l y de-
pressed. (115, 16) D a z u die farmers in solcher Zeit d u r c h ihre distress
selbst gezwungen to bring all their stock to market. (116) W e r e a village to
provide all its supplies within itself, die d e m a n d der society leicht zu anti-
cipiren. Aber w e n n fr countries in d e n other extremities des globe, I n d i a
oder S d a m e r i k a zu sorgen, oft mistake in d e n articles sie want oder in ih-
rer Zahlungsfhigkeit. W h e n we draw our supplies from quarters as distant,
they c a n n o t be very nicely proportioned to any fluctuation of the d e m a n d
at the distance of half the globe. These very irregularities, however, of an
extended c o m m e r c e , may, perhaps, be rectified by a still further extension
of it. As our markets are multiplied, we b e c o m e less d e p e n d a n t u p o n any
individual o n e ; it is improbable, t h a t all should fail, or b e c o m e unprof-
itable at once, and the gain in o n e m a y c o m p e n s a t e the loss in another.
(141, 2)
In d e m D e c e n n i u m von 1 7 4 4 - 1 7 5 3 der Durchschnitt des qr of W h e a t for
each Harvest Year 1 / . 11 sh. 2%d.; von 1 7 5 4 - 1 7 6 3 , II. 1 7 s h . 6 d . ; von
1 7 6 4 - 1 7 7 3 : 2 I. 8 s. 8 d., von 1 7 7 4 - 1 7 8 3 : 2 I. 8 s. 7 d.; von 1 7 8 4 - 1 7 9 3 : 2 I.
9 s. 11 d.; von 1 7 9 4 - 1 8 0 3 : 3 I. 18 s. 6 d.; von 1 8 0 4 - 1 8 1 3 : 4 I. 15 s. 7 d.; von
1 8 1 3 - 1 8 2 1 : 4 I. 4 s. 7 d. yearly average. ( 1 4 7 - 1 5 0 )
152
IF'
Aus Thomas Hopkins: On rent of land
Hopkins. (Thomas.) On Rent of Land and its

Influence on Subsistence and Population.
London.1828.
Seine g e m s s e A n s c h a u u n g v o n d e r R e n t e i n d e r V o r r e d e : rent is, i n its

5 nature, a tax paid to o n e class of t h e c o m m u n i t y by the other classes, which
tax m a y be raised or r e d u c e d at the option of those who impose it. (VI.)
Ch. I. Rent of land.
Das Prinzip der R e n t e gegrndet auf die power des landlord to prevent his
land from b e i n g u s e d ; unless w h a t he d e m a n d s be given to h i m . (6) In der
freien Praxis von settlers, g e h n sie von L a n d N. 1. - wodurch an increase of
their n u m b e r , their power of raising p r o d u c e from it, ist v e r m i n d e r t - zu
. 2, wo their labour will bring, obgleich das L a n d von 2 1 Qualitt, a greater
return of p r o d u c e u n d das ist das i n d u c e m e n t to the removal. (7) In every
step in this process of occupying t h e lands of inferior fertility, the m o r e fer-
15 tile land yield a smaller r e t u r n for the s a m e labour, a n d t h e less fertile a
larger return. (8) L a n d N. 2 would n o t yield a higher r e t u r n t h a n N. 1, to an
equal population. On an average, each individual on N. 2, m u s t have a larger
extent of land, to c o m p e n s a t e for inferior fertility. (I.e.) So, w h e n t h e whole
land was occupied, t h e richest l a n d would have t h e m o s t dense p o p u l a t i o n ,
20 and t h e poorest l a n d t h e m o s t scanty p o p u l a t i o n . (I.e.) D a s T h e i l e n des
Capitals in Dosen is altogether a process of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . Die s.g. erste
Dose is allowed to have h a d its effect collectively in raising p r o d u c e , sie
wird n i c h t unterstellt theilbar zu sein in separate portions, b u t as an u n d i -
vided quantity it exerts its energies to p r o d u c e the crop. A n d if 2x die
25 quantity of capital a n g e w a n d t das n e x t year on t h e s a m e piece of l a n d with-
153
out producing 2 x d e n return, w a r u m sollte this larger q u a n t i t y of capital

be separated in 2 doses p r o d u c i n g u n e q u a l returns? (10) W e n n eine viel
grre quantity of labour or capital a smaller p r o p o r t i o n a l r e t u r n hat, so
gilt die von der g a n z e n quantity of labour a n d capital; there can, t h e r e -
fore, be no difference to constitute rent. (11) Ist E i g e n t h u m da, so sind die 5
settlers zweiter Ankunft gezwungen, d u r c h das civil privilege, n i c h t d u r c h
ein N a t u r g e s e t z , sich auf B o d e n N. 2 a n z u s i e d e l n , weil die von N. 1 sie pre-
vent from cultivating lands . 1. (19) So in d e n U n i t e d States die e x a c t i o n
of r e n t on the best land is t h e r e p r e m a t u r e l y forcing l a b o u r a n d capital to
n e w l a n d . (21) So wie different degrees of fertility of land, r e n t m a y give 10
s u c h a d i r e c t i o n to t h e e m p l o y m e n t of labour, as will m a k e labour, on t h e
whole, less productive. (I.e.) H a t e i n P c h t e r 2 farms, eine at will, die a n d r e
at lease, w e n n a u c h die leztre n i c h t so fruchtbar, so wird er alles Capital
darauf werfen, weil es i h m n i c h t in der R e n t e abgezogen werden k a n n . So
rent causes t h e capital to be u n e q u a l l y productive. (25, 6) R e n t a u c h in 15
G r e a t Britain treibt p o p u l a t i o n p r e m a t u r e l y to poorer soils. (27) T h e l a n d
of each quality has its proper relative rent ||24| d e t e r m i n e d by c o m p e t i t i o n
a m o n g individual t e n a n t s , whatever m a y be t h e general average rate of
rent. (27, 28) D a s principle of c o m p e t i t i o n m a c h t 2 rates of profit u n m g -
lich in d e m s e l b e n L a n d ; aber das b e s t i m m t die relative rents; aber n i c h t 20
d e n general average rate of rent. (30) T h e rates of wages a n d profit m a y be
equalised by competition, b u t they c a n n o t be kept high, if land proprietors,
by raising rents, choose to r e d u c e t h e m . (I.e.) D e r u n m i t t e l b a r e Effect of a
rise of rent - andre D i n g e dieselben b l e i b e n d - ist a r e d u c t i o n of wages. ...
M i t der m e h r food k a n n der landlord d a n n a surplus p o p u l a t i o n , die fr i h n 25
u n d seine F a m i l i e arbeiten, n h r e n . H i e r rent die cause of an increase of
t h e population, statt ihr effect zu sein. (34) Die Bevlkerung u n d alle b r i -
gen U m s t n d e stationr b l e i b e n d voraus gesezt, any rise of r e n t reduces t h e
n u m b e r of primary producers, a n d increases t h e n u m b e r of secondary pro-
ducers, and, with the r e d u c t i o n in t h e n u m b e r of primary producers, there 30
m u s t evidently be a d i m i n u t i o n in t h e whole quantity of primary p r o d u c e
brought i n t o existence; i.e. of t h e principal necessaries of life, and t h e
share of e a c h labourer m u s t c o n s e q u e n t l y be less, or real wages m u s t fall.
(38) U n t e r d e m feudal system war das great object des l a n d proprietor to
have m a n y m e n u p o n his land; t h e obtaining of m o n e y , or rent from t h e 35
l
l a n d was a very inferior consideration. (45) Im 1 3 u n d 14 Jh. die low rents
required, enabled those t e n a n t s who held t h e richest lands, to increase
their n u m b e r s , a n d in process of t i m e , with t h e c o n c u r r e n c e of t h e chief, to
divide a n d subdivide their farms, a n d they were generally r e d u c e d to a
small one for each family. (48) Im 13 J h . die average rent 6 d. an acre 40
(nearly I s . %. von u n s r e m G e l d ) . (50) In I r l a n d :
154
Labour Weavers Potatoes Potatoe Rent

per day wages acre per acre
In 1799 Os. 6%. Is. 2%. Os. 2y4d. 3/. 8 s. 6 d. 0. l i s . Od. (A.) Young
1811 Is. Od. I s . 3d. Os. 3y2d. 8 I. 13 s. 2 d. 1/. 7 s. l i d .
5 N a c h Wakefield die l e z t r e L i s t e . Also in 12 J a h r e n die R e n t m e h r als 2

gestiegen. (59) R e n t g e h t e i n in d e n Prei der P r o d u c t e . D i e Influenz v o n
R e n t auf die Preisse der W a a r e n zeigt sich am schlagendsten b e i m Cattle,
dessen Prei schritthlt m i t d e m rise of r e n t of land. Da wenig Capital ge-
b r a u c h t u n d wenig A r b e i t in p r o d u c i n g cattle on n a t u r a l grass, ist es wohl-
10 feil wo rent low; t h e u e r , wo sie h o c h , as t h e value of cattle t h u s raised will
be formed almost entirely of t h e h i g h rent, die words cheap a n d d e a r n a t r -
lich relatively to o t h e r c o m m o d i t i e s . (61) In d e n h i g h l a n d s of Scotland,
w h e n rents were low, a p o u n d of o a t m e a l b r e a d so t h e u e r wie a p o u n d of
meat.
15 s. d.
In E n g l a n d am Schlu des 13 century,
a b u s h e l o f wheat c o s t . . . 09
Z u r selben Zeit 24 lbs of m e a t 0 9
In E n g l a n d 1827 a b u s h e l of w h e a t 7
20 24 lbs of meat, at 7 d. per lb 14
oder its relative price c o m p a r e d
with bread, is d o u b l e d .
1790 in E n g l a n d Brod war per lb 0 1%
U n d m e a t , zur selben Zeit, per lb 0 4
25 In F r a n c e zur selben Zeit b r e a d 1
und meat 3;
also in E n g l a n d m e a t zu b r e a d n i c h t ganz wie 2 % : 1 , in F r a n k r e i c h
= 3 ^ : 1 . Gegenwrtig m e a t z u m selben relativen Prei in E n g l a n d gestie-
gen, wie 1790 in F r a n c e , d e n n bread per lb n u n 2 d. u n d m e a t 7 d. (67, 8)
30 K e i n e nothwendige V e r b i n d u n g zwischen d e m proportional rate of r e n t
u n d d e m degree of i m p r o v e m e n t of t h e land. A u f einigen der highly i m -
proved lands of E n g l a n d die r e n t n u r % oder % des crop, w h r e n d on t h e
racked soils of I r e l a n d u n d d e n half deserts der p a p a l states %, % m e h r als
des crop. Die r e n t k a n n steigen, w h r e n d das land sich verschlechtert.
35 (68)
155
Ch. II. The Labouring classes.
Wo Boden, Clima schlecht, wo keine I n d u s t r i e u n d Capital, wie in d e n

arabian u n d african sandy deserts u n d in d e n high n o r t h e r n latitudes, das
people zahlt wenig, w e n n b e r h a u p t irgend etwas, als rents, u n d taxes, they
enjoy fast ihr ganzes p r o d u c e , oder ganz ihr p r o d u c e . D e n n o c h few in n u m - 5
ber u n d c o m m o n l y very poorly subsisted. Ihre c o n d i t i o n n u r zu verbessern
by increasing their productive power. E n a b l e t h e m to p r o d u c e m o r e , a n d
they m a y have m o r e to enjoy. (81) If all labourers were employed for the
s a m e end, or object, as the d i a m o n d cutter a n d the opera singer, in a short
t i m e there would ||25| be no wealth to subsist t h e m ; because n o n e of t h e 10
wealth produced would then become capital. If a considerable proportion were so
employed, wages would be low; because, b u t a comparatively small part of
what was produced would be used as capital; b u t if only a few of t h e labour-
ers were so employed, and, of course, nearly all were p l o u g h m e n , s h o e m a k -
ers, weavers etc, t h e n m u c h capital would be produced, and wages could be 15
proportionally high. (84, 5) W i t h the d i a m o n d cutter and the singer, m u s t
be classed all those who labour for the ... landlords, or a n n u i t a n t s , a n d who
receive a part of their i n c o m e as wages: all, in fact, whose labours terminate
merely in producing those things which gratify landlords u n d a n n u i t a n t s ,
and who receive in return for their labours, a part of the rent of the land- 20
lord, or of the i n c o m e of the a n n u i t a n t . These are all productive labourers,
b u t all their labours are for the purpose of converting the wealth which
exists, in the shape of rents and a n n u i t i e s , into some other form, that shall,
in that other form, m o r e gratify the landlord a n d a n n u i t a n t , and therefore
they are secondary producers. All other labourers are primary producers. 25
(85) In Irland n a c h massiger B e r e c h n u n g u n d d e m Census von 1821 das
whole n e t produce, was geht an landlords, government titheowners
20 Millions I. St., die whole wages aber n u r 14,114,000. (94) It has b e e n
stated, d a wie frher 5 per acre nthig, to stock Irish land as well as E n g -
lish land is stocked. (Siehe Wakefield's A c c o u n t s of Ireland.) (94[, 95]) Die 30
l
cultivators von Italy, im Allgemeinen, zahlen von / zu m e h r als % des pro-
2
d u c e as rent an den landlord, m i t m o d e r a t e skill in agriculture u n d a

scanty supply of fixed capital. Der grre Theil der p o p u l a t i o n besteht aus
secondary producers u n d proprietors u n d generally the primary producers
are a poor and a degraded class. ([101,] 102) U n t e r Louis X I V hnlich, the 35
m o n e y rents were too high to p e r m i t the cultivators to a c c u m u l a t e capital
on the land. (102) N a c h A. Young in seinen Travels in France stand die
R e n t e dort wie folgt
156
Arable and L u c e r n e 75,000,000 zu 15 s. 7 d per acre 5 7 , 4 3 7 , 5 0 0

Woods 19,000,000 zu 12 s. 11,910,000
Vines 5,000,000 zu 76 s. 6 d . 19,125,000
Meadows 4,000,000 43 s. 9 d . 8,750,000
5 Wastes 27,150,000 z u I s . 9 d . 2,375,625
130,150,000 99,598,125
Also fast 100 Mill. St. R e n t . H i n z u Tithes zu 16,599,687 (viel zu ge-

ring angeschlagen) u n d taxes zu 24,707,492, z u s a m m e n 140,905,304.
D a b e i Ackerbau miserabel. D i e P o p u l a t i o n Frankreichs damals
10 26,363,074. W e n n selbst 6 Millions of labouring population, was zu large,
htte j e d e family zu liefern g e h a b t jhrlich, direkt oder indirekt, an average
von an 2 3 of n e t wealth to t h e landlords, the c h u r c h a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t .
N a c h Youngs A n g a b e n , n o c h allerlei in A n s c h l a g gebracht, k o m m t auf
die Arbeiterfamily j h r l i c h 42, 10 sh. Product, 23 davon paid away to
15 others u n d 19 u n d 10 s. r e m a i n e d to subsist itself. D a r a u s zu folgern, d a
n u r a m o d e r a t e portion der whole french p o p u l a t i o n were primary p r o d u c -
ers. (103, 4) the error of Mr M a l t h u s and his followers is to be found in t h e
assumption, that a r e d u c t i o n of the labouring population would not be fol-
lowed by a correspondent reduction of capital. (118) At present, in G r e a t
20 Britain, 1 family on an average cultivates 40 acres; u n d da sie gleichzeitig
in distress, Mr M a l t h u s says they are too n u m e r o u s , and t h a t they m u s t by
some m e a n s r e d u c e their n u m b e r s . (120) D i e antipopulationists sind
b o u n d to prove, d a die labour would n o t be even less productive, w h e n
there would be only 1 family to every 60 acres. ([120,] 121) Herr M a l t h u s
25 vergit da die d e m a n d is limited by the m e a n s of paying wages u n d da
diese m e a n s , do n o t arise spontaneously, b u t are always previously created
by labour. (122) A r e d u c t i o n of the population, a n d a c o n s e q u e n t d i m i n u -
tion of the a n n u a l supply of wealth, would n o t necessarily lower either rents,
or t h e rate of profit, b u t would r e d u c e wages. (124) Sonderbar, da a |
30 |26| strong inclination to represent n e t wealth as beneficial to the labouring
class, because it gives employment, t h o u g h it is evidently n o t on a c c o u n t of
being net, that it h a s t h a t power, b u t b e c a u s e it is wealth, - t h a t which h a s
b e e n brought into existence by labour; while, gleichzeitig, an a d d i t i o n a l
quantity of labour is represented as injurious to the labouring classes,
35 t h o u g h that labour produces 3 x as m u c h as it c o n s u m e s . (126) If by the
use of superior m a c h i n e r y , the whole primary p r o d u c e could be raised from
200 to 250 or 300, while n e t wealth a n d profit took only 140, klar, d a there
would r e m a i n as a fund for the wages der primary producers 110 oder 160
statt 60. (128) the c o n d i t i o n of labourers is r e n d e r e d bad either by crippling
40 their productive power, or by taking from t h e m what they have p r o d u c e d .
157
(129) No says Mr M a l t h u s "the weight of your b u r t h e n has n o t h i n g what-

ever to do with your distress; that arises solely from there being too m a n y
persons carrying it." (134) w h e n the emigrant, by t h e greater r o o m or larger
extent of l a n d that he leaves for those w h o r e m a i n , benefits t h e m in a great-
er degree, t h a n leaving his share of t h e n e t wealth to be paid by t h e m , in- 5
j u r e s t h e m u n d umgekehrt. ([138,] 139.)
158
Aus David Ricardo: An essay on the influence of a low price of corn
Ricardo. (David) An Essay on the Influence

of a low Price of Corn on the Profits
of Stock etc
L o n d o n 1815 (2 ed.)
5 I am only desirous of proving t h a t t h e profits on agricultural capital c a n n o t

materially vary, without occasioning a similar variation in t h e profits on
capital, employed on m a n u f a c t u r e s a n d c o m m e r c e . (7) W e n n m a r k e d i m -
provements in agriculture, or in the i m p l e m e n t s of h u s b a n d r y acted with
equal effect, wie die causes, w h i c h r e n d e r the acquisition of an a d d i t i o n a l
10 quantity of corn m o r e difficult, ... corn would be subject only to a c c i d e n t a l
variation of price, arising from b a d seasons, from greater or less real wages
of labour, or from an alteration in the value of the precious m e t a l s . (17)
T h e sole effect t h e n of t h e progress of wealth on prices, i n d e p e n d e n t l y of
all improvements, either in agriculture or m a n u f a c t u r e s , appears to be to
15 raise the price of raw p r o d u c e a n d of labour, leaving all other c o m m o d i t i e s
at their original prices, a n d to lower general profits in c o n s e q u e n c e of the
general rise of wages. (18) the interest of the landlord is always opposed to
the interest of every other class in the c o m m u n i t y . (20) Der rise or fall of
wages hngt ab, im stationren Stand der Gesellschaft von d e m increase or
20 falling off of the population, in d e m advancing state, ob das Capital oder die
Bevlkerung rascher a d v a n c e ; in d e m retrograde state, ob Bevlkerung oder
Capital decrease with t h e greater rapidity. (22) T h e facilities of o b t a i n i n g
food are beneficial in two ways to the owners of capital, it at t h e s a m e t i m e
raises profits and increases t h e a m o u n t of c o n s u m a b l e c o m m o d i t i e s . T h e
25 facilities in obtaining all other things, only increases the a m o u n t of c o m -
modities. (27) E i n rise of prices, selbst w e n n d u r c h depreciation of m o n e y
verursacht, is said to be beneficial, b e c a u s e it betters the situation of t h e
159
c o m m e r c i a l classes at the expense of those enjoying fixed i n c o m e s . (42, 3)

B e i m freien I m p o r t von K o r n : In every step of our progress, profits of stock
increase a n d rents fall, a n d m o r e l a n d is a b a n d o n e d : besides which, the
country saves all the difference between the price at which corn can be
grown, a n d the price at which it c a n be imported, on t h e quantity we re- 5
ceive from abroad. (46) I shall greatly regret that considerations for any
particular class, are allowed to check the progress of the wealth a n d popula-
tion of the country. (49) To be consistent, let us by the s a m e act arrest im-
provement, (da improvement in agriculture auch d e m landlord schd-
lich) a n d prohibit importation. (50) 10
160
Aus David Ricardo: On protection to agriculture
Ricardo. (David.)
On Protection to Agriculture.
L o n d o n . 1822.
In d e m Report, Agricultural C o m m i t t e e , 1821, sagt Mr. Iveson: "I know

5 districts of the country, taking t h e very best qualities in t h e m , that will pro-
d u c e from 4 to 5 qrs per acre. I know there are farms that have averaged in
the wheat crop, 4 qrs to the acre, or 32 bushels, (in Wiltshire)" " . . . I t h i n k
the middling, or second, ... quality of lands u n d e r good cultivation, m a y be
t a k e n at 2% qrs. A n d the inferior lands? F r o m 12 to 15 bushels per acre."
10 Harvey statuirte, d a die lowest rent fr das worst cornraising land sei 18 d.
per acre. Er statuirte ferner, d a im D u r c h s c h n i t t der leztren 10 J a h r e er
30 bushels W e i z e n per acre v o n s e i n e m L a n d e erhalten. N a c h Wakefield
die Differenz zwischen d e m p r o d u c e of wheat per acre auf d e m b e s t e n u n d
d e m schlechtesten L a n d in cultivation 32 bushels. Er sagte: "on the sea-
15 coast of ||27| Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, a n d Kent, t h e crop is t h o u g h t a b a d
one, if it be not 40 bushels per acre;" a n d he a d d e d "I do n o t believe, t h a t
the very poor lands p r o d u c e above 8 bushels per acre." (3, 4) W e i z e n p r e i s s e
in diesem L a n d in different seasons of plenty, trotz des Exports, fielen v o n
der a b u n d a n c e of crop um 50 % in 3 J a h r e n . Das folgende D o k u m e n t copirt
20 von Tooke's evidence vor d e m c o m m i t t e e von 1821.
s. d. Quarters
1728 war der Prei mit einem excess
des Weizens 48 5 of import von 70,757
1732 mit einem excess
25 23 of export von 202,058
1740 45 oy 2 46,822
1743 22 1 371,429
1750 28 10 947,323
161
[s. d.] [Quarters

1757 excess of
53 4 import 130,017
1761 excess of
26 10 export 441,956. 5
(P. 229, Agricultural Report.)
If we lived in one of Mr Owen's parallelograms, a n d enjoyed all o u r pro-

ductions in c o m m o n , t h e n no o n e could suffer in c o n s e q u e n c e of a b u n -
d a n c e , b u t as long as society is constituted as it now is, a b u n d a n c e will of-
t e n be injurious, to producers, a n d scarcity beneficial to t h e m . ([20,] 21) 10
T h a t some capital would be lost (bei freier K o r n e i n f u h r ) c a n n o t be dis-
p u t e d , b u t is the possession or preservation of capital the end, or the
m e a n s ? T h e m e a n s , u n d o u b t e d l y . W h a t we want is an a b u n d a n c e of com-
modities, a n d if it could be proved t h a t by the sacrifice of a part of our cap-
ital we should a u g m e n t the a n n u a l p r o d u c e of those objects which contri- 15
b u t e to o u r enjoyment a n d happiness, we ought n o t to repine at the loss of
a part of our capital. (60)
162
Aus Charles Wentworth Dilke: The source and remedy of the national difficulties
The Source and Remedy

of the National Difficulties etc
A letter to Lord John Russell.
L o n d o n . 1821.
5 Suppose t h e whole l a b o u r of t h e c o u n t r y to raise j u s t sufficient for t h e sup

port of t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n ; it is evident t h e r e is no surplus labour, conse
quently, n o t h i n g t h a t c a n be allowed to a c c u m u l a t e as capital. S u p p o s e t h e
whole l a b o u r of t h e c o u n t r y to raise as m u c h in one year as would m a i n t a i n
it 2 years, it is evident o n e year's c o n s u m p t i o n m u s t perish, or for o n e year,
10 m e n m u s t cease from p r o d u c t i v e labour. B u t t h e possessors of the surplus
produce, or capital, will n e i t h e r m a i n t a i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h e following year
in idleness, nor allow t h e p r o d u c e to perish; they will employ t h e m u p o n
s o m e t h i n g n o t directly a n d i m m e d i a t e l y productive, . B., in t h e erection of
m a c h i n e r y etc. But, t h e third year, t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n m a y again r e t u r n
15 to productive labour, a n d t h e m a c h i n e r y erected in t h e last year c o m i n g
now in operation, klar d a das P r o d u c t grsser als das des ersten Jahrs um
das p r o d u c e der m a c h i n e r y in a d d i t i o n . D i e surplus p r o d u c e , also n o c h
mehr, m u perish oder be p u t to u s e as before; u n d dieser u s a n c e fgt
wieder der productive power der Gesellschaft h i n z u , bis m e n must cease
20 from productive l a b o u r for a t i m e , or the p r o d u c e of their labour m u s t per-
ish. D i e die palpable c o n s e q u e n c e in t h e simplest state of society. (4, 5.)
Der Progress des increasing capital would, in established societies, be
m a r k e d by the decreasing interest of m o n e y , oder, was dasselbe ist, t h e d e -
creasing quantity of the l a b o u r of others t h a t would be given for its u s e . (6)
25 A b e r wahrhaft reich eine N a t i o n ist, w e n n kein Zins fr Capital gezahlt.
W e n n statt 12 S t u n d e n n u r 6 gearbeitet wird wealth is disposable t i m e ,
and n o t h i n g more. (I.e.) all u n p r o d u c t i v e classes have always a twofold o p -
163
eration, not only ceasing to produce themselves, but actively destroying t h e

produce of the labour of others. (9) the d e m a n d of other countries is lim-
ited, n o t only by our power to produce, b u t by their power to produce, for
do what you will, in a series of years the whole world c a n take little m o r e of
us, t h a n we take of the world, so t h a t all your foreign trade, of which there 5
is so m u c h talking, never did, never could, nor ever can, add o n e shilling,
or o n e doit to the wealth of the country, as for every bale of silk, chest of
tea, pipe of wine that ever was imported, s o m e t h i n g of e q u a l value was ex-
ported; a n d even the profits m a d e by our m e r c h a n t s in their foreign trade
are paid by the c o n s u m e r of the return goods here. (17, 18) foreign trade is 10
m e r e barter a n d exchange for the convenience a n d enjoyment of t h e capi-
talist: he has n o t a h u n d r e d bodies, n o r a h u n d r e d legs: he c a n n o t con-
s u m e , in cloth a n d cotton stockings, all the cloth a n d cotton stockings t h a t
are m a n u f a c t u r e d ; therefore they are exchanged for wines a n d silks; b u t
those wines and silks represent the surplus labour ||28| of our own popula- 15
tion, as m u c h as the cloths a n d cottons, a n d in this way the destructive power
of the capitalist is increased beyond all bounds: by foreign trade the capitalists
contrive to outwit nature, who h a d put a 1000 n a t u r a l limits to their exac-
tions, and to their wishes to exact: there is no limit now, either to their
power, or desires. (18) the n a t u r a l a n d necessary c o n s e q u e n c e of an in- 20
creased capital, is its decreasing value. (22) In Bezug auf Ricardo's Capi-
tel ber die Effects on A c c u m u l a t i o n on Profits and Interest, sagt der
Verfasser: Why set o u t by telling us that no a c c u m u l a t i o n of capital will
lower profits, because n o t h i n g will lower profits b u t increased wages, when
it appears that if population does n o t increase with capital wages would in- 25
crease from the disproportion between capital a n d labour; a n d if popula-
tion does increase, wages would increase from the difficulty of procuring
food. (23) If it were possible to c o n t i n u e to increase capital a n d keep up
the value of capital, which is proved by the interest of m o n e y c o n t i n u i n g
t h e same, the interest to be paid for capital would soon exceed t h e whole 30
produce of labour. ... capital tends in m o r e t h a n arithmetical progression
to increase capital. It is a d m i t t e d t h a t the interest paid to the capitalists
whether in the n a t u r e of rents, interests of m o n e y , or profits of trade, is
paid out of the labour of others. Also w e n n capital go on a c c u m u l a t i n g , the
labour to be given for the u s e of capital m u s t go on increasing, interest paid 35
for capital c o n t i n u i n g the same, till all the labour of all the labourers of the
society is engrossed by the capitalist. A b e r impossible to h a p p e n ; for what-
ever m a y be due to the capitalist, he can only receive the surplus l a b o u r of
the labourer; for the labourer must live ... A b e r perfect wahr, da if capital
does not decrease in value as it increases in a m o u n t , the capitalists will ex- 40
act from the labourers the produce of every hour's labour beyond what it is
164
Aus Charles Wentworth Dke: The source and remedy of the national difficulties
possible for the labourer to subsist o n : a n d however horrid a n d disgusting it

m a y seem, the capitalist m a y eventually speculate on the food that requires
the least labour to p r o d u c e it, a n d eventually say to the labourer, "You
s h a ' n ' t eat bread, b e c a u s e barley m e a l is cheaper; Y o u s h a ' n ' t eat m e a t , be-
5 cause it is possible to subsist on beet root a n d potatoes." A n d to this p o i n t
have we c o m e . (23, 4) If the labourer can be brought to feed on potatoes in-
stead of bread, it is indisputably true that m o r e can be exacted from his la-
bour; i.e., if when he fed on b r e a d he was obliged to retain for the m a i n t e -
n a n c e of himself a n d family t h e labour of M o n d a y a n d Tuesday, he will, on
10 potatoes, require only the half of M o n d a y ; a n d the r e m a i n i n g half of M o n -
day a n d the whole of T u e s d a y are available either for the service of the
state or the capitalist. (26) T h e real labour of every m a n is of equal value,
or rather, is equally paid for, the few exceptions of great talents n o t being
worth distinguishing. Society n e i t h e r p r e s u m e s n o r pays for extraordinary
15 ability: all the i n c o m e , t h e n , t h a t a counsellor, judge, bishop, landholder,
householder, (selbst was die m e c h a n i c s u n d other artizans b e r d e n ge-
whnlichen L o h n h i n a u s ziehn) receives beyond the pay of a c o m m o n la-
bourer, is interest of capital. (33)
165
Robert Somers. Letters from the

Highlands; or, the Famine of 1847.
L o n d o n . 1848.
Blair-Atholl, wie die m e i s t e n Highland parishes, has witnessed a rapid a n d

steady decrease of its population. H i e r das clearance system b e g o n n e n 5
schon vor 60 Jahren. G l e n Tilt cleared of its i n h a b i t a n t s by the present
D u k e of Atholl's Grandfather, 20 or 30 years before the burnings a n d eject-
m e n t s of Sutherland were heard of. (11) 1801 die P o p u l a t i o n von Blair
Atholl: 2,848; in 1831: 2,384, in 1 8 4 1 : 2,231 ... T h e clearance a n d disper-
sion of the people is p u r s u e d by the proprietors as a settled principle, as an 10
agricultural necessity, just as trees a n d brushwood are cleared from the
wastes of A m e r i c a or Australia: a n d the operation goes on in a quiet, busi-
ness-like way. (12) J e d e clearance p r o d u c e s misery a n d pauperism. It less-
ens the work to be d o n e in a parish, because the large farmers t u r n exten-
sive tracts of soil into grass, on which the small t e n a n t s used to grow corn, 15
turnips, a n d potatoes. A n d while it d i m i n i s h e s the work to be done, it in-
creases the n u m b e r of those who can only subsist by hiring themselves to
do it. It grinds down small farmers ( n m l i c h w h e n leases expire a n d a new
t e n a n t can be obtained, Y D u t z e n d , 20, 30 families h e r a u s geworfen; to
2
m a k e r o o m for one ... consolidation of small farms) into daylabourers. (12) 20

In den H i g h l a n d s die W a l d u n g e n ausgedehnt. H e r e , on o n e side of Gaick,
you have the new forest of Glenfeshie; a n d there, on the other, you have
the new forest of Ardverikie. In the same line ||29| you have t h e Black
M o u n t a n i m m e n s e waste also recently erected. F r o m east to westfrom
the neighbourhood of A b e r d e e n to the crags of O b a n y o u have now a 25
continous line of forest; while in other parts of the H i g h l a n d s there are t h e
new forests of L o c h Archaig, Glengarry, G l e n m o r i s t o n , Glenstrathfarar etc.
... the clearances which have t a k e n place within the last few years, to m a k e
166
Aus Robert Somers: Letters from the Highlands
r o o m for these new deer-forests, have m a d e little noise in the country, sim-
ply because they were clearances of sheep a n d n o t of people. (25) In the
first place, sheep were i n t r o d u c e d into glens which h a d b e e n the seats of
c o m m u n i t i e s of small farmers; a n d the latter were driven to seek subsist-
5 ence on coarser a n d m o r e sterile tracts of soil. N o w again, deer are supplan-
ting sheep; a n d these are o n c e m o r e dispossessing the small t e n a n t s , w h o
will necessarily be driven down u p o n still coarser land, and to m o r e grind-
ing penury. Or ... the deerforests, a n d the people c a n n o t coexist. O n e or
other of the two m u s t yield. Let the forests be increased in n u m b e r a n d ex-
10 tent during the n e x t quarter of a century, as they have b e e n in the last, a n d
the G a e l will perish from their native soil. ... Dieses m o v e m e n t u n t e r d e n
H i g h l a n d e i g e n t h m e r s theils aus M o d e , aristokratischem Kitzel, Jagdlieb-
haberei, aber: others follow the trade in deer with an eye solely to profit.
For it is a fact, that a m o u n t a i n range laid out in forests is, in m a n y cases
15 more profitable to the proprietor t h a n w h e n let as a sheep walk. ... T h e
h u n t s m a n n m l i c h who wants a deerforest limits his offers by no other cal-
culation t h a n the extent of his purse. In any circumstances it will be a loss
to h i m . (26) Sufferings have b e e n inflicted in t h e H i g h l a n d s scarcely less
severe t h a n those occasioned by the policy of the N o r m a n kings. D e e r have
20 received extended ranges, while m e n have b e e n h u n t e d within a narrower
and still narrower circle. ... O n e after o n e , the liberties of t h e people have
b e e n cloven down. ... T h e oppressions are daily on the increase. (28) Small
crofters (bei N e w t o n m o r e ) are located on a rocky acclivity that stretches
back b e h i n d the h a m l e t . T h e s e crofters pay from f 3 to 7 of rent, a n d are
25 far from being comfortable in their c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e n a k e d n e s s of t h e
soil giving the labour of the poor people no c h a n c e of a d e q u a t e reward. It is
a prevalent n o t i o n that it is small crofters, such as these, extracting a m i s -
erable crop of corn a n d barley from a few acres of barren land, t h a t t h e
clearance system r e m o v e d from the glens. But the very opposite is the
30 truth. The small tenants of this class are in fact creations of the clearance system.
... Allerdings. U n d e r the old system die L e u t e m a n c h m a l schlecht dran.
Their system of farming was b a r b a r o u s ; they neglected their stock u n d ihre
crops; and, while b o t h were going to ruin, they indulged in savage i n d o -
lence. Aber dieser grosse difference: the distress der small farmers u n d e r
35 the old system arose entirely from their own bad m a n a g e m e n t , while t h a t
of the small crofters, u n d e r the new system, springs from the essential de-
fectiveness of their circumstances. In the o n e class you h a d all the m a t e r i -
als of gradual and steady i m p r o v e m e n t ; b u t in the other you have dilapi-
dated m e a n s and a b r o k e n spirit, conjoined with a want of land, t h a t
40 renders i m p r o v e m e n t scarcely possible by any m e a s u r e short of a new dis-
tribution of the soil. (31) T h e labourer or the t r a d e s m a n who has no land
167
k a n n k a u m leben u n t e r solchem System. He is pressed down to the lowest

possibility of existence. His (dieser labourer h e i t cottar) c o m p e t i t o r t h e
crofterfeels that, with his cow or 2, a n d his 2 or 3 bolls of barley a n d oat-
m e a l , he c a n afford to give his work for smaller wages t h a n he could live
u p o n , without these a p p u r t e n a n c e s ; a n d so he either cuts down the re- 5
m u n e r a t i o n of t h e cottar, or cuts h i m o u t altogether. (42) the result was a
wretchedness of living a m o n g the p o p u l a t i o n of the H i g h l a n d s , c o m p a r e d
with which, the subsistence of savage life is luxury itself. (I.e.) D i e club ten-
ants in Lochcarron ... Ihre corncrops oft so poor as to yield little m o r e t h a n
the seed; b u t even with this miserable r e t u r n the people are n o t altogether 10
dissatisfied, providing that the yield of straw is sufficient to carry their cat-
tle over winter. Aber die straw s u c h inferior feeding for cows t h a t it is i m -
possible they can thrive, or yield the a m o u n t of p r o d u c e which they would
do if well fed. (54) Hier im Lochcarron district (wie fast berall im High-
land) n u r 2 Klassen, a higher u n d a lowerthe former consisting of a few 15
large t e n a n t s all occupying nearly the same level; a n d the latter consisting
of a dense body of small lotters a n d fishermen, alle equally u n i f o r m in
their circumstances a n d condition. T h e o n e class has wealth on its side, the
other class has n u m b e r s . D i e sprich||30|wrtliche Feindschaft zwischen Ar-
m e n u n d R e i c h e n erhielt n o c h besondre Entwicklung in this simple social 20
structure of the Highlands. Die clearances laid the f o u n d a t i o n of a bitter
animosity between the sheepfarmers a n d the lotters; a n d as these violent
changes were executed by the authority of the lairds, they also snapped the
tie which h a d previously, a m i d all reverses, u n i t e d the people and their
chiefs. N o c h E i n Band war da, die spiritual u n i o n . D i e Parish C h u r c h was a 25
c o m m o n centre where all classes met. A b e r die social wrongs of the lower
class inclined their m i n d s to the doctrine of n o n - i n t r u s i o n u n d sie t r e n n t e n
sich von der etablirten church. T h e parishchurches, in Rossshire particu-
larly, have b e e n literally emptied. ... the sheepfarmers adhere to the Estab-
lishment. There is thus a d o u b l e p o i n t of collision between the 30
2 r a n k s , a n ecclesiastical as well as an agrarian enmity. T h e Proprietor,
the minister, t h e schoolmaster a n d the large t a c k s m e n a l l who used to act
as the leaders of the people and to m a n a g e t h e public business of the par-
ishare ranged together on one side a n d in o n e cause; while t h e people
are as u n a n i m o u s l y a n d determinedly u n i t e d on a n o t h e r side a n d in an en- 35
tirely opposite cause. (65, 6) No political economist has yet written the his-
tory of such towns as Janetown, Plockton, a n d D o r n i e . Diese H i g h l a n d ( a n
d e r W e s t k s t e ) fishing villages form a distinct species of the genus urbs.
... On some fatal M a r t i n m a s or W h i t s u n d a y term, t h e forefathers of these
wretched villagers were h u n t e d out from the glens, a n d pressed together in 40
crowds on barren stripes along t h e m a r g i n s of the lochs. They h a d no arts,
168
no manufactures, no goods to sell. A n d even supposing that they h a d b e e n

adepts in trade, there was no rural p o p u l a t i o n b e h i n d t h e m to give a d e -
m a n d for their products, a n d no corn to take in exchange; for t h e s a m e p r o -
cess which h u d d l e d t h e m in helpless misery on t h e shore, cleared t h e c o u n -
5 try of its peasants, a n d e x t i n g u i s h e d cultivation. ... T h e land allotted t h e m
was too narrow a n d too b a r r e n to k e e p t h e m alive; but here is t h e seawhy
not dip for herrings in t h e tide, a n d scratch limpets from t h e rocks? T h e y
b e c a m e a m p h i b i o u s , lived half on l a n d a n d half on water, and, after all, did
not half live u p o n both. ([83,] 84) D i e Isle of Skye das E l e n d u n g e h e u e r .
10 Subdivision has b e e n carried to its farthest limits, wofr h o h e R e n t s .
(93 sqq.) the land r e n t a l von Arisaig ist an 1200 per Jahr. D i e P o p u l a t i o n
1250. A p o u n d per h e a d is t h e relative p r o p o r t i o n of rent a n d p o p u l a t i o n in
Skye, and some of the m o s t destitute districts of t h e W e s t H i g h l a n d s . (119)
T h e p o p u l a t i o n m u s t necessarily be very poor on an estate where t h e r e is a
15 h u m a n being for every p o u n d w h i c h goes into t h e pocket of the landlord.
Very probably Lord C r a n s t o u n receives a larger share of the a n n u a l pro-
d u c e of Arisaig t h a n t h e whole 1250 souls p u t together. To m a k e up this
rent the people toil, a n d save, a n d stint themselvesliving u p o n t h e scanti-
est a n d poorest fare, a n d scraping together every farthing they can lay their
20 fingers u p o n , from o n e year's e n d to another. (119) Die H a u p t q u e l l e n der
want in d e n H i g h l a n d s sind: I) Waste of land. 1) It is wasted d u r c h das sys-
tem der sheepwalks. Large tracts of country, 20 or 30 miles in length, are
thrown into one farm; all fences over this vast space are removed, a n d t h e
soil resigned to its own s p o n t a n e o u s p r o d u c t i o n . All kinds of land, dry a n d
25 wet, land fit for t h e p l o u g h a n d land adapted only for pasture, are t h u s ap-
plied to t h e s a m e use, a n d subjected to t h e s a m e t r e a t m e n t . C o n s e q u e n z :
an e n o r m o u s waste of productive capability. 2) land is wasted by deer-forests
and gamepreserving. (165) T h e b r e e d i n g and fostering of winged g a m e ,
which is also carried to a great e x t r e m e in the H i g h l a n d s , retains extensive
30 moors u n d e r heather. A vigorous m o o r - b u r n would clear t h e soil of t h a t
e m b l e m of barrenness, a n d cover it with grass. But m o o r b u r n is p r o h i b i t e d
by t h e gamepreservers. (166) 3) Natural wastes. Besteht h a u p t s c h l i c h aus
mosses, swamps, seabeaches, a n d t h e seats of old and nearly extinct forests.
2 or three centuries ago, t h e surface of t h e lowlands was scarred by similar
35 wastes etc. (I.e.) 4) l a n d is wasted by imperfect cultivation. . B. das feeble
scraping of the surface soil w h i c h passes for digging m a y also be said to
waste t h e ground, by allowing t h e subsoil to lie useless to t h e work of vege
tation. (166, 167) II.) Waste of Manure. M a n u r i n g is the m e a n s of repairing
the waste of soil o c c a s i o n e d by p r o d u c t i o n . A waste of m a n u r e , therefore, is
40 virtually a waste of l a n d . (167) III.) Waste of Capital t h e landlords, i n s t e a d
of saving a part, have c o n s u m e d m o r e t h a n their | | 3 1 | i n c o m e s . T h e a n n u a l
169
rental of t h e 4 counties of Sutherland, Ross, Inverness, a n d Argyle, is

597,496 18 sh.; b u t how m u c h of this, after paying the interest of m o n e y -
lenders a n d family i n c u m b r a n c e s , really goes into the h a n d s of the n o m i -
n a l proprietors? Perhaps %, % or n o t m o r e t h a n %. ... As for the large farm-
ers, they are also in a great m e a s u r e an absentee class. T h e sheepwalks are 5
principally held by g e n t l e m e n who have farms in the south, a n d who carry
away with t h e m the profits a n d savings a c c u m u l a t e d in the H i g h l a n d s .
... t h u s dispersion of that surplus p r o d u c e which is the lifeblood of i n d u s -
try, the g e r m and the food of i m p r o v e m e n t . ( 1 6 7 - 1 6 9 ) IV.) Waste of La-
bour. In t h e Highlands there is a want of roads, of m a c h i n e r y , of impie- 10
m e n t s , and of every contrivance of intellect a n d art, by which m a n u a l
labour is assisted and facilitated. (169) V.) Waste of Time. (169 sqq.)
clearance der people from Glen Tilt von 1780-1790. D u r c h d e n Grovater
des jezigen Herzogs von Atholl. Dieses glen was occupied in the same ways
as other H i g h l a n d valleys, each family possessing a piece of arable land, 15
while the hill was held in c o m m o n . T h e people enjoyed full liberty to fish
in the Tilt, an excellent salmon river; a n d t h e pleasures a n d profits of the
chace were nearly as free to t h e m as to their chief. 3 or 4 p o u n d s a year was
all the rent paid for possession capable of supplying a family with a b u n -
d a n c e . ... T h e present D u k e ' s grandfather acquired a taste for deer. T h e 20
people were accustomed to take their cattle in the s u m m e r season to a
higher glen that is watered by the Tarff; b u t a large dyke was built at the
h e a d of G l e n Tilt, a n d they were forbidden to trespass, or suffer their stock
to trespass, beyond it. T h e outer region was consigned to the u n d i s t u r b e d
possession of the deer. These lighthearted creatures increased in n u m b e r , 25
a n d paid no respect to their m a r c h e s . They leaped over the enclosure, a n d
destroyed the poor people's crops. T h e D u k e , observing this, gratified their
roving propensities, and added a few 1000 acres m o r e to their grazing
g r o u n d s at the expense of t h e people, who now b e g a n to be peeled of their
possessions like one of their elms of its leaves by an October storm. G r a d u - 30
ally the forest ground was extended, a n d gradually the m a r k s of cultivation
were effaced, till the last m a n left the glen, a n d the last cottage b e c a m e a
h e a p of ruins. T h e same devastation which W i l l i a m the Conqueror, a n d the
early N o r m a n kings, spread over the plains of H a m p s h i r e , in the 11 a n d
12 centuries, was thus reproduced, at the end of the 18, in this quiet High- 35
l a n d valley. D e m Herzog bot sich ein Vorwand zur Extirpation seines Vol-
kes. H i g h l a n d chiefs h o b e n regiments to serve in the A m e r i c a n war. D e r
D u k e of Atholl suchte a u c h zu enlist the G l e n Tilt people. Die m e i s t e n re-
fusirten. T h e D u k e flew into a rage: a n d pressgangs were sent up the G l e n
to carry off the young m e n by force. D u r c h i m p r e s s m e n t u n d violence end- 40
lieh das regiment raised. N a c h d e m Krieg wollte er sie an die Ostindische
170
Compagnie verkaufen; wurde only prevented by the rising m u t i n y of the

regiment. (22, 3) After the Conquest, t h e N o r m a n kings afforested large
portions of the soil of E n g l a n d in m u c h t h e s a m e way as t h e l a n d h o l d e r s
are now doing in the H i g h l a n d s . To s u c h an extent was this practice car-
5 ried, that an historian informs us, t h a t in the reign of King J o h n "the great-
est part of the K i n g d o m " was t u r n e d into forest, and that so multiform a n d
oppressive were the forest laws, t h a t it was impossible for any m a n who
lived within the b o u n d a r i e s to escape the danger of falling a victim to
t h e m . To prepare the ground for these forests, the people required to be
10 driven o u t ... Cultivated land was laid waste, villages were destroyed, a n d
the inhabitants extirpated. Distress ensued, a n d discontent followed as a
n a t u r a l consequence. ... Zu R u n n y m e d e King J o h n was compelled to dis-
afforest the land, a n d restore it to its n a t u r a l a n d appropriate u s e . (27) In
einer history, written by D a n i e l , in 1650 heit es: " A n d 12 Knights or legall
15 m e n , " says this old writer, referring to m e a s u r e s adopted in t h e reign of
Henry III "are c h o s e n in every shire, u p o n their oath, to dispart the old
Forrests from the new. A n d all s u c h as were disafforested were disposed at
their pleasure who were to possesse t h e m . W h e r e u p o n they were laid open,
plowed, and improved, to the exceeding comfort and benefit of t h e subject,
20 whereby m e n , in stead of wild beasts, were sustained, and m o r e r o o m m a d e
for t h e m to use their industry." (166) |
171
I32| Dr. Justus Liebig.

Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung
auf Agricultur und Physiologie.
4* Auflage. 1842.
I) Erster Theil. Der chemische Proze 5

der Ernhrung der Vegetabilien.
Die allgemeinen Bestandtheile der Vegetabilien.
Der Kohlenstoff ist der B e s t a n d t e i l aller Pflanzen u n d zwar eines j e d e n

ihrer Organe. D i e H a u p t m a s s e aller Vegetabilien besteht aus Verbindungen,
welche Kohlenstoff u n d die Elemente des Wassers, u n d zwar in d e m n m l i - 10
c h e n Verhltni wie im Wasser, enthalten; h i e r h e r gehren die Holzfaser,
das Strkemehl, Zucker u n d Gummi. E i n e andre Klasse von Kohlenstoffver-
b i n d u n g e n enthlt die E l e m e n t e des Wassers + einer gewissen M e n g e Sau-
erstoff; sie umfat m i t wenigen A u s n a h m e n die zahlreichen in d e n Pflan-
z e n v o r k o m m e n d e n organischen Suren. E i n e dritte besteht aus 15
V e r b i n d u n g e n des Kohlenstoffs m i t Wasserstoff, welche entweder k e i n e n
Sauerstoff enthalten, oder wenn Sauerstoff e i n e n Bestandtheil davon aus-
m a c h t , so ist seine Q u a n t i t t stets kleiner, als d e m Gewichtverhltni ent-
spricht, in d e m er sich m i t Wasserstoff zu Wasser verbindet. Sie k n n e n
d e m n a c h betrachtet werden als V e r b i n d u n g e n des Kohlenstoffs m i t d e n 20
E l e m e n t e n des Wassers, + einer gewissen M e n g e Wasserstoff. D i e flchti-
gen u n d fetten Oele, das Wachs, die Harze gehren dieser Klasse an. (4, 5.)
D i e organischen Suren sind Bestandtheile aller Pflanzensfte, u n d : m i t
wenigen A u s n a h m e n , an unorganische Basen, an Metalloxide, g e b u n d e n ; die
leztren fehlen in keiner Pflanze, sie bleiben n a c h der E i n s c h e r u n g dersel- 25
172
Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig:
Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie
Heft XII. Seite 32
Aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie
b e n in der Asche zurck. D e r Stickstoff ist ein B e s t a n d t e i l des vegetabili-

schen Eiweisses, des Klebers; er ist in d e n Pflanzen in der F o r m v o n Suren,
von indifferenten Stoffen u n d von e i g e n t h m l i c h e n V e r b i n d u n g e n enthal-
ten, welche alle Eigenschaften von M e t a l l o x i d e n besitzen; die leztren heis-
5 sen organische Basen. S e i n e m Gewichtsverhltni n a c h der Stickstoff der
kleinste Theil der M a s s e der Pflanzen; er fehlt aber in k e i n e m Vegetabil
oder Organ eines Vegetabils; w e n n er k e i n e n Bestandtheil eines Organs
ausmacht, so findet er sich d e n n o c h u n t e r allen U m s t n d e n in d e m Saft,
der die Organe durchdringt. Die Entwicklung einer Pflanze n a c h dieser
10 A u s e i n a n d e r s e t z u n g abhngig von der Gegenwart einer Kohlenstoffverbin-
dung, welche ihr den Kohlenstoff, einer Stickstoffverbindung, welche ihr
d e n Stickstoff liefert; sie bedarf n o c h a u s s e r d e m des Wassers u n d seiner
E l e m e n t e , so wie eines Bodens, welcher die anorganischen M a t e r i e n dar-
bietet, o h n e die sie n i c h t b e s t e h n k a n n . (5)
15 Die Assimilation des Kohlenstoffes.
Die Pflanzenphysiologie betrachtet e i n e n G e m e n g t h e i l der Acker- u n d

D a m m e r d e , d e m m a n d e n N a m e n Humus gegeben hat, als das H a u p t n a h -
rungsmittel, was die Pflanzen aus d e m B o d e n a u f n e h m e n , u n d seine G e -
genwart als die wichtigste B e d i n g u n g seiner Fruchtbarkeit. Dieser H u m u s
20 ist das Product der F u l n i u n d Verwesung von Pflanzen u n d Pfianzenthei-
len. (6) Die C h e m i k e r waren bis j e z t gewohnt, alle Zersetzungsproducte or-
ganischer V e r b i n d u n g von b r a u n e r oder braunschwarzer Farbe m i t Humus-
sure oder Humin zu b e z e i c h n e n , je n a c h d e m sie in Alkalien lslich waren
oder nicht; diese P r o d u c t e h a b e n aber i n ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g u n d E n t -
25 stehungsweise n i c h t das Geringste m i t e i n a n d e r gemein. (7) D i e Eigen-
schaften des H u m u s u n d der H u m u s s u r e der Chemiker sind von d e n
Pflanzenphysiologen unbegreiflicher Weise bertragen worden auf d e n
Krper i n der D a m m e r d e , d e n m a n m i t d e m n m l i c h e n N a m e n belegt ...
der H u m u s in der F o r m , wie er im B o d e n e n t h a l t e n ist, trgt zur E r n h r u n g
30 der Pflanzen n i c h t das Geringste bei. (8) Die Felder produciren K o h l e n -
stoff in der F o r m von Holz, H e u , G e t r e i d e u n d a n d e r e n Culturgewchsen,
deren Massen ausserordentlich u n g l e i c h sind. Auf 2500 Q u a d r a t m e t e r
Wald von m i t t l e r e m B o d e n wachsen 2650 Pfund lufttrocknes T a n n e n -
Fichten- Birken- etc H o l z . A u f derselben F l c h e W i e s e n erhlt m a n i m
35 D u r c h s c h n i t t 2500 Pfd H e u . Die n m l i c h e F l c h e G e t r e i d e l a n d liefert
1 8 , 0 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 Pfd R u n k e l r b e n . A u f derselben F l c h e gewinnt m a n
800 Pfd Roggen u n d 1780 Pfd Stroh, im G a n z e n also 2580 Pfd. Analysirt
m a n n u r die Bestandtheile von Holz, H e u , etc., so findet m a n :
175
2500 Q u a d r a t m e t e r Wald bringen hervor an Kohlenstoff 1007 Pfd

Wiese 1018
Culturland, Runkelrben ohne Bltter 951
Getreide 1020.
A u s diesen T h a t s a c h e n folgt, da gleiche F l c h e n culturfhiges L a n d 5
eine gleiche Q u a n t i t t Kohlenstoff p r o d u c i r e n ... Jedes Jahr n e h m e n wir
d e m Wald, der Wiese eine gewisse Q u a n t i t t von Kohlenstoff in der F o r m
v o n H e u u n d Holz u n d d e n n o c h n i m m t der Kohlenstoffgehalt des B o d e n s
zu, wird er reicher an H u m u s . Wird n i c h t gedngt, wie G e t r e i d e u n d
F r u c h t l a n d . Dieser gedngte B o d e n bringt nicht m e h r Kohlenstoff hervor, 10
als der W a l d u n d die Wiese, d e n e n er n i e ersezt wird. ( 1 2 - 1 4 ) D e r Kohlen-
stoff, v o m ge||33|dngten L a n d hervorgebracht, betrgt n i c h t m e h r als der
Kohlenstoff des u n g e d n g t e n ... D e r Kohlenstoff der Vegetabilien m u
aus einer a n d e r n Quelle s t a m m e n , u n d da es der B o d e n nicht ist, der i h n
liefert, so k a n n diese n u r die Atmosphre sein. (15) Zu j e d e r Jahreszeit u n d 15
in allen Climaten hat m a n in 100 V o l u m t h e i l e n der Luft 21 V o l u m Sauer-
stoff mit so geringen A b w e i c h u n g e n gefunden, da sie als Beobachtungs-
fehler angesehn werden m s s e n . W o h e r dieser u n v e r n d e r l i c h e G e h a l t der
Luft an Sauerstoff? D e r Sauerstoffgehalt der Luft ist eine erschpfbare
Grsse. W e n n m a n erwgt, da jeder M e n s c h in 24 S t u n d e n 57,2 Cubikfu 20
(hessische) Sauerstoff in d e m A t h m u n g s p r o z e verzehrt, da 10 Ctr Koh-
lenstoff bei i h r e m V e r b r e n n e n 5 8 1 1 2 Cubicfu Sauerstoff verzehren, d a
eine einzige E i s e n h t t e H u n d e r t e von M i l l i o n e n Cubikfu, d a eine kleine
Stadt wie Giessen, in d e m z u m H e i z e n d i e n e n d e n H o l z e allein b e r
1000 Millionen Cubikfu Sauerstoff der A t m o s p h r e e n t z i e h e n , so u n b e - 25
greiflich, wenn keine Ursache existirt, w o d u r c h der w e g g e n o m m e n e Sauer-
stoff wieder ersezt wird, da der Sauerstoffgehalt der Luft nicht kleiner ge-
worden, da die Luft in d e n T h r n e n k r g e n , die vor 1800 J a h r e n in
Pompeji verschttet wurden, nicht m e h r davon als wie h e u t e enthlt. (15,
16) Wo k o m m t die K o h l e n s u r e hin, die d u r c h das A t h m e n der Thiere, 30
durch Verbrennungsprozesse gebildet wird? E i n Cubicfu Sauerstoff, der
sich mit Kohlenstoff zur K o h l e n s u r e vereinigt, ndert sein V o l u m e n
n i c h t ; aus den Billionen Cubicfu verzehrten Sauerstoffgases sind ebenso
viel Billionen Cubicfu K o h l e n s u r e e n t s t a n d e n u n d in die A t m o s p h r e
gesendet worden ... das Gewicht der K o h l e n s u r e n a h e Y 1000 des Gewichts 35
der Luft. Dieser G e h a l t wechselt n a c h d e n Jahreszeiten, er ndert sich a b e r
n i c h t in verschiednen J a h r e n . (17) Es m u eine Ursache v o r h a n d e n sein,
welche die A n h u f u n g der K o h l e n s u r e hindert, u n d die sich b i l d e n d e u n -
aufhrlich wieder entfernt; eine Ursache, d u r c h welche der Luft der Sauer-
stoff wieder ersezt wird, den sie d u r c h Verbrennungsprozesse, d u r c h Ver- 40
wesung u n d d u r c h die Respiration der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere verliert.
176
WW"
Beide Ursachen vereinigen sich zu einer einzigen in d e m Lebensprozesse

der Vegetabilien. D e r Kohlenstoff der Pflanzen s t a m m t ausschlielich aus
der A t m o s p h r e . In der A t m o s p h r e existirt der Kohlenstoff n u r in der
F o r m der K o h l e n s u r e , also in der F o r m einer Sauerstoffverbindung. D i e
5 H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l e der Vegetabilien, gegen deren Masse die M a s s e der
brigen verschwindend klein ist, e n t h a l t e n Kohlenstoff u n d die E l e m e n t e
des Wassers; alle z u s a m m e n e n t h a l t e n weniger Sauerstoff als die K o h l e n -
sure. D e m n a c h gewi, d a die Pflanzen, i n d e m sie d e n Kohlenstoff der
Kohlensure sich aneignen, die Fhigkeit besitzen m s s e n , die K o h l e n -
10 sure zu zerlegen; die Bildung ihrer H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l e . sezt e i n e Tren-
n u n g des Kohlenstoffes von d e m Sauerstoff voraus; der leztre m u , wh-
rend d e m L e b e n s p r o z e der Pflanze, w h r e n d sich der Kohlenstoff m i t
d e m Wasser oder seinen E l e m e n t e n verbindet, an die A t m o s p h r e wieder
freigegeben werden. F r jedes V o l u m e n K o h l e n s u r e , deren Kohlenstoff
15 Bestandtheil der Pflanze wird, m u die A t m o s p h r e ein gleiches V o l u m e n
Sauerstoff empfangen. ([17,] 18) D i e Pflanze liefert nicht allein d e m thieri-
schen Organismus in i h r e n O r g a n e n die M i t t e l zur N a h r u n g , zur E r n e u e -
rung u n d V e r m e h r u n g seiner Masse, sie entfernt nicht n u r aus der At-
mosphre die schdlichen Stoffe, die seine Existenz gefhrden, s o n d e r n sie
20 ist es a u c h allein, welche d e n h h e r e n organischen Lebensproze, die R e -
spiration, m i t der ihr u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n N a h r u n g versieht; sie ist eine unver-
siegbare Quelle des reinsten u n d frischesten Sauerstoffgases, sie ersezt der
Atmosphre in j e d e m M o m e n t e was sie verlor. Alle brigen Verhltnisse
gleichgesezt, a t h m e n die Thiere Kohlenstoff aus, die Pflanzen a t h m e n i h n
25 ein, das M e d i u m , in d e m es geschieht, die Luft, k a n n in ihrer Z u s a m m e n -
setzung n i c h t gendert werden. (20) Die A t m o s p h r e enthlt 2800 Billio-
n e n Pfund Kohlenstoff, eine Q u a n t i t t , welche m e h r betrgt, als das G e -
wicht aller Pflanzen, der Stein- u n d Braunkohlenlager auf d e m g a n z e n
Erdkrper z u s a m m e n g e n o m m e n . D e r Kohlenstoffgehalt des Meerwassers
30 ist verhltnimssig n o c h grsser. (20, 21) Die W u r z e l n u n d alle Theile der
Pflanzen, welche die n m l i c h e Fhigkeit besitzen, saugen b e s t n d i g W a s -
ser, sie a t h m e n K o h l e n s u r e ein; diese Fhigkeit ist u n a b h n g i g v o m Son-
n e n l i c h t e ; sie huft sich whrend des Tages im Schatten u n d bei N a c h t in
allen Theilen der Pflanze an, u n d erst von d e m Augenblicke an, wo die
35 Sonnenstrahlen sie treffen, geht die Assimilation des Kohlenstoffs, die
A u s h a u c h u n g von Sauerstoffgas vor sich; erst in d e m M o m e n t e , wo der
K e i m die Erde durchbricht, frbt er sich von der ussersten Spitze abwrts,
die eigentliche H o l z b i l d u n g n i m m t ihren Anfang. D i e Tropen, der A e q u a -
tor, die h e i e n Klimate, wo ein selten bewlkter H i m m e l der S o n n e gestat-
40 tet, ihre g l h e n d e n Strahlen einer u n e n d l i c h reichen Vegetation z u z u s e n -
den, sind die eigentlichen ewig unversiegbaren Quellen des Sauerstoffga-
177
to,
ses; in d e n gemssigten u n d kalten Z o n e n , wo knstliche W r m e die

fehlende S o n n e ersetzen m u , wird die K o h l e n s u r e , welche die tropischen
Pflanzen nhrt, im Ueberflu erzeugt; derselbe Luftstrom, welcher, veran-
lat d u r c h die U m d r e h u n g der Erde, seinen W e g von d e m A e q u a t o r z u d e n
Polen zurckgelegt hat, bringt u n s , zu d e m A e q u a t o r z u r c k k e h r e n d , d e n 5
dort erzeugten Sauerstoff u n d fhrt i h m die K o h l e n s u r e u n s e r e r W i n t e r
zu. (22) Die Versuche von de Saussure h a b e n bewiesen, da die oberen
S c h i c h t e n der Luft m e h r K o h l e n s u r e e n t h a l t e n als die u n t e r e n , die m i t
d e n Pflanzen in Berhrung sich befinden, d a der ||34| Kohlensuregehalt
der Luft grsser ist bei N a c h t als bei Tag, wo das eingesaugte k o h l e n s a u r e 10
G a s zersezt wird. (I.e.) Die Pflanzen verbessern die Luft, i n d e m sie die
K o h l e n s u r e entfernen, i n d e m sie d e n Sauerstoff erneuern. (I.e.) Die Cul-
tur erhht den G e s u n d h e i t s z u s t a n d der G e g e n d e n ; m i t d e m Aufhren aller
Cultur werden sonst gesunde G e g e n d e n u n b e w o h n b a r . W i r e r k e n n e n in
d e m L e b e n der Pflanze, in der Assimilation des Kohlenstoffs, als der wich- 15
tigsten ihrer F u n k t i o n e n , eine Sauerstoffausscheidung, m a n k a n n sagen,
eine Sauerstofferzeugung. (23) Materien, wie Zucker, A m y l o n etc, welche
Kohlenstoff u n d die E l e m e n t e des Wassers enthalten, sind P r o d u c t e des
Lebensprozesses der Pflanzen, sie leben nur, insofern sie diese erzeugen.
Dasselbe m u von d e m H u m u s gelten, d e n n er k a n n ebenso wie diese, in 20
Pflanzen gebildet werden. (24) Die von d e n Blttern, von den W u r z e l n m i t
d e m Wasser a u f g e n o m m e n e K o h l e n s u r e wird m i t der A b n a h m e des Lich-
tes n i c h t m e h r zersezt, sie bleibt in d e m Safte gelst, der alle Theile der
Pflanze durchdringt; i n j e d e m Z e i t m o m e n t e verdunstet m i t d e m Wasser
aus den Blttern eine i h r e m G e h a l t e n t s p r e c h e n d e M e n g e K o h l e n s u r e . 25
E i n Boden, in welchem die Pflanzen krftig vegetiren, enthlt als eine nie
fehlende Bedingung ihres Lebens u n t e r allen U m s t n d e n eine gewisse
Q u a n t i t t Feuchtigkeit, nie fehlt in d i e s e m Boden kohlensaures G a s ,
gleichgltig, ob es von d e m s e l b e n aus der Luft a u f g e n o m m e n oder d u r c h
die Verwesung von Vegetabilien erzeugt wird; kein B r u n n e n - oder Quell- 30
wasser, nie ist das Regenwasser frei von K o h l e n s u r e ; in keinerlei P e r i o d e n
des L e b e n s einer Pflanze hrt das V e r m g e n der W u r z e l auf, Feuchtigkeit
u n d m i t derselben Luft u n d K o h l e n s u r e e i n z u s a u g e n . K a n n es n u n auffal-
lend sein, da diese K o h l e n s u r e m i t d e m verdunsteten Wasser von der
Pflanze an die A t m o s p h r e u n v e r n d e r t wieder zurckgegeben wird, w e n n 35
die Ursache der Fixirung des Kohlenstoffs, w e n n das Licht fehlt? (29, 30)
D i e also der F a l l w h r e n d d e r N a c h t . Diese A u s h a u c h u n g von Kohlen-
sure h a t m i t d e m Assimilationsproze, m i t d e m L e b e n der Pflanze ebenso
wenig zu t h u n , als die E i n s a u g u n g des Sauerstoffes. Beide Stenn m i t e i n a n -
der n i c h t in der geringsten Beziehung, der eine ist ein rein m e c h a n i s c h e r , 40
der a n d r e ein rein chemischer Proze. E i n D o c h t von Baumwolle, den m a n
178
in eine L a m p e e i n t a u c h t , welche eine m i t K o h l e n s u r e gesttigte Flssig-

keit enthlt, wird sich grade so verhalten wie e i n e lebende Pflanze in der
N a c h t , Wasser u n d K o h l e n s u r e werden d u r c h Capillaritt aufgesaugt,
beide verdunsten a u e r h a l b an d e m D o c h t e wieder. (30) D i e Lebenskraft
5 ist die e i n e m j e d e n e i n z e l n e n Organ i n n e w o h n e n d e Fhigkeit, sich selbst
zu j e d e m Z e i t m o m e n t e n e u wieder zu erzeugen: hierzu g e h r e n Stoffe,
welche seine E l e m e n t e enthalten, u n d diese Stoffe m s s e n sich zu M e t a -
m o r p h o s e n eignen. Alle Organe z u s a m m e n g e n o m m e n k n n e n kein einzel-
nes E l e m e n t , k e i n e n Stickstoff, Kohlenstoff oder ein Metalloxid erzeugen.
10 (38) Ist die Masse der d a r g e b o t n e n Stoffe zu gro, oder sind sie keiner M e -
tamorphose fhig, oder b e n sie eine c h e m i s c h e Wirkung irgend einer Art
auf das Organ aus, so unterliegt das Organ selbst einer M e t a m o r p h o s e . Alle
sogenannten Gifte gehren der leztren Klasse an. (39) W e n n wir m i t Be-
s t i m m t h e i t wissen, da es e i n e n Krper giebt, der H u m u s z.B., welcher f-
15 hig ist, eine Pflanze bis zur vollendeten Entwicklung mit N a h r u n g zu ver-
sehn, so fhrt u n s eine K e n n t n i seines Verhaltens u n d seiner
Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g auf die B e d i n g u n g e n des Lebens einer Pflanze. Es m u
sich alsdann m i t d e m H u m u s grade so verhalten, wie m i t e i n e m einzigen
N a h r u n g s m i t t e l , was die N a t u r fr d e n a n i m a l i s c h e n Organismus produ-
20 cirt, n m l i c h mit der Milch. W i r finden in der Milch einen an Stickstoff rei-
c h e n Krper, den Kse, eine Substanz, welche reich an Wasserstoff ist, die
Butter, e i n e n dritten, welcher eine grosse M e n g e Sauerstoff u n d Wasserstoff
in d e m Verhltni wie im Wasser enthlt, d e n Milchzucker; in der Butter
befindet sich eine der a r o m a t i s c h e n Substanzen, die Buttersure; sie enthlt
25 in Auflsung milchsaures Natron, phosphorsauren Kalk, u n d Kochsalz. (I.e.)
Ursprung und Verhalten des Humus.
Alle Pflanzen u n d Pflanzentheile erleiden m i t d e m Aufhren des L e b e n s

zwei Zersetzungsprozesse, von d e n e n m a n d e n e i n e n Ghrung oder Fulni,
d e n a n d e r n Verwesung n e n n t . Die Verwesung b e z e i c h n e t e i n e n l a n g s a m e n
30 Verbrennungsproze, d e n Vorgang also, wo die verbrennlichen Bestand-
theile des verwesenden Krpers sich m i t d e m Sauerstoff der Luft verbin-
den. Die Verwesung des H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l s aller Vegetabilien, der Holzfa-
ser, zeigt eine E r s c h e i n u n g e i g e n t h m l i c h e r Art. Mit Sauerstoff in
Berhrung, m i t Luft u m g e b e n , verwandelt sie n m l i c h den Sauerstoff in
35 ein i h m gleiches V o l u m e n kohlensaures G a s ; m i t d e m Verschwinden des
Sauerstoffs hrt die Verwesung auf. W i r d dieses kohlensaure G a s hinweg-
g e n o m m e n u n d durch Sauerstoff ersezt, so fngt die Verwesung von
N e u e m an, d. h. Sauerstoff wird wieder in K o h l e n s u r e verwandelt. D i e
179
Holzfaser besteht n u n aus Kohlenstoff u n d d e n E l e m e n t e n des Wassers;

von allem a n d e r n abgesehn, geht ihre V e r b r e n n u n g vor sich, wie w e n n m a n
reine Kohle bei sehr h o h e n T e m p e r a t u r e n verbrennt, grade so als ob kein
Wasserstoff u n d Sauerstoff m i t ihr in der Holzfaser v e r b u n d e n wre. D i e
Vollendung dieses Ver||35|brennungsprozesses erfordert eine sehr lange 5
Zeit; eine unerlliche B e d i n g u n g zu seiner U n t e r h a l t u n g ist die Gegen-
wart von Wasser; Alkalien befrdern ihn, S u r e n verhindern ihn, alle a n t i -
septischen Materien, schweflige Sure, Quecksilbersalze u n d brenzliche Oele
h e b e n i h n gnzlich auf. Die in Verwesung begriffne Holzfaser ist der Krper,
d e n wir Humus n e n n e n . (43, 44) In d e m s e l b e n G r a d e als die Verwesung 10
der Holzfaser vorangeschritten ist, v e r m i n d e r t sich ihre Fhigkeit zu verwe-
sen, d . h . das u m g e b e n d e Sauerstoffgas in K o h l e n s u r e zu verwandeln; zu-
lezt bleibt eine gewisse M e n g e einer b r a u n e n oder kohlenartigen S u b s t a n z
zurck, der sie gnzlich fehlt, m a n n e n n t sie Moder; sie ist das Product der
vollendeten Verwesung der Holzfaser. D e r M o d e r m a c h t d e n H a u p t b e - 15
standtheil aller Braunkohlenlager u n d des Torfes aus. In e i n e m Boden,
welcher der Luft zugnglich ist, verhlt sich der H u m u s genau, wie an der
Luft selbst; er ist eine langsame usserst a n d a u e r n d e Quelle von K o h l e n -
sure. U m jedes kleinste T h e i l c h e n des verwesenden H u m u s entsteht, auf
K o s t e n des Sauerstoffs der Luft, eine A t m o s p h r e von K o h l e n s u r e . In der 20
Cultur wird, d u r c h Bearbeitung u n d Auflockerung der Erde, der Luft ein
mglichst u n g e h i n d e r t e r u n d freier Zutritt verschafft. Ein so vorbereiteter
u n d feuchter Boden enthlt also eine A t m o s p h r e von Kohlensure, u n d
d a m i t die erste u n d wichtigste N a h r u n g fr die j u n g e n Pflanzen welche
sich darauf entwickeln soll. Im F r h l i n g e , wo die Organe fehlen, welche 25
die N a t u r b e s t i m m t hat, die N a h r u n g aus der A t m o s p h r e a u f z u n e h m e n ,
wo diese Organe erst gebildet werden, sind es die B e s t a n d t e i l e des Saa-
m e n s , welche zuerst u n d ausschlielich zur Bildung der W u r z e l n verwen-
det werden; m i t jeder Wurzelfaser erhlt die Pflanze e i n e n M u n d , eine
Lunge, e i n e n Magen. V o n d e m A u g e n b l i c k e an, wo sich die ersten W u r z e l - 30
fasern gebildet h a b e n , sind sie es, welche die F u n k t i o n e n der Bltter ber-
n e h m e n , sie fhren aus der A t m o s p h r e , in der sie sich befinden, aus d e m
B o d e n n m l i c h , N a h r u n g zu; von d e m H u m u s s t a m m t die K o h l e n s u r e
her. D u r c h Auflockerung des Bodens u m die j u n g e Pflanze e r n e u e r n u n d
vervielfltigen wir d e n Zutritt der Luft, wir begnstigen d a m i t die Bildung 35
der K o h l e n s u r e ; die Q u a n t i t t der erzeugten N a h r u n g wrde sich vermin-
dern m i t jeder Schwierigkeit, die sich im B o d e n dieser Lufterneuerung ent-
gegenstellt; bei e i n e m gewissen G r a d e der Entwicklung der Pflanze ist sie
es selbst, die diesen Luftwechsel bewirkt. Die A t m o s p h r e von K o h l e n -
sure, welche d e n unverwesten Theil des H u m u s vor weiterer Verwesung 40
schzt, wird von den feinen W u r z e l h a a r e n , d e n W u r z e l n selbst aufgesaugt
180
u n d h i n w e g g e n o m m e n , sie wird ersezt d u r c h atmosphrische Luft, die

ihren Platz e i n n i m m t ; die Verwesung schreitet fort, es wird eine n e u e
Q u a n t i t t K o h l e n s u r e gebildet. In dieser Zeit empfngt die Pflanze von
den W u r z e l n u n d usseren O r g a n e n gleichzeitig N a h r u n g , sie schreitet
5 rasch ihrer V o l l e n d u n g entgegen. Ist die Pflanze vllig entwickelt, sind ihre
Organe der E r n h r u n g vllig ausgebildet, so bedarf sie der K o h l e n s u r e des
Bodens n i c h t mehr. M a n g e l an Feuchtigkeit, vllige T r o c k e n h e i t des Bo-
dens h e m m e n die V o l l e n d u n g ihrer Entwicklung nicht m e h r , w e n n sie v o m
T h a u u n d der Luft soviel Feuchtigkeit empfngt, als sie zur V e r m i t t l u n g
10 der Assimilation bedarf; im heissen S o m m e r schpft sie d e n Kohlenstoff
ausschlielich aus der Luft. W i r wissen bei d e n Pflanzen nicht, welche
H h e u n d Strke i h n e n die N a t u r angewiesen hat, wir k e n n e n n u r das ge-
whnliche M a a ihrer Grsse. ... die kleine Teltower R b e wird in e i n e m
Boden, wo ihr frei steht, soviel N a h r u n g a u f z u n e h m e n , als sie k a n n , zu
15 e i n e m m e h r e r e Pfunde schweren Dickwanst. ( 4 4 - 4 6 ) Die Masse einer
Pflanze steht im Verhltni zu der Oberflche der Organe, welche bestimmt sind,
Nahrung zuzufgen. Mit j e d e r Wurzelfaser, j e d e m Blatt gewinnt die Pflanze
e i n e n M u n d u n d M a g e n m e h r . D e r Thtigkeit der Wurzeln, N a h r u n g auf-
z u n e h m e n , wird n u r d u r c h M a n g e l eine G r e n z e gesezt, ist sie im Ueberflu
20 vorhanden, u n d wird sie zur A u s b i l d u n g der v o r h a n d n e n Organe n i c h t vl-
lig verzehrt, so kehrt dieser U e b e r s c h u nicht in den B o d e n zurck, son-
dern er wird in der Pflanze zur Hervorbringung von n e u e n Organen ver-
wendet. N e b e n der v o r h a n d n e n Zelle entsteht eine n e u e , n e b e n d e m
e n t s t a n d n e n Zweig u n d Blatt entwickelt sich ein n e u e r Zweig, ein n e u e s
25 Blatt; o h n e U e b e r s c h u an N a h r u n g wren diese n i c h t zur Entwicklung ge-
k o m m e n . D e r i n d e m S a a m e n entwickelte Z u c k e r u n d Schleim verschwin-
det mit der A u s b i l d u n g der Wurzelfasern, der in d e m Holzkrper, in d e n
W u r z e l n e n t s t e h e n d e Z u c k e r u n d Schleim verschwindet m i t der Entwick-
lung der Knospen, g r n e n Triebe u n d Bltter. M i t der Ausbildung, m i t der
30 A n z a h l der Organe, der Zweige u n d Bltter, d e n e n die A t m o s p h r e N a h -
rung liefert, wchst in d e m n m l i c h e n Verhltnisse ihre Fhigkeit, N a h -
rung a u f z u n e h m e n , u n d a n Masse z u z u n e h m e n , d e n n diese F h i g k e i t
n i m m t im Verhltni wie ihre Oberflche zu. Die ausgebildeten Bltter,
Triebe u n d Zweige befrfen zu ihrer eigenen Erhaltung der N a h r u n g n i c h t
35 mehr, sie n e h m e n an U m f a n g n i c h t m e h r zu; um als Organe fortzubestehn,
h a b e n sie ausschlielich n u r die M i t t e l nthig, die F u n k t i o n zu u n t e r h a l -
ten, zu der die N a t u r sie b e s t i m m t hat, sie sind nicht ihrer selbst wegen
vorhanden. (46, 7) ||36| W i r wissen, da diese F u n k t i o n in ihrer F h i g k e i t
besteht, die K o h l e n s u r e der Luft e i n z u s a u g e n u n d u n t e r d e m Einflu des
40 Lichts, bei Gegenwart von Feuchtigkeit, ihren Kohlenstoff sich anzueig-
n e n . (47) Diese F u n k t i o n ist unausgesezt, von der ersten Entwicklung an,
181
in Thtigkeit, sie hrt nicht auf m i t ihrer vlligen A u s b i l d u n g . A b e r die

n e u e n , aus dieser unausgesezt f o r t d a u e r n d e n Assimilation h e r v o r g e h e n d e n
Producte, sie werden n i c h t m e h r fr ihre eigne Entwicklung verbraucht, sie
d i e n e n jezt zur weitren A u s b i l d u n g des Holzkrpers u n d aller ihr h n l i c h
z u s a m m e n g e s e z t e n festen Stoffe, es sind die Bltter, welche jezt die Bil- 5
d u n g des Zuckers, des A m y l o n s , der S u r e n vermitteln. Solange sie fehl-
ten, h a t t e n die W u r z e l n diese Verrichtung in B e z i e h u n g auf diejenigen
M a t e r i e n b e r n o m m e n , welche der H a l m , die K n o s p e , das Blatt u n d die
Zweige zu ihrer A u s b i l d u n g bedurften. In dieser Periode des L e b e n s n e h -
m e n die Organe der Assimilation aus der A t m o s p h r e m e h r N a h r u n g s - 10
Stoffe auf, als sie selbst verzehren, u n d m i t der fortschreitenden Entwick-
lung des Holzkrpers, wo der Zuflu an N a h r u n g i m m e r der n m l i c h e
bleibt, ndert sich die R i c h t u n g in der sie verwendet wird, es beginnt die
Entwicklung der Blthen, u n d m i t der A u s b i l d u n g der F r u c h t ist b e i den
m e i s t e n Pflanzen der F u n k t i o n der Bltter eine G r e n z e gesezt, d e n n die 15
P r o d u c t e ihrer Thtigkeit finden keine V e r w e n d u n g m e h r . Sie unterliegen
der Einwirkung des Sauerstoffs, wechseln in Folge derselben gewhnlich
ihre Farbe u n d fallen ab. Zwischen der Periode der Blthe u n d Fruchtbil-
d u n g entstehn in allen Pflanzen in Folge einer M e t a m o r p h o s e der vorhand-
n e n Stoffe eine R e i h e von n e u e n V e r b i n d u n g e n , welche vorher fehlten, von 20
Materien, welche Bestandtheile der sich b i l d e n d e n Blthe, F r u c h t oder des
S a a m e n s a u s m a c h e n . E i n e organisch-chemische M e t a m o r p h o s e ist n u n
der Akt der U m s e t z u n g der E l e m e n t e einer oder m e h r e r e r V e r b i n d u n g e n
in zwei oder m e h r e r e n e u e , welche diese E l e m e n t e in einer n e u e n W e i s e
gruppirt, oder in a n d e r n Verhltnissen e n t h a l t e n . Von zwei V e r b i n d u n g e n , 25
die in Folge dieser U m s e t z u n g e n gebildet werden, bleibt die eine als Be-
s t a n d t e i l in der Blthe oder F r u c h t zurck, die a n d r e wird in der F o r m
von E x c r e m e n t e n von der W u r z e l abgeschieden. Die E r n h r u n g des thieri-
schen sowie des vegetabilischen O r g a n i s m u s ist o h n e A u s s c h e i d u n g von
E x c r e m e n t e n nicht denkbar. D e r O r g a n i s m u s erzeugt nichts, sondern ver- 30
wandelt nur, seine Erhaltung u n d R e p r o d u c t i o n geschieht in Folge der M e -
tamorphose der Nahrungsstoffe, die seine E l e m e n t e e n t h a l t e n . (48, ' 9)
Blausure u n d Wasser enthalten die E l e m e n t e von Kohlensure, A m m o -
niak, Harnstoff, Cyanursure, Cyamelid, Oxalsure, A m e i s e n s u r e , M e -
lam, A m m e l i d , M e l a m i n , A m m e i i n , A z u l m i n , Mellon, Mellonwasserstoff, 35
A l l a n t o i n etc. Diese in ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g u n e n d l i c h v e r s c h i e d n e n
Stoffe k n n e n aus Blausure u n d Wasser in c h e m i s c h e n M e t a m o r p h o s e n
der mannigfaltigsten Art wirklich gebildet werden. D e r ganze Proze der
E r n h r u n g der Organismen lt sich d u r c h die Betrachtung einer einzigen
dieser M e t a m o r p h o s e n zur A n s c h a u u n g bringen. Blausure u n d Wasser 40
. B. in Berhrung m i t Salzsure zerlegen sich augenblicklich in A m e i s e n -
182
sure u n d A m m o n i a k ; i n b e i d e n sind die E l e m e n t e der Blausure u n d des

Wassers, obwohl in einer a n d e r n F o r m , in andrer Weise geordnet, enthal-
ten. Es ist das Streben der Salzsure n a c h einer Ausgleichung, ( d u r c h e i n e
Base) wodurch diese M e t a m o r p h o s e bedingt worden ist. In Folge dieses
5 Strebens erleiden Blausure u n d Wasser gleichzeitig eine Z e r s e t z u n g ; der
Stickstoff der Blausure u n d der Wasserstoff in d e m Wasser treten zu einer
Basis, zu A m m o n i a k z u s a m m e n , w o m i t sich die Sure verbindet. I h r e m
Streben ist Befriedigung geworden, ihr Charakter verschwindet. A m m o n i a k
war n u r seinen E l e m e n t e n n a c h v o r h a n d e n , aber die Fhigkeit, A m m o n i a k
10 zu bilden, war da. (50) In Folge der Bildung von A m m o n i a k sind K o h l e n -
stoff u n d Wasserstoff, die a n d e r n E l e m e n t e der Blausure, m i t d e m Sauer-
stoff des zersezten Wassers, zur A m e i s e n s u r e z u s a m m e n g e t r e t e n ; die Ele-
m e n t e u n d die Fhigkeit sich zu verbinden, waren v o r h a n d e n . D i e
A m e i s e n s u r e ist also hier das E x c r e m e n t ; das A m m o n i a k reprsentirt d e n
15 durch das Organ assimilirten Stoff. D a s Organ n i m m t von d e n d a r g e b o t n e n
N a h r u n g s m i t t e l n , was es zu seiner eignen Erhaltung, was es zu seiner R e -
production bedarf. Die b r i g e n E l e m e n t e , welche n i c h t assimilirt werden,
treten z u n e u e n V e r b i n d u n g e n , z u E x c r e m e n t e n , z u s a m m e n . W h r e n d
ihres Wegs d u r c h d e n O r g a n i s m u s k o m m e n die E x c r e m e n t e des e i n e n Or-
20 gans in B e r h r u n g m i t e i n e m a n d e r n , d u r c h dessen Einwirkung sie eine
n e u e M e t a m o r p h o s e erfahren; die E x c r e m e n t e des e i n e n Organs e n t h a l t e n
die E l e m e n t e der N a h r u n g s m i t t e l fr ein zweites u n d folgendes; zulezt
werden die, keiner M e t a m o r p h o s e m e h r fhigen Stoffe d u r c h die d a z u b e -
s t i m m t e n Organe aus d e m O r g a n i s m u s entfernt. Jedes Organ ist fr seine
25 i h m e i g e n t h m l i c h e F u n k t i o n e n eingerichtet. E i n Cubiczoll Schwefelwas-
serstoff in die Lunge gebracht, wrde augenblicklichen T o d bewirken, in
d e m D a r m k a n a l wird e s u n t e r m a n c h e n U m s t n d e n o h n e N a c h t h e i l gebil-
det. (51, 2) D u r c h die Nieren werden die in Folge von M e t a m o r p h o s e n ent-
s t a n d n e n stickstoffhaltigen, d u r c h die Leber die an Kohlenstoff reichen
30 u n d d u r c h die Lunge alle Wasserstoff u n d sauerstoffreichen E x c r e m e n t e aus
d e m Krper entfernt. D e r Weingeist, die keiner Assimilation fhigen the-
rischen Oele verdunsten nicht durch die H a u t , sondern d u r c h die L u n g e .
Die Respiration ist eine langsame V e r b r e n n u n g , d. h. eine sich stets erneu-
ernde Verwesung. (52) D u r c h die Harnwege wird der berflssige Stickstoff
35 als ||37| flssiges E x c r e m e n t , d u r c h d e n D a r m k a n a l alle, keiner M e t a m o r -
phose m e h r fhigen festen Stoffe, u n d durch die Lunge alle gasfrmigen
aus d e m Krper entfernt. (53) A u s d e m in der G h r u n g gebildeten Fusell
der Kartoffeln erzeugen wir das flchtige Oel der Baldrianwurzel m i t allen
seinen Eigenschaften, aus e i n e m krystallinischen Stoff aus der W e i d e n -
40 rinde b e k o m m e n wir das Oel der Spiraea ulmaria. (Piria) W i r sind im
Stande, A m e i s e n s u r e , Oxalsure, Harnstoff, die krystallinischen Krper
183
in der allantoischen Flssigkeit der K u h , lauter Producte der Lebenskraft,

in u n s e r n Laboratorien zu erzeugen. (54) M e t a m o r p h o s e n v o r h a n d n e r Ver-
b i n d u n g e n gehn in d e m g a n z e n Lebensakte der Pflanzen vor sich, u n d in
Folge derselben gasfrmige Secretionen d u r c h die Bltter u n d Blthen, fe-
ste E x c r e m e n t e in d e n R i n d e n u n d flssige lsliche Stoffe d u r c h die W u r - 5
zeln. Diese Sekretionen finden Statt u n m i t t e l b a r vor d e m Beginn u n d wh-
r e n d der D a u e r der Blthe, sie v e r m i n d e r n sich n a c h der A u s b i l d u n g der
F r u c h t ; durch die W u r z e l n werden kohlenstoffreiche S u b s t a n z e n abge-
schieden u n d von d e m B o d e n a u f g e n o m m e n . In diesen Stoffen, welche u n -
fhig sind, eine Pflanze zu ernhren, empfngt der B o d e n d e n grten 10
Theil des Kohlenstoffes wieder, d e n er d e n Pflanzen im Anfang ihrer Ent-
wicklung in der F o r m von K o h l e n s u r e gegeben h a t t e . D i e von d e m B o d e n
a u f g e n o m m e n e n lslichen E x c r e m e n t e g e h n d u r c h d e n Einflu der Luft
u n d Feuchtigkeit einer fortschreitenden V e r n d e r u n g entgegen; i n d e m sie
der F u l n i u n d Verwesung unterliegen, erzeugt sich aus i h n e n wieder der 15
Nahrungsstoff einer n e u e n G e n e r a t i o n , sie g e h n in Humus ber. Die im
Herbst fallenden Bltter im W a l d e , die alten W u r z e l n der Graspflanzen auf
d e n Wiesen verwandeln sich d u r c h diese Einflsse ebenfalls in H u m u s . In
dieser F o r m empfngt der B o d e n i m G a n z e n a n Kohlenstoff m e h r wieder
als der verwesende H u m u s als K o h l e n s u r e abgab. (55, 6) Im Allgemeinen 20
erschpft keine Pflanze in ihrem Zustande der normalen Entwicklung den Boden
in Beziehung auf seinen Gehalt an Kohlenstoff; sie macht ihn im Gegentheil rei-
cher daran. (56) D e r H u m u s ernhrt die Pflanze nicht, weil er im lslichen
Z u s t a n d e von derselben a u f g e n o m m e n u n d als solcher assimilirt wird, son-
dern weil er eine langsame u n d a n d a u e r n d e Quelle von K o h l e n s u r e dar- 25
stellt, welche als das H a u p t n a h r u n g s m i t t e l die W u r z e l n der j u n g e n Pflan-
zen zu einer Zeit m i t N a h r u n g versieht, wo die ussern Organe der
a t m o s p h r i s c h e n E r n h r u n g fehlen. Die Oberflche der Erde war vor der
gegenwrtigen Periode m i t Pflanzen bedeckt, deren T r m m e r u n d U e b e r r e -
ste die Braun- u n d Steinkohlenlager bilden. Alle diese riesenhaften Pal- 30
m e n , Grser, F a r r e n k r u t e r etc gehren zu Pflanzenarten, d e n e n die N a t u r
d u r c h eine u n g e h e u r e A u s d e h n u n g der Bltter die Fhigkeit gegeben hat,
den B o d e n fr ihre N a h r u n g ganz zu e n t b e h r e n . (I.e.) Es k a n n hier n i c h t
u n e r w h n t gelassen werden, da die gewhnliche Holzkohle ... d e n H u m u s
aufs Vollstndigste vertreten k a n n . M a n k a n n in ausgeglhtem (etwas aus- 35
gewaschnen) Kohlenpulver Pflanzen z u r ppigsten Entwicklung, z u m Bl-
h e n u n d zur F r u c h t b i l d u n g bringen, wenn sie m i t Regenwasser feucht er-
h a l t e n werden. (58)
184
Die Assimilation des Wasserstoffs.

Die Luft enthlt d e n Kohlenstoff der Gewchse in der F o r m von K o h l e n -
sure, also in der F o r m einer Sauerstoffverbindung. Der feste Theil der
Pflanzen, die Holzfaser, e n t h l t Kohlenstoff u n d die Bestandtheile des
5 Wassers, oder die E l e m e n t e der K o h l e n s u r e + einer gewissen M e n g e
Wasserstoff. W i r k n n e n u n s das Holz e n t s t a n d e n d e n k e n aus d e m K o h -
lenstoff der K o h l e n s u r e , der sich u n t e r Mitwirkung des S o n n e n l i c h t s m i t
den E l e m e n t e n des v o r h a n d n e n Wassers verbindet. (59) Oder: die Pflanze
zerlegt u n t e r d e n s e l b e n B e d i n g u n g e n bei Gegenwart von K o h l e n s u r e das
10 Wasser, sein Wasserstoff wird m i t der K o h l e n s u r e assimilirt, w h r e n d sein
Sauerstoff abgeschieden wird; zu 100 Theilen K o h l e n s u r e m s s e n d e m -
n a c h 2,77 Theile Wasserstoff treten, um die Holzfaser zu bilden, u n d es
werden 72,35 Gewichtstheile, eine d e m G e h a l t der K o h l e n s u r e g e n a u glei-
che Q u a n t i t t Sauerstoff, die z u m Theil m i t d i e s e m Wasserstoff v e r b u n d e n
15 waren, in der F o r m von G a s abgeschieden. E i n M o r g e n Wiese, W a l d oder
b e r h a u p t cultivirtes L a n d ersezt also d e n Sauerstoff der A t m o s p h r e wie-
der, welcher d u r c h 10 Ctr Kohlenstoff bei seiner V e r b r e n n u n g in der Luft,
oder durch d e n Respirationsproze der Thiere verzehrt wird. Die Holzfaser
enthlt Kohle u n d die Bestandtheile des Wassers; es ist aber in d e m H o l z
20 m e h r Wasserstoff e n t h a l t e n als d i e s e m Verhltni entspricht; dieser W a s -
serstoffbefindet sich darin in der F o r m v o n Blattgrn, Oel, Harz u n d ber-
h a u p t in der F o r m sehr wasserstoffreicher M a t e r i e n ; fr jedes A e q u i v a l e n t
Wasserstoff, was in einer dieser F o r m e n von der Pflanze assimilirt wird,
m u 1 Aequivalent Sauerstoff an die A t m o s p h r e zurckgegeben werden.
25 (60) Die m e i s t e n Pflanzengebilde e n t h a l t e n Wasserstoff in der F o r m von
Wasser, welches sich ||38| als solches abscheiden, ersetzen lt d u r c h a n d r e
Krper; derjenige Wasserstoff aber, welcher zu ihrer Constitution wesent-
lich ist, k a n n u n m g l i c h in der F o r m von Wasser darin e n t h a l t e n sein.
Aller z u m Bestehn einer organischen V e r b i n d u n g u n e n t b e h r l i c h e Wasser-
30 Stoff wird d u r c h Zersetzung von Wasser der Pflanze geliefert. Der Assimila-
tionsproze der Pflanze in seiner einfachsten Form stellt sich mithin dar als eine
Aufnahme von Wasserstoff aus dem Wasser und von Kohlenstoff aus der Koh-
lensure, in Folge welcher aller Sauerstoff des Wassers und aller Sauerstoff der
Kohlensure, wie bei den flchtigen sauerstofffreien Oelen, dem Kautschuck etc,
35 oder nur ein Theil dieses Sauerstoffs abgeschieden wird. ( 6 1 , 2) So lt sich die
Bildung von allen stickstofffreien B e s t a n d t h e i l e n aus K o h l e n s u r e u n d
Wasserstoff m i t A u s s c h e i d u n g von Sauerstoff u n d die U m w a n d l u n g des
e i n e n i n d e n a n d e r n d u r c h A u s s c h e i d u n g von K o h l e n s u r e u n t e r Assimila-
tion von Sauerstoff erklren. (63) D i e l e b e n d e Pflanze vertritt in d i e s e m
185
Proze das Zink; es e n t s t e h n in i h r e m Assimilationsprozesse u n t e r Aus-

scheidung von Sauerstoff, V e r b i n d u n g e n , welche die E l e m e n t e der K o h l e n -
sure u n d den Wasserstoff des Wassers e n t h a l t e n . (63, 4)
Der Ursprung und die Assimilation des Stickstoffs.
In welcher F o r m u n d wie liefert die N a t u r d e m vegetabilischen Eiwei, 5

d e m Kleber, d e n F r c h t e n u n d S a a m e n diesen fr ihre Existenz d u r c h a u s
u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n Bestandtheil? Diese Frage leicht zu beantworten, w e n n
m a n bedenkt, d a Pflanzen wachsen k n n e n i n r e i n e m Kohlenpulver b e i m
Begieen m i t Regenwasser. Das Regenwasser k a n n d e n Stickstoff n u r ent-
h a l t e n in der F o r m von aufgelster atmosphrischer Luft, oder in der F o r m 10
von A m m o n i a k . Stickstoff in der Luft k a n n d u r c h die gewaltsamsten che-
m i s c h e n Processe nicht befhigt werden, eine V e r b i n d u n g m i t irgend
e i n e m E l e m e n t ausser d e m Sauerstoff e i n z u g e h n . K e i n G r u n d v o r h a n d e n ,
da der Stickstoff der A t m o s p h r e A n t h e i l n i m m t an d e m Assimilations-
proze der Pflanzen u n d Thiere. W o h l aber das Ammoniak. D a s A m m o - 15
niak steht in der Mannigfaltigkeit der M e t a m o r p h o s e n , das es bei Berh-
rung m i t a n d r e n Krpern e i n z u g e h n vermag, d e m Wasser, was sie in e i n e m
s o e m i n e n t e n G r a d e darbietet, i n keiner B e z i e h u n g n a c h . I m r e i n e n Z u -
stande im Wasser im h o h e n G r a d lslich, fhig, m i t allen S u r e n lsliche
V e r b i n d u n g e n zu bilden, fhig, in B e r h r u n g m i t a n d r e n Krpern, seine 20
N a t u r als Alkali gnzlich aufzugeben, u n d die verschiedenartigsten direkt
e i n a n d e r g e g e n b e r s t e h e n d e n F o r m e n a n z u n e h m e n , diese Eigenschaften
finden wir in k e i n e m a n d e r n stickstoffhaltigen Krper wieder. ( 6 4 - 6 6 ) Am-
moniak ist das leite Product der Fulni animalischer Krper, Salpetersure ist
das Product der Verwesung des Ammoniaks. (67) Die Leiber aller Thiere und 25
Menschen geben nach dem Tode durch ihre Fulni allen Stickstoff, den sie ent-
halten, in der Form von Ammoniak an die Atmosphre zurck. ... Der Stickstoff
der Thiere und Menschen ist in der Atmosphre als Ammoniak enthalten, in der
Form eines Gases, was sich m i t K o h l e n s u r e zu e i n e m flchtigen Salze ver-
bindet, ein Gas, was sich im Wasser m i t ausserordentlicher Leichtigkeit 30
lst, dessen flchtige V e r b i n d u n g e n o h n e A u s n a h m e n diese n m l i c h e Ls-
lichkeit besitzen. Als A m m o n i a k k a n n sich der Stickstoff in der At-
m o s p h r e nicht b e h a u p t e n , d e n n m i t jeder C o n d e n s a t i o n des W a s s e r d a m p -
fes zu tropfbarem Wasser m u sich alles A m m o n i a k verdichten, jeder
Regengu mu die Atmosphre in gewissen Strecken von allem Ammoniak aufs 35
Vollkommenste befreien. Das Regenwasser mu zu allen Zeiten Ammoniak ent-
halten, im Sommer, wo die Regentage weit von e i n a n d e r entfernt stehn,
m e h r als im Winter oder F r h l i n g ; der R e g e n des ersten Regentages m u
186
davon m e h r e n t h a l t e n als der des zweiten; nach anhaltender Trockenheit ms-

sen Gewitterregen die grte Quantitt Ammoniak der Erde wieder zufhren ...
Diese Q u a n t i t t A m m o n i a k ist fr e i n e n Cubikfu Luft verschwindend
klein, dessen u n g e a c h t e t ist sie, die S u m m e des Stickstoffgehaltes von T a u -
5 s e n d e n + Milliarden T h i e r e n u n d M e n s c h e n , m e h r als h i n r e i c h e n d , um
die einzelnen Milliarden der l e b e n d e n Geschpfe m i t Stickstoff zu ver-
sehn. ( 6 7 - 6 9 ) Bemerkenswerth, d a das im S c h n e e u n d Regenwasser vor-
h a n d n e A m m o n i a k , w e n n es d u r c h Kalk entwickelt wird, von e i n e m auffal-
l e n d e n G e r u c h n a c h Schwei u n d fauligen Stoffen begleitet ist, was b e r
10 seinen Ursprung k e i n e n Zweifel lt. (70 [, 71]) Das A m m o n i a k im R e g e n -
wasser e n t h a l t e n als kohlensaures A m m o n i a k . (71) Die Gegenwart des A m -
m o n i a k s in der A t m o s p h r e erneuert sich wieder in j e d e m Z e i t m o m e n t
durch die u n u n t e r b r o c h e n fortschreitende F u l n i u n d Verwesung thieri-
scher u n d vegetabilischer Stoffe in der Luft; ein Theil des mit dem Regenwas-
15 ser niedergefallnen Ammoniaks verdampft wieder mit dem Wasser; ein andrer
Theil wird von den Wurzeln der Pflanzen aufgenommen, und indem es neue Ver-
bindungen eingeht, entstehn daraus, je nach den verschiednen Organen der Assi-
milation, Eiweistoff, Kleber, Chinin, Morphium, Cyan und die grosse Zahl der
andren Stickstoffverbindungen. (71 [, 72]) D e n entscheidensten Beweis, da es
20 das A m m o n i a k ist, was den Vegetabilien den Stickstoff liefert, giebt die
animalische D n g u n g in der Cultur der Futtergewchse u n d Cerealien. D e r
G e h a l t an Kleber, ist in d e m W e i z e n , d e m Roggen, der Gerste usserst ver-
schieden, ihre Krner, a u c h in d e m ausgebildetsten Z u s t a n d , sind u n g l e i c h
reich an diesem stickstoffhaltigen Bestandtheil. Eine Vermehrung des anima-
25 lischen Dngers hat nicht allein eine Vermehrung der Anzahl Saamen zur Folge,
sie bt auch einen nicht minder bemerkenswerthen Einflu auf die Vergrrung
des Glutengehaltes. Der animalische Dnger wirkt nun nur durch Ammoniakbil-
dung. W h r e n d 100 W e i z e n , m i t d e m am A m m o n i a k rmsten K u h m i s t ge-
dngt, n u r 11,95 % Kleber u n d 62,34 A m y l o n enthalten, gab der m i t M e n -
30 s c h e n h a r n gedngte B o d e n das M a x i m u m an Kleber, n m l i c h 35,1 % in
100 Theilen W e i z e n , also n a h e die 3fache M e n g e . In gefaultem M e n s c h e n -
h a r n ist aber der Stickstoff als kohlensaures, phosphorsaures, m i l c h s a u r e s
A m m o n i a k u n d i n keiner a n d r e n F o r m als der F o r m eines A m m o n i a k s a l -
zes enthalten. (74) In einem Boden, der einzig und allein nur aus Sand und
35 Thon besteht, gengt es, eine kleine Q u a n t i t t G u a n o b e i z u m i s c h e n , um
darauf die reichsten E r n t e n von M a i s zu erhalten. D e r B o d e n enthlt aus-
ser G u a n o nicht das Geringste (an der P e r u a n i s c h e n Kste) einer a n d e r n
organischen Materie, u n d dieser Dnger enthlt weiter nichts, wie harnsaures,
phosphorsaures, oxalsaures, kohlensaures Ammoniak und einige Erdsalze. (75)
40 W a s m a n in d e m Ge||39|treide Kleber n e n n t , heit in d e m Traubensafte ve-
getabilisches Eiwei, in d e n Pflanzensften Pflanzenleim; diese 3 Krper sind
187
in i h r e m Verhalten, in ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g identisch. Das A m m o n i a k

ist es, was d e m H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l der Pflanzen, d e m vegetabilischen Ei-
wei, d e n Stickstoff liefert, n u r das A m m o n i a k k a n n es sein, aus d e m sich
die b l a u e n u n d r o t h e n Farbstoffe in den B l u m e n bilden. (I.e.) D e r U r i n des
M e n s c h e n u n d der fleischfressenden T h i e r e enthlt die grte M e n g e 5
Stickstoff; theils in der F o r m von p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen, theils in der
F o r m von Harnstoff; der leztre verwandelt sich d u r c h F u l n i in doppelt
kohlensaures A m m o n i a k , d. h. er n i m m t die F o r m des Salzes an, was wir
im Regenwasser finden. Der Urin des Menschen ist das krftigste Dngungs-
mittel fr alle an Stickstoff reichen Vegetabilien, der Urin des Hornviehs, der 10
Schaafe, der Pferde minder reich an Stickstoff, aber immer noch unendlich rei-
cher als die Excremente dieser Thiere. ... der Stickstoffgehalt der festen Excre-
mente der Menschen und Thiere verschwindet gegen den Stickstoff in den flssi-
gen. (76) Das Gewicht des Futters u n d der Speise, welche das T h i e r zu
seiner E r n h r u n g zu sich n i m m t , vermindert sich in d e m n m l i c h e n Ver- 15
hltni, als dieses Futter, die Speise, reich, sie n i m m t in d e m s e l b e n Ver-
h l t n i zu, als das F u t t e r a r m ist an stickstoffhaltigen Bestandtheilen. M a n
k a n n d u r c h F t t e r u n g m i t Kartoffeln allein sein Pferd am L e b e n erhalten,
aber dieses L e b e n ist ein langsames Verhungern, es wchst i h m weder
Masse n o c h Kraft zu, es unterliegt einer j e d e n Anstrengung. Es ist klar, 20
da der Stickstoff der Pflanzen u n d S a a m e n , welche T h i e r e n z u r N a h r u n g
d i e n e n , zur Assimilation verwendet wird; die E x c r e m e n t e dieser Thiere
m s s e n , wenn sie verdaut sind, ihres Stickstoffs b e r a u b t sein, sie k n n e n
n u r insofern Stickstoff n o c h enthalten, als i h n e n Secretionen der Galle
u n d Eingeweide beigemischt sind. Sie m s s e n u n t e r allen U m s t n d e n we- 25
niger Stickstoff enthalten, als die Speisen, als das Futter. Die Excremente
der Menschen unter allen die stickstoffreichsten, denn, (weil d a s E s s e n i h n e n
S p a m a c h t ) gemessen sie mehr Stickstoff als sie bedrfen und dieser Ueber-
schu geht in die Excremente ber. (77) M a c h e n wir also die Felder m i t t h i e -
rischen E x c r e m e n t e n fruchtbar, so geben wir i h n e n u n t e r allen U m s t n d e n 30
weniger stickstoffhaltige Materie zurck, als wir davon als Futter, K r a u t
oder S a a m e n denselben g e n o m m e n h a b e n , wir fgen d u r c h d e n D n g e r
d e m Nahrungsstoff, d e n die A t m o s p h r e liefert, eine gewisse Q u a n t i t t
desselben h i n z u u n d die eigentlich wissenschaftliche Aufgabe fr d e n Oe-
k o n o m e n beschrnkt sich h i e r m i t darauf, dasjenige stickstoffhaltige Nah- 35
rungsmittel der Pflanzen, welches die Excremente der Thiere und Menschen
durch ihre Fulni erzeugen, dieses Nahrungsmittel fr s e i n e Pflanzen zu ver-
wenden ... Jedes thierische E x c r e m e n t ist eine Quelle von A m m o n i a k u n d
Kohlensure, welche so lange dauert, als n o c h Stickstoff darin v o r h a n d e n
ist. ... Dieses A m m o n i a k wird von d e m B o d e n theils in Wasser gelst, 40
theils i n F o r m von G a s a u f g e n o m m e n u n d eingesaugt, u n d m i t i h m findet
188
die Pflanze eine grre M e n g e des ihr u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n Stickstoffs vor, als

die A t m o s p h r e ihr liefert. A b e r es ist weit weniger die M e n g e von A m m o -
niak, was thierische E x c r e m e n t e d e n Pflanzen zufhren, als die F o r m , in
welcher es geschieht, welche ihren so auffallenden Einflu auf die F r u c h t -
5 barkeit des B o d e n s bedingt. D i e Culturpflanzen empfangen von der At-
m o s p h r e die n m l i c h e Q u a n t i t t Stickstoff, wie die wildwachsenden, wie
die B u m e u n d Strucher; allein es ist n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d fr die Zwecke
der Feldwirthschaft; sie u n t e r s c h e i d e t sich d a d u r c h wesentlich v o n der
Forstwirthschaft, d a ihre Hauptaufgabe, ihr wichtigster Zweck in der Pro-
10 auction von assimilirbarem Stickstoff in irgend einer F o r m besteht, w h r e n d
der Zweck der Forstwissenschaft sich h a u p t s c h l i c h n u r auf die Production
von Kohlenstoff beschrnkt. Diesen 2 Zwecken alle Mittel der Cultur unterge-
ordnet. V o n d e m k o h l e n s a u r e n A m m o n i a k , was das Regenwasser d e m Bo-
den zufhrt, geht n u r ein Theil in die Pflanze ber, d e n n m i t d e m ver-
15 d a m p f e n d e n Wasser verflchtigt sich, j e d e r Zeit, eine gewisse M e n g e
davon. N u r was der B o d e n in grrer Tiefe empfngt, was m i t d e m T h a u
u n m i t t e l b a r d e n Blttern zugefhrt wird, was sie aus der Luft m i t der Koh-
lensure einsaugen, n u r die A m m o n i a k wird fr die Assimilation gewon-
n e n werden k n n e n . D i e flssigen thierischen E x c r e m e n t e , der U r i n der
20 M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere, m i t w e l c h e m die ersten d u r c h d r u n g e n sind, enthal-
ten d e n grten Theil des A m m o n i a k s in der F o r m von Salzen, in einer
F o r m , wo es seine Fhigkeit sich zu verflchtigen gnzlich verloren hat.
( 7 7 - 7 9 ) In d i e s e m Z u s t a n d dargeboten, geht a u c h nicht die kleinste
M e n g e davon der Pflanze verloren, es wird im Wasser gelst von d e n W u r -
25 zelfasern eingesaugt. D a h e r die W i r k u n g des Gypses auf die F r u c h t b a r k e i t
u n d Ueppigkeit einer W i e s e ... sie b e r u h t auf der Fixirung des A m m o n i a k s
der A t m o s p h r e , auf der G e w i n n u n g von derjenigen Quantitt, die auf
nicht gegypstem B o d e n m i t d e m Wasser wieder verdunstet wre. Das in
d e m Regenwasser gelste k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k zerlegt sich m i t d e m
30 Gyps auf die n m l i c h e W e i s e wie in d e n Salmiakfabriken, es entsteht lsli-
ches, nicht flchtiges schwefelsaures A m m o n i a k u n d kohlensaurer Kalk.
N a c h u n d n a c h verschwindet aller Gyps, aber seine W i r k u n g hlt, solange
n o c h eine Spur davon v o r h a n d e n ist. (80) 100 Pf. gebrannter Gyps fixiren
so viel A m m o n i a k in d e m B o d e n als 6250 Pfd reiner Pferdeharn d e m s e l b e n
35 zufhren k n n e n . ||40| N e h m e n wir n u n n a c h Boussingault an, da das
Gras y eines Gewichts Stickstoff enthlt, so steigert 1 Pf. Stickstoff, wel-
i M
ches wir m e h r zufhren, d e n Ertrag der Wiese um 100 Pfd F u t t e r u n d diese

100 Pfd Mehrertrag sind der Erfolg der W i r k u n g von 4 Pfd Gyps. Z u r Assi-
milation des gebildeten schwefelsauren A m m o n i a k s u n d zur Z e r s e t z u n g
40 des Gypses ist, seiner Schwerlslichkeit wegen (1 Theil bedarf 400 Theile
Wasser) Wasser die u n e n t b e h r l i c h s t e B e d i n g u n g ; auf trocknen Feldern und
189
Wiesen dehalb sein Einflu n i c h t b e m e r k b a r , w h r e n d auf d i e s e n thieri-

scher Dnger, d u r c h die Assimilation des gasfrmigen k o h l e n s a u r e n A m -
m o n i a k s , was sich d a r a u s in Folge seiner Verwesung entwickelt, seine Wir-
kung n i c h t versagt. (81, 2) D i e Z e r s e t z u n g des Gypses d u r c h das
k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k geht n i c h t auf e i n m a l , s o n d e r n sehr allmhlig vor 5
sich, woraus sich erklrt, w a r u m seine W i r k u n g m e h r e r e J a h r e anhlt. (82)
E b e n s o einfach erklrt sich die D n g u n g der F e l d e r m i t g e b r a n n t e m T h o n ,
die F r u c h t b a r k e i t der e i s e n o x i d i n i s c h e n B o d e n a r t e n . ... Eisenoxid u n d
Thonerde z e i c h n e n sich vor allen a n d r e n M e t a l l o x i d e n d u r c h die F h i g k e i t
aus, sich m i t A m m o n i a k zu festen V e r b i n d u n g e n vereinigen zu k n n e n . 10
D i e Niederschlge, die wir d u r c h A m m o n i a k i n T h o n e r d e - u n d Eisenoxid-
salzen hervorbringen, sind wahre Salze, worin das A m m o n i a k die Rolle
einer Base spielt. Diese a u s g e z e i c h n e t e Verwandtschaft zeigt sich n o c h in
der merkwrdigen Fhigkeit aller eisenoxid- oder t h o n e r d e r e i c h e n M i n e r a -
lien, A m m o n i a k aus der Luft a n z u z i e h n u n d z u r c k z u h a l t e n . (I.e.) Eisen- 15
oxidhaltiger B o d e n u n d g e b r a n n t e r T h o n , dessen porser Z u s t a n d das Ein-
s a u g e n von G a s n o c h m e h r begnstigt, sind also wahre A m m o n i a k s a u g e r ,
welche sich d u r c h ihre c h e m i s c h e A n z i e h u n g vor der Verflchtigung scht-
z e n ; sie verhalten sich grade so, wie w e n n eine Sure auf der Oberflche
des Bodens ausgebreitet wre. ... M i t j e d e m R e g e n g u tritt das eingesaugte 20
A m m o n i a k an das Wasser, u n d wird in Auflsung d e m B o d e n zugefhrt.
E b e n s o energische W i r k u n g das Kohlenpulver; bertrifft sogar im frischge-
g l h t e n Z u s t a n d alle b e k a n n t e n Krper in der Fhigkeit, A m m o n i a k g a s in
s e i n e n Poren zu verdichten, da 1 V o l u m e n d a v o n 90 V o l u m A m m o n i a k g a s
in seinen Poren a u f n i m m t , was sich d u r c h bloses Befeuchten d a r a u s wieder 25
entwickelt. In dieser Fhigkeit k o m m t der K o h l e das verwesende (Eichen-
holz) Holz sehr n a h , da es u n t e r der L u f t p u m p e , von allem Wasser befreit,
72 sein eignes V o l u m e n davon verschluckt. Also j e z t leicht zu erklren
die Eigenschaften des H u m u s (der verwesenden Holzfaser). N i c h t allein er
eine lange a n d a u e r n d e Quelle von K o h l e n s u r e , s o n d e r n versieht a u c h die 30
Pflanzen m i t d e m zu ihrer Entwicklung u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n Stickstoff ...
u n s r e Felder p r o d u c i r e n m e h r Stickstoff als wir i h n e n als N a h r u n g zufh-
ren. (83, 4) Wir finden in der A t m o s p h r e , in d e m Regenwasser, im Quell-
wasser, in allen B o d e n a r t e n diesen Stickstoff in der F o r m von A m m o n i a k ,
als P r o d u c t der Verwesung u n d F u l n i der g a n z e n , der gegenwrthigen 35
G e n e r a t i o n vorangegangnen Thier- u n d Pflanzenwelt ...es ist das Ammo-
niak der Atmosphre, welches den Pflanzen ihren Stickstoff liefert. Kohlensure,
Ammoniak und Wasser enthalten in ihren Elementen die Bedingungen zur Er-
zeugung aller Thier und Pflanzenstoffe whrend ihres Lebens. Kohlensure, Am-
moniak und Wasser sind die lezten Producte des chemischen Prozesses ihrer 40
Fulni und Verwesung. Alle die zahllosen, in i h r e n Eigenschaften so u n e n d -
190
lieh verschiednen, P r o d u c t e der Lebenskraft n e h m e n n a c h d e m T o d e die

ursprnglichen F o r m e n wieder an, a u s d e n e n sie gebildet worden sind. D e r
Tod, die vllige Auflsung einer u n t e r g e g a n g n e n G e n e r a t i o n , ist die
Quelle des L e b e n s , fr eine n e u e . (84) A m m o n i a c = N H 3
5 Die anorganischen Bestandtheile der Vegetabilien.
Z u r A u s b i l d u n g gewisser Organe zu b e s o n d e r n Verrichtungen, e i g e n t h m -

lich fr j e d e Pflanzenfamilie, g e h r e n M a t e r i e n , die der Pflanze d u r c h die
anorganische N a t u r dargeboten werden. W i r finden diese M a t e r i e n , wie-
wohl in v e r n d e r t e m Z u s t a n d , in der Asche der Pflanzen wieder. V o n die-
10 sen a n o r g a n i s c h e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n sind viele vernderlich je n a c h d e m Bo-
den, worauf die Pflanzen wachsen; allein eine gewisse A n z a h l davon ist fr
ihre Entwicklung u n e n t b e h r l i c h . Die W u r z e l einer Pflanze in der E r d e ver-
hlt sich zu allen gelsten Stoffen wie ein S c h w a m m , der das Flssige u n d
alles was drin ist o h n e U n t e r s c h i e d einsaugt. Diese Stoffe in g r r e m o d e r
15 geringrem M a a z u r c k b e h a l t e n o d e r wieder ausgeschieden, je n a c h d e m
sie zur A s s i m i l a t i o n verwendet werden, oder sich n i c h t dafr eignen. In
d e n S a a m e n aller G r a s a r t e n fehlt aber z.B. n i e p h o s p h o r s a u r e Bittererde in
V e r b i n d u n g m i t A m m o n i a k ; es ist in der u s s e r n hornartigen Hlle enthal-
t e n u n d geht d u r c h das M e h l in das Brot u n d ebenfalls in das Bier ber.
20 (85) Alle Pflanzen e n t h a l t e n organische S u r e n von der mannigfaltigsten
Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g u n d Eigenschaften; alle diese S u r e n sind an B a s e n ge-
b u n d e n , an Kali, N a t r o n , Kalk oder Bittererde ... Diese Basen sind es of-
fenbar, die d u r c h ihr V o r h a n d e n s e i n die E n t s t e h u n g dieser S u r e n vermit-
teln, m i t d e m Verschwinden der Sure b e i d e m Reifen der F r c h t e , d e n
25 W e i n t r a u b e n . B., n i m m t der Kaligehalt des Saftes ab. In d e n T h e i l e n der
Pflanzen, in d e n e n die A s s i m i l a t i o n am strksten ist, wie in d e m Holzkr-
per, finden sich diese Bestandtheile in der geringsten M e n g e , ihr G e h a l t ist
am grten in d e n Organen, welche die A s s i m i l a t i o n vermitteln; in d e n
Blttern findet sich m e h r Kali, m e h r A s c h e , als in d e n Zweigen, diese sind
30 reicher daran als der S t a m m . Vor der Blthe enthlt das Kartoffelkraut
m e h r Kali als n a c h derselben. (86) D e n n die organischen Suren, ist a u c h
irgend eine alkalische Basis ebenfalls eine B e d i n g u n g ihres L e b e n s , d e n n
alle diese S u r e n k o m m e n in d e n Pflanzen als n e u t r a l e oder saure Salze
vor. Es giebt keine Pflanze, die n i c h t n a c h d e m E i n s c h e r n eine |[41| koh-
35 lensurehaltige A s c h e hinterlt, k e i n e also, in welcher pflanzensaure
Salze fehlen. ... die Q u a n t i t t e n dieser Basen, w e n n das L e b e n der Pflan-
zen a n ihre Gegenwart g e b u n d e n ist, m u u n t e r allen U m s t n d e n e b e n s o
unvernderlich sein, als es, wie m a n wei, die Sttigungscapacitt der Su-
191
I
ren ist. K e i n G r u n d zu glauben, d a die Pflanze im Z u s t a n d e der freien u n -

g e h i n d e r t e n Entwicklung m e h r von der ihr e i g e n t h m l i c h e n Sure produ-
cirt, als sie grade zu i h r e m Bestehn bedarf; in d i e s e m Falle aber wird eine
Pflanze, auf welchem B o d e n sie a u c h wachsen m a g , stets eine nie wech-
selnde M e n g e alkalischer Basis e n t h a l t e n . ... Alle diese alkalischen Basen 5
k n n e n sich in ihrer Wirkungsweise vertreten ... eine dieser Basen k a n n
d a h e r in einer Pflanze v o r k o m m e n , w h r e n d sie in einer a n d e r n Pflanze
derselben Art fehlt ... die fehlende Basis m u ersezt u n d vertreten sein
d u r c h eine andre von gleichem Wirkungswerth, sie m u ersezt sich vorfin-
d e n durch ein Aequivalent von einer der a n d e r n Basen. Die Anzahl der Ae- 10
quivalente dieser Basen wren h i e r n a c h eine unvernderliche Grsse, u n d
folgt der Regel, da die Sauerstoffmenge aller alkalischen Basen z u s a m -
m e n g e n o m m e n u n t e r allen U m s t n d e n u n v e r n d e r l i c h ist, auf w e l c h e m
B o d e n die Pflanze a u c h wachsen, welchen B o d e n sie a u c h erhalten m a g .
Dieser Schlu b e z i e h t sich n u r auf die j e n i g e n alkalischen Basen, welche 15
als pflanzensaure Salze Bestandtheile der Pflanzen a u s m a c h e n ; wir finden
n u n grade diese in der A s c h e derselben als k o h l e n s a u r e Salze wieder, de-
ren Qualitt leicht b e s t i m m b a r ist. (87, 88) Es ist klar, w e n n die E r z e u g u n g
von b e s t i m m t e n u n v e r n d e r l i c h e n M e n g e n von pflanzensauren Salzen
d u r c h die E i g e n t h m l i c h k e i t ihrer (der P f l a n z e n ) Organe geboten, w e n n 20
sie zu gewissen Zwecken fr ihr Bestehn u n e n t b e h r l i c h sind, so wird die
Pflanze Kali u n d Kalk a u f n e h m e n m s s e n , u n d w e n n sie nicht so viel vor-
findet, als sie bedarf, so wird das F e h l e n d e d u r c h andre alkalische Basen
von gleichem Wirkungswerth ersezt werden; w e n n ihr keine von allen sich
darbietet, so wird sie nicht zur Entwicklung gelangen. (92) In allen China- 25
Sorten findet sich Chinasure, aber die vernderlichsten M e n g e n von Chi-
n i n , C i n c h o n i n u n d Kalk; m a n k a n n d e n G e h a l t a n d e n eigentlichen orga-
n i s c h e n Basen ziemlich g e n a u n a c h der M e n g e von fixen Basen
beurtheilen, die n a c h der E i n s c h e r u n g zurckbleiben. E i n e m M a x i m u m
der e r s t e m entspricht ein M i n i m u m der a n d e r n , grade so wie es in der T h a t 30
stattfinden m u , wenn sie sich gegenseitig n a c h ihren A e q u i v a l e n t e n ver-
treten. ... F i n d e n die W u r z e l n der Pflanze die eine Base in h i n r e i c h e n d e r
M e n g e vor, so wird sie um so weniger von der a n d e r n n e h m e n . (92, 3) D e r
Organismus der Pflanzen h a t die Fhigkeit alles d e m B o d e n wieder z u -
rckzugeben, was nicht zu s e i n e m Bestehn gehrt. (95) D i e vllige Ent- 35
wicklung einer Pflanze ist abhngig von der Gegenwart von Alkalien oder
alkalischen Erdarten. M i t ihrer gnzlichen Abwesenheit m u ihrer Ausbil-
d u n g eine b e s t i m m t e G r e n z e gesezt sein; b e i m M a n g e l an diesen Basen
wird ihre Ausbildung g e h e m m t sein. Vergleichen wir ... 2 H o l z a r t e n m i t
einander, welche ungleiche M e n g e alkalischer Basen enthalten, so ergiebt 40
sich von selbst, da die eine auf m a n c h e n B o d e n a r t e n krftig sich entwik-
192
~
Aus Justus Uebig: Die organische Chemie
kein k a n n , auf w e l c h e n die a n d r e n u r k m m e r l i c h vegetirt. 10,000 T h e i l e

E i c h e n h o l z geben 250 T h e i l e A s c h e , 10,000 Theile T a n n e n h o l z n u r 8 3 ,
10,000 Theile L i n d e n h o l z 500, W e i z e n s t r o h 440 u n d Kartoffelkraut
1500 Theile. Auf G r a n i t , auf k a h l e m S a n d b o d e n u n d H a i d e n wird die
5 T a n n e u n d F i c h t e n o c h h i n r e i c h e n d e M e n g e n alkalischer Basen finden,
auf welchen E i c h e n n i c h t f o r t k o m m e n , u n d W e i z e n wird auf e i n e m Boden,
wo L i n d e n g e d e i h n , diejenigen B a s e n in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e vorfinden,
die er zu seiner vlligen E n t w i c k l u n g bedarf. Alle Grasarten, die E q u i s e t a -
ceen z . B . e n t h a l t e n e i n e grosse M e n g e Kieselsure u n d Kali, abgelagert in
10 d e m ussern S a u m der Bltter u n d in d e m H a l m als saures k o h l e n s a u r e s
Kali; auf e i n e m Getreidefeld n d e r t sich der G e h a l t an d i e s e m Salze n i c h t
merklich, d e n n es wird i h m in der F o r m von D n g e r , als verwestes Stroh,
wieder zugefhrt. G a n z a n d e r s stellt sich dieses Verhltni auf einer
Wiese; nie findet sich a u f e i n e m k a l i a r m e n Sand oder r e i n e m K a l k b o d e n
15 ein ppiger Gras w u c h s ; d e n n es fehlt i h m ein fr die Pflanze d u r c h a u s u n -
entbehrlicher Bestandtheil, Basalte, G r a u w a c k e , Porphyr g e b e n u n t e r glei-
c h e m Verhltnisse d e n b e s t e n B o d e n z u W i e s e n ab, e b e n weil sie reich a n
Kali sind. D e r h i n w e g g e n o m m n e Kalk ersezt sich wieder bei d e m jhrli-
c h e n W s s e r n ; der B o d e n selbst ist verhltnimssig fr d e n Bedarf der
20 Pflanze unerschpflich an d i e s e m Krper. W e n n wir aber bei d e m G y p s e n
einer W i e s e d e n G r a s w u c h s steigern, s o n e h m e n wir m i t d e m H e u e i n e
grre M e n g e Kali hinweg, was u n t e r gleichen B e d i n g u n g e n n i c h t ersezt
wird. So n i m m t n a c h Verlauf v o n einigen J a h r e n der Graswuchs auf vielen
gegypsten W i e s e n ab, weil es an Kali fehlt. W e r d e n die W i e s e n dagegen
25 v o n Zeit zu Zeit m i t A s c h e , selbst m i t ausgelaugter Seifensiederasche ber-
fahren, so kehrt der p p i g e G r a s w u c h s zurck. M i t dieser A s c h e h a b e n wir
aber der W i e s e nichts weiter als das fehlende Kali zugefhrt. ( 9 5 - 9 7 ) E i n s
der merkwrdigsten Beispiele von der Unfhigkeit eines B o d e n s , W e i z e n ,
u n d b e r h a u p t G r a s a r t e n z u erzeugen, w e n n i n i h m e i n e der B e d i n g u n g e n
30 ihres W a c h s t h u m s fehlt, bietet das Verfahren eines Gutsbesitzers in der
N h e von G t t i n g e n . Er bepflanzte sein ganzes L a n d , z u m B e h u f der Pott-
ascherzeugung m i t W e r m u t h , dessen A s c h e b e k a n n t l i c h sehr r e i c h a n k o h -
l e n s a u r e m Kali ist. E i n e Folge ||42| davon war die gnzliche Unfruchtbar-
keit seiner Felder fr G e t r e i d e b a u ; sie waren auf J a h r z e h n d e h i n a u s vllig
35 ihres Kalis b e r a u b t . (98, 99) D i e Bltter u n d k l e i n e n Zweige der B u m e
enthalten die meiste A s c h e u n d das m e i s t e Alkali; was d u r c h sie b e i d e m
L a u b u n d S t r e u s a m m e l n d e n W l d e r n g e n o m m e n wird, ist b e i w e i t e m
mehr, als was das Holz enthlt, das j h r l i c h geschlagen wird. D i e E i c h e n -
r i n d e , das E i c h e n l a u b e n t h l t 6 - 9 , die T a n n e n u n d F i c h t e n n a d e l n b e r
40 8 %. Mit 2650 Pfund T a n n e n h o l z , die wir e i n e m Morgen L a n d j h r l i c h
n e h m e n , wird i m G a n z e n d e m B o d e n , b e i 0,83 % A s c h e n u r 7 - 8 Pfund a n
193
Alkalien entzogen, aber das Moos, was d e n B o d e n bedeckt, dessen A s c h e

reich an Alkali ist, hlt in u n u n t e r b r o c h e n fortdauernder Entwicklung das
Kali an der Oberflche des so leicht von d e m Wasser d u r c h d r i n g b a r e n
S a n d b o d e n s zurck, u n d bietet in seiner Verwesung d e n aufgespeicherten
Vorrath d e n W u r z e l n dar, die das Alkali a u f n e h m e n , o h n e es wieder zu- 5
rckzugeben. (99) D i e Grasarten, die d e m M e n s c h e n zur N a h r u n g d i e n e n ,
folgen i h m wie ein H a u s t h i e r ... d u r c h h n l i c h e U r s a c h e n gezwungen, wie
die Salzpflanzen d e m M e e r e s s t r a n d e u n d Salinen etc so wie die Mistkfer
auf die E x c r e m e n t e der Thiere angewiesen sind, so bedrfen die Salzpflan-
z e n des Kochsalzes etc. K e i n e von u n s e r n G e t r e i d e a r t e n k a n n ausgebildete 10
Saamen tragen, Saamen, welche Mehl geben, o h n e eine reichliche M e n g e von
phosphorsaurer Bittererde, o h n e Ammoniak zu ihrer A u s b i l d u n g vorzufinden.
Diese S a a m e n entwickeln sich n u r in e i n e m Boden, wo diese 3 E l e m e n t e
sich vereinigt vorfinden, u n d kein B o d e n ist reicher daran als Orte, wo
M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere familienartig z u s a m m e n w o h n e n ; sie folgen d e m 15
U r i n , d e n E x c r e m e n t e n derselben, weil sie o h n e deren Bestandtheile n i c h t
z u m S a a m e n t r a g e n k o m m e n . (99, 100) S a a m e n u n d Pflanzen werden
d u r c h W i n d e u n d Vgel b e r die ganze Oberflche der Erde verbreitet,
aber sie entwickeln sich n u r da, wo sich die B e d i n g u n g e n ihres L e b e n s vor-
finden. (100) In den grossen F a b r i k e n zu Liverpool, wo die n a t r l i c h e Bor- 20
s u r e zu Borax verarbeitet wird, gewinnt m a n daraus als N e b e n p r o d u c t
viele h u n d e r t Pfunde schwefelsaures A m m o n i a k . Dieses Ammoniak stammt
nicht von thierischen Organismen; es war vorhanden vor allen lebenden Genera-
tionen, es ist ein Theil, ein Bestandtheil des Erdkrpers. (102) Jeder a u c h der
schwchste Luftzug entfhrt m i t d e n Milliarden Centnern Seewasser, welche 25
jhrlich verdampfen, eine entsprechende Menge der darin gelsten Salze und
fhrt Kochsalz, Chlorkalium, Bittererde und die brigen Bestandtheile dem fe-
sten Lande zu. (103) Das in steter Verdampfung begriffne Meer verbreitet ber
die ganze Oberflche der Erde hin, in dem Regenwasser, alle zum Bestehn einer
Vegetation unentbehrlichen Salze, wir finden sie selbst da in ihrer Asche wieder, 30
wo der Boden keine Bestandtheile liefern konnte. (I.e.) Die W u r z e l n der Pflan-
zen sind die ewig thtigen S a m m l e r der Alkalien, der Bestandtheile des
Seewassers, die der Regen zufhrt, des Quellwassers, was d e n B o d e n
durchdringt; o h n e Alkalien u n d alkalischen Basen wrden die m e i s t e n
Pflanzen nicht bestehn, o h n e die Pflanzen w r d e n die Alkalien allmhlig 35
von der Oberflche der Erde verschwinden. (104, 5)
194
Die Cultur.
Die atmosphrische Luft u n d der B o d e n bietet d e n Blttern u n d W u r z e l n
einerlei N a h r u n g dar. D i e erstre e n t h l t e i n e verhltnimssig unerschpf-
liche M e n g e K o h l e n s u r e u n d A m m o n i a k , i n d e m B o d e n h a b e n wir i n
5 d e m H u m u s eine stets sich e r n e u e r n d e Quelle von Kohlensure, d e n W i n -
ter h i n d u r c h huft sich in d e m Regen- und Schneewasser, womit er durchdrun-
gen wird, eine fr die Entwicklung der Blthen und Bltter ausreichende Menge
Ammoniak. (106) Bei A b w e s e n h e i t aller Feuchtigkeit erhlt sich der H u -
m u s J a h r h u n d e r t e lang, m i t Wasser benezt, verwandelt er d e n u m g e b e n d e n
10 Sauerstoff in K o h l e n s u r e ; von d i e s e m Augenblick an verndert er sich
ebenfalls n i c h t m e h r , d e n n die W i r k u n g der Luft hrt auf, sobald sie ihres
Sauerstoffes b e r a u b t ist. N u r w e n n Pflanzen in d i e s e m B o d e n wachsen, de-
ren W u r z e l n die gebildete K o h l e n s u r e h i n w e g n e h m e n , schreitet die Ver-
wesung fort, aber d u r c h lebende Pflanzen empfngt der B o d e n wieder, was
15 er verloren hat, er wird n i c h t r m e r an H u m u s . (107) N u r der D n g e r n t z -
lich, der die Eigenschaft das Wasser zu frben, gnzlich verloren h a t . (109)
In e i n e m Boden, in e i n e m Wasser, welches k e i n e n Sauerstoff enthlt ster-
b e n alle Pflanzen; M a n g e l an Luft wirkt ganz hnlich wie ein U e b e r m a an
Kohlensure. A u f sumpfigem B o d e n schliet das Wasser, was n i c h t a u s -
20 wechselt, die Luft aus, eine E r n e u e r u n g des Wassers wirkt h n l i c h wie ein
H i n z u f h r e n von Luft, d e n n das Wasser enthlt Luft in Auflsung; geben
wir d e m Wasser in d e m Sumpfe Abzug, so gestatten wir der Luft freien Z u -
tritt, der S u m p f verwandelt sich in die fruchtbarste Wiese. Ueberreste von
Vegetabilien u n d Thieren, ... in e i n e m B o d e n ... in d e n die Luft k e i n e n
25 oder n u r geringen Zutritt hat, g e h n n i c h t in Verwesung ber, e b e n weil es
an Sauerstoff fehlt; sie g e h n in F u l n i ber, zu deren Einleitung Luft ge-
n u g sich vorfindet. ... D i e ftere Lufterneuerung, die gehrige Bearbeitung
des Bodens, n a m e n t l i c h der B e r h r u n g m i t alkalischen Metalloxiden, m i t
Braunkohlenasche, g e b r a n n t e m oder k o h l e n s a u r e m Kalk, n d e r t die vorge-
30 h e n d e F u l n i in e i n e n reinen Oxidationsproze u m ; von d e m A u g e n b l i c k
an, wo alle v o r h a n d n e n organischen M a t e r i e n in den Z u s t a n d der Verwe-
sung bergehn, erhht sich die F r u c h t b a r k e i t des Bodens. D e r Sauer-
stoff ... dient n u n zur Bildung von K o h l e n s u r e . ([109,] 110) F r m a n c h e
Pflanzengattungen, besonders fr die jenigen, welche ihre erste N a h r u n g
35 von der Substanz der S a a m e n selbst empfangen, W u r z e l n u n d Zwiebelge-
wchse, ist der H u m u s vllig entbehrlich, seine Gegenwart ist ntzlich, in-
sofern ihre Entwicklung beschleunigt u n d gesteigert wird, sie ist aber n i c h t
nothwendig. In einer gewissen B e z i e h u n g ist ein U e b e r m a in d e m Anfang
der Entwicklung einer Pflanze schdlich. ... W e n n im Anfang ihrer Ent-
195
Wicklung die A n z a h l der Triebe, H a l m e , Zweige u n d Bltter d u r c h ein U e -

b e r m a von Nahrungsstoff aus d e m B o d e n die G r e n z e berschreitet; (die
die Luft ||43| ihr bieten kann) wo sie also zur V o l l e n d u n g ihrer Entwick-
lung, zur Blthe u n d F r u c h t m e h r Nahrungsstoff aus der Luft bedarf, als
diese b i e t e n kann, so wird sie n i c h t zur Blthe, zur F r u c h t b i l d u n g gelan- 5
gen. I n vielen Fllen reicht diese N a h r u n g n u r h i n , u m die Bltter, H a l m e
u n d Zweige vllig auszubilden. ... Sie treiben ins K r a u t u n d k o m m e n
n i c h t zur Blthe. Bei d e m Zwergobst n e h m e n wir d e n B u m e n e i n e n Theil
ihrer Zweige u n d d a m i t ihrer Bltter; wir h i n d e r n die Entwicklung n e u e r
Zweige, es wird knstlich ein U e b e r s c h u von N a h r u n g geschaffen, die 10
d a n n zur V e r m e h r u n g der Blthe u n d Vergrrung der F r u c h t von der
Pflanze verwendet wird. Das B e s c h n e i d e n des Weinstocks h a t e i n e n ganz
h n l i c h e n Zweck. (111, 12) Bei allen p e r e n n i r e n d e n G e w c h s e n , bei den
Struchern, F r u c h t u n d W a l d b u m e n , geht n a c h vlliger A u s b i l d u n g der
F r u c h t ein n e u e r e i g e n t h m l i c h e r Vegetationsproze an; whrend bei d e n 15
einjhrigen Pflanzen, von dieser Periode an, die Stengel sich verholzen, die
Bltter ihre Farbe wechseln u n d gelb werden, bleiben die Bltter der
B u m e u n d Strucher bis z u m Anfang des W i n t e r s in Thtigkeit. Die Bil-
d u n g der Holzringe schreitet fort, das Holz wird fester u n d hrter, u n d v o m
A u g u s t an erzeugen ihre Bltter kein Holz m e h r ; alle K o h l e n s u r e , die sie 20
a u f n e h m e n u n d assimiliren, wird zur E r z e u g u n g von Nahrungsstoffen fr
das knftige Jahr verwendet; anstatt Holzfaser wird jezt A m y l o n gebildet
u n d d u r c h d e n Augustsaft in allen T h e i l e n der Pflanze verbreitet ... Sehr
frher W i n t e r oder rascher Temperaturwechsel h i n d e r n die E r z e u g u n g die-
ser Vorrthe von N a h r u n g fr das knftige Jahr, das Holz wird, wie b e i m 25
W e i n s t o c k z . B . n i c h t reif, seine Entwicklung ist das folgende J a h r in engre
G r e n z e n eingeschlossen. A u s d i e s e m A m y l o n entsteht i m n c h s t e n F r h -
j a h r der Zucker u n d das G u m m i , u n d aus d i e s e m wieder die stickstoff-
freien Bestandtheile der Bltter u n d j u n g e n Triebe. M i t der Entwicklung
der j u n g e n Kartoffelpflanze, m i t der Bildung der K e i m e n i m m t der A m y - 30
longehalt der W u r z e l a b ; der Ahornsaft hrt auf, s zu sein, sein Zucker-
gehalt verliert sich m i t der A u s b i l d u n g der Knospen, der B l t h e n u n d der
Bltter. (112, 13) M a n hat m i t U n r e c h t die gegen den Herbst h i n sich in
d e n Pflanzen a n h u f e n d e n Vorrthe von Strke m i t d e m F e t t der d e m
Winterschlaf unterworfnen Thiere verglichen. (114) Die einjhrige Pflanze 35
erzeugt u n d s a m m e l t die N a h r u n g der knftigen, auf gleiche Weise wie die
p e r e n n i r e n d e ; sie speichert sie im S a a m e n in der F o r m von vegetabili-
s c h e m Eiwei, von Strkemehl u n d G u m m i auf, sie wird b e i m K e i m e n zur
A u s b i l d u n g der ersten Wurzelfasern u n d Bltter verwendet; m i t d e m Vor-
h a n d e n s e i n dieser Organe fngt die Z u n a h m e an Masse, die eigentliche Er- 40
n h r u n g an. Jeder K e i m , j e d e K n o s p e einer p e r e n n i r e n d e n Pflanze ist der
196
aufgepfropfte E m b r y o eines n e u e n I n d i v i d u u m s , die im S t a m m e , in der

Wurzel aufgespeicherte N a h r u n g . (115) D i e Bltter sind v o r h a n d e n , u m
Strke, Holzfaser u n d Z u c k e r zu erzeugen; fhren wir Strke, Holzfaser
u n d Zucker d u r c h die W u r z e l n zu, so wird offenbar die Lebensfunktion der
5 Bltter gestrt ... E i n W e i z e n k o r n e n t h l t in seiner eignen M a s s e die Be-
standtheile des K e i m s u n d der ersten Wurzelfaser ||44| u n d g e n a u in d e m
Verhltni als zu ihrer Entwicklung n t h i g ist. W e n n wir diese Bestand-
theile m i t Stfrke u n d ] Kleber b e z e i c h n e n , klar, da keiner davon allein,
sondern beide zugleich a n der K e i m u n d Wu[r]zelbildung A n t h e i l n e h m e n ,
10 d e n n bei Gegenwart von Luft, Feuchtigkeit [und] einer a n g e m e n e n T e m -
peratur erleiden sie b e i d e eine M e t a m o r p h o s e . Die Strke verwandelt sich
in Zucker, der Kleber n i m m t ebenfalls eine n e u e F o r m an, beide erhalten
die Fhigkeit sich zu lsen, d. h. einer j e d e n Bewegung zu folgen. Beide
werden zur Bildung der Wurzelfasern u n d ersten Bltter vllig aufgezehrt,
15 ein U e b e r s c h u von d e m e i n e n wrde o h n e die Gegenwart einer entspre-
c h e n d e n M e n g e von d e m a n d e r n z u r Blattbildung, oder b e r h a u p t n i c h t
verwendet werden k n n e n . (115, 16) K o h l e n s u r e , A m m o n i a k u n d Wasser
sind die Nahrungsstoffe der Pflanzen; Strke, Zucker oder G u m m i dienen,
wenn sie begleitet sind von einer stickstoffhaltigen Substanz, d e m E m b r y o
20 zur ersten Entfaltung seiner E r n h r u n g s o r g a n e . (117) Gewisse K r a n k h e i t e n
von B u m e n , der s. g. H o n i g t h a u , r h r e n offenbar von e i n e m Miverhlt-
ni in der M e n g e der zugefhrten stickstofffreien u n d stickstoffhaltigen
Nahrungsstoffe her. (118) Alles brige gleichgesezt, wird n u r eine d e m
Stickstoffgehalt e n t s p r e c h e n d e Q u a n t i t t der von d e n Blttern erzeugten
25 Substanzen assimilirbar sein; fehlt es an Stickstoff, so wird eine gewisse
M e n g e stickstofffreier Substanz in irgend einer F o r m n i c h t verwendet u n d
als E x c r e m e n t e der Bltter, Zweige, R i n d e n u n d W u r z e l n abgeschieden
werden. Die Ausschwitzungen g e s u n d e r krftiger Pflanzen von M a n n i t ,
G u m m i , Z u c k e r keiner a n d e r n U r s a c h e zugeschrieben. (119)
30 U n t e r d i e s e m G e s i c h t s p u n k t e i n l e u c h t e n d , wie sehr sich die in einer
Pflanze erzeugten Producte je nach dem Verhltni der zugefhrten Nahrungs-
stoffe n d e r n k n n e n . E i n Ueberflu an Kohlenstoff, in der F o r m von K o h -
lensure d u r c h die W u r z e l n zugefhrt, wird bei M a n g e l an Stickstoff weder
in Kleber, n o c h in Eiwei, n o c h in Holz, n o c h in sonst irgend e i n e n Be-
35 standtheil eines Organs bergehn; er wird als Zucker, A m y l o n , Oel, W a c h s ,
Harz, M a n n i t , G u m m i , in der F o r m also eines E x c r e m e n t s abgeschieden
werden, oder m e h r oder weniger weite Zellen u n d Gefe fllen. Bei e i n e n
U e b e r s c h u stickstoffhaltiger N a h r u n g wird sich der Kleber u n d der G e h a l t
von vegetabilischem Eiwei u n d Pflanzenleim vermehren, es w e r d e n A m -
40 moniaksalze in d e n Sften bleiben, wenn, wie b e i m A n b a u der R u n k e l r -
b e n ein sehr stickstoffreicher D n g e r d e m B o d e n gegeben, oder die F u n k -
197
tion der Bltter u n t e r d r c k t wird, i n d e m m a n die Pflanze ihrer Bltter

b e r a u b t . D i e A n a n a s i m wilden Z u s t a n d k a u m geniebar, treibt bei reichli-
c h e n thierischen D n g e r eine Masse von Blttern, o h n e da die F r u c h t
deshalb an Zucker z u n i m m t ; der Strkegehalt der Kartoffeln wchst in
e i n e m h u m u s r e i c h e n Boden, be[i] krftigem a n i m a l i s c h e n D n g e r n i m m t 5
die A n z a h l ihrer Zellen zu, w h r e n d sich der A m y l o n g e h a l t vermindert; in
d e m e r s t e m Fall mehlige, in d e m a n d e r n eine seifige Beschaffenheit. Die
R u n k e l r b e n auf m a g e r m S a n d b o d e n gezogen, e n t h a l t e n ein M a x i m u m
von Zucker u n d kein A m m o n i a k s a l z , u n d i n g e d n g t e m L a n d e verlirt die
Teltower R b e ihre mehlige Beschaffenheit, d e n n in d i e s e m vereinigen 10
sich alle B e d i n g u n g e n fr Zellenbildung. (120, 1) Die Pflanzen bedrfen
des Lichts u n d zwar des Sonnenlichts aber fr ihre F u n k t i o n e n d u r c h a u s
gleichgltig, ob sie v o m Sonnenlichte getroffen werden, oder im Schatten
wachsen, d. h. die Strahlen direkt erhalten oder nicht. Ihre F u n k t i o n e n
g e h n n u r m i t weit grrer Energie u n d Schnelligkeit im S o n n e n l i c h t e als 15
im Tageslichte oder im Schatten vor sich; es k a n n keine andre Verschie-
d e n h e i t hier gedacht werden, als bei h n l i c h e n W i r k u n g e n , die das Licht
auf c h e m i s c h e V e r b i n d u n g e n zeigt, u n d diese Verschiedenheit wird be-
m e r k b a r durch e i n e n h h e r n oder g e r i n g e m G r a d der Beschleunigung der
A k t i o n . (121, 2) | 20
198
H e f t XIII
Hl Heft XIII
Liebig. (Contin. Sieh Heft XII.)

E i n U e b e r m a a von K o h l e n s u r e tdtet die Pflanze; aber der Stickstoff bis
zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e ist u n w e s e n t l i c h fr die Zersetzung der K o h l e n -
5 sure, ... also zur A u s b u n g von einer ihrer F u n k t i o n e n , w e n n a u c h fr die
Assimilation der d u r c h die Z e r s e t z u n g der K o h l e n s u r e n e u g e b i l d e t e n Pro-
ducte, um Bestandtheile gewisser Organe der Pflanzen zu werden, die G e -
genwart einer stickstoffhaltigen Substanz u n e n t b e h r l i c h zu sein scheint.
D e r aus der K o h l e n s u r e a u f g e n o m m e n e Kohlenstoff hat in d e n Blttern
10 eine n e u e F o r m a n g e n o m m e n , in der er lslich u n d berfhrbar in alle
Theile der Pflanze ist. W i r b e z e i c h n e n diese F o r m m i t Zucker, w e n n die
Producte s s c h m e c k e n , m i t G u m m i oder Schleim, wenn sie geschmack-
los sind, sie heissen E x c r e m e n t e , w e n n sie d u r c h die W u r z e l n (Haare u n d
D r s e n der Bltter etc) abgefhrt werden. Es ist hieraus klar, da, je n a c h
15 den Verhltnissen der gleichzeitig zugefhrten Nahrungsstoffe, die M e n g e
u n d Qualitten der d u r c h d e n L e b e n s p r o z e der Pflanzen erzeugten Stoffe
wechseln werden. Im freien wilden Z u s t a n d entwickeln sich alle Theile
einer Pflanze je n a c h d e m Verhltnisse der Nahrungsstoffe, die ihr v o m
Standorte dargeboten werden, sie bildet sich auf d e m magersten, unfrucht-
20 barsten B o d e n so gut aus, wie auf d e m fettesten u n d fruchtbarsten; n u r in
ihrer Grsse u n d Masse, in der A n z a h l der H a l m e , Zweige, Bltter, B l t h e n
oder F r c h t e b e o b a c h t e t m a n e i n e n Unterschied. W h r e n d auf e i n e m
fruchtbaren Boden alle ihre e i n z e l n e n Organe vergrssern, v e r m i n d e r n sie
sich auf e i n e m a n d e r n , wo ihr die Materialien m i n d e r reichlich zuflieen,
25 die sie zu ihrer Bildung bedarf; ihr G e h a l t an stickstoffhaltigen oder stick-
199
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 Heft XIII
stofffreien B e s t a n d t e i l e n ndert sich m i t der b e r w i e g e n d e n M e n g e stick-

stoffhaltiger oder -freier N a h r u n g s m i t t e l . Die Entwicklung der Halme und
Bltter, Blthen und Frchte ist an b e s t i m m t e B e d i n g u n g e n geknpft, deren
K e n n t n i u n s gestattet, e i n e n gewissen Einflu auf ihren G e h a l t in i h r e n
B e s t a n d t h e i l e n auf die Hervorbringung eines M a x i m u m s an Masse auszu- 5
b e n . Die A u s m i t t l u n g dieser B e d i n g u n g e n ist die Aufgabe des Naturfor-
schers; aus ihrer K e n n t n i m s s e n die G r u n d s t z e der L a n d - u n d Forst-
wirthschaft entspringen. (123, 4) N e b e n gleichen allgemeinen B e d i n g u n -
gen des W a c h s t h u m s aller Vegetabilien, der Feuchtigkeit, des Lichts, der
W r m e u n d der Bestandtheile der A t m o s p h r e , giebt es besondre, welche 10
auf die Entwicklung einzelner F a m i l i e n e i n e n a u s g e z e i c h n e t e n Einflu
a u s b e n . Diese b e s o n d r e n B e d i n g u n g e n liegen im Boden, oder sie werden
i h n e n gegeben i n der F o r m von Stoffen, die m a n m i t d e m allgemeinen N a -
m e n D n g e r bezeichnet. (125) Die Aufgabe der Cultur ist im A l l g e m e i n e n
die vortheilhafteste Hervorbringung gewisser Qualitten, oder eines M a x i - 15
m u m s an Masse von gewissen T h e i l e n oder O r g a n e n verschiedenartiger
Pflanzen, sie wird gelst d u r c h die A n w e n d u n g der K e n n t n i der Stoffe,
die zur A u s b i l d u n g dieser Theile oder Organe u n e n t b e h r l i c h sind, oder der
zur Hervorbringung dieser Q u a l i t t e n erforderlichen B e d i n g u n g e n . ... Die
Cultur beabsichtigt im Besondren eine a b n o r m e Entwicklung u n d Erzeu- 20
gung von gewissen Pflanzentheilen oder Pflanzenstoffen, die zur E r n h -
rung der Thiere u n d M e n s c h e n oder fr die Zwecke der Industrie verwen-
det werden. Je n a c h diesen Zwecken n d e r n sich die Mittel die zu ihrer
E r n h r u n g d i e n e n . Die Mittel, die die Cultur anwendet, um feines, wei-
ches, biegsames Stroh fr F l o r e n t i n e r h t h e zu erzeugen, d e n e n vllig ent- 25
gegengesezt, die m a n whlen m u , u m ein M a x i m u m von S a a m e n durch
die n m l i c h e Pflanze hervorzubringen. Ein M a x i m u m von Stickstoff in
diesen S a a m e n bedarf wieder zu seiner Erfllung andrer Bedingung, m a n
h a t wieder andre z u bercksichtigen, w e n n m a n d e m H a l m e die Strke u n d
Festigkeit geben will, der er bedarf, um das Gewicht der A e h r e zu tragen. 30
(126[, 127]) E i n e E r h h u n g oder V e r m i n d e r u n g der Lebensthtigkeit ist
bei den Vegetabilien allein abhngig von W r m e u n d Sonnenlicht, b e r
die wir nicht willkhrlich verfgen k n n e n ; es bleibt u n s n u r die Zufh-
rung von Stoffen gestattet, die geeignet sind, d u r c h die v o r h a n d n e Thtig-
keit von d e n Organen der Pflanzen assimilirt zu werden. (127) Die Acker- 35
erde ist d u r c h die Verwitterung von Felsarten e n t s t a n d e n , von den
vorwaltenden Bestandtheilen dieser Felsart sind ihre Eigenschaften a b h n -
gig. Mit Sand, Kalk und Thon b e z e i c h n e n wir diese vorwaltenden Bestand-
theile der Bodenarten. R e i n e r Sand, reiner Kalkstein, in d e n e n ausser Kie-
selsure oder k o h l e n s a u r e m oder kieselsaurem Kalk andre anorganischen 40
Bestandtheile fehlen, sind absolut unfruchtbar. T h o n stets ein Bestandtheil
200
Aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie (Fortsetzung)
von fruchtbarem B o d e n ... der T h o n s t a m m t h e r von der Verwitterung

thonerdehaltiger M i n e r a l i e n , u n t e r d e n e n die verschiednen F e l d s p a t h e ,
Kalifeldspath, Natronfeldspath (Albit), Kalkfeldspath (Labrador), G l i m m e r
u n d Zeolithe die verbreitetsten u n t e r d e n e n sind, die verwittern. D i e M i n e -
5 ralien sind G e m e n g e t h e i l e des G r a n i t s , G n e u s , Glimmerschiefers, Por-
phyrs, Thonschiefers, G r a u w a c k e , v u l k a n i s c h e n Gebirgsarten, Basalt,
Klingstein, Lava. (128) ... die thonerdehaltigen Fossilien die verbreitetsten
an der Erdoberflche ... die U r s a c h e , die im T h o n Einflu auf das L e b e n
der Pflanzen ausbt, ist sein nie fehlender Kali- und Natrongehalt. D i e
10 T h o n e r d e n i m m t an der Vegetation n u r indirekt, d u r c h ihre Fhigkeit W a s -
ser u n d A m m o n i a k a n z u z i e h n u n d z u r c k z u h a l t e n , A n t h e i l ; n u r i n h c h s t
seltnen Fllen findet sich T h o n e r d e in der Pflanzenasche, in allen findet
sich aber Kieselerde, welche in d e n m e i s t e n Fllen n u r durch V e r m i t t l u n g
von Alkalien in die Pflanzen gelangt. (129) D a s Kali fehlt in k e i n e m T h o n ,
15 es ist selbst im Mergel enthalten. (130) E i n T a u s e n d t h e i l Letten, d e m
Quarz im b u n t e n Sandstein oder d e m Kalk in d e n verschiednen Kalkfor-
m a t i o n e n beigemengt, giebt e i n e m B o d e n von n u r 20 Zoll Tiefe, so viel
Kali, da ein Fichtenwald auf d i e s e m B o d e n ein ganzes J a h r h u n d e r t lang
d a m i t versehn werden k a n n . E i n einziger Cubicfu F e l d s p a t h k a n n eine
20 Waldflche m i t L a u b h o l z von 2500 M e t e r F l c h e 5 Jahre lang m i t Kali
versehn. Ein Boden, welcher ein M a x i m u m von Fruchtbarkeit besizt, ent-
hlt d e n T h o n g e m e n g t m i t a n d r e n verwitterten Gesteinen, m i t Kalk u n d
Sand in e i n e m solchen Verhltni, d a er der Luft u n d Feuchtigkeit bis zu
e i n e m gewissen G r a d e leichten Eingang verstattet. Der B o d e n in der N h e
25 u n d U m g e b u n g des Vesuvs lt sich als der Typus der fruchtbarsten Bo-
denarten b e t r a c h t e n ... Dieser aus verwitterter Lava e n t s t a n d n e B o d e n
k a n n s e i n e m Ursprung n a c h n i c h t die kleinste Spur einer vegetabilischen
Materie enthalten; J e d e r m a n n wei, da, w e n n die vulkanische A s c h e eine
Zeitlang der Luft u n d d e m Einflu der Feuchtigkeit ausgesezt gewesen ist,
30 alle Vegetabilien darin in der grten Ueppigkeit u n d Flle gedeihn. D i e
B e d i n g u n g e n dieser F r u c h t b a r k e i t sind die darin e n t h a l t n e n Alkalien, die
n a c h u n d n a c h d u r c h die Verwitterung die Fhigkeit erlangen, von der
Pflanze a u f g e n o m m e n zu werden. Bei allen G e s t e i n e n u n d Gebirgsarten
[sind] J a h r t a u s e n d e erforderlich gewesen, um sie in den Z u s t a n d der Acker-
35 erde berzufhren. ([130,] 131) N a c h d e m Aufhren des Lebens, wo die
Bestandtheile der Pfla[nze] Zerstrungsprocessen der F u l n i u n d Verwe-
sung unterliegen, erhlt der B o d e n wieder, was i h m entzogen w u r d e . (132) |
|2| E i n kohlensurehaltiges Wasser zerlegt die Gebirgsarten, welche Alka-
lien e n t h a l t e n , es empfngt e i n e n G e h a l t von k o h l e n s a u r e m Alkali. Es ist
40 klar, da die Pflanzen selbst, insofern ihre Ueberreste d u r c h Verwesung
Kohlensure erzeugen, insofern ihre W u r z e l n im l e b e n d e n Z u s t a n d e Su-
201
ren ausschwitzen, nicht m i n d e r krftig d e m Z u s a m m e n h a n g e der Gebirgs-

arten entgegenwirken. N e b e n der Einwirkung der Luft, des Wassers u n d
Temperaturwechsels sind die Pflanzen selbst die m c h t i g s t e n U r s a c h e n der
Verwitterung. Luft, Wasser, Temperaturwechsel bewirken die Vorbereitung
der Felsarten zu ihrer Aufschlieung, d. h. zur Auflsung der darin enthalt- 5
n e n Alkalien d u r c h die Pflanzen. A u f e i n e m B o d e n , der J a h r h u n d e r t e lang
allen U r s a c h e n der Verwitterung ausgesezt gewesen ist, von d e m aber die
aufgeschlonen Alkalien nicht fortgefhrt wurden, werden alle Vegetabi-
lien, die zu ihrer Entwicklung betrchtliche M e n g e n Alkalien bedrfen,
eine lange R e i h e von J a h r e n d u r c h h i n r e i c h e n d e N a h r u n g finden, allein 10
n a c h u n d n a c h m u er erschpft werden, w e n n das Alkali, was i h m entzo-
gen wurde, nicht wieder ersezt wird; es m u ein P u n k t eintreten, wo er von
Zeit zu Zeit der Verwitterung wieder ausgesezt werden m u , um einer
n e u e n E r n d t e Vorrath von auflsbaren Alkalien zu geben. ... N a c h e i n e m
Z e i t r a u m von e i n e m oder m e h r e r e n J a h r e n , whrend welcher Zeit das AI- 15
kali d e m B o d e n nicht entzogen wird, k a n n m a n wieder auf eine n e u e
E r n d t e r e c h n e n . Die Colonisten in Virginien fanden solchen B o d e n ; ernd-
teten o h n e D n g e r auf d e m s e l b e n Feld ein ganzes J a h r h u n d e r t lang W e i -
zen u n d T a b a k ; jezt ganze G e g e n d e n verlassen u n d i n unfruchtbares W e i -
deland verwandelt, was kein Getreide, k e i n e n T a b a k m e h r o h n e D n g e r 20
hervor bringt. E i n e m Morgen von d i e s e m L a n d e w u r d e n aber in 100 J a h r e n
in d e n Blttern, d e m Korn u n d Stroh b e r 1200 Pfund Alkali entzogen: er
wurde unfruchtbar, weil der aufgeschlone B o d e n gnzlich seines Alkalis
b e r a u b t war u n d weil dasjenige, was im Z e i t r a u m von e i n e m J a h r durch
d e n Einflu der W i t t e r u n g zur Aufschliessung gelangte, nicht hinreichte, 25
um die Bedrfnisse der Pflanze zu befriedigen. In diesem Zustande befindet
sich im Allgemeinen alles Culturland in Europa. Die Brache ist die Zeit der
Verwitterung. (133, 4) Der W e i z e n gedeiht n i c h t in reiner Holzerde, der
H a l m erhlt keine Strke u n d legt sich frhzeitig u m . Weil die Festigkeit
des H a l m s von kieselsaurem Kali herrhrt, weil das K o r n phosphorsaure Bit- 30
tererde bedarf, die i h m der H u m u s b o d e n n i c h t liefern kann, i n d e m er keins
von b e i d e n enthlt, m a n erhlt Kraut, aber keine Frucht. Ebenso gedeiht der
Weizen nicht auf Sandboden, noch auf Kalkboden, wenn er nicht eine betrchtli-
che Menge Thon beigemischt enthlt. W e i l diese B o d e n a r t e n fr dieses G e -
wchs n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d Alkali enthalten. (135, 6) K a n n es auffallend sein, 35
d a n a c h d e m A b b r e n n e n von N a d e l h o l z w a l d u n g e n i n A m e r i c a , d u r c h
welche der B o d e n das in J a h r h u n d e r t e n g e s a m m e l t e Alkali empfngt,
L a u b h o l z gedeiht, d a Spartium s c o p a r i u m etc, lauter Pflanzen, welche
eine an Alkali hchst reiche A s c h e geben, auf Brandsttten in ppiger
Flle emporsprossen? ... 100 Theile Weizenstengel geben 15,5 Asche, 40
100 Theile trockner Gerstenstengel 8,54 Theile A s c h e , 100 Theile Hafer-
202
Aus Justus Liebig : Die organische Chemie (Fortsetzung)
Stengel n u r 4,42 A s c h e ; diese A s c h e bei allen diesen Pflanzen von einerlei

Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g . Si[eht] m a n hier nicht genau, was die Pflanze bedarf?
Auf e i n e m u n d d e m s e l b e n Felde, das n u r eine Ernte W e i z e n liefert, lt
sich 2 X Gerste u n d 3 x Hafer b a u e n . Alle Grasarten bedrfen des kiesel-
5 sauren Kalis; es ist kieselsaures Kali, was b e i m Wssern der W i e s e n d e m
Boden zugefhrt, was in d e m B o d e n aufgeschlossen wird ... D i e M e n g e
von kieselsaurem Kali, welches in der F o r m von H e u d e n W i e s e n j h r l i c h
g e n o m m e n wird, ist sehr betrchtlich. (136, 7) D a s Kali fr die m e i s t e n G e -
wchse aber nicht die einzige B e d i n g u n g ihrer Existenz; in vielen ist es er-
10 setzbar d u r c h Kalk, Bittererde u n d N a t r o n , aber die Alkalien r e i c h e n allein
nicht hin, u m das L e b e n der Pflanzen z u u n t e r h a l t e n . I n j e d e r bis jezt u n -
tersuchten Pflanzenasche fand m a n Phosphorsure, g e b u n d e n an Alkalien
u n d alkalische E r d e n ; die m e i s t e n S a a m e n e n t h a l t e n gewisse M e n g e n da-
von, die S a a m e n der G e t r e i d e a r t e n sind reich an Phosphorsure, sie findet
15 sich darin vereinigt m i t Bittererde. D i e Phosphorsure wird aus d e m B o d e n
von der Pflanze a u f g e n o m m e n , aller culturfhige Boden enthlt b e s t i m m -
bare M e n g e n davon. I n allen Mineralgewssern hat m a n b e s t i m m t e M e n -
gen davon entdeckt. ... D i e der Oberflche der Erde am n c h s t e n liegen-
d e n Schichten von Schwefelbleilagern e n t h a l t e n kristallisirtes phosphor-
20 saures Bleioxid (Grnbleierz); der Kieselschiefer, welcher grosse Lager
bildet, findet sich an vielen Orten bedeckt m i t Kristallen von phosphorsau-
rer T h o n e r d e ; alle Bruchflchen sind d a m i t b e r z o g e n . . . . . A u s d e m B o d e n
gelangt die Phosphorsure in die S a a m e n , Bltter u n d W u r z e l n der Pflan-
zen, aus diesen in d e n O r g a n i s m u s der Thiere, i n d e m sie zur Bildung der
25 K n o c h e n , der phosphorhaltigen Bestandtheile des G e h i r n s verwendet wird.
D u r c h Fleischspeisen, Brod, Hlsenfrchte gelangt bei w e i t e m m e h r
Phosphor in den Krper als er bedarf; d u r c h d e n U r i n u n d die festen Excre-
m e n t e wird aller U e b e r s c h u wieder abgefhrt. ... O h n e P h o s p h o r s a u r e
Bittererde, welche e i n e n nie fehlenden Bestandtheil der S a a m e n der G e -
30 treidearten a u s m a c h t , wird sich dieser S a a m e n nicht bilden k n n e n ; er
wird nicht zur Reife gelangen. Ausser Kieselsure, Kali und Phosphorsure,
die u n t e r keinerlei U m s t n d e n in d e n Culturpflanzen fehlen, n e h m e n die
Vegetabilien aus d e m B o d e n n o c h fremde Stoffe, Salze auf, wovon m a n
voraussetzen darf, da sie die [eb]engenannten z u m Theil wenigstens in
35 ihren W i r k u n g e n ersetzen; in dieser F o r m k a n n m a n bei m a n c h e n Pflan-
zen Kochsalz, schwefelsaures] Kali, Salpeter, Chlorkalium u n d a n d r e als
nothwendige Bestandtheile b e t r a c h t e n . D e r Thonschiefer enthlt m e i s t e n s
E i n m i s c h u n g e n von Kupferoxid, der G l i m m e r b o d e n enthlt F l u o r m e t a l l e .
Geringe M e n g e n davon g e h n in d e n O r g a n i s m u s der Pflanzen ber, o h n e
40 da sie sich als nothwendig b e h a u p t e n lassen. (138, 9) |
|3| In den verschiednen Stadien ihrer Entwicklung bedrfen die Vegeta-
203
bilien ungleiche M e n g e n v o n d e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n des B o d e n s . W e i z e n -

7 m
pflanzen lieferten i h m (de Saussure) e i n e n M o n a t vor der B l t h e % oo> 0
5 3
der B l t h e % oo u n d m i t reifem S a a m e n n u r % oo A s c h e . M a n sieht offen-
0 0
bar, d a sie d e m Boden, von der B l t h e an e i n e n T h e i l seiner a n o r g a n i -

s c h e n Bestandtheile wieder z u r c k g e b e n , aber die p h o s p h o r s a u r e Bitter- 5
erde ist im S a a m e n zurckgeblieben. (140) D i e Brache ist ... die P e r i o d e
der Cultur, wo m a n das L a n d einer fortschreitenden Verwitterung vermit-
telst des Einflusses der A t m o s p h r e berlt, in der W e i s e , d a eine ge-
wisse Q u a n t i t t Alkali wieder fhig g e m a c h t wird, von einer Pflanze aufge-
n o m m e n zu werden. Es ist klar, d a die sorgfltige B e a r b e i t u n g des 10
B r a c h l a n d e s seine Verwitterung beschleunigt u n d vergrssert; fr den
Zweck der Cultur ist es vllig gleichgltig, ob man das Land mit Unkraut sich be-
decken lt, oder ob man eine Pflanze darauf baut, die dem Boden das aufge-
schlossne Kali nicht entzieht. (1. c.) U n t e r der F a m i l i e der L e g u m i n o s e n sind
viele A r t e n ausgezeichnet d u r c h ihren geringen G e h a l t von Alkalien u n d 15
Salzen b e r h a u p t ; die B o h n e der Vicia faba e n t h l t . B. k e i n freies Alkali,
u n d a n p h o s p h o r s a u r e m Kalk u n d Bittererde n o c h n i c h t 1%; die reifen
Erbsen g e b e n im G a n z e n 1,93 Asche, darin 0,29 p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk ...
D e r Buchweizen a n der S o n n e getrocknet, liefert i m G a n z e n n u r 0,681 p . c .
A s c h e u n d d a r i n n u r 0,09 Theile lslicher Salze. D i e o b e n e r w h n t e n Pflan- 20
z e n gehren zu d e n s. g. Brachfrchten, in ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g liegt
der G r u n d , w a r u m sie d e m G e t r e i d e , was n a c h i h n e n gepflanzt wird, n i c h t
s c h a d e n ; sie e n t z i e h n d e m B o d e n k e i n e Alkalien, s o n d e r n n u r eine ver-
s c h w i n d e n d e M e n g e v o n p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen. (141) Zwei Pflanzen wer-
d e n n e b e n e i n a n d e r oder h i n t e r e i n a n d e r gedeihen, w e n n sie aus d e m Bo- 25
d e n verschiedenartige M a t e r i e n z u ihrer A u s b i l d u n g n t h i g h a b e n , oder
w e n n die Stadien ihres W a c h s t h u m s , der B l t h e u n d F r u c h t b i l d u n g weit
auseinanderliegen. (142)
Die Wechselwirthschaft und der Dnger.
S c h o n lange die Erfahrung g e m a c h t , d a einjhrige Culturgewchse, auf 30

e i n e m u n d d e m s e l b e n B o d e n h i n t e r e i n a n d e r folgend, i n i h r e m W a c h s -
t h u m z u r c k b l e i b e n etc etc. F e r n e r b e o b a c h t e t , d a gewisse Pflanzen, wie
Erbsen, Klee, Lein, auf e i n e m u n d d e m s e l b e n F e l d e erst n a c h einer R e i h e
v o n J a h r e n wieder gedeihn, d a andre, wie Hanf, T a b a c k T o p i n a m b u r ,
Roggen, Hafer bei gehriger D n g u n g h i n t e r e i n a n d e r g e b a u t werden k n - 35
n e n ; d a m a n c h e d e n B o d e n verbessern, a n d r e i h n s c h o n e n , u n d die lezte
u n d hufigste Klasse d e n B o d e n angreifen oder erschpfen. Zu diesen ge-
h r e n die Brachrben, Kopfkohl, R u n k e l r b e n , Dinckel, S o m m e r u n d
204
Wintergerste, Roggen u n d Hafer; m a n r e c h n e t sie zu d e n angreifenden;

Weizen, Hopfen, Krapp, Stoppelrben, R a p s , Hanf, M o h n , K a r d e n , Lein,
Pastel, W a u , Sholz betrachtet m a n als erschpfende. (143) Hauptauf-
gabe der Wechselwirthschaft &m System der F e l d w i r t s c h a f t das e i n e n
5 mglichst h o h e n Ertrag m i t d e m kleinsten Aufwand von D n g e r erzielt ...
Sehr bald sah m a n ein, d a die Mannigfaltigkeit der Cultur so gut wie die
R u h e (Brache) die F r u c h t b a r k e i t des B o d e n s erhalte. Es war offenbar, d a
alle Pflanzen d e m B o d e n in verschiednen Verhltnissen gewisse M a t e r i e n
zurckgeben m u t e n , die zur N a h r u n g einer folgenden G e n e r a t i o n verwen-
10 det werden k o n n t e n . (144) V o n c h e m i s c h e n Principien, gestzt auf die
K e n n t n i der M a t e r i e n , welche die Pflanzen d e m Boden entziehn, u n d was
i h m in d e m D n g e r zurckgegeben wird, ist bis jezt in der Agricultur k e i n e
R e d e gewesen. (1. c.) Die W u r z e l n aller Pflanzen sondern M a t e r i e n ab, die
in i h r e m Organismus weder in Holzfaser, n o c h in Strke, vegetabilisches
15 Eiwei, Kleber etc verwandelt w e r d e n k n n e n . (147) Es unterliegt k e i n e m
Zweifel, da die W u r z e l n der Pflanzen M a t e r i e n ausschwitzen, d u r c h die
sie d e m B o d e n d e n Kohlenstoff wiedergeben, d e n sie von s e i n e m H u m u s
in ihrer frhsten Periode der Entwicklung empfangen h a b e n . (148) W e n n
u n t e r d e n Stoffen, welche von d e n W u r z e l n einer Pflanze aus d e m B o d e n
20 a u f g e n o m m e n werden, sich solche befinden, die sie zu ihrer E r n h r u n g
nicht verwendet, so m s s e n sie d e m B o d e n wieder zurckgegeben werden;
E x c r e m e n t e dieser Art k n n e n einer zweiten u n d dritten Pflanze zu ihrer
N a h r u n g dienlich, zu i h r e m Bestehn selbst u n e n t b e h r l i c h sein, allein die
in d e m Organismus der Vegetabilien d u r c h d e n E r n h r u n g s p r o z e n e u g e -
25 bildeten Materien, die also in Folge der Erzeugung von Holzfaser, A m y l o n ,
Eiwei, Kleber, G u m m i , S u r e n etc etc e n t s t a n d e n sind, sie k n n e n in kei-
ner a n d r e n Pflanzengattung zur Bildung von Holzfaser, A m y l o n , Eiwei,
Kleber etc verwendet werden. (149) Lein, Erbsen, Klee, selbst Kartoffeln
gehren zu den Pflanzen, deren E x c r e m e n t e auf T h o n b o d e n die lngste
30 Zeit zu ihrer Humificirung bedrfen, aber klar, da die A n w e n d u n g von
Alkalien, von selbst kleinen M e n g e n unausgelaugter Asche, g e b r a n n t e m
Kalke das Feld in bei w e i t e m krzerer Zeit wieder in d e n S t a n d setzen
m u , den A n b a u der n m l i c h e n Pflanze wieder zu gestatten. D e r B o d e n er-
langt in der Brache e i n e n T h e i l seiner frhern Fruchtbarkeit s c h o n da-
35 d u r c h wieder, weil in der Zeit der Brache, n e b e n der fortschreitenden Ver-
witterung die Zerstrung oder H u m i f i c i r u n g der darin e n t h a l t e n e n
E x c r e m e n t e erfolgt. E i n e U e b e r s c h w e m m u n g ersezt die Brache in kalirei-
c h e m B o d e n in der N h e des R h e i n , des Nils, wo m a n o h n e N a c h t h e i l auf
denselben Aeckern h i n t e r e i n a n d e r G e t r e i d e b a u t . Ebenso vertritt das W s -
40 sern der Wiesen die W i r k u n g der Brache; das an Sauerstoff so reiche W a s -
ser der Bche u n d Flsse bewirkt, i n d e m es sich unaufhrlich erneuert u n d
205
alle Theile des Bodens durchdringt, die schnellste u n d vollstndigste Ver-

wesung der angehuften E x c r e m e n t e . W r e es das Wasser allein, das der
B o d e n aufnimmt, so w r d e n sumpfige W i e s e n die fruchtbarsten sein. (151,
2)1
|4| Die Vortheilhaftigkeit des Fruchtwechsels b e r u h t auf zwei Ursa- 5
c h e n ... Bepflanzen wir e i n e n B o d e n m e h r e J a h r e h i n t e r e i n a n d e r m i t ver-
s c h i e d n e n G e w c h s e n , von welchen das erste in d e m B o d e n die anorgani-
s c h e n Bestandtheile zurcklt, welche das zweite, dieses wieder, was das
dritte bedarf, so wird er fr diese 3 Pflanzengattungen fruchtbar sein.
W e n n n u n die erste Pflanze . B. W e i z e n ist, welcher die grte M e n g e kie- 10
seisaures Kali consumirt, w h r e n d die auf i h n folgenden Pflanzen n u r eine
geringe M e n g e Kali d e m B o d e n e n t z i e h n , wie L e g u m i n o s e n , Hackfrchte
etc, s o wird m a n n a c h d e m 4 ' J a h r e wieder W e i z e n m i t Vortheil b a u e n k n -
n e n , d e n n w h r e n d 3 er J a h r e ist der B o d e n d u r c h die Verwitterung wieder
fhig geworden, kieselsaures Kali in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e an die j u n g e n 15
Pflanzen abzugeben. F r die a n d r e n organischen Bestandtheile m u fr
verschiedne Pflanzen, w e n n sie h i n t e r e i n a n d e r g e d e i h e n sollen, ein h n l i -
ches V e r h l t n i bercksichtigt werden ... die m e i s t e n dieser Pflanzen d e m
B o d e n so viel Kohlenstoff zurckgegeben, als sie in der F o r m von K o h l e n -
sure empfingen ... aber die n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d , um gewisse Theile oder 20
Organe derselben, S a a m e n u n d W u r z e l n m i t e i n e m M a x i m u m von N a h -
r u n g zu versehn. (Wie das die Agricultur m u ) ... E i n M a x i m u m im Ertrag
steht g e n a u im V e r h l t n i zu der M e n g e der Nahrungsstoffe, die ihr in der
ersten Zeit ihrer Entwicklung dargeboten werden. Diese N a h r u n g s m i t t e l
sind K o h l e n s u r e , die der Boden in der F o r m von H u m u s , es ist Stickstoff, 25
d e n e r i n der F o r m von A m m o n i a k e r h a l t e n m u ... Die Bildung von A m -
m o n i a k k a n n auf d e m C u l t u r l a n d e n i c h t bewirkt werden, wohl aber eine
knstliche H u m u s e r z e u g u n g . Diese m u als eine H a u p t a u f g a b e der W e c h -
t
selwirthschaft u n d als 2 U r s a c h e ihrer Vortheilhaftigkeit a n g e s e h n werden.
D a s A n s e n eines Feldes m i t einer Brachfrucht, m i t Klee, Roggen, L u p i - 30
n e n , Buchweizen etc, u n d die Einverleibung der ihrer B l t h e n a h e n Pflan-
z e n in d e n B o d e n d u r c h U m a c k e r n , lst diese Aufgabe insofern, als b e i
einer n e u e n E i n s a a t die sich entwickelnde j u n g e Pflanze in einer gewissen
Periode ihres Lebens ein M a x i m u m von N a h r u n g , d. h. eine verwesende
Materie vorfindet. D e n gleichen Zweck erreicht m a n n o c h vollstndiger 35
u n d sichrer d u r c h Bepflanzung des Feldes m i t Esparsette oder Lucerne.
Diese d u r c h eine starke Wurzelverzweigung u n d e b e n so starken Bltter-
wuchs a u s g e z e i c h n e t e n Pflanzen bedrfen aus d e m B o d e n n u r einer gerin-
gen M e n g e von anorganischen Stoffen. Bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e der
Entwicklung g e k o m m e n , bleibt i h n e n alle K o h l e n s u r e , alles A m m o n i a k , 40
was die Luft u n d der R e g e n zufhren; was der B o d e n n i c h t a u f n i m m t , sau-
206
w
gen die Bltter ein; sie sind es, d u r c h welche die assimilirende Oberflche
ver4 oder 6facht wird, welche die V e r d u n s t u n g des A m m o n i a k s auf der
Erdoberflche h i n d e r n , i n d e m sie sie wie eine H a u b e bedecken. E i n e u n -
mittelbare Folge der E r z e u g u n g v o n Blattgrn u n d der brigen Bestand-
5 theile der Bltter u n d Stengel ist die ebenso reichliche A u s s c h e i d u n g von
organischen Stoffen, die der B o d e n als E x c r e m e n t e der W u r z e l n erhlt. ...
Diese Bereicherung des B o d e n s m i t Stoffen, welche fhig sind, in H u m u s
b e r z u g e h n , d a u e r t m e h r e r e J a h r e h i n d u r c h , aber n a c h einer gewissen Zeit
entstehn darauf kahle Stellen. N m l i c h n a c h 5 - 7 J a h r e n schwngert sich
10 die Erde in d e m G r a d e m i t diesen E x c r e m e n t e n , da j e d e Wurzelfaser da-
von u m g e b e n ist; in d e m auflslichen Z u s t a n d , den sie eine Zeitlang b e -
wahren, ein Theil davon wieder von der Pflanze a u f g e n o m m e n , auf welche
sie nachtheilig wirken, i n d e m sie n i c h t assimilirbar sind. Abwechselnd wer-
den Stellen auf d e m F e l d kahl u n d fruchtbar. U r s a c h e : Die E x c r e m e n t e auf
15 den k a h l e n Pltzen erhalten k e i n e n n e u e n Z u w a c h s ; d e m Einflu der Luft
u n d Feuchtigkeit preigegeben, g e h e n sie in Verwesung ber; ihr schdli-
cher Einflu hrt auf; die Pflanze findet von diesen Stellen die M a t e r i e n
entfernt, die ihr W a c h s t h u m h i n d e r t e n ; sie trifft im G e g e n t h e i l wieder H u -
m u s , (verwesende Pflanzenstoffe) an. E i n e bere u n d zweckmigere H u -
20 m u s e r z e u g u n g , als die durch eine Pflanze, deren Bltter T h i e r e n zur N a h -
rung dienen, ist wohl k a u m d e n k b a r ; als Vorfrucht sind diese Pflanzen
einer j e d e n a n d e r n G a t t u n g ntzlich, n a m e n t l i c h aber denen, welche wie
Raps u n d Lein vorzugsweise des H u m u s bedrfen, von u n s c h t z b a r e m
W e r t h e . Die U r s a c h e n der Vortheilhaftigkeit des Fruchtwechsels, die
25 eigentlichen Principien der Wechselwirthschaft b e r u h e n h i e r n a c h auf einer
knstlichen H u m u s e r z e u g u n g u n d auf der B e b a u u n g des Feldes m i t ver-
schiedenartigen Pflanzen, die in einer solchen O r d n u n g auf e i n a n d e r fol-
gen, da eine j e d e n u r gewisse Bestandtheile entzieht, whrend sie andre
t e t e
zurcklt oder wiedergiebt, die eine 2 u n d 3 Pflanzengattung z u ihrer
30 A u s b i l d u n g u n d Entwicklung bedrfen, (p. 1 5 2 - 5 6 ) W e n n n u n a u c h der
H u m u s g e h a l t eines B o d e n s d u r c h zweckmssige Cultur in e i n e m gewissen
G r a d e bestndig gesteigert w e r d e n k a n n , d e n n o c h kein Zweifel, d a der
B o d e n a n d e n b e s o n d r e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n i m m e r rmer werden m u , die i n
d e n S a a m e n , W u r z e l n u n d Blttern, welche wir h i n w e g g e n o m m e n h a b e n ,
35 e n t h a l t e n waren. N u r in d e m Fall wird die Fruchtbarkeit des B o d e n s sich
u n v e r n d e r t erhalten, w e n n wir i h n e n alle diese S u b s t a n z e n wieder zufh-
ren u n d ersetzen. D i e geschieht d u r c h d e n Dnger. ... alle a n o r g a n i s c h e n
Bestandtheile der Thiere u n d M e n s c h e n m s s e n als D n g e r betrachtet wer-
den- W h r e n d ihres L e b e n s werden die a n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheile der
40 Pflanzen, welche der a n i m a l i s c h e O r g a n i s m u s n i c h t bedurfte, in der F o r m
von E x c r e m e n t e n wieder ausgestoen, n a c h i h r e m Tode geht der Stickstoff,
207
der Kohlenstoff in d e n Prozessen der F u l n i u n d Verwesung als A m m o -

n i a k u n d Kohlensure wieder in die A t m o s p h r e ber, es bleibt zulezt
nichts weiter als die a n o r g a n i s c h e n M a t e r i e n , der p h o s p h o r s a u r e Kalk u n d
andre Salze, i n d e n K n o c h e n zurck. E i n e rationelle Agricultur m u die-
sen erdigen R c k s t a n d so gut wie die E x c r e m e n t e ||5| als krftigen D n g e r 5
fr gewisse Pflanzen betrachten, der d e m Boden, von d e m er in einer R e i h e
v o n J a h r e n e n t n o m m e n worden ist, wiedergegeben werden m u , w e n n
seine Fruchtbarkeit nicht a b n e h m e n soll. (156, 7) D a s H e u enthlt
1% Stickstoff; in 25 Pfund wird eine K u h tglich % Pfund Stickstoff zu
ihrer N a h r u n g assimilirt h a b e n . Diese Stickstoffmenge wrde, in Muskelfa- 10
ser verwandelt, 8,8 Pfund Fleisch in s e i n e m n a t r l i c h e n Z u s t a n d gegeben
h a b e n . Die Z u n a h m e an Masse weit weniger als die Gewicht u n d wir fin-
den in der T h a t im H a r n u n d in der M i l c h den Stickstoff, der hier zu feh-
len scheint. ... M i t h i n die flssigen Excremente worin wir d e n nicht assimi-
lirten Stickstoff zu s u c h e n ; wenn die festen auf die Vegetabilien b e r h a u p t 15
von Einflu sind, so b e r u h t er nicht a u f d h r e m Stickstoffgehalt. (159) Mit
3600 bis 4000 Pfund frischem Pferdekoth, e n t s p r e c h e n d 1000 Pfund trock-
n e m Pferdekoth, bringen wir also auf d e n A c k e r 2 4 8 4 - 3 0 0 0 Pfund Wasser,
s o d a n n : 7 3 0 - 9 0 0 Pfund vegetabilischer Materie u n d vernderter Galle, zu-
lezt geben wir d e m Acker 1 0 0 - 2 7 0 Pfund Salze u n d anorganische Substan- 20
zen. ... es sind die lauter Substanzen, die Bestandtheile des H e u e s , Strohs
u n d Hafers waren, womit das Pferd gefttert wurde. D e r H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l
davon ist phosphorsaurer Kalk u n d Bittererde, kohlensaurer Kalk u n d kie-
selsaures Kali, das leztre ist in d e m H e u , die erstren in d e n K r n e r n in
berwiegender M e n g e zugegen gewesen. In 10 C e n t n e r n Pferdeexcremen- 25
ten bringen wir im M a x i m o die a n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n von 45 Ctrn
H e u oder von 90 Ctrn Hafer auf d e n Acker; die ist h i n r e i c h e n d , um
V/2 Ernten W e i z e n m i t Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen v o l l k o m m e n zu
versehen. Der K o t h der K h e , des R i n d v i e h s u n d der Schafe enthlt, ausser
d e n vegetabilischen M a t e r i e n , p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk, Kochsalz u n d kiesel- 30
saures Kali; das Gewicht derselben wechselt je n a c h der F t t e r u n g von
9 - 2 8 p . c , der K u h k o t h enthlt i m frischen Z u s t a n d e 8 6 - 9 0 p . c . Wasser.
Die festen m e n s c h l i c h e n E x c r e m e n t e - n a c h Berzelius - e n t h a l t e n frisch
% ihres Gewichts Wasser, ferner Stickstoff von 1/4-5 p.c., sie sind u n t e r al-
len die stickstoffreichsten. Berzelius erhielt von 100 T h e i l e n trocknen Ex- 35
c r e m e n t e n , n a c h d e m Einschern 15 Theile A s c h e , deren H a u p t b e s t a n d -
t e i l e 1 0 Theile p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalks u n d Bittererde waren. Gewi
k n n e n die vegetabilischen Materien, die wir in d e n E x c r e m e n t e n der
Thiere u n d M e n s c h e n auf die Felder bringen, n i c h t o h n e einigen Einflu
auf die Vegetation bleiben; i n d e m sie verwesen, liefern sie d e n j u n g e n 40
Pflanzen Kohlensure zur N a h r u n g , aber die N e b e n s a c h e , u n b e d e u -
208
t e n d ... die Q u a n t i t t des Kohlenstoffs, d e n m a n als D n g e r d e m A c k e r zu-

fhrt, betrgt n u r 5 - 8 p. c. von d e m , was m a n als Kraut, Stroh u n d F r u c h t
h i n w e g n i m m t ... Es bleibt die eigentliche W i r k u n g der festen E x c r e m e n t e
auf die anorganischen M a t e r i e n beschrnkt, welche d e m B o d e n wiederge-
5 geben werden, n a c h d e m sie i h m in der F o r m von Getreide, von W u r z e l g e -
wchsen, von g r n e m u n d t r o c k n e m F u t t e r g e n o m m e n worden waren.
( 1 6 0 - 6 2 ) In d e m K u h d n g e r , d e n E x c r e m e n t e n der Schaafe g e b e n wir
d e m Getreideland kieselsaures Kali u n d phosphorsaure Salze, i n d e n
m e n s c h l i c h e n E x c r e m e n t e n p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk u n d Bittererde, i n d e n
10 E x c r e m e n t e n der Pferde p h o s p h o r s a u r e Bittererde u n d kieselsaures Kali.
In d e m Stroh, was als Streu gedient hat, b r i n g e n wir eine n e u e Q u a n t i t t
von kieselsaurem Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e Salze h i n z u ; wenn es verwest ist,
bleiben diese genau i n d e m v o n d e n Pflanzen assimilirbaren Z u s t a n d e i m
Boden. ... trotz der sorgfltigen Vertheilung u n d S a m m l u n g des D n -
15 gers ... ein Verlust einer gewissen M e n g e phosphorsaurer Salze u n v e r m e i d -
lich, d e n n wir fhren j e d e s J a h r i n d e m G e t r e i d e u n d g e m s t e t e m V i e h ein
bemerkbares Q u a n t u m aus, was d e n U m g e b u n g e n grosser Stdte zufliet.
In einer wohleingerichteten Wirthschaft m u dieser Verlust ersezt werden.
Z u m Theil geschieht die d u r c h die W i e s e n . Zu 100 M o r g e n G e t r e i d e l a n d
20 r e c h n e t m a n in D e u t s c h l a n d als n o t h w e n d i g zu einer zweckmssigen Cul-
tur 20 Morgen Wiese, die durchschnittlich 500 Ctr H e u p r o d u c i r e n ; bei
e i n e m G e h a l t von 6.82 P.C. A s c h e erhlt m a n jhrlich in d e n E x c r e m e n t e n
der Thiere, d e n e n es zur N a h r u n g gegeben wird, 3410 Pfund kieselsaures
Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk u n d Bittererde, die d e n Getreidefeldern z u
25 G u t k o m m e n u n d d e n Verlust bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d decken. ... In
der Asche des Holzes, das in d e n H a u s h a l t u n g e n verbraucht wird, ersetzen
wir d e n Wiesen wieder, was sie an p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen verloren h a b e n .
(162, 3) W i r k n n e n die F r u c h t b a r k e i t u n s r e r F e l d e r in e i n e m stets gleich-
b l e i b e n d e n Z u s t a n d erhalten, w e n n wir i h r e n Verlust jhrlich wieder erset-
30 zen; eine Steigerung der Fruchtbarkeit, eine E r h h u n g ihres Ertrags ist
aber n u r d a n n mglich, wenn wir m e h r wiedergeben als wir i h n e n n e h m e n .
U n t e r gleichen B e d i n g u n g e n wird v o n 2 A e c k e r n der eine so fruchtbarer
werden, je leichter u n d in je grrer M e n g e die Pflanzen, die wir darauf
kultiviren, die b e s o n d r e n Bestandtheile sich a n e i g n e n k n n e n , die sie zu
35 i h r e m W a c h s t h u m u n d ihrer Entwicklung bedrfen. ... die W i r k u n g der
thierischen E x c r e m e n t e ist ersetzbar d u r c h Materien, die ihre Bestand-
theile enthalten. In F l a n d e r n wird der jhrliche Ausfall vollstndig ersezt
d u r c h das Ueberfahren der Felder m i t ausgelaugter oder nicht ausgelaugter
Holzasche, durch K n o c h e n , die z u m grossen T h e i l aus p h o s p h o r s a u r e m
40 Kalk u n d Bittererde bestehn. (163) Die Wichtigkeit der Holzasche augen-
fllich. Die m i t kaltem Wasser ausgelaugte H o l z a s c h e enthlt kieselsaures
209
Kali gerade in d e m s e l b e n V e r h l t n i wie Stroh ||6| ausser d i e s e m Salze n u r

phosphorsaure Salze. Die verschiednen H o l z a s c h e n brigens e i n e n h c h s t
u n g l e i c h e n Werth, die E i c h e n h o l z a s c h e d e n geringsten, die B u c h e n h o l z -
asche den h c h s t e n W e r t h . M i t je 100 Pfund ausgelaugter B u c h e n h o l z -
asche b r i n g e n wir auf das Feld ein Q u a n t u m phosphorsaurer Salze = d e m 5
G e h a l t von 460 Pfund frischen M e n s c h e n e x c r e m e n t e n . M i t 100 Pfund
B u c h e n h o l z a s c h e bringen wir auf das F e l d eine M e n g e Phosphorsure, h i n -
reichend fr die Erzeugung von 4000 Pfd Stroh oder fr 2000 Pfd W e i z e n -
k m e r . N o c h wichtiger in dieser B e z i e h u n g die Knochen. ... D i e lezte
Quelle der Bestandtheile der K n o c h e n ist das H e u u n d Stroh, b e r h a u p t 10
das Futter, was die Thiere gemessen. K n o c h e n e n t h a l t e n 55 P. C. phosphor-
sauren Kalk u n d Bittererde, also 8 Pfund K n o c h e n so viel p h o s p h o r s a u r e n
Kalk als 1000 Pfund H e u oder Weizenstroh, oder 20 Pfund so viel, als in
1000 Pfd W e i z e n - u n d Haferkrnern sich vorfindet. (164, 5) D i e D n g u n g
eines Morgen Landes m i t 40 Pfd frischen K n o c h e n reicht hin, um 3 Ernd- 15
t e n (Weizen, Klee u n d Hackfrchte) m i t p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen zu ver-
sehn ... Je feiner die K n o c h e n zertheilt, je inniger sie m i t d e m B o d e n ge-
m i s c h t sind, desto leichter wird die Assimilirbarkeit sein. (165) Als Prinzip
des Ackerbaus m u a n g e s e h n werden, d a der B o d e n in vollem Maasse
wieder erhalten m u , was i h m g e n o m m e n wird; in welcher F o r m die W i e - 20
dergeben geschieht, ob in der F o r m von E x c r e m e n t e n , oder von A s c h e oder
K n o c h e n , ist. ziemlich gleichgltig. Es wird eine Zeit k o m m e n , wo m a n
d e n Acker m i t einer Auflsung von Wassergas (kieselsaurem Kali), m i t der
A s c h e von v e r b r a n n t e m Stroh, w o m a n i h n m i t p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen
d n g e n wird, die m a n in c h e m i s c h e n F a b r i k e n bereitet. (167) Es giebt 25
Pflanzen, welche H u m u s bedrfen, o h n e bemerklich zu erzeugen; es giebt
andre, die i h n e n t b e h r e n k n n e n , die e i n e n h u m u s a r m e n B o d e n d a r a n be-
reichern; eine rationelle Cultur wird allen H u m u s fr die ersten, u n d kei-
n e n fr die a n d e r n verwenden, sie wird die leztern b e n u t z e n , um die er-
s t e m d a m i t zu versehn. (167, 8) Also jezt alles d e m B o d e n gegeben, was die 30
Pflanzen fr die Bildung der Holzfaser, des Korns, der Wurzel, des Sten-
gels aus d e m B o d e n z i e h n u n d jezt z u m wichtigsten Zweck des F e l d b a u s ,
n m l i c h zur Production von assimilirbarem Stickstoff, also von M a t e r i e n ,
welche Stickstoff enthalten. Das Blatt, was d e n Holzkrper nhrt, die W u r -
zel, aus der sich die Bltter entwickeln, was d e n F r c h t e n ihre Bestand- 35
theile zubereitet, alle Theile des O r g a n i s m u s der Pflanze e n t h a l t e n stick-
stoffhaltige M a t e r i e n in sehr wechselnden Verhltnissen; die W u r z e l n u n d
S a a m e n sind besonders reich daran. ... D i e N a t u r , die A t m o s p h r e liefert
d e n Stickstoff in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e zur n o r m a l e n Entwicklung einer
Pflanze u n d ihre Entwicklung schon n o r m a l , w e n n sie n u r ein einziges 40
S a a m e n k o r n wieder erzeugt, was fhig ist, in e i n e m darauf folgenden J a h r e
210
die Pflanze wiederkehren zu m a c h e n . ... eine weise Einrichtung giebt der

Pflanze die merkwrdige Fhigkeit, bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e allen
Stickstoff, der ihr dargeboten wird, in Nahrungsstoff fr das T h i e r zu ver-
wandeln. (168) W e n n es der Pflanze an Stickstoff fehlt, wird sie Kraut, a b e r
5 keine Krner, sie wird vielleicht Z u c k e r u n d A m y l o n , aber k e i n e n Kleber
erzeugen. G e b e n wir der Pflanze aber Stickstoff in reichlicher Quantitt, so
wird sie den Kohlenstoff, d e n sie zu seiner Assimilation bedarf, aus der
Luft, w e n n er im B o d e n fehlt, m i t der krftigsten Energie schpfen; wir ge-
b e n ihr in d e m Stickstoff das Mittel, um d e n Kohlenstoff aus der A t -
10 m o s p h r e in i h r e m O r g a n i s m u s zu fixiren. Als Dnger, der d u r c h s e i n e n
Stickstoffgehalt wirkt, die festen E x c r e m e n t e des Rindviehs, der Schaafe,
der Pferde gar n i c h t in Betracht zu ziehn, weil ihr G e h a l t an d i e s e m Be-
standtheil verschwindend klein ist; die m e n s c h l i c h e n E x c r e m e n t e verhlt-
nimssig reich an Stickstoff, ihr G e h a l t ist aber ausserordentlich varii-
15 rend; die E x c r e m e n t e der M e n s c h e n , die in d e n Stdten w o h n e n , wo m e h r
animalische Kost vorherrscht, reicher dran, als die von B a u e r n u n d ber-
h a u p t v o m L a n d e h e r g e n o m m e n e n ; Brod u n d Kartoffeln geben b e i m M e n -
schen E x c r e m e n t e von einer h n l i c h e n Beschaffenheit u n d Z u s a m m e n s e t -
zung, wie bei d e n Thieren. Die E x c r e m e n t e h a b e n in dieser B e z i e h u n g
20 e i n e n ungleichen W e r t h ; fr Sand- u n d Kalkboden, d e m es an kieselsau-
r e m Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen fehlt, h a b e n die E x c r e m e n t e der
Pferde u n d des R i n d v i e h s e i n e n ganz b e s o n d e r n N u t z e n , der sich fr kali-
reichen T h o n b o d e n , Basalt, G r a n i t , Porphyr, Klingstein, selbst fr Z e c h -
steinboden ausserordentlich vermindert; fr diesen leztern M e n s c h e n d n -
25 ger das H a u p t m i t t e l seine F r u c h t b a r k e i t ausserordentlich zu steigern;
denselben N u t z e n hat er n a t r l i c h fr alle B o d e n a r t e n b e r h a u p t , aber z u r
D n g u n g der e r s t e m k n n e n die E x c r e m e n t e der Thiere nicht e n t b e h r t
werden. (169, 170) V o n d e m Stickstoffgehalt der festen E x c r e m e n t e abge-
sehn, n u r eine Quelle von stickstoffhaltigem Dnger, diese Quelle ist der
30 Harn der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere. W i r bringen d e n H a r n entweder als Mist-
j a u c h e oder in der F o r m der E x c r e m e n t e selbst, die davon d u r c h d r u n g e n
sind, auf die Felder; es ist der H a r n , der den leztern die Fhigkeit giebt,
A m m o n i a k z u entwickeln ... I m H a r n geben wir den F e l d e r n A m m o n i a k -
salze, Harnsure, die a u s n e h m e n d reich an Stickstoff ist, u n d phosphor-
35 saure Salze, die im H a r n sich gelst befinden. (170) ||7| Bringt m a n d e n ge-
faulten Urin auf die Felder, so verdunstet ein Theil des k o h l e n s a u r e n
A m m o n i a k s m i t d e m Wasser ... D a s k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k m a c h t bei
seiner Bildung den H a r n alkalisch, in n o r m a l e m Z u s t a n d ist er sauer; w e n n
es sich verflchtigt u n d in der Luft verliert, so ist der Verlust b e i n a h e
40 gleich d e m Verlust an d e m h a l b e n G e w i c h t U r i n ; wenn wir es fixiren, d. h.
i h m seine Flchtigkeit n e h m e n , so h a b e n wir seine W i r k s a m k e i t aufs D o p -
211
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 Heft XII!
pelte erhht. ... Das d u r c h F u l n i des U r i n s erzeugte k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o -

n i a k k a n n auf mannigfaltige Weise fixirt, d. h. seiner Fhigkeit sich zu ver-
flchtigen b e r a u b t werden. D e n k e n wir u n s e i n e n Acker m i t Gyps bestreut,
d e n wir m i t gefaultem U r i n oder Mistjauche berfahren, so wird alles koh-
lensaure A m m o n i a k sich in schwefelsaures verwandeln, was in d e m Boden 5
bleibt. ... N o c h einfachre Mittel, u m alles k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k d e n
Pflanzen zu erhalten, ein Zusatz v o n Gyps, Chlorcalcium, Schwefelsure
oder Salzsure oder von s a u r e m p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk, lauter S u b s t a n z e n ,
deren Prei a u s n e h m e n d niedrig ist; bis z u m Verschwinden der Alkalinitt
des H a r n s wird das A m m o n i a k in ein Salz verwandeln, was seine Fhigkeit 10
sich zu verflchtigen, gnzlich verloren hat. ( 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 ) Das A m m o n i a k ,
was sich in Stllen u n d aus Abtritten entwickelt, ist u n t e r allen U m s t n d e n
m i t Kohlensure v e r b u n d e n . K o h l e n s a u r e s A m m o n i a k u n d schwefelsaurer
Kalk (Gyps) bei gewhnlicher T e m p e r a t u r n i c h t in B e r h r u n g zu bringen,
o h n e sich gegenseitig zu zersetzen. D a s A m m o n i a k vereinigt sich m i t der 15
Schwefelsure, die K o h l e n s u r e m i t d e m Kalk zu V e r b i n d u n g e n , die n i c h t
flchtig, d. h. geruchlos sind. Bestreuen wir d e n B o d e n der Stlle von Zeit
zu Zeit m i t gepulvertem Gyps, so wird der Stall seinen G e r u c h verlieren ,
u n d nicht die kleinste Q u a n t i t t A m m o n i a k geht fr die Felder verloren.
(173, 4) Der Ackerbau der C h i n e s e n ist der v o l l k o m m e n s t e in der Welt. 20
(175) W e n n wir a n n e h m e n , da die flssigen u n d festen E x c r e m e n t e eines
M e n s c h e n tglich n u r 1% Pfund betragen ( Pfd U r i n u n d % Pfd fester Ex-
cremente), da beide z u s a m m e n 3 P. C. Stickstoff enthalten, so wir in
e i n e m J a h r 547 Pfd E x c r e m e n t e , welche 16,41 Pfd Stickstoff e n t h a l t e n ,
eine Quantitt, die hinreicht, um 800 Pfd Weizen-, Roggen-, Hafer- u n d 25
900 Pfd G e r s t e n k r n e r n d e n Stickstoff zu liefern. D i e ist bei w e i t e m m e h r
als m a n e i n e m M o r g e n L a n d h i n z u z u s e t z e n braucht, u m m i t d e m Stick-
stoff, d e n die Pflanzen aus der A t m o s p h r e saugen, ein jedes J a h r die
reichlichsten E r n d t e n zu erzielen. E i n e j e d e Ortschaft, eine j e d e Stadt
k n n t e bei A n w e n d u n g von Fruchtwechsel alle ihre Felder m i t d e m stick- 30
stoffreichsten D n g e r versehn, der n o c h b e r d i e der reichste an phosphor-
sauren Salzen ist. Bei M i t b e n u t z u n g der K n o c h e n u n d der ausgelaugten
Holzasche wrden alle E x c r e m e n t e von T h i e r e n vllig entbehrlich sein.
Die E x c r e m e n t e der M e n s c h e n lassen sich, w e n n d u r c h ein zweckmssiges
Verfahren die Feuchtigkeit entfernt u n d das freie A m m o n i a k g e b u n d e n 35
wird, in eine F o r m bringen, welche die V e r s e n d u n g , a u c h auf weite Strek-
ken hin, erlaubt. (175, 6) D e r H a r n der Pferde ist weit weniger reich an
Stickstoff u n d phosphorsauren Salzen. ... 100 Theile M e n s c h e n h a r n ent-
h a l t e n m e h r wie 4x so viel. Der K u h h a r n ist vorzglich reich an Kalisal-
zen ... Der H a r n der Schweine ist vorzglich reich an p h o s p h o r s a u r e m Bit- 40
t e r e r d e - A m m o n i a k ... (p. 178) Es ist klar, da w e n n wir die festen u n d
212
flssigen E x c r e m e n t e der M e n s c h e n u n d die flssigen der Thiere in d e m

Verhltni zu d e m Stickstoff auf u n s e r e Aecker bringen, den wir in der
F o r m von G e w c h s e n darauf gerndtet h a b e n , so wird die S u m m e des
Stickstoffs auf d e m G u t j h r l i c h w a c h s e n m s s e n . D e n n z u d e m , welchen
5 wir in d e m D n g e r zufhren, ist aus der A t m o s p h r e eine gewisse Q u a n t i -
tt h i n z u g e k o m m e n . W a s wir in der F o r m von G e t r e i d e u n d Vieh an Stick-
stoff ausfhren, was sich davon in grossen Stdten anhuft, k o m m t a n d e r n
F e l d e r n zu gut, wenn wir ihn n i c h t ersetzen. E i n G u t , was keine W i e s e n
h a t u n d nicht Felder genug fr d e n A n b a u von Futtergewchsen besizt,
10 m u stickstoffhaltigen D n g e r von aussen einfhren, w e n n m a n auf i h m
ein M a x i m u m von Ertrag erzielen soll. A u f grssern G t e r n ersetzen die
W i e s e n den j h r l i c h e n Ausfall an Stickstoff aufs Vollstndigste wieder. D e r
einzig wirkliche Verlust an Stickstoff also beschrnkt auf das Q u a n t u m ,
das die M e n s c h e n in ihre G r b e r n e h m e n , in M a x i m o 3 Pfund fr j e d e s In-
15 dividuum, welche sich auf ein ganzes M e n s c h e n a l t e r vertheilen; die
bleibt den G e w c h s e n unverloren, d e n n d u r c h F u l n i u n d Verwesung
kehrt dieselbe in der F o r m von A m m o n i a k in die A t m o s p h r e zurck. E i n e
gesteigerte Cultur erfordert eine gesteigerte D n g u n g . ([178,] 179) W e n n
m a n erwgt, da j e d e s Pfund A m m o n i a k , welches u n b e n u z t verdampft,
20 e i n e m Verlust von 60 Pfund G e t r e i d e gleichkommt, da m i t j e d e m Pfunde
U r i n ein Pfund W e i z e n g e w o n n e n werden k a n n , so ist die Leichtfertigkeit
unbegreiflich, mit welcher grade die flssigen E x c r e m e n t e betrachtet wer-
den. (I.e.) Die frischen K n o c h e n , Wolle, L u m p e n , Haare, K l a u e n u n d H o r n
sind stickstoffhaltige Dnger, die gleichzeitig d u r c h ihren G e h a l t an
25 phosphorsauren Salzen A n t h e i l an d e m vegetabilischen Lebensprozesse
n e h m e n . (179, 80)
213
J. C. Loudon.
An Encyclopaedia of Agriculture etc
2 ed. L o n d o n 1831.
Part I. Agriculture considered as to its origin,

progress, and present state among different 5
Nations, Governments and Climates.
Book I. History of Agriculture

amongst ancient and modern Nations.
Agriculture is no longer an art of labour, but of science. (2) N a c h d e m Fall

des r m i s c h e n Reichs, Verfall der Agricultur in Europa, chiefly preserved 10
on the estates of the c h u r c h . (4) 1) ltes Aejypten. die canals u n d b a n k s
(Deiche, D m m e ) die still r e m a i n in Lower Ejypt u n d besonders in d e m
Delta, sind evidences des extent wozu e m b a n k i n g ( E i n d m m e n ) Irrigation
u n d drainage (Austrocknen, Abzugskanle) have b e e n carried. (6) by a suc-
cession of wheels, and gradation of a q u e d u c t s , it is said, s o m e hills, a n d 15
even m o u n t a i n s , were watered to their s u m m i t s . (I.e.) |
214
Aus Joseph Townsend: A dissertation on the poor laws
|8| A Dissertation on the Poorlaws.

By a Wellwisher to Mankind.
1786 (J. Townsend.)
R e p u b l . L o n d o n 1817.
5 Diese laws (die poorlaws), so beautiful in theory, p r o m o t e the evils they

m e a n to remedy, a n d aggravate t h e distress they were i n t e n d e d to relieve.
(2) Sagt also s c h o n v o n d e m d a m a l i g e n (1786) Zustand in England:
There never was greater distress a m o n g the poor: there never was m o r e
m o n e y collected for their relief. B u t what is m o s t perplexing is, t h a t poverty
10 and wretchedness have increased in exact proportion to the efforts which
have b e e n m a d e for the comfortable subsistence of the poor; a n d t h a t wher-
ever m o s t is e x p e n d e d for their support, there objects of distress are m o s t
a b u n d a n t etc. (7) Die n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y dieser laws is to increase the n u m -
ber of the poor, a n d greatly to e x t e n d the b o u n d s of h u m a n misery. (13)
15 T h e poor know little of the motives which stimulate the higher r a n k s to ac-
tionpride, h o n o u r a n d a m b i t i o n . In general it is only h u n g e r w h i c h can
spur a n d goad t h e m on to labour; yet o u r laws have said, they shall never
hunger. Allerdings wollen diese Gesetze sie a u c h compel to work. A b e r le-
gal constraint is a t t e n d e d m i t too m u c h trouble, violence, a n d n o i s e ;
20 creates ill will etc whereas hunger is not only a peaceable, silent, unremitted
pressure, but, as the most natural motive to industry and labour, it calls forth the
most powerful exertions. (15) A u c h die n a t r l i c h e Herrschaft b e r d e n
K n e c h t durch das A r m e n g e s e t z gebrochen. An e i n e n Magistrate appelliren
is from a superior t r i b u n a l to the inferior ... T h e wisest legislator will
25 never be able to devise a m o r e equitable, a m o r e effectual, or in any respect
a m o r e suitable p u n i s h m e n t , t h a n h u n g e r is for a disobedient servant.
( 2 1 - 2 3 ) D u r c h die A r m e n g e s e t z e der Arbeitslohn erhht. U n d : the h i g h
215
price of labour raises the value of provisions, a n d the high price of provi-
sions e n h a n c e s the value of labour. (30) It seems to be a law of nature, that
the poor should be to a certain degree improvident, that there may always be
some to fulfil the most servile, the most sordid, and the most ignoble offices in the
community. The stock of human happiness is thereby much increased, die delica- 5
teren sind befreit von der drudgery, und knnen hhern callings etc ungestrt
nachgehn. (39) T h e fleets a n d armies of a state would soon be in want of
soldiers a n d of sailors, if sobriety a n d diligence universally prevailed ...
M e n who are easy in their circumstances are n o t a m o n g the foremost to en-
gage in a seafaring or military life. D i e A r m e n g e s e t z e n u n v e r m e h r e n zwar 10
die improvidence, m a c h e n die poor aber n i c h t geneigt sich zu fgen in die
d e m a n d s , which the c o m m u n i t y is obliged to m a k e on the m o s t indigent
of its m e m b e r s ; it tends to destroy the harmony and beauty, the symmetry and
order of that system, which god and nature have established in the world.
( 3 9 - 4 1 ) In the Progress of society ... s o m e m u s t want; a n d t h e n the only 15
question will be this, W h o is m o s t worthy to suffer cold a n d hunger, the
prodigal or provident, the slothful or the diligent, the virtuous or the vi-
cious? (42) E r z h l t p. 42 s q q . die e r b a u l i c h e G e s c h i c h t e von den 2 Ziegen
(Bock u n d Ziege) die J o h n F e r n a n d o auf der J u a n F e r n a n d e s in der Sdsee
bei ihrer E n t d e c k u n g lie. W i e diese bald die ganze Colonie anfllen; 20
H u n g e r u n t e r i h n e n ausbricht oder a vessel in distress u n t e r i h n e n auf-
r u m t . Spter die Spanier, um d e n english privateers zu schaden, W i n d -
h u n d u n d W i n d h n d i n auf dieselbe Insel sezten. R a s c h e V e r m e h r u n g der-
selben, aber die Ziegen flchten in die craggy rocks ... n o n e b u t the m o s t
watchful, strong, and active of the dogs could get a sufficiency of food. 25
(I.e.) It is the quantity of food which regulates the n u m b e r of the h u m a n
species. In the woods u n d in d e m savage state wenige i n h a b i t a n t s ; von
diesen h a b e n aber n u r verhltnimssig wenige M a n g e l zu leiden. As long
as food is plenty they will c o n t i n u e to increase a n d multiply; ... the weak
m u s t depend u p o n the precarious b o u n t y of the strong; and, sooner or lat- 30
er, the lazy will be left to suffer the n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e of their i n d o l e n c e .
F h r e n sie n u n Gtergemeinschaft ein u n d lassen j e d e m die Freiheit z u
heirathen, they would at first increase their n u m b e r s , b u t n o t the s u m total
of their happiness, till by degrees, all being equally reduced to want a n d
misery, the weakly would be the first to perish. N e h m e n sie, to procure a 35
m o r e ample, certain a n d regular supply of food ihre Zuflucht z u m breeding
of cattle, this plenty would be of long c o n t i n u a n c e ; b u t in process of t i m e
its limits would be found. Die activsten wrden property erwerben, zahl-
reiche H e r d e n u n d F a m i l i e n h a b e n ; whilst the i n d o l e n t would either
starve or b e c o m e servants to the rich, a n d the c o m m u n i t y would c o n t i n u e 40
to enlarge till it h a d found its n a t u r a l b o u n d s , a n d b a l a n c e d the quantity of
216
Aus Joseph Townsend: A dissertation on the poor laws
food. Aehnliches R a i s o n n e m e n t b e i m Ackerbau, when all that is fertile

has b e e n cultivated to the highest pitch of industry, the progress m u s t of
necessity be stopped, a n d w h e n the h u m a n species shall ||9| h a v e m u l t i -
plied in proportion to this increase of food, it can proceed no further ...
5 T h e earth is no where m o r e fertile t h a n it is in China, n o r does any country
a b o u n d so m u c h in people; yet t h e cries of deserted children prove, t h a t
even they have found limits to their population. ... whilst m e n have appe-
tites and passions, what b u t distress a n d poverty can stop the progress of
population? T h e i n h a b i t a n t s of E u r o p e are said to have doubled their n u m -
10 bers every 500 years: from which we m a y infer that their quantity of food
has b e e n doubled in these periods. T h r o u g h o u t A m e r i c a , for the s a m e rea-
son, they have b e e n d o u b l e d every 25 years; a n d in some colonies, in the
space of 15 years. W e n n a new u n d equal division of property were m a d e in
England ... oder gar a p e r m a n e n t c o m m u n i t y of goods eingefhrt ... wird
15 n u r divertirt the occasional surplus of n a t i o n a l wealth from the industrious
to the lazy, they increase the n u m b e r of unprofitable citizens, a n d sow the
seeds of misery for the whole c o m m u n i t y ... It is well known that o u r c o m -
m o n s , without stint, starve all our cattle. H e r e we clearly see the n a t u r a l ef-
fects of that c o m m u n i t y of goods, which the poor laws would r e n d e r univer-
20 sal. ( 4 5 - 5 1 ) In respect to population, s o m e countries will reach their ne
plus ultra sooner, a n d s o m e later, according as they s u r m o u n t the obstacles
which i m p e d e their progress. This period can be retarded by i m p r o v e m e n t s
in agriculture, by living h a r d e r or by working m o r e , by extensive c o n q u e s t s
or by increasing c o m m e r c e . (54, 5) H a t ein L a n d trotz alledem reached its
25 u t m o s t limits d a n n n u r 2 r e m e d i e s : natrliche E n t h a l t e n v o m H e i r a t h e n
oder A u s w a n d e r n aller die in distress. Unnatural: Aussetzen der K i n d e r
which is the horrid practice a d o p t e d in t h e richest country u p o n earth to
preserve the c o m m u n i t y from famine. (56, 7) There is an appetite, (sagt der
Pfaffe v o m Geschlechtstrieb) w h i c h is a n d should be urgent, b u t which, if
30 left to operate without restraint, would multiply the h u m a n species before
provision could be m a d e for their support. Some check, s o m e b a l a n c e is
therefore absolutely needful, a n d hunger is the proper balance; hunger, n o t
as directly felt, or feared by the individual for himself b u t as foreseen a n d
feared for his i m m e d i a t e offspring. (57) Various are the circumstances to
35 be observed in different n a t i o n s , which t e n d to b l u n t the shafts of Cupid, or
at least to q u e n c h the torch of H y m e n . . B. G e l b d e der K e u s c h h e i t aus
religisem Aberglauben. Serail. Klugheit, b e m e r k b a r berall auf d e m Occi-
d e n t i n d e m Nichtverheiratetsein der j n g r e n S h n e ... W e n n alle heira-
theten, if all should listen to this call of n a t u r e , ... the whole world in a few
40 years would be distressed with famine. (57, 8) N e i t h e r Switzerland n o r t h e
coast of Africa, are depopulated by emigrations, because t h e quantity of
217
food in e a c h r e m a i n s unaltered. It is with t h e h u m a n species as with all

other articles of trade without a p r e m i u m ; the d e m a n d will regulate the
market. (61, 2)
Speculation apart, it is a fact, t h a t in England, we have m o r e t h a n we can
feed, a n d m a n y m o r e t h a n we can profitably employ u n d e r the present sys- 5
t e m of our laws. (65) N o c h m e i n t er fhle m a n n i c h t alle s c h l i m m e n Fol-
gen der Ueberpopulation in England. T h e t e n d e n c y of a law m a y be most
destructive; yet, by adventitious circumstances, the bad c o n s e q u e n c e s m a y
be checked a n d prevented for a season. (66) Bis die workhouses are com-
pletely filled, a n d even after they are full, they serve a d o u b l e purpose: they 10
disarm the magistrate, they i n t i m i d a t e the poor. (67) It has b e e n chiefly
from the want of houses t h a t the poor have n o t m o r e rapidly increased. (68)
no system can be good which does not, in the first place, encourage i n d u s -
try, economy, a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n ; a n d in the second place, regulate popula-
tion by the d e m a n d for labour. (94) In m a n y parishes where they have no 15
manufactures, b u t the cultivation of the soil, the horses c o n s u m e the pro-
d u c e of m o r e land t h a n t h e i n h a b i t a n t s themselves require. (101)
218
Aus Joseph Townsend: A journey through Spain
Joseph Townsend. A Journey through Spain

in the years 1786 und 1787. 3 vol.
L o n d o n 1791.
vol. II.
5 T. s a g t v o n S p a n i e n : I n d e p e n d e n t of the M e r i n o Flock, m a n y of t h e great

landlords have suffered villages to go to ruin, a n d have let their estates to
graziers. (227) If we suppose, in a good climate, with plenty of food a n d
healthy habitations, the n u m b e r of children in each family on the average
to be 4, a n d the m e a n age to which they shall arrive to be 50 years; if t h e
10 m e n should marry at the age of 2 1 , a n d the w o m e n at 19, t h e n o n e couple
at the e n d of 33 years, will leave 12 d e s c e n d a n t s . In 59 years there will be
24 persons; and at the e n d of 129 J a h r e n 188 oder 90,4 x their first n u m -
ber. (360, 1) D e r Progress der Bevlkerung m a y be retarded d u r c h : 1) want
of food; C h i n a a u c h hier angefhrt als das L a n d wo population is ad-
15 vanced to the u t m o s t ability of the soil to nourish. 2) diseases. 3) want of
c o m m e r c e for the p r o m o t i o n of industry, a n d of a m a r k e t for the surplus of
its produce. 4) war in all its forms. 5) superstitious vows i m p o s e d on t h e
m o n a s t i c orders, a n d celibacy enjoined the priesthood. 6) E m i g r a t i o n of
the breeding stock, a n d transference of capitals. 7) want of land, or t h e op-
20 portunity of acquiring it by industry. 8) want of habitations. ( 3 6 2 - 4 )
219
Townsend sagt noch in seinem erst

citirten Buch:
On the subject of population we have h a d warm disputes, whilst some have
l a m e n t e d that our n u m b e r s are decreasing, and others with confidence
have boasted that our population has rapidly advanced; all seeming to be 5
agreed, that the wealth of a country consists in the n u m b e r of its inhabit-
ants. ||10| D i e sei a b e r n u r w a h r , wenn P o p u l a t i o n die Consequenz von
Industrie u n d frugality. (54)
220
Aus Robert Wallace: A dissertation on the number of mankind
A dissertation on the Number of Mankind

in ancient and modern Times. In which the
superior Populousness of Antiquity
is maintained.
5 E d i n b u r g h . 1753.
(von Wallace.)
Gesezt es existire n u r ein Paar; a n g e n o m m e n , d a alle marry who attain to
maturity u n d da j e d e E h e 6 K i n d e r producirt, 3 males u n d 3 females; 2
davon sollen sterben vor der E h e 1 M a n n u n d 1 female; bleiben 4 zu marry
10 u n d replenish the world: in 33 years von der Zeit, wo das original pair b e -
gan to propagate, they shall have p r o d u c e d their 6 children; u n d d a in der
1
2 Periode von 33 J a h r e n jedes der succeeding couples 6 K i n d e r producirt
u n d so fort. D a n a c h : Am E n d e der ersten Periode von 33 J a h r e n sind
6 persons living, n m l i c h das Originalpaar u n d 4 a n d r e : an d e m E n d e von
15 66 J a h r e n 12; against 100 years 24 u n d b e r das G a n z e lsst sich folgende
Tabelle m a c h e n :
221
Periode, Jahre Geboren Gestorben Remain in Gestorben Summe aller Die sums
des seit der seit der life to at an die leben der lezten
Schemes. lezten lezten propagate advanced in den Columne
Periode. Periode. age respectiven gesam-
Perioden. melt, 5
(addirt.)
0 1 0 0 0 0 2 2
1 33 6 2 4 0 2+ 4 6
2
2 66 / 3 12 4 8 2 6+ 8 - 2 12
3 100 24 8 16 4 12+ 16- 4 24 10
4 133 48 16 32 8 24+ 32 - 8 48
5 2
166 / 3
96 32 64 16 48+ 64- 16 96
6 200 192 64 128 32 96 + 128 - 32 192
(p. 3 u. 4)
A n d thus we shall find m a n k i n d to double themselves in e a c h period of 15

33 years, as will be evident from t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of the table. (5) D i e
t e
giebt fr die 7 Periode, also im 233 J a h r des s c h e m e , 384 E i n w o h n e r u n d
in der 37sten Periode, im 1233 J a h r des S c h e m e s eine E i n w o h n e r z a h l von
412, 316, 860, 416. (7) Die Zahl, diese R a t e des Progresses ist aber zu gro,
da sonst die M e n s c h e n m u s t have overstocked the earth long before the 20
deluge. (8) A b e r s a g t er: it is certain, t h a t they (die M e n s c h e n ) multiply ir-
regularly, a n d m a y have b e e n m o r e n u m e r o u s i n s o m e preceeding, t h a n
some s u b s e q u e n t ages; u n d da, d u r c h verschiedne U r s a c h e n , there has
never b e e n s u c h a n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s on t h e earth at any o n e p o i n t of
t i m e , as might have b e e n easily raised by the prolific virtue of m a n k i n d . 25
(12) Die Ursachen dieser paucity of i n h a b i t a n t s u n d irregularity of in-
crease, sind mannigfach: natrliche u n d moralische. Erstre bald m e h r con-
stanter Natur, wie Temperatur, Clima, barrenness etc o d e r m e h r wech-
selnd, wie inclemency besondrer seasons, plagues, famines, E r d b e b e n ,
U e b e r s c h w e m m u n g e n . (12) S c h l i m m r e n Effect h a b e n die moral causes, 30
which arise from the passions a n d vices of m e n ; d a z u gehren Krieg, great
poverty, corrupt institutions sei es civiler oder religiser Art, i n t e m p e r a n c e ,
debauchery, irregular a m o u r s , idleness, luxury, u n d whatever either pre-
vents marriage, weakens t h e generating faculties of m e n , or renders t h e m
negligent or incapable of educating their children, and cultivating the earth 35
to advantage. ... I n d e e d , h a d it n o t b e e n for the errors a n d vices of m a n -
kind, and the defects of government a n d education, the earth m u s t have
b e e n m u c h better peopled, perhaps m i g h t have b e e n overstocked, m a n y
ages ago. (13) 'Twas simplicity of taste, frugality, p a t i e n c e of labour, a n d
c o n t e n t m e n t with a little, which m a d e the world so p o p u l o u s in a n c i e n t 40
times. T h e decay of these virtues, a n d the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a corrupted a n d
luxurious taste, have contributed in a great m e a s u r e to d i m i n i s h the n u m -
bers of m a n k i n d in m o d e r n days. ... elegance u n d refinement, wenn dis-
222
Aus Robert Wallace: A dissertation on the number of mankind
played in public works, a n d things of a durable n a t u r e , contribute zur h a p -

piness u n d g r a n d e u r der Gesellschaft u n d sind kein H i n d e r n i fr die
populousness. But if displayed in every t h e least trifle in private life, a n d
employed to satisfy the ridiculous taste a n d whimsical fancies of e a c h par-
5 ticular citizen, m u s t c o n t r i b u t e in a great degree to d i m i n i s h the n u m b e r of
m a n k i n d , as the c o n s t a n t labour, great expence, a n d n u m b e r of h a n d s , by
which this luxury is m a i n t a i n e d , m u s t m a k e the necessaries of life scarce
a n d dear. (160) |
223
| i i | David Hume: Political Discourses.

E d i n b u r g h . 1752.
On the Populousness of ancient Nations.
As there is in all m e n , b o t h female a n d m a l e , a desire a n d power of genera-

tion m o r e active t h a n is ever universally exerted, the restraints, which it 5
lies u n d e r , m u s t proceed from s o m e difficulties in m e n s situation, which it
belongs to a wise legislature carefully to observe a n d remove. A l m o s t every
m a n , who thinks he can m a i n t a i n a family, will have o n e ; a n d the h u m a n
species, at this rate of propagation, would m o r e t h a n double every genera-
tion, were every one coupled as soon as he comes to the age of puberty. 10
H o w fast do m a n k i n d multiply in every colony or new settlement; where it
is an easy m a t t e r to provide for a family; a n d where m e n are no way
straitned or confin'd, as in long establish'd governments? History tells us
frequently of plagues, that have swept away the third or 4 part of a people:
Yet in a generation or 2, the destruction was n o t perceiv'd; a n d the society 15
has again acquir'd their former n u m b e r etc. (159, 60) To rear a child in
L o n d o n , till he could be serviceable, would cost m u c h dearer, t h a n to buy
o n e of the same age from Scotland or Ireland; where he h a d b e e n rais'd in
a cottage, cover'd with rags, and fed on o a t m e a l or potatoes. Those who h a d
slaves, therefore, in all the richer a n d m o r e p o p u l o u s countries, w o u ' d dis- 20
courage the pregnancy of the females, a n d either prevent or destroy the
birth. T h e h u m a n species would perish in those places, where it ought to
encrease the fastest; a n d a perpetual recruit be n e e d e d from all the poorer
a n d m o r e desert provinces. Such a c o n t i n u e d drain would t e n d mightily to
depopulate t h e state, a n d render great cities ten t i m e s m o r e destructive 25
t h a n with us. ... If L o n d o n , at present, without m u c h encreasing, n e e d s a
yearly recruit from t h e country of 5000 people, as is c o m m o n l y c o m p u t e d :
224
Aus David Hume: Political discourses
W h a t m u s t it require, if the greatest part of t h e t r a d e s m e n a n d c o m m o n

people were slaves, a n d were h i n d e r ' d from breeding, by their avaricious
masters? (167, 8)
225
1
(Malthus.) An Essay on the Principle of

Population, as it affects the Future
Improvement of Society. With Remarks on the
Speculations of Mr Godwin, M. Condorcet
and other writers. 5
L o n d o n . 1798.
Necessity, that imperious all pervading law of n a t u r e , restrains t h e m (Pflan-

zen u n d Thiere) within the prescribed b o u n d s . T h e race of plants, a n d the
race of animals shrink u n d e r this great restrictive law. A n d the race of m a n
cannot, by any efforts of reason, escape from it. A m o n g plants a n d a n i m a l s 10
its effects are waste of seed, sickness, a n d p r e m a t u r e death. A m o n g m a n -
kind, misery a n d vice. ... misery is an absolutely necessary c o n s e q u e n c e of
it. Vice is a highly probable c o n s e q u e n c e . (15) if the premises are just, the
a r g u m e n t is conclusive against the perfectibility of the m a s s of m a n k i n d .
(17) Population, w h e n u n c h e c k e d increases in a geometrical ratio; a n d sub- 15
sistence for m a n in an arithmetical ratio. (18) In no state that we have yet
known, has t h e power of p o p u l a t i o n b e e n left to exert itself with perfect
freedom. (19) In the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a , where the m e a n s of subsist-
ence have b e e n m o r e ample, the m a n n e r s of the people m o r e pure, a n d
consequently the checks to early marriages fewer, t h a n in any of the m o d - 20
ern states of Europe, the p o p u l a t i o n has b e e n found to d o u b l e itself in
25 years. This ratio of increase, t h o u g h short of the u t m o s t power of popu-
lation; yet as the result of actual experience, we will take as o u r rule; a n d
say, ( s c h n e Beweisfhrung) T h a t Population, w h e n u n c h e c k e d , goes on
doubling itself every 25 years, or increases in a geometrical ratio. (20, 1) In 25
d e n ersten 25 J a h r e n m a g die Subsistenz verdoppelt werden, by breaking
226
IF
Aus Thomas Robert Malthus: An essay on the principle of population
u p m o r e land, a n d b y great e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o agriculture. I n d e n n c h s t e n

25 J a h r e n it is impossible to suppose t h a t the p r o d u c e could be q u a d r u -
pled. ... T h e very u t m o s t that we c a n conceive, is, that the increase in t h e
second 25 years m i g h t e q u a l t h e present p r o d u c e . Let us t h e n take this for
5 our rule, t h o u g h certainly far b e y o n d t h e t r u t h ... This ratio of increase is
evidently arithmetical. ([21,] 22) It m a y be fairly said, therefore, (wofr?)
that the m e a n s of subsistence increase in an arithmetical ratio. Let us n o w
bring the effects of these 2 ratios together. (23) ( G r o s s e r Logiker.) Taking
the population of t h e world at any n u m b e r , a 1000 millions, for instance,
10 the h u m a n species would increase in the ratio of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128,
256, 512 etc u n d subsistence as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 etc. In 2 centuries
and %, the population would be to the m e a n s of subsistence = 512:10: in
3 centuries = 4096:13 u n d in 2000 years t h e difference would be almost in-
calculable, t h o u g h the p r o d u c e in t h a t t i m e would have increased to an i m -
15 m e n s e extent. (25, 26) No limits whatever are placed to the p r o d u c t i o n s of
the earth; they m a y increase for ever a n d be greater t h a n any assignable
quantity; yet still the power of p o p u l a t i o n being a power of a superior or-
der, the increase of the h u m a n species c a n only be kept c o m m e n s u r a t e to
the increase of the m e a n s of subsistence, by t h e constant operation of t h e
20 strong law of necessity acting as a check u p o n the greater power. (26) D e r
constant effort towards p o p u l a t i o n , der act selbst in d e n most vicious socie-
ties, increases the n u m b e r of people before the m e a n s of subsistence are in-
creased. Dieselbe food d a h e r u n t e r m e h r M u l e r z u theilen. D e r poor m u
daher schlechter leben, m a n c h e in grosse distress gebracht. D e r Arbeits-
25 lohn sinkt, weil der Prei der provisions steigt. W h r e n d dieser Periode
Population stationr. In der Zwischenzeit encouragirt die Wohlfeilheit der
Arbeit, die plenty of labourers, u n d ihre vermehrte Industrie die ||12| culti-
vators to employ m o r e labour u p o n their l a n d etc etc bis schlielich die
Subsistenzmittel in derselben Proportion zur Bevlkerung wie frher.
30 D a n n die Situation der Arbeiter wieder ertrglich comfortable, the re-
straints to population are in s o m e degree loosened; a n d the s a m e retrograde
u n d progressive m o v e m e n t s with respect to happiness are repeated. This
sort of oscillation oder vibration existirt in alien old states. ( 2 9 - 3 1 ) A fore-
sight of the difficulties a t t e n d i n g t h e rearing of a family, acts as a preventive
35 check; a n d the actual distresses of s o m e of the lower classes, by which they
are disabled from giving the proper food and attention to their children,
acts as a positive check, to the n a t u r a l increase of population. (62, 3) Die ef-
fects der preventiven checks, dieser restraints u p o n marriage are but to
conspicuous in the c o n s e q u e n t vices that are p r o d u c e d in almost every part
40 of the world; vices, that are continually involving b o t h sexes in inextricable
u n h a p p i n e s s . (69, 70) W e n n i c h e i n e m a r m e n M a n n Geld gebe, supposing
227
t h e p r o d u c e of the country to r e m a i n the same, I give h i m a title to a larger

share of that produce t h a n formerly, which share he c a n n o t receive without
diminishing the shares of others. (80) T h e poorlaws of England t e n d to de-
press the general condition of the poor in these 2 ways. Their first obvious
t e n d e n c y is to increase p o p u l a t i o n without increasing the food for its sup- 5
p o r t . . . d a d u r c h der Prei der provisions erhht, d a d u r c h ein grosser Theil
auf die parish geworfen. ... Secondly, die quantity of provisions c o n s u m e d
in workhouses u p o n a part of the society, that c a n n o t in general be consid-
ered as the most valuable part, d i m i n i s h e s the shares that would otherwise
belong to m o r e industrious, a n d m o r e worthy m e m b e r s , u n d t h u s in the 10
same m a n n e r forces m o r e to b e c o m e d e p e n d e n t . ([83,] 84) All the checks
m a y be fairly resolved into misery a n d vice. (100) F a m i n e seems to be the
last, the m o s t dreadful resource of n a t u r e . T h e power of p o p u l a t i o n is so su-
perior to the power in the earth to p r o d u c e subsistence for m a n , that pre-
m a t u r e d e a t h m u s t in s o m e shape or other visit the h u m a n race. T h e vices 15
of m a n k i n d are active and able ministers of depopulation. T h e y are the
precursors in the great army of destruction; a n d often finish the dreadful
work themselves. But should they fail in this war of extermination, sickly
seasons, epidemics, pestilence, a n d plague, advance in terrific array, a n d
sweep off their t h o u s a n d s a n d ten t h o u s a n d s . Should success be still in- 20
complete; gigantic inevitable famine stalks in the rear, a n d with o n e
mighty blow, levels t h e population with the food of the world. (139, 40) Es
gilt also in every age and in every state in which m a n has existed, or does
now exist. 1) T h a t the increase of p o p u l a t i o n is necessarily limited by the
m e a n s of subsistence. 2) that p o p u l a t i o n does invariably increase w h e n the 25
m e a n s of subsistence increase. A n d 3) T h a t the superior power of popula-
tion is repressed, and the actual p o p u l a t i o n kept e q u a l to the m e a n s of sub-
sistence by misery and vice. (140, 41) t h e t r u t h is, t h a t t h o u g h h u m a n insti-
tutions appear to be the obvious a n d obstrusive causes of m u c h mischief to
m a n k i n d ; yet, in reality, they are light a n d superficial, they are m e r e feath- 30
ers that float on the surface, in c o m p a r i s o n with those deeper seated causes
of impurity that corrupt the springs, a n d r e n d e r turbid the whole stream of
h u m a n life. (177) the most n a t u r a l a n d obvious check seemed to be, to
m a k e every m a n provide for his own children. (199) D i e liegt zu G r a n d e
der institution of marriage. (200) W h e n these 2 f u n d a m e n t a l laws of so- 35
ciety, the security of property, a n d the institution of marriage, were o n c e
established, inequality of conditions m u s t necessarily follow. T h o s e who
were b o r n after the division of property, would c o m e into a world already
possessed. If their parents, from having too large a family, could n o t give
t h e m sufficient for their support, what are they to do in a world where every 40
thing is appropriated? ... It has appeared, t h a t from the inevitable laws of
228
Aus Thomas Robert Malthus: An essay on the principle of population
our n a t u r e , some h u m a n beings m u s t suffer from want. These are the u n -

happy persons who, in the great lottery of life, have drawn a blank. T h e
n u m b e r s of these c l a i m a n t s would soon exceed the ability of the surplus
produce to supply. ... Die Besitzer dieses surplusproduce werden d a n n
5 T h e i l n e h m e n lassen, who were able, a n d professed themselves willing, to
exert their strength in procuring a further surplus produce ... T h e fund a p -
propriated to the m a i n t e n a n c e of labour, would be, the aggregate quantity
of food possessed by t h e owners of l a n d b e y o n d their own c o n s u m p t i o n .
W h e n the d e m a n d s u p o n this fund were great a n d n u m e r o u s , it would nat-
10 urally be divided in very small shares. L a b o u r would be ill paid. M e n would
offer to work for a bare subsistence, a n d t h e rearing of families would be
checked by sickness a n d misery. On the contrary, when this fund was in-
creasing fast; w h e n it was great in proportion to the n u m b e r of c l a i m a n t s ; it
would be divided in m u c h larger shares. ... On the state of this fund, t h e
15 happiness or the degree of misery, prevailing a m o n g the lower classes of
people ... at present chiefly d e p e n d s . A n d on this happiness, or degree of
misery, depends the increase, stationariness, or decrease of p o p u l a t i o n .
( 2 0 3 - 2 0 6 ) the principal a r g u m e n t of this essay tends to place in a strong
point of view, the improbability, t h a t the lower classes of people in any
20 country, should ever be sufficiently free from want a n d labour, to attain
any high degree of intellectual i m p r o v e m e n t . (217, 18) It should be o b -
served, that the principal a r g u m e n t of this essay, only goes to prove the n e -
cessity of a class of proprietors, a n d a class of labourers. (287 N o t e ) U p o n
examination, it will be found, t h a t the increase (des R e i c h t h u m s im m o -
25 dernen Europa und besonders England) has b e e n chiefly in the p r o d u c e
of labour, and n o t in t h e p r o d u c e of land; and therefore, t h o u g h t h e wealth
of the n a t i o n has b e e n advancing with a quick pace, the effectual funds for
the m a i n t e n a n c e of l a b o u r have b e e n increasing very slowly; a n d t h e result
is such as might be expected. T h e increasing wealth of the n a t i o n has h a d
30 little or no tendency to better the c o n d i t i o n of the labouring poor. T h e y
have not, I believe, a greater c o m m a n d of t h e necessaries and conveniences
of life; and a m u c h greater proportion of t h e m , t h a n at the period of t h e
revolution, is employed in m a n u f a c t u r e s , a n d crowded together in close
and u n w h o l e s o m e r o o m s . (312, 13) |
35 113 j A capital employed u p o n land, m a y be u n p r o d u c t i v e to the individ-
u a l that employs it, a n d yet be highly productive to t h e society. A capital
employed in trade on the contrary, m a y be highly productive to the individ-
ual, a n d yet be almost totally u n p r o d u c t i v e to t h e society: a n d this is the
reason why I should call m a n u f a c t u r i n g labour unproductive, in compar-
40 ison of that which is employed in agriculture, a n d not for the reason given
by the french economists. (333)
229
f
Gray versus Malthus. The Principles

of Population and Production investigated
etc by George Purves.
L o n d o n . 1818.
. I.) The Principle of Population. 5
(P. discuttirt die beiden Bcher v o n Gray (ganz antimalthusisch) u n d

Malthus.) ( D a s B u c h von Gray heit: H a p p i n e s s of States.) t h e n a t u r a l
progress of p o p u l a t i o n is found in no particular ratio; b u t its progress is
regulated by its various c i r c u m s t a n c e s in any given district. (14) It is to be
particularly a t t e n d e d to in dieser Frage ( n m l i c h ob die animals sich ra- 10
scher v e r m e h r e n als ihre Subsistenzmittel) t h a t animals themselves form a
portion of food; and that m o s t a n i m a l s of t h e sea, a n d m a n y of t h e land ge-
nera, including m a n , live either wholly or in part on a n i m a l s . T h e m o r e
rapidly t h e n that animals increase, t h e m o r e do they increase t h e q u a n t i t y
of n o u r i s h m e n t . (28) W e r e the supposed t e n d e n c y t h e actual fact with re- 15
spect to irrational a n i m a l s , it would by no m e a n s follow that it is so with re-
spect to the rational a n i m a l , m a n . (32) Does t h e n t h e c o m m o n average
price of food show any s y m p t o m of a p e r p e t u a l excess in t h e d e m a n d above
t h e supply? N o . T h e average profits of t h e farmer are only s u c h as are m a d e
by other dealers. Occasionally, from a deficiency, real or supposed, his 20
prices have risen far b e y o n d t h e fair average rate u n d occasionally from a
m o r e t h a n u s u a l a b u n d a n c e , t h e prices have fallen below t h e average rate.
(42, 43) D e r fair average price of subsistence ist a decisive proof, d a der
impulse given by the increasing d e m a n d was sufficient in subsistence, as in
every other b r a n c h of circuland, to raise t h e supply to t h e increased d e - 25
230
Aus George Purves: Gray versus Malthus
m a n d , a n d t h u s keep t h e former fully up to t h e latter. (44) It is an a b u n

d a n c e of subsistence w h i c h h a s a strong influence as a check. Luxury, or an
excess of eating a n d drinking, t e n d s to d e f e c u n d a t e , or to d i m i n i s h t h e
n u m b e r of births, as well as to s h o r t e n t h e lives of those who are b o r n . A n d
5 this powerful influence s e e m s to i n c r e a s e in efficacy in p r o p o r t i o n as p o p u
l a t i o n grows m o r e n u m e r o u s . (65) P o p u l a t i o n h a s n o regular n a t u r a l ratio
of increase, w h e n c o m p a r e d with t i m e . ... Subsistence, again, w h e n t h e
p r o d u c e is s p o n t a n e o u s , s e e m s little capable of any increase at all. W h e n
t h e p r o d u c e is artificial, it h a s evidently no ratio of increase of itself. T h e
10 ratio is entirely i m p r e s s e d u p o n it, or given to it by t h e cultivator. (67)
. II. Does Population Regulate

subsistence, or subsistence Population?
W e n n die M e n s c h e n originally subsisted b y t h e b o u n t y o f n a t u r e alone,

a n d were occasionally r e g u l a t e d in t h e i r n u m b e r s by t h e q u a n t i t y of food
15 with w h i c h she p r e s e n t e d t h e m , an increase of p o p u l a t i o n took this regulat
ing power out o f h e r h a n d s , a n d o f h u n t e r s m a d e t h e m regulators, i n t h e
character of cultivators a n d s h e p h e r d s . A n d from t h e m o m e n t of t h e i r c o m
m e n c i n g cultivators, they have c o n t i n u e d regulators ever since. (79) D e r
h u n t e r ist ganz regulated d u r c h die s p o n t a n e o u s supplies of n a t u r e , wie der
20 Tiger, der Lwe, der Wolf. D e r Schaafhirt regulirt einigermassen die n u m -
ber of animals w h i c h he kept, yet their feed d e p e n d e d on t h e s p o n t a n e o u s
p r o d u c e of n a t u r e . Erst der regular cultivator ist a complete regulator. (80)
M a l t h u s giebt a completely regulating power to subsistence over p o p u l a -
tion. (82) If be m e a n t only, t h a t there m u s t be a sufficient quantity of s u b -
25 sistence to feed p o p u l a t i o n , this sapient doctrine is a truism. (90) mere
abundance of subsistence wirkt d u r c h a u s n i c h t direkt auf die V e r m e h r u n g
der Bevlkerung, it h a s a strong contrary influence. Beweis 1815, w h e n t h e
u n u s u a l a b u n d a n c e , by lowering t h e price of subsistence, and, of course,
lessening t h e profits of t h e farmer a n d his m e a n s of giving e m p l o y m e n t , as
30 well as the wages of his people, h a d p e r h a p s as unfavourable an influence
against marriage, as the scarcity of 1801. (95) Subsistence h a s no level of
its own. ... Population is constantly employed . . . in raising subsistence to
its own level. (97) T h e r e is a similar e q u i l i b r i u m between t h e hats m a n u -
factured by the h a t m a k e r , a n d t h e h e a d s t h a t wear t h e m , as between t h e
35 eatables produced by t h e cultivator, a n d t h e m o u t h s that eat t h e m . But is it
the n u m b e r of hats that regulates t h e n u m b e r of h e a d s , or t h e n u m b e r of
heads the hats? (103) F r o m universal experience t h e fact in n a t u r e is, t h a t
231
t h e increase of population is m u c h in the inverse ratio of the quantity of

subsistence used, to the point of a bare sufficiency of m e r e necessaries.
T h e less a given n u m b e r of people c o n s u m e , on the average, the faster, on
the average, they increase: and vice versa. (129) Bei d e n T h i e r e n b e k a n n t ,
da high feeding is unfavourable to prolificness. M a n is t h u s p u t n o t on the 5
s a m e footing with a n i m a l s but with vegetables. F o r grain, turnips, cab-
bages, potatoes, are r e n d e r e d m o r e a b u n d a n t from the greater quantity of
artificial food supplied to t h e m . (132) W r e es w a h r , da population has
an uniform t e n d e n c y to rise fully or nearly to the average a m o u n t of the
m e a n s of subsistence, so w r d e there be scarcely any exportation or im- 10
portation of subsistence. Districts a n d countries would just feed t h e m -
selves; a n d there would be little or no surplus on the one h a n d , and little or
no deficiency on the other. Yet few articles can boast so m u c h importing
and exporting as subsistence, or display so m u c h fluctuation in t h e a n n u a l
a m o u n t . ([134,] 135) N e h m e n wir Berwickshire. Erste county in England, 15
wo die m o d e r n e Agricultur angewandt. Agricultur ist hier das chief m e -
d i u m of e m p l o y m e n t . Diese beschftigt in d e n least improved districts % \
|14| der Bevlkerung, aber hier n u r % bei d e m highly improved state of cul-
tivation. V o n d e m defect of e m p l o y m e n t marriage n i c h t frhzeitig in it: yet
the agricultural t e m p e r a n c e in the style of living u n d die G e s u n d h e i t rend- 20
er it productive, and its offspring healthy. So bestndig a considerable
n u m b e r of superfluous h a n d s produced, a n d these leave it to find employ-
m e n t ... T h u s a deficiency of e m p l o y m e n t , a n d the emigration arising from
it, render population stationary in a country, which produces such an im-
m e n s e surplus quantity of subsistence. (141) W h a t e v e r in a district creates 25
an additional a m o u n t of e m p l o y m e n t , has a t e n d e n c y to p r o m o t e early
marriage, as well as to retain the offspring on the spot. (142) It is the pro-
portion which the circulators, who l a b o u r at cultivation, bears to the p o p u -
lation of a given district, that regulates the quantity of subsistence pro-
duced in it; a n d it is the circumstances of these circulators, which regulate 30
that proportion. (144) It is clear, that the regulating power is as completely
in the possession of m a n with respect to subsistence, as with respect to any
other supply provided by h i m . (165)
232
F
Aus George Purves: Gray versus Malthus
B. III. Does Population tend to overstock

with respect to employment?
In p r o p o r t i o n as p o p u l a t i o n is t h i n , or increases slow, the m e m b e r s are u n

iformly, caeteris p a r i b u s , less generally or constantly employed. ... In very
5 thinly peopled regions, t h e great m a s s s p e n d m o s t of their t i m e in idleness,
or in half e m p l o y m e n t . T h e average a m o u n t of t h e d e m a n d is smaller,
while the average q u a n t i t y of b u s i n e s s d o n e by individuals is less. (169)
every a d d i t i o n to p o p u l a t i o n m u s t necessarily create a c o r r e s p o n d i n g a d d i
t i o n to e m p l o y m e n t . (173) In proof of t h e increase in the average employ-
10 m e n t arising from t h e increase of p o p u l a t i o n , t h e r e is an u n r e m i t t i n g tend
ency to emigrate from t h e less to t h e m o r e p o p u l o u s districts in search of
e m p l o y m e n t : . B . v o n d e n H i g h l a n d s n a c h Lanark, von S c h o t t l a n d u n d Ir
land n a c h L o n d o n , von der Schweiz n a c h F r a n k r e i c h . A n d e r s e i t s : t h e m o r e
p o p u l o u s a district or country, the smaller is the e m i g r a t i o n from either.
15 (178) N a c h der S u b s i s t e n z t h e o r i e : Caeteris paribus, the t h i n n e r (state)
will be better e m p l o y e d a n d richer, till we r e a c h the h u n t e r ' s state which
will be the best employed, a n d richest of all except w h e n subsistence h a p
pens t o b e m o r e t h a n usually short. O n this theory, check p o p u l a t i o n a n d
a u g m e n t subsistence (were this i n d e e d at all practicable for a n y n u m b e r of
20 years) a n d you increase e m p l o y m e n t a n d wealth. (194, 5) T h e increase of
p o p u l a t i o n m u s t e i t h e r t e n d t o a u g m e n t e m p l o y m e n t a n d wealth, o r t o di
m i n i s h it. A n d to check it m u s t do t h e reverse. If t h e increase p r o d u c e s
m o r e e m p l o y m e n t a n d wealth, t h e c h e c k i n g m u s t injure t h e process a n d di
m i n i s h both. If the increase again t e n d s to lessen t h e m , the checking m u s t
25 t e n d to enlarge t h e m . T h e m o r e it is c h e c k e d t h e n etc. (195, 6) T h e in
crease of p o p u l a t i o n uniformly t e n d s to p r o m o t e luxury or t h e u s e of super
fluous food, also e m p l o y m e n t ... A u s s e r d e m , in cultivating a country, zu
erst die besten L n d e r e i e n gewhlt. In proportion as it fills, the lands m o r e
unfavourably situated, are h a d recourse to by the cultivator. N o w these
30 lands require m o r e labouring. (200, 1)
. IV. Does Population in its increase tend to augment

or diminish the average amount of Income and Wealth?
the increase of p o p u l a t i o n is t h e grand, i n d e e d the sole original cause of

the p e r m a n e n t increase of wealth. (226)
233
. V. Some Practical Topics, including

the effects of the 2 Theories.
T h e supply of subsistence in t h e a n n u a l crops is generally m o r e t h a n a year

before t h e d e m a n d ; a n d , if we i n c l u d e t h o s e forms of subsistence, w h i c h re
quire m o r e t h a n a year to prepare t h e m for t h e m a r k e t with profit, as t h e 5
greater p o r t i o n of cattle, it is m u c h m o r e t h a n t h a t in a d v a n c e . In case of
any p a r t i c u l a r failure of crops, or of any p a r t i c u l a r increase of p o p u l a t i o n ,
this store in a d v a n c e is drawn u p o n to supply t h e deficiency. Subsistence
in t h e green form, as potatoes, or in t h e form of m e a t in case of necessity,
is c o n s u m e d in a larger p o r t i o n t h a n u s u a l . (366) 10
234
Aus William Thomas Thornton: Over-population and its remedy
William Thomas Thornton. Overpopulation

and its Remedy. By W. Th. Thornton.
L o n d o n 1846.
ch. I. Definition of the Term Overpopulation.
Overpopulation m a y be shortly defined to be a deficiency of e m p l o y m e n t

for those who live by labour, oder a r e d u n d a n c y of the labouring class
above the n u m b e r of persons t h a t t h e fund applied to the r e m u n e r a t i o n of
labour can m a i n t a i n in comfort. (3)
ch. II. Evidences of Overpopulation

in England und Wales.
In England zeigt der lezte Census, da K i n d e r u n t e r 10 Jahren, old w o m e n

of 60 u n d old m e n of 70, verhielten sich zu der Zahl of m a l e s zwischen 20
u n d 70 = 4,566,813: 3,670,677 oder = about \% to 1. In E n g l a n d , there-
fore, the average earnings of an ablebodied m a l e adult, married or single,
ought, after supplying his own personal wants, to yield a surplus w h i c h
would suffice for t h e subsistence of 1 other persons. (9) D i e agricultural
labourers bilden, m i t A u s n a h m e der d o m e s t i c servants, the m o s t n u m e r o u s
class in the country. (11) U n t i l the late change in the poor-law, t h e laws af-
fecting the settlement of p a u p e r s virtually almost confined the english field
labourer to his native parish. (I.e.) ||15| D i e allotment holders of Lincoln-
shire and Rutland, u n d t h e y e o m e n of Cumberland und Westmoreland b i l d e n
die happiest portion der english peasantry. (Die ersten leben a u c h in
235
Dreckhtten, wo no k i n d h e a r t e d m a s t e r would keep a cow in. A b e r sie h a -

b e n hinlnglich Futter.) An der a n d r e n E x t r e m i t t der scale stehn die
Kerle in d e n counties of Wilts u n d Somerset. ( 1 7 - 1 9 ) In Dorsetshire k a n n in
general ein Arbeiter n i c h t m e h r earn als 8 sh. per W o c h e . E i n e w o m a n
k a n n 6 d., 8 d. oder 1 sh. d e n Tag m a c h e n , je n a c h der season, aber die Be- 5
schftigung von W e i b e r n in Agricultur ist n i c h t c o n t i n u o u s u n d des cottag-
ers wife during the year erndtet n i c h t viel b e r 2 I. 10 sh. Also ein m a n u n d
his wife 9 sh. a week, oder 23 I. 8 s. a year, to provide for 3 persons on an
average. 2 I. 10 sh. go for rent, 11. 10 sh. fr fuel, 11. 10 sh. fr soap u n d
candles, 5 l. fr clothes, lsst 12 I. 18 sh. das Jahr, oder ungefhr 8 d. % per 10
day, fr food, etwas m e h r als 2 d. % a h e a d daily. Taking the average price
of s u c h bread as is used by t h e peasantry in the W e s t of E n g l a n d to be 1 sh.
the gallon loaf of 8 lb. 11 oz. u n d t h a t of potatoes 14 d. per b u s h e l of 55 lb.,
l
2 d. / will purchase about 29 oz. of bread or 10 lb of potatoes. In Ireland ...
2
5 p o u n d s of potatos are considered no m o r e t h a n a sufficient m e a l for a la- 15

bourer. (20, 1) Ihre cottages are generally old a n d decayed; the walls are of
m u d , the floors generally of stone, b u t s o m e t i m e s of earth u n d die floors of-
ten below the level of the ground outside. (22) K n n t e er selbst m e h r fr
W o h n u n g zahlen, der labourer, as he m u s t live n e a r the farm on which he
works, he m u s t content himself with s u c h lodgings as the owners of the 20
l a n d think proper to provide. (23) N o c h s c h l i m m e r wie Dorsetshire ist Wilts
u n d Somersetshire. In Wiltshire n m l i c h wages are quite as low u n d in der
T h a t lower ... the farmers wonder how their m e n c a n live u p o n their earn-
ings. (23) Weniger Brod noch, Kartoffeln m i t Salz oft die einzige N a h r u n g .
In Somersetshire die matters n o c h schlechter. Wages are 8 s., 7 sh. u n d 25
m a n c h m a l 6 sh. a week, without any addition, except an allowance of cy-
der, worth about 15 d., which the labourer perhaps would be quite as well
without. (24) In den m e i s t e n T h e i l e n von Yorkshire u n d a n d r e n n o r t h e r n
counties die peasantry little worse off als die von Northumberland. They are
nearly as well fed, a n d they c a n n o t be worse h o u s e d . In Kent the rate of ag- 30
ricultural wages is rather above the average. ... In Norfolk (hier farms gen-
erally very large, a n d farmers m e n of considerable capital) ... Even when
e m p l o y m e n t was a b u n d a n t , a n d while wages r e m a i n e d at the old rate of
10 sh. a week, the peasantry of these 2 counties s e l d o m tasted anything bet-
ter t h a n dry bread; so that, when e m p l o y m e n t was only to be h a d every 35
other day, and the rate of wages fell to 7 or 8 sh. a week, their situation be-
c a m e truly deplorable. ( 2 4 - 2 6 ) D i e peasantry von Bedfordshire und Buck-
inghamshire nicht besser dran als die des W e s t e n von England. Diese
2 counties die principal seats von 2 m a n u f a c t u r e s , those of pillow lace u n d
straw plat, die vor 20 or 30 J a h r e n , enabled the wives a n d daughters of cot- 40
tagers to earn as m u c h as their h u s b a n d s a n d brothers. Diese M a n u f a c t u -
236
ren seitdem verfallen u n d n u n brought so low, da persons engaged in

t h e m nicht % ihrer frheren earnings erhalten. D e s farmlabourer's 7, 8 oder
9 sh. a week have n o w b e c o m e the m a i n s t a y of h i s family. (26) Die R e b e c c a
Riots in Sdwales, S o m m e r 1843, zogen die Aufmerksamkeit auf d e n Stand
5 der Einwohner, die (die peasantry) s e e m to be worse off t h a n in t h e worst
parts of England. 7 sh. a week, das m i n i m u m of english agricultural wages,
are there the m a x i m u m , u n d are o b t a i n e d only by labourers in the employ-
m e n t o f landowners u n d g e n t l e m e n farmers. S u c h labourers c o m m o n l y
have their cottages rent free. D i e m e i s t e n farms small, n i c h t b e r
10 100 acres; u n d die poorer farmers pay their m e n only 8 d., 9 d. or, at most,
a shilling a day, or 6 d. or 8 d. a day m i t food, if, as is often the case, t h e
m e n board with their masters. Coarse barley bread, flummery, a n d pota-
toes, are almost their sole food, a n d m a n y of the small farmers themselves
have little else except milk, cheese, a n d bacon. T h e y s e l d o m taste any oth-
15 er a n i m a l food. ([26,] 27) D i e allgemeine A n w e n d u n g der M a s c h i n e r i e
u n d Dampfkraft auf m a n u f a c t u r e s h a t die leztren von der Stadt ins L a n d
gezogen, where the n u m b e r of workpeople required in a large establish-
m e n t is most easily procurable. E i n oder 2 decaying m a n u f a c t u r e s still
linger in the cottages of t h e poor, so wie die of pillow lace u n d straw plat,
20 in Buckingham-Bedfordshire u n d einigen a n d r e n m i d l a n d u n d western
counties; die of shirt-button m a k i n g in Dorsetshire. Viele h a n d l o o m w e a v -
ers u n d stocking m a k e r s residiren in the villages of the m a n u f a c t u r i n g dis-
tricts ... It m a y be laid down as a general rule, that, wherever agriculture is
carried on in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of other occupations, its wages will be
25 found nearly, if n o t quite, at t h e b o t t o m of the scale. (27, 8) T h e harvests in
England, in 1834 a n d t h e 2 following years, so productiv, d a der average
Prei des corn w h r e n d dieser Periode is 44 s. 8 d. per qr, less als seit
1786 ... it has b e e n proved by experience that the difference in t h e s u m s
laid out by the labouring classes in dress etc, in cheap a n d dear years, h a s
30 m o r e effect u p o n the welfare of the manufacturers t h a n almost any other
cause whatever. (49) S c h u l d e n d h a u p t s c h l i c h der c o m m e r c i a l revulsion in
d e n U n i t e d States, der value of british exports to foreign countries fell, in
1837, um m e h r als 11 Mill. St. below its a m o u n t in 1836. A b e r die Pro-
d u c t i o n schritt fort ... T h e manufacturers in general probably fancied t h a t
35 the depression of trade would be of short duration, a n d did n o t i m m e d i -
ately perceive the ||16| necessity of contracting their operations; a n d those
a m o n g t h e m who h a d established themselves with borrowed capital, saw no
other c h a n c e of m e e t i n g their e n g a g e m e n t s t h a n by extending their busi-
ness as m u c h as possible. Every m a n u f a c t u r e consequently c o n t i n u e d to be
40 carried on with u n a b a t e d activity; u n d da die Z a h l der factories etc sehr
vermehrt war 1835 u n d 36, the quantity of goods produced, instead of fall-
237
ing off in proportion to the d i m i n i s h e d d e m a n d , s e e m s even to have gone

on increasing. This a b u n d a n c e of goods lowered their price, a n d their low
price caused the c o n s u m p t i o n of t h e m in foreign countries to be so largely
a u g m e n t e d , that, in 1838 a n d the 3 succeeding years, t h e average a n n u a l
value of british exports b e c a m e fast so gro als 1836 u n d viel grsser als 5
1835. Diese vermehrte exportation n z t e d e m m a s t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r n i c h t s ,
da sie d u r c h zu niedrige Preisse erkauft war. Es war i h n e n u n m g l i c h to
c o n t i n u e this course long, a n d their difficulties were a u g m e n t e d by t h e
scanty harvests of 1 8 3 8 - 4 1 , which, raising the price of food in E n g l a n d by
Y above its price in 1 8 3 5 - 6 , r e d u c e d in a corresponding degree t h e h o m e 10
2
d e m a n d for their goods. ( 5 1 , 2) In the workshops of B i r m i n g h a m a n d Wol-

v e r h a m p t o n , in the potteries of Staffordshire, a n d a m o n g the lacemakers
every where, there are n u m e r o u s instances of boys a n d girls u n d e r 10 years
of age, working 10, 12, ja 16 oder 18 S t u n d e n per Tag, yet clothed in rags,
without shoes or stockings, even in winter etc. (61) D i e ganze Z a h l von 15
Paupers, in door u n d o u t door, relieved in 585 U n i o n s in E n g l a n d u n d
Wales, E n d e des Jahrs 1844 (Ladyday) war in door 195,220 u n d o u t d o o r
1,054,462; z u s a m m e n 1,249,682; wovon 431,484 ablebodied adults of b o t h
sexes u n d 215, 742 davon m a l e adults. A b e r diese n u m b e r s waren n i c h t
constantly in the receipt of relief. D e r whole a m o u n t , e x p e n d e d u p o n pau- 20
pers, whrend des Jahres war 4 , 3 7 0 , 1 7 1 ; wovon a b o u t 938,467 ?. abzu-
z i e h n fr die expenses of establishments, salaries etc; lt 3,431,704 l. fr
den purchase of food u n d clothing. D i e average cost dieser articles fr an
i n m a t e eines workhouse ist a b o u t 2 s. 6 d. 1 week oder 6 1. 10 sh. a year; so
da 3,431,704 I. St. would suffice for t h e constant m a i n t e n a n c e , w h r e n d 25
eines Jahrs, von n u r 527,954, worauf weniger als % oder ungefhr 90,000
adult males zu r e c h n e n . (68)
M a n hat die Grafschaft Sutherland als eine sehr improved county darge-
stellt, aber: R e c e n t inquiry has discovered t h a t even there, in districts o n c e
famous for fine m e n and gallant soldiers, the i n h a b i t a n t s have degenerated 30
into a meagre a n d stunted race. In t h e healthiest situations, on hill sides
fronting the sea, the faces of their famished children are as t h i n a n d pale as
they could be in the foul a t m o s p h e r e of a L o n d o n alley. (74, 5) In Glasgow
an 30,000 poor Highlanders in den wynds u n d closes m i t thieves u n d pros-
titutes. (77, 8) (Th. beweist die Overpopulation aus dem Elend und der 35
insufficiency der salaries.)
238

Causes of Overpopulation in general.
(A p e r m a n e n t deficiency of e m p l o y m e n t ) K a n n h e r r h r e n von e i n e r dimin-

ished demand for labour oder increase in the number of labourers. (114) M i s -
ery, the inevitable effect a n d s y m p t o m of overpopulation, seems to be like-
5 wise its principal promoter. (121) t h e r a p i d m i g r a t i o n s of vast m u l t i t u d e s
from o n e side of t h e globe to t h e other, w h i c h are k n o w n to have t a k e n
place in early times, could only have b e e n effected by people who pos-
sessed in their cattle perambulatory magazines of provisions. (123 d u r c h
Hirten) In a thinly peopled country, in which m a n u f a c t u r e s have m a d e
10 little progress, and foreign c o m m e r c e is u n k n o w n , a great l a n d h o l d e r would
be only e n c u m b e r e d by larger c o n t r i b u t i o n s of raw p r o d u c e t h a n his h o u s e -
hold could c o n s u m e . (126) In Norwegen, Belgien, Schweiz the originally
h a p p y condition of t h e peasantry h a s b e e n t h e cause of its own c o n t i n u -
a n c e s (144) Die N e a p o l i t a n s , Sardinier, r m i s c h e n B a u e r n sind wretched
15 now because wretchedness h a s , d u r i n g m a n y generations, b e e n t h e p o r t i o n
of their forefathers. (158) D i e E m a n c i p a t i o n der peasantry took place
m u c h earlier i m S d e n u n d Sdwesten von E u r o p a als i n a n d r e n T h e i l e n
desselben. In Italien besonders p r o m o t e d b o t h by the interposition of t h e
C h u r c h of R o m e , a n d by t h e contests b e t w e e n t h e free cities a n d t h e rural
20 barons, it was effected before t h e serfs h a d acquired any prescriptive rights
over t h e soil (wie in G e r m a n y ) , so that after their enfranchisement they
were obliged, as in F r a n c e , to cultivate t h e lands of others. Savoy i n d e e d ,
like other poor m o u n t a i n o u s regions, h a s probably b e e n always i n h a b i t e d
by petty proprietors, a n d in T u s c a n y , t h e p e r s e c u t i o n which t h e nobility en-
25 d u r e d from the d e m o c r a t i c a l g o v e r n m e n t s of t h e towns, a n d the frequent
confiscation of their estates, soon enabled t h e farmers to b e c o m e l a n d o w n -
ers. ([158,] 159) E n o u g h has b e e n said to show that misery is t h e great
p r o m o t e r of overpopulation. (160)
Causes of Overpopulation in England.
30 In Italy the natifs h a d b e e n serfs u n d e r t h e R o m a n s , and they r e m a i n e d

serfs u n d e r the G o t h i c d o m i n a t i o n . (164) Jedenfalls, u n d wie dieser W e c h -
sel i m m e r h i n bewirkt worden sein m a g , es scheint sicher da, gegen S c h l u
der schsischen Periode, die peasantry in E n g l a n d im A l l g e m e i n e n aufge-
hrt h a t t e das property ihrer lords zu sein oder irgendwas Serviles ausser
35 d e m N a m e n nach. V o n Praedial serfs waren diese villains verwandelt in |
|17| perpetual t e n a n t s of land at a quit-rent. W h e n they h a d paid t h e accus-
239
t o m e d dues, no further claims, either for work or goods, could be legally

m a d e u p o n t h e m by their lord, n o r could they be ousted from their land.
N u r waren sie attached to the soil, d. h. they could n e i t h e r alienate n o r
otherwise a b a n d o n their lands, nor in any way free themselves from the ob-
ligation to fulfil the conditions by w h i c h they held t h e m . (169,70) In d e n 5
3 J a h r h u n d e r t e n , die u n m i t t e l b a r der n o r m a n n i s c h e n Eroberung folgten,
m a c h t e die Civilisation sehr b e d e u t e n d e Fortschritte in E n g l a n d ; internal
a n d external trade were greatly extended, foreign c o m m o d i t i e s i n t r o d u c e d
in a b u n d a n c e , and native m a n u f a c t u r e s established a n d improved. D i e
Wichtigkeit der villain-proprietors of land increased in proportion. Die 10
m o s t considerable davon h r t e n auf zur Klasse der Arbeiter zu gehren.
W h a t services they were b o u n d by the conditions of their t e n u r e to render,
were performed by deputy, u n d die cultivation ihrer own farms was also
performed chiefly by hired labourers. V o n diesen leztren, a large body, im
Besitz von persnlicher Freiheit aber o h n e property in land, war aufgekom- 15
m e n . Sie wahrscheinlich ursprnglich e m a n c i p a t e d slaves, oder sons of
small freeholders, oder of villain occupiers of l a n d ; b u t villain t e n a n t s
themselves, after performing their b o u n d e n services to their lords, were at
liberty to serve others for wages, the lords having only a prior claim to s u c h
further services from their own b o n d s m e n as they m i g h t be willing to pay 20
for. ... Married m e n , engaged as labourers in husbandry, s e e m to have
b e e n provided with a cottage and a few acres of l a n d to cultivate, for their
own profit, in the intervals of their master's work. ([170,] 171) B e h a u p t e t ,
l
da im 12* Jh. die Arbeiter gut genhrt u n d bezahlt. E b e n s o im 1 3 u n d 14'.
(171, 2) 1349 s u c h t e n die landholders, d u r c h ihre Reprsentatives im Par- 25
lament, d u r c h das Statute of Labourers die wages of agricultural labourer to
limit. (172) Aehnliches Statut im folgenden Jahr. (Le.) 13 J a h r e spter,
1363 ein andrer Versuch gemacht, d e n h o h e n wages ein E n d e zu m a c h e n ,
by rendering t h e m useless to their receivers; u n d a law was passed (37
E d w . I I I . c. 14), enjoining carters, p l o u g h m e n , a n d all other farmerservants, 30
n o t to eat or drink excessively", or to wear any cloth except blanket a n d
russet wool of 12 d." D o m e s t i c servants, von g e n t l e m e n oder t r a d e s m e n or
artificers, were at the s a m e t i m e declared to be entitled to only o n e m e a l a
day of flesh or fish, a n d were to c o n t e n t themselves at other m e a l s m i t
milk, butter, cheese, a n d other s u c h victuals". 1388 m a c h t e das P a r l a m e n t 35
a n o t h e r tariff of wages, according to which a bailiff was to receive 13 s. 3 d.,
a m a s t e r h i n d , carter, or shepherd, 10 s., a n d a c o m m o n labourer in h u s -
bandry 6 s. 8 d. or 7 s. annually. Of course board u n d lodging were to be al-
lowed in addition. 1444, these rates were raised zu 23 s. 4 d., 20 s. u n d 15 s.
respectively, independently of food a n d of clothes of a specified value. 40
Daylabourers sollten n u r 3 d. per Tag erhalten, ausser food except in har-
240
vest, w h e n they m i g h t be allowed 5 or 6. D i e s e limitations so vergeblich wie

die friihren. Wages stiegen t r o t z d e m u n d die working classes so luxuris,
d a das P a r l a m e n t scandalisirt u n d ein Statut e n a c t e d 1463, w o n a c h ser-
vants in h u s b a n d r y restricted to clothing of m a t e r i a l n o t worth m e h r als
5 2 sh. a yard u n d forbidden to wear hose of a higher price als 14 d. a pair,
oder girdles garnished m i t silver. D e r Prei of ihrer W e i b e r coverchief oder
h e a d dress sollte n i c h t exceed 12 d. 1482 diese Restrictions herabgesezt
u n d labourers in h u s b a n d r y erlaubt to wear h o s e as dear as 18 d. a pair,
w h r e n d ihre W e i b e r legal fr d e n Kopfputz 20 d. ausgeben durften. This
10 legislation, m i t Betracht des d a m a l i g e n value of m o n e y , war als w e n n j e z t
Gesetz nthig to prevent p l o u g h m e n from strutting a b o u t in velvet coats
u n d silkstockings etc. (173, 4) Scarcity of labourers in proportion to t h e d e -
m a n d im 14* u n d ersten Hlfte des 15* J a h r h u n d e r t s . (178) (Der L o h n stieg
1) d u r c h d e n auswrtigen H a n d e l im 14 u n d 15 Jh. 2) d u r c h die M i g r a t i o n
15 der freiwerdenden A r b e i t e r n a c h d e n S t d t e n ; 3) das A u f k o m m e n so der
i n n r e n M a n u f a c t u r e n u n d des i n n r e n M a r k t s ; 4) die F e h d e der weissen
u n d r o t h e n R o s e n . 5) V e r m i n d e r u n g der Bevlkerung d u r c h Pest u n d
Krieg.) t h e extension of t h e field of e m p l o y m e n t proceeded at a m u c h m o r e
rapid rate als die Bevlkerung. (184) D e r rise of wages erreichte seinen
20 zur Zeit der accession von H e n r y VII. (I.e.) t h e golden age d e r work
ing class was followed w i t h o u t any interval by t h e iron age w h i c h still sub
sists. In der M i t t e des 15' Jh. k o n n t e j e d e r M a n n o b t a i n so viel work als er
pleased at extravagant wages. N o c h 1496 u n d selbst n o c h 1514 d a c h t e Par
l a m e n t es advisable G e s e t z e z u r N i e d e r h a l t u n g des L o h n s zu erlassen, ob-
25 gleich der d a m a l s Stattfindende rise Folge der D e p r e c i a t i o n der e d l e n M e
talle war u n d sogar c o n c e a l e d a positive fall in t h e real price of labour. Bald
n a c h h e r n a h m die G e s e t z g e b u n g a new t u r n , a n d parliament, instead of at
t e m p t i n g to curtail t h e labourer's h o n e s t earnings, h a d to exercise its in
genuity in providing for t h e crowds of destitute for w h o m no work c o u l d be
30 found. E n g l a n d n i e frei von sturdy beggars ... aber die P e r s o n e n die e i n
idle vagabond life der p a t i e n t industry vorzogen ... n u n aber diese beggars
from choice ersezt by a race of beggars from necessity. R e p e a t e d statutes,
c o m m e n c i n g with o n e passed in 1494, attest t h e rapid spread of destitu
tion. Ursprnglich glaubte P a r l a m e n t es liege n o c h i m m e r an der F a u l h e i t ;
35 no other asylum, therefore, was offered to ablebodied vagrants t h a n t h e
stocks, a n d n o m i l d e r t r e a t m e n t t h a n whipping a t t h e cart's tail. U n d d a n n
zurckgeschickt in ihre G e b u r t s s t t t e n . 1535 i n d e ||18| w u r d e entdeckt,
d a diese valiant vagrants" after r e t u r n i n g h o m e , could find no work to
d o ; u n d die parish authorities were in c o n s e q u e n c e enjoined to collect vol-
40 u n t a r y contributions for t h e purpose, n o t only of relieving t h e i m p o t e n t
a n d t h e infirm, b u t of e n a b l i n g t h e strong and lusty to gain a living with
241
their own h a n d s . 1547, t h e n u m b e r of beggars still rapidly increasing, in

spite of the godly acts a n d statutes" ein andres passed gegen sie, das be-
k a n n t e barbarische Statut. ... T h r e a t e n e d m i t slavery, stripes, a n d death,
m e n chose to r u n every danger in seeking to better their condition, rather
t h a n p i n e with h u n g e r at h o m e , u n d beggars u n d vagabonds c o n t i n u e d 5
daily to increase. 1562 voluntary alms u n z u r e i c h e n d fr d e n relief der poor
gefunden, the parish authorities were empowered to assess persons obsti-
nately refusing to contribute. M e n d i c a n c y a n d vagabondage c o n t i n u i n g
still u n a b a t e d , 1572 power was given to tax all the i n h a b i t a n t s of a place for
the relief of its poor. 1601 endlich der A k t 43 der Elisabeth. ( 1 8 5 - 8 8 ) A u f 10
die Klster nicht die Sache zu schieben, da diese n i c h t abgeschafft bis
1535, viele J a h r e after the c o n t i n u a l increase of vagrancy h a d b e c o m e a
standing topic of parliamentary l a m e n t a t i o n . ([188,] 189) Verwandlung von
Ackerbauland in Viehweide der Hauptgrund, (p. 190 sqq.) Vor u n d einige Zeit
n a c h der abolition of villenage enthielt E n g l a n d eine grosse Zahl kleiner 15
landholders. Erstens freeholders, deren freeholds von j h r l i c h e m W e r t h von
40 sh., war zu der Zeit, wo der acre m e i s t zu e i n e m sixpence ausgeliehn,
wichtige Klasse; d a n n die tenants in villenage, oder ihre successors die copy-
holders; viele tenantfarmers, paying a rent of n o t m o r e t h a n 4 I. a year ... die
m a r r i e d servants in husbandry, die employed u p o n the estates of large pro- 20
prietors or farmers, h a t t e n a piece of ground which was seldom of less extent
als 3 oder 4 acres. Die meisten landholders aller dieser verschiednen Klassen, mit
Ausnahme der lezten, brauchten die aid of hired labourers, particularly as m u c h
land was u n d e r tillage, a n d large quantities of corn were grown. Folglich
great d e m a n d fr agricultural l a b o u r u n d da die supply limited die wages 25
very high. Aber der high rate of wages, v e r b u n d e n m i t der increasing abun-
dance and cheapness of corn in Folge von Agriculturverberung, m u s t have
r e n d e r e d tillage less profitable t h a n formerly, m o r e especially to large land-
holders, who did not c o n s u m e at h o m e the principal part of their crops, b u t
raised large quantities for sale, (190, 1) Arable lands nun in pasture verwan- 30
delt und die scheinbar i n t e r m i n a b l e corn-fields d u r c h b r o c h e n durch enclo-
sures, to prevent the sheep from straying und um n i c h t i m m e r H i r t e n z u r W a -
che nthig zu h a b e n . (191) 1487 A k t passed um diese sociale Revolution
aufzuhalten, d e n n schon b e m e r k t e m a n , d a enclosures were, b e c o m i n g
more frequent, whereby arable land, which could n o t be m a n u r e d without 35
people a n d families, was turned into pasture, which was easily rid by a few
h e r d s m e n " , u n d da tenances for years, lives, and at will, whereupon most of
the yeomanry lived, were t u r n e d into d e m e s n e s " . 1533 (Henry V I I I c.13) A k t
passed, der sehr v e r d a m m t e die practice of accumulating" farms. In d i e s e m
act statuirt, da single farms m i t flocks von 1 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 Schafen darauf, u n d 40
befahl, da N i e m a n d m e h r als 2000 Schafen (ausser auf s e i n e m eignen
242
w
Land) h a l t e n or rent more als 2 farms solle. 1535 e n a c t e d d a der king

should have a m o i e t y der profits of land converted (subsequently to a d a t e
specified) von tillage zu p a s t u r e , bis a suitable h o u s e erected u n d das l a n d
restored to tillage. 1552 (Edward VI, 5 u n d 6.) Gesetz, das r e q u i r e d d a auf
5 allen estates as large a q u a n t i t y of land as h a d b e e n kept in tillage for
4 years together at any t i m e since t h e accession of H e n r y V I I I should be so
c o n t i n u e d in tillage. ([192,] 193) (Alles das n z t e n a t r l i c h nichts.) Aller-
dings damals Handel und Manufactur sehr aufblhend ... b u t t h e r e c a n n o t
be a greater error t h a n to suppose t h a t the substitution of one employment for
10 another is not detrimental to the workmen originally employed, if the amount of
work to be done remain the same. E v e n w h e n t h e new business is carried on
in t h e s a m e place as t h e old o n e , t h e work m a y be very u n s u i t a b l e to m e n
who have always b e e n differently employed; a n d if t h e b u s i n e s s be re-
moved to a distance, i n n u m e r a b l e difficulties will prevent t h e w o r k m e n in
15 general from following it. ([194,] 195) Am Ende des 16' Jh., in Folge des
Blhns der Stdte, stieg der Kornprei; so a strong reaction in favour of tillage.
So stieg die Nachfrage n a c h A g r i c u l t u r a r b e i t e r n u n d so ihr L o h n wieder . . .
aber n i c h t so h o c h wie frher. D i e neuen cottages in general ohne an sie atta-
chtes Land. In m o s t parishes allerdings common lands, worauf a poor h o u s e -
20 holder m i g h t keep a cow: b u t otherwise e i n labourer gewhnlich abhngig
von seiner tglichen E i n n a h m e , nominell hher, real niedriger als das income
eines cottager a few generations earlier. D e r Prei des wheat . . stieg in
100 J a h r e n von 7 sh. auf 30 sh. a qr u n d 1610 wurde 4 d., oder a b o u t a d.
less t h a n a whole sheep h a d o n c e cost, was given for a p o u n d of m u t t o n . An
25 outdoorlabourer am Anfang des 17' J h . daher, der sein eignes F o o d m i t 6
oder 8 d. a ||19| day zu kaufen h a t t e , lang n i c h t so gut dran als ein M a n n
derselben Klasse im 14' J h . m i t n u r 3 d. a day, selbst unterstellt d a der
leztre n i c h t besessen h t t e in a d d i t i o n t h e p r o d u c e of a cottage farm.
( 1 9 6 - 8 ) Dieses m o d i c u m of comfort nicht im Stand zu act as a very effec-
30 tual restraint upon population, u n d in wenigen J a h r e n die Z a h l der A r b e i t e r
gewachsen b e r das was beschftigt werden k o n n t e ... In d e n lezten
30 J a h r e n des 17' Jh. die poorrates geschzt von 600,000 zu 840,000 /.,
which, at t h e rate of relief t h e n customary, m u s t have sufficed for t h e c o n -
stant m a i n t e n a n c e of at least 100,000 persons, or % der whole p o p u l a t i o n .
35 % davon, n a c h Locke's Bericht 1697, were ablebodied ... in d e n 3 J a h r e n
e n d e d m i t 1750 der average a m o u n t is shown by p a r l i a m e n t a r y r e t u r n s
n i c h t to have exceeded 690,0001. A b e r 1776 der a m o u n t risen auf
1,521,000 /. u n d von 1 7 8 3 - 8 5 der a n n u a l average 1,912,000 l. N u n b l h t e
im 27 und 18 Jh. jeder branch of national industry so sehr als bevor c o m -
40 m e r c e u n d m a n u f a c t u r e s prospered exceedingly ... In der Agricultur Intro-
duction of turnip husbandry und artificial grasses. Also, da Nachfrage der Ar-
243
beit aller sorts sehr gewachsen sein m u t e beweist der gleichzeitige

increase of p a u p e r i s m a still greater increase in t h e n u m b e r of labourers.
(198, 9) while p a u p e r i s m was advancing in the m a n n e r above described,
t h e condition of the labourers w h o o b t a i n e d employment was not injured by
the competition of the unemployed, but on the contrary was gradually improving. 5
(200) (Zeigt er durch Vergleichung einer Preiliste v o n E d e n und
A. Y o u n g des 17* u n d des 18* Jahrhundert.) D i e erklrt sich T. aus d e n
poorlaws, die die Ausgleichung zwischen Nachfrage und Zufuhr verhin-
derten. (Aber Herr Thornton vergit, d a w e n n 1) Manufactur, com-
merce u n d Ackerbau blhten, 2) die M a s s e der Bevlkerung, wie aus 10
Gregory King etc hervorgeht, relativ gut lebte, viel Fleisch, Weizenbrod,
Bier consumirte, 3) der Arbeitslohn stieg und 4) die Paupers - % der Be-
vlkerung - gefttert werden konnten, sicher k e i n U e b e r s c h u der Po-
pulation ber die Subsistenzmittel stattfand. D i e Sache m u also anders
erklrt werden, nmlich das P h e n o m e n o n ) ... that the real price of labour 15
rose considerably at a t i m e w h e n the m a r k e t was greatly overstocked. (203)
W a s wesentlich mitbeitrug zur degradation der english peasantry war die
inclosure und partition of common land. (210) In 99 cases o u t of a 100, the
poor m a n has lost his rights of c o m m o n without any p e r m a n e n t equivalent.
(211) A n a t i o n can scarcely, like an individual, grow rich by m e r e parsi- 20
m o n y , for it m u s t always expend the whole or nearly the whole, of its aver-
age i n c o m e . ... At any rate, it is only m o n e y , plate, a n d jewels, t h a t are,
strictly speaking, h o a r d e d ... W e n n m a n n i c h t reason h a t t o think, da
m a n profitable dispose k a n n b e r das surplus, so producirt m a n little m o r e
t h a n m a y suffice for present use. M o n e y , plate u n d jewels sind sehr u n b e - 25
d e u t e n d e items in n a t i o n a l property, which consists chiefly of bulky arti-
cles, provisions, manufactures, buildings, ships, a n d raw materials, the an-
n u a l p r o d u c t i o n of all of which is proportioned as nearly as possible to the
expected a n n u a l c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e only articles that can be called p e r m a -
n e n t acquisitions are those which, from their durable character, m a y re- 30
m a i n long in use without being destroyed. ... n a t i o n a l i n c o m e k a n n n u r be
X a u g m e n t e d sei es durch an increase des p r o d u c e des native soil oder d u r c h

an increase of foreign imports. (221[, 222] N o t e ) Seit 1837 die Lage der agri-
cultural labourers in England noch unstreitig verschlechtert. N a c h 1836 n a h -
m e n ihre earnings ab u n d der Prei der L e b e n s m i t t e l zu. D u r c h das Gesetz 35
von 1842 - freiere Korneinfuhr - farmers verarmt, r e d u c i r t e n endlich die
items of expenditure. Die labour, am m e i s t e n u n t e r ihrer Controlle ...
d a n n (44) to the effects of the poverty of the farmers a d d e d die of a long
c o n t i n u e d drought, which p u t an almost entire stop to m a n y operations of
husbandry. (234, 5) At several places in Wiltshire, Somersetshire, Gloucester- 40
H shire u n d a n d r e n der western counties, m o s t of the cottagers 50 years ago
244
waren weavers, deren chief d e p e n d e n c e was their looms, obgleich they

worked in the fields at harvest t i m e and other busy seasons. So h a l t e n sie
nieder die wages der agricultural labourers, bis sie selbst von der Agricultur
ganz abhngig geworden in Folge der removal der woollen m a n u f a c t u r e ,
5 u n d these r e d u c e d wages have b e c o m e their own portion also. (237) D i e
population of towns is rarely increased faster t h a n the m e a n s of subsist-
ence, except by i m m i g r a t i o n from rural districts. ... Town residents h a b e n
nicht dieselben i n d u c e m e n t s to marry wie dwellers in d e m country. M e h r
Gelegenheit fr c r i m i n a l gratification ihrer passions. D o m e s t i c comfort
10 k a n n i h n e n gleichgltig sein. D a s ausserordentliche grosse Verhltni der
E h e n z u r Bevlkerung in M a n c h e s t e r , Glasgow etc beweist nicht, d e n n die
portion verheirathbarer L e u t e h i e r viel grsser als anderswo ... die foul at-
m o s p h e r e worin sie leben, z u s a m m e n m i t M a n g e l a n N a h r u n g u n d Klei-
d u n g erzeugt sehr grosse Sterblichkeit u n t e r d e n K i n d e r n ... In Liverpool
15 u n d Glasgow die j h r l i c h e n deaths zahlreicher als die births ... M a n m u
die s u b u r b a n districts von d e n grossen Stdten selbst t r e n n e n . In d e m
eigentlichen m e t r o p o l i t a n district von L o n d o n , extending v o n K e n s i n g t o n
n a c h Greenwich u n d von d e m foot of Highgatehill n a c h Camberwell, t h e
births, i n 1 8 4 0 - 1 exceeded the deaths u m 8814; aber i n d e n von A r m e n
20 dicht bevlkerten Vierteln, die deaths im A l l g e m e i n e n ({201 e x c e e d e d t h e
births. D i e ist der case in d e n subdivisions d e n o m i n a t e d St M a r t i n s in the
Fields, East u n d W e s t L o n d o n , W h i t e c h a p e l , St Saviour's u n d St Olave's,
u n d Greenwich. In St. George's H a n n o v e r s q u a r e , Westminster, St Giles
u n d St George, Strand, H o l b o r n u n d der city of L o n d o n leichter excess der
25 births b e r die deaths, aber zu u n b e d e u t e n d to m a k e up for the deficiency
in first n a m e d qrs. ( 2 3 8 - 4 0 ) In einigen towns, besonders in d e n southern
und midland counties, distress u n d overpopulation producirt d u r c h d e n
transfer of m a n u f a c t u r e s formerly carried on there to m o r e advantageous
situations. (243) In der Mitte des 18* Jh., von 1750 an, giebt Th. zu, d a
30 viel Ackerland in Weide verwandelt: M e n who h a d amassed fortunes in
trade or other pursuits, a n d desired to possess suitable country residences,
if they could n o t p e r s u a d e a decayed family to part with its hereditary seat,
purchased some of the outlying lands of an estate, and cleared half a dozen farms
and a score or two of cottages to make a park. G o l d s m i t h s "Deserted Village"
35 is a picture of the desolation p r o d u c e d by such a process. (208, 9) (Herr
Thornton's Entwicklung luft darauf hinaus: Erst macht der Fortschritt
der Industrie die Bevlkerung redundant, i n d e m sie ihr die gewohnte B e -
schftigung entzieht und sie so verarmt; und dann wird die Verarmung
wieder eine Quelle zu rasch wachsender Bevlkerung. Beweis hat Thorn-
40 ton nicht d e n geringsten geliefert. D a fr die poor jeder Z u w a c h s s c h o n
redundant ist, bedarf k e i n e s B e w e i s e s ; aber d a die Bevlkerung in d e n
245
G a n z e n N a t i o n e n mit Verhltni zu ihren Productivkrften jemals re-

dundant war, ist zu beweisen.)
Most of t h e farmers in d e n highlands waren freeholders u n d z a h l t e n keine

R e n t e , s o n d e r n n u r die s. g. calpe, in token of their personal s u b o r d i n a t i o n
to the chief. (247) F r o m the earliest t i m e s bis vor ungefhr 60 J a h r e n (von 5
1783 u n d 4 an) Ireland was almost entirely a grazing country. N o c h 1727 a
law g e m a c h t to compel every occupier of 100 acres of land to cultivate at
least 5 acres. (258) the misery of the irish people is of no recent origin, b u t
has b e e n from t i m e i m m e m o r i a l an h e i r l o o m in the race. ... T h e chief dif-
ference is, that whereas people were o n c e starving on a short allowance of 10
m e a t , they are now starving on an equally short allowance of potatoes.
(260, 1) ... Irland, from a very r e m o t e period, has carried on a considerable
export trade; a n d the lords of the soil have always possessed, in foreign
countries, a m a r k e t for their surplus p r o d u c e . T h e y have therefore h a d good
reasons for practising economy, a n d for restricting t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n of 15
their servants to what was absolutely necessary for their subsistence. W h e n
the servants b e c a m e serfs, they were not, according to the c u s t o m in m o r e
agricultural countries, provided with portions of l a n d to cultivate for their
own support; for the estates of their lords, however extensive, could
scarcely be too large for pasturage. T h e y lived u p o n s u c h fare as their m a s - 20
ters chose to provide, went halfnaked, a n d slept u n d e r trees, or the scarcely
better shelter of a few b r a n c h e s c e m e n t e d together with m u d . W h e n they
b e c a m e enfrancised, they gained n o t h i n g b u t personal freedom. (259)
Herr Th. sagt: Whatever other r e m e d i e s m a y be prescribed, restrictions

u p o n the marriages of the poor are an indispensable part of the regimen to 25
be observed. (268) An Irish cottier is n o t miserable because he has 2 or
3 acres attached to his dwelling, b u t b e c a u s e he has to pay for this land 3
oder 4X as m u c h as it would be let for in England. (336) In Irland lange Pe-
riode von A n a r c h i e u n d Confusion n a c h der Eroberung von H e n r y I I ; be-
stndiger Krieg zwischen d e n Colonisten u n d d e n E i n g e b o r n e n acted as an 30
effectual bar to agriculture; beide P a r t h e i e n zogen es vor to keep their
property in der F o r m von flocks u n d herds, which could be driven into a
place of shelter, t h a n in corn stacks or standing crops, which m u s t have
b e e n left to the mercy of a successful invader. So blieb cattle das einzige
Product, so sehr da es oft als T a u s c h m i t t e l a n g e w a n d t . . . 100 J a h r e spter 35
lamentirt Spenser (der poet) that all m e n fell to pasturage, and n o n e to
h u s b a n d r y " ... U n t e r der Herrschaft der Elisabeth, J a m e s I u n d Karl I u n d
Cromwell - Period m a r k e d durch die rebellion der Grafen von Tyrone u n d
Tyrconnel, das massacre der Protestants p r o m o t e d by Roger M o o r e , die
246
r
gleich blutige Invasion von Cromwell u n d die Confiscation von % der I n -

sel - m a c h t e Agricultur keine Fortschritte. N a c h der Revolution von 1688
y des lands nderte wieder die m a s t e r s u n d a series of p e n a l acts was enact-
u
ed gegen die r m i s c h e n Catholiken. Diese atrocious laws verboten d e n Ka-

5 tholiken lands zu kaufen oder zu h o l d t h e m by lease fr m e h r als
31 J a h r e ... So die grosse Majoritt des Volks, die Katholiken, gewaltsam
von der Agricultur ferngehalten u n d die proprietors der estates m u t e n sie
theilen u n t e r den wenigen capitalists, die gesetzlich dafr c o n c u r r i r e n
k o n n t e n u n d die diese i m m e n s e tracts n a t r l i c h n i c h t s u p e r i n t e n d k o n n -
10 ten, i n d e m sie sie fast ganz u n t e r Gras hielten. So allgemein u n d so recent
die Vernachlssigung des tillage, d a 1727 Gesetz | | 2 1 | gemacht, to c o m p e l
every occupier of 100 acres of l a n d to cultivate m i n d e s t e n s 5 acres. (257, 8)
1783 u n d 84 granted das irische P a r l a m e n t h i g h bounties on the exporta-
tion of grain u n d verbot seine Einfuhr from abroad; in Folge davon Steigen
15 des Preisses, promovirt n o c h d u r c h die d e m a n d for foreign corn in G r o -
b r i t a n n i e n n a c h d e m Anfang des Kriegs m i t F r a n k r e i c h u n d d u r c h die A b -
schaffung, 1806, aller Restrictions auf d e n corntrade zwischen d e n 2 Ln-
dern. So ausserordentliche i n d u c e m e n t d e n landholders gegeben,
pasturage in cornfields zu verwandeln; aber die tracts held by single gra-
20 ziers in general viel zu extensive to be cultivated by their actual t e n a n t s ,
daher getheilt in farms von m o r e convenient size u n d geliehn an persons
willing to u n d e r t a k e t h e m . A b e r n i c h t Capital genug in dieser Insel fr
diese pltzliche R e v o l u t i o n in h u s b a n d r y u n d die m e i s t e n von der new
race of farmers so a r m da sie ihre Arbeiter n u r z a h l e n k o n n t e n , i n d e m sie
25 i h n e n assignirten Stcke v o m G r u n d to build cabins u p o n u n d to cultivate
for their own subsistence. Z u s a m m e n m i t d e n farmers daher a considerable
body of cottiers was created u n d die Z a h l der leztren vermehrt d u r c h d e n
desire der landlords ihren politischen Einflu zu vergrssern. Das elective
franchise belonged in Irland wie in E n g l a n d zu 40 sh. freeholders, d. h. zu
30 possessors of a life interest in l a n d of the clear a n n u a l value of 40 sh. 1792
t h e privilege was c o n c e d e d to Catholics also u n d landlords b e g a n to m a n u -
facture voters by t h o u s a n d s , by granting t h e m leases for life of small
patches of land. So wurde die bulk des people converted in occupiers of
land ... Gavelkind, or the c u s t o m of dividing a father's l a n d e d property,
35 equally a m o n g his children, has always prevailed in Ireland. Starb einer der
n e u g e m a c h t e n farmers, so errichteten alle seine S h n e farms of smaller ex-
tent, a n d a cottier's son also generally inherited small pieces of g r o u n d .
... So most of the d e s c e n d a n t s of the original farmers have, in the course of
2 or 3 generations, sunk to the level of cottiers, a n d most of the original
40 cottage holdings have b e e n divided a m o n g as m a n y families as c a n con-
trive to obtain from t h e soil potatoes e n o u g h to keep t h e m alive. ( 2 5 1 - 5 3 . )
247
Robert Vaughan. The Age of Great Cities.

London.1843.
ch. I. On the occasion and object

of the present work. (1-10)
ch. IL On the social characteristics of Great cities 5

in ancient and modern Times.
Asia.
Stdte ursprnglich g e b a u t zur Sicherheit oder z u m H a n d e l u n d Sicher-

heit. Im ersten Fall on t h e slope of s o m e m o u n t a i n side oder along the
s u m m i t of s o m e lofty rock. Im zweiten on the b a n k of t h e river or n e a r the 10
bay of the sea. (11) Die capitals in Aejypten u n d A s i e n h a t t e n their place
on the course m a r k e d o u t by the principal rivers. (12) Im Orient die Privile-
gien der verschiednen Casten n u r sanktionirt d u r c h die Religion. All
castes are m a d e to have their i m m u n i t i e s , a n d every invasion of those im-
m u n i t i e s is b r a n d e d , n o t only as an act of civil i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n , b u t as be- 15
ing also an act of impiety. D i e die einzige S c h r a n k e g e n d e n D e s p o t i s -
m u s . ([15,] 16)
248
Aus Robert Vaughan: The age of great cities
Griechenland.
Rom.
chapter III-VII.
In England prevalence of d e p r e d a t i o n in the rural districts. (245) M e n

5 change masters m o r e frequently t h a n in feudal t i m e s , b u t the m o r a l feeling
which b o u n d t h e m t o o n e m a n , o r t o o n e household, now b i n d s t h e m t o
their class or society. (289)
249
Th. Doubleday. The true law of Population.

L o n d o n . 1842.
T h e great general law, das vegetable u n d a n i m a l life regirt, ist, d a w e n n

eine species oder genus endangered is, a corresponding effort is invariably
m a d e by n a t u r e for its preservation a n d c o n t i n u a n c e , by an increase of fe- 5
cundity or fertility; besonders der Fall, w e n n solche danger arises von a
d i m i n u t i o n of proper n o u r i s h m e n t or food, so d a der state of depletion, or
t h e deplethoric state is favourable to fertility u n d der plethoric state, or
state of repletion, ungnstig. Daher, auf die m e n s c h l i c h e Gesellschaft an-
gewandt, in allen Gesellschaften a constant increase going on a m o n g s t t h a t 10
portion of it which is the worst supplied with food, d. h. u n t e r d e n poorest.
Dagegen u n t e r d e n e n in the state of affluence u n d well supplied m i t food
u n d luxuries a constant decrease goes on. U n t e r d e n e n who form t h e m e a n
or m e d i u m between these two opposite states die P o p u l a t i o n ist stationr.
D a r a u s folgt that it is u p o n the numerical proportion which these 3 states 15
b e a r to each other in any society that increase or decrease u p o n t h e whole
depends. (5, 6) In trees, the effect of strong m a n u r e s and overrich soils is
t h a t they r u n to superfluous wood, blossom irregularly, a n d chiefly at the
extremities of the outer branches, a n d almost or entirely cease to b e a r fruit.
(9.) Die Thiere, overfed, werden unproductiv. (14, 15) So b e i m Schaaf. In 20
accordance m i t der leanness wirft 1, 2 oder 3 L m m e r . D i e d e n Verbesse-
rern dieser Race b e k a n n t . Um die best c h a n c e of a perfect a n i m a l zu h a -
b e n , glauben sie da das Werfen von E i n e m L a m m a m b e s t e n ist u n d die
die breeders of sheep erreichen, i n d e m sie so viel F u t t e r geben, da es we-
der steril n o c h 2 oder 3 wirft, a single l a m b is almost invariably the off- 25
spring of the a n i m a l so limited. (15) |
|21[a]| Die Fischfresser u n t e r d e n M e n s c h e n besonders fruchtbar. (25)
(Highlands, Western Islands of Scotland. F a m i l i e n von 1 0 - 2 0 Kinder!) (Ir-
land, China.) W i r finden die P o p u l a t i o n thin in pastoral countries, wo be-
250
Aus Thomas Doubleday: The true law of population
sonders a n i m a l food; denser, wo gemischt m i t vegetable a l i m e n t ; denser still,

wo n u r vegetable, aber m i t plenty, densest of all, wo vegetable aber m i t scar-
city superadded. (27) extraordinary t e n d e n c i e s to propagation evinced by
b o t h sexes when semiconvalescent, after enfeebling a n d a t t e n u a t i n g ep-
5 idemics, such as fevers, pestilences, a n d plagues. (28) Decay of all systems of
nobility. Z . B . die Peers u n d Baronets of G r e a t Britain ... few, if any, of t h e
N o r m a n nobility u n d e b e n s o wenige von d e n original b a r o n e t s ' families of
King J a m e s I exist at this m o m e n t ; w e n n n i c h t fr perpetual creations,
b o t h orders m u s t have b e e n all b u t extinct. Die great majority des H o u s e of
10 Lords geschaffen seit 1760, d. h. seit 80 J a h r e n (George). (31, 2) U e b e r lezt-
res giebt er folgende Tabelle:
Numbers of Peers 1837 Number created seit 1760

Dukes 21 5 Dukes
Marquises 19 18 Marquises
15 Earls 108 58 Earls
Viscounts 17 13 Viscounts
Baronets 185 153 Baronets
350 247
Scottish Peers 16
20 25
Irish Peers 28
394 272 seit 1760. (p. 32)
Der Order der Baronets c o m m e n c e d 1611 u n t e r J a m e s I, as a m e a n s of

raising money, besonders fr d e n irish war j e n e r Periode. T h e s u m paid for
25 this h o n o u r was very large. V o n diesen, die 1611 gemacht, existiren n u r
n o c h 13 u n d von d e n e n , die er 1625 schuf, n u r n o c h 39. (33, 4) E i n G r u n d
ist natrlich die: a single failure of offspring m a k e s a gap in the body,
whilst even extra fecundity in a n o t h e r quarter is only allowed to keep up
the line. (34) Aber das n i c h t g e n g e n d e r G r u n d . Extraordinary decrease
30 der V e n e t i a n nobility, obgleich all the sons are e n n o b l e d by birth. A m e l o t
zhlte zu seiner Zeit 2500 nobles die S t i m m e im Council h a t t e n ; gegen-
wrtig (18* Jh. Anfang) n i c h t 1500, trotz der a d d i t i o n von vielen F a m i l i e n
seit j e n e r Zeit. (35) V o n 1 5 8 3 - 1 6 5 4 der sovereign council von Bern a d m i t -
ted into the bourgeoisie 487 families, wovon 379 b e c a m e extinct in Z e i t
35 von 2 J a h r h u n d e r t e n u n d 1783, blieben n u r 108 davon. V o n 1 6 8 4 - 1 7 8 4
207 Bernoise families b e c a m e extinct. (36) U n t e r d e m Kaiser Claudius sagt
Tacitus: Jisdem diebus in n u m e r u m P a t r i c i o r u m adscivit Caesar vetustis-
s i m u m q u e m q u e e Senatu, a u t q u i b u s clari parentes fuerant. Paucis j a m re-
liquis familiarum quas R o m u l u s Majorum, et Lucius Brutus M i n o r u m
40 G e n t i u m , adpellaverat: exhaustis e t i a m quas Dictator Caesar Lege Cassia,
et Princeps A u g u s t u s Lege Saenia, sublegere." (Annal. l.XI, C.25.) [37] D.
251
fhrt n u n Beispiele an aus Archiven b e r d e n decay der free burgesses of

certain rich a n d exclusive boroughs. (40) If it were t r u e t h a t p o p u l a t i o n has
a n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y to increase equally a m o n g s t all classes, u n c h e c k e d by
anything b u t the inability to p r o c u r e subsistence, the diseases which arise
o u t of a deficiency of n u t r i m e n t , a n d t h e a b a n d o n m e n t of marriage caused 5
by poverty a n d t h e fear of it; ... the decrease of a people m u s t take place at
the b o t t o m of society, a n d n o t in t h e m i d d l e or at the top. (181)
Statement von p. 10 des Report XVII of Excise Commissioners

Date. Hard soap Soft Soap Number of
made lbs made manufacturers 10
1785 35,012,412 lbs 3,358,228 971
1790 42,074,309 3,671,425 772
1795 48,262,786 3,495,559 677
1800 54,233,311 3,528,432 652
1805 65,723,869 4,575,130 553 15
1810 72,636,296 6,146,529 510
1815 77,678,063 6,224,002 447
1820 82,379,891 7,099,297 398
1825 102,623,165 8,910,509 395
1830 117,324,321 10,209,519 309 20
1834 144,344,043 10,401,281 302 (236)
A u s d i e s e m law of P o p u l a t i o n ] folgt, da a long c o n t i n u e d depression,

down to destitution, of a whole people, will, in t h e long r u n , be revenged on
itself a n d those who caused it, by the superfluous a n d u n m a n a g e a b l e pau-
per p o p u l a t i o n which it is sure to generate. ([253,] 254) there is g r o u n d for 25
the supposition that the neutralization, or absence of alkali, in the m a l e an-
i m a l constitution, would be a direct cause of sterility, a n d its decided pres-
ence, e contrario, a cause of fruitfulness; supposing, in each case, the fe-
m a l e to be prolific by constitution. ... N o w ... a plethoric diet, i.e. of
a n i m a l food u n d wheaten bread m i t W e i n u n d Z u c k e r in c o m b i n a t i o n , ||22| 30
is a c c o m p a n i e d by a development of acid in the frame; whilst, on the con-
trary, a poor, u n w h o l e s o m e , deficient, or i n d e e d mostly vegetable n u t r i -
m e n t , t e n d s rather to an alkalescent state of t h e body, from which acid is
excluded. ( 2 7 4 - 2 7 6 )
252
Aus William Pulteney Alison: Observations on the management of the poor
W. P. Alison. M. D. Observations
on the Management of the Poor in Scotland.
E d i n b u r g h . 1840.
Sterblichkeit in E d i n b u r g h 1: auf 22 oder 2 3 . In Glasgow war die D u r c h -

5 Schnittssterblichkeit seit 1830 = 1:30 u n d 1832 u n d 1837 = 1:21 u n d
= 1:24. (VII N o t e Preface) the prevention of Disease on a large scale m a y
often be in the power of a c o m m u n i t y , although beyond the power of m a n y
of the inhabitants c o m p o s i n g that c o m m u n i t y . (I.e. VIII) D e r a m o u n t of
suffering from the c o m b i n a t i o n of poverty a n d disease, has b e e n nearly tri-
10 pled in the city of E d i n b u r g h in d e n lezten 25 J a h r e n , w h r e n d die p o p u l a -
tion n u r um 50 % sich v e r m e h r t hat. (4) D i e repeated u n d severe visitations
of fever ... are not merely the occasion of m u c h a n d widely spread suffering
a n d destitution, b u t they are ... in a great m e a s u r e the result, a n d t h e indi-
cation and test, of m u c h previous misery a n d destitution. (18) Jedenfalls ist
15 destitution a cause of the rapid diffusion of contagious fever. (19) T h e
true specific cause of the contagious fever, at least of Edinburgh, certainly
does n o t spring from any thing external to the living h u m a n body, (wie v o n
verdorbner Luft, d u r c h A u s d n s t u n g todter Krper.) (20) D a s elaborate
work der Drs Cheyne u n d Barker zeigt d a die grossen E p i d e m i e n in Irland
20 seit 1700, each of t h e m lasting fully 2 years, Folge von privations, suffer-
ings u n d der m e n t a l depression u n d d e s p o n d e n c y which naturally a t t e n d
t h e m ; n h m l i c h 1708, 1720, u n d 1731, 1 7 4 0 - 4 1 (after the great frost of
1740), 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 0 1 , after the rebellion, the transference of the seat of gov-
e r n m e n t to L o n d o n , a n d t h e scarcity of 1799 u n d 1800; u n d wieder 1817
25 n a c h der transition from t h e state of war to that of p e a c e " u n d der scarcity
of 1816 u n d 1817. (22) V o n d e n recent E p i d e m i c s in E d i n b u r g h u n d G l a s -
gow gilt dasselbe. D i e erste in Edinburgh b e g i n n e n d 1817, n a c h 2 b a d har-
vests; die nchste 1826, n a c h d e n great failures in 1825 u n d der s u d d e n
253
cessation, besonders of building speculations in E d i n b u r g h ; u n d die lezte,

1836, n a c h der great depression of trade b o t h in Glasgow u n d D u n d e e , m i t
welchen towns the lower orders here are m u c h c o n n e c t e d . In Glasgow die
Sache n o c h klarer, fever scheint hier to have increased a n d d i m i n i s h e d for
40 years past, nearly as it did in E d i n b u r g h , bis 1836, when, after the great 5
stagnation of trade, it b e c a m e m u c h m o r e formidable. F r 20 J a h r e vor
1815, als die Stadt rasch in R e i c h t h u m wachsend war, die Z a h l der Fieber-
p a t i e n t e n in d e m Infirmary nie b e r 130 im Jahr. In 1817, 1818 u n d 1819
belief sie sich zu 2715 oder 905 im Jahr. D a n n n a h m sie wieder betrcht-
lich a b ; h o b sich aber n a c h d e n failures 1825 u n d 1826, 1827 u n d 1828, 10
a m o u n t e d auf 3520 oder 1173 im Jahr. A n d r e increase of disease 1832;
u n d n a c h d e n great failures 1835 it spread so extensively, da die n u m b e r s
t a k e n in hospitals 1836, 37 u n d 38 a m o u n t e d auf 9740, oder 3270 im J a h r
u n d von diesen 5387 allein im J a h r 1837 ... In d e n lezten 3 J a h r e n die G e -
s a m m t z a h l der Fieberflle von Glasgow c o m p u t e d at nearly 40,000. (23, 4) 15
D i e female field labourers, sehr zahlreich in ganz Schottland, when e m -
ployed, earn only 18 d. a day, a n d are u n a b l e to provide anything for the fu-
ture. Accordingly, ceasing to be fit for work a b o u t the age of 50, they inevi-
tably b e c o m e destitute ... the n u m b e r of such poor w o m e n , in almost every
small town in Scotland, is distressing to t h i n k u p o n . ... T h e fact is, they 20
live in a condition to which t h a t of m o s t domestic a n i m a l s is a luxury. (31,
2) In Edinburgh und Schottland berhaupt Blthe des M a l t h u s i a n i s m u s ,
the towncouncil of E d i n b u r g h , a n d the M a n a g e r s of the C h u r c h Charity-
W o r k h o u s e ... refused, even last winter, at the t i m e w h e n e p i d e m i c fever
was alarmingly prevalent, to order the increased assessments which were 25
proposed. Sie wuten, da sie d a d u r c h would have very materially relieved
the sufferings vieler hlfloser W e i b e r u n d K i n d e r ... A b e r sie frchteten
d a d u r c h zu ultimately extend a n d perpetuate the k i n d of suffering which
they would temporarily relieve. (40, 1) W e r in E d i n b u r g h fhlt m u c h anx-
iety a b o u t die sufferings der poor, s e e m to be usually regarded as well- 30
m e a n i n g , weak m i n d e d m e n , who are incapable of c o m p r e h e n d i n g the
principle of population", a n d do n o t u n d e r s t a n d that the sufferings of o n e
part of the c o m m u n i t y are the proper corrective to restrain the t e n d e n c y to
u n d u e increase of n u m b e r s in the rest. (39, N o t e ) Mr Revans, der Sekretr
war to the Poor-law-Inquiry in E n g l a n d u n d Wales, which led z u m A m e n d - 35
m e n t A c t in 1834, sagt, da w e n n wir a b z i e h n das p a y m e n t of wages d u r c h
die poorrates seit 1796, (the employers of labourers having dexterously
shifted on the rate payers a great part of the b u r d e n which they only were
b o u n d to bear) and allow for the difference of population, and of the price
of corn, a n d for m a n y extraneous expenses ... charged on the poor rates ... 40
we shall find that they h a d pretty well reached their greatest height in 1680.
254
Aus William Pulteney Alison: Observations on the management of the poor
([45,] 46) D i e k o n o m i s c h e n F o l g e n dieser schottischen Rigiditt: An

irisch widow m i t 4 j u n g e n K i n d e r n , die 4 oder 5 J a h r e in E d i n b u r g h sich
aufgehalten, was refused relief from the Charity-Workhouse; ... sie u n d
ihre Kinder lebten eine Zeitlang in e x t r e m e destitution, in a close cellar, in
5 a small but crowded close. Da eines der K i n d e r v o m Fieber ergriffen, die
others soon sickened, die disease spread to the neighbours, 15 cases oc-
curred in a very limited space in a few weeks; some of which b e c a m e a
heavy b u r d e n to t h e Infirmary; o n e y o u n g w o m a n , who supported h e r aged
m o t h e r died, and t h e m o t h e r b e c o m e s a b u r d e n on the city. H o w far further
10 the evil m a y extend is yet doubtful. (192 note) |
255
|23| Alison. (Archibald) The Principles

of Population.
E d i n b u r g h . 1840.
t.I.
O h n e das bedachtlose H i n g e b e n an d e n Instinkt der G a t t u n g (Be) the spe- 5
cies could never have emerged from the woods. (14) Unless the principle of
increase h a d b e e n u n l i m i t e d in its operation in pastoral ages, die Pastoral-
vlker nie ihre w a n d e r n d e Lebensart verlassen. It is the feeling of want
which impels t h e m into other regions, a n d leads to the formation of differ-
ent habits. But for the rapid m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of t h e Scythian tribes they 10
would have wandered to this day u n k n o w n a n d u n c h a n g e d in the steppes of
the U k r a i n e or the plains of Tartary, a n d the n a t i o n s of E u r o p e who have
sprung from their d e s c e n d a n t s would never have existed. (18) It was the
pressure of n u m b e r s alone which compelled t h e m to leave these desert re-
gions, a n d impelled t h e m alternately u p o n the R o m a n , the I n d i a n , or the 15
Chinese empires. (I.e.) the forced m i g r a t i o n of shepherd tribes war the
m e a n s of peopling an u n i n h a b i t e d world. (19) G r e a t part of the h i g h table-
land of Asia, which shelves upwards from the N o r t h e r n O c e a n to the H i -
m a l a y a snows, at the foot of which it is 14,000 feet above the sea, is utterly
incapable of arable cultivation: districts in Tartary u n d Mongolia, 2x as 20
large as all Europe, are for ever c h a i n e d to the N o m a d State. (19) If, there-
fore, the u n l i m i t e d operation of the principle of increase is necessary in t h e
savage state to the existence of m a n , it is no less essential in the pastoral to
his extension a n d improvement. (21) T h e same want of a rapid increase in
the h u m a n species is felt in the early agricultural state. (22) D e r slow prog- 25
ress which states m a k e in enlarging their n u m b e r s in the first stages of so-
256
Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population
ciety zeigen die N o t h w e n d i g k e i t einer u n l i m i t e d operation des principle of

increase fr die multiplication of m a n k i n d in these periods. Z u r Z e i t Julius
Casars die E i n w o h n e r von Britain wahrscheinlich 700,000; w h r e n d der
Heptarchie still smaller; u n t e r H e n r y V das whole Island n i c h t
5 2,500,000 souls. So in 15 centuries die n u m b e r s of the people were hardly
tripled. (23, 4) R a s c h fortschreitende Bevlkerung in d e n early ages n u r in
besonders begnstigten L n d e r e i n , wie in d e m Delta von Aejypten, der
E b e n e von M e s o p o t a m i e n , oder in d e n fields of Bengal. (24, 5) D e r rapid
progress der population in N o r d a m e r i k a h a t zu sehr falschen I d e e n in Be-
10 zug auf die probable rate of increase in the earlier ages of the world gelei-
tet. D i e Volk b e g a n n die cultivation seiner forests m i t allen advantages
and resources of civilized life at their c o m m a n d ; etc etc. (25) T h e state of
the N o r t h a m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n is n o t to be t a k e n as an example, b u t as a
contrast to the condition of m a n in the r u d e r ages of the world. (26) F r o m
15 the very earliest ages ... commerce has b e e n the great compelling force
which has driven civilized m a n into distant regions; a n d given rise to those
stations for the transit of m e r c h a n d i s e , or the m u t u a l convenience of buy-
ers and sellers, which have afterwards grown into the greatest cities. (29)
A u s s e r d e m der spirit of urban democracy ist die great moving power which
20 leads civilized m a n to settle in distant regions. (31)
Population and Subsistence.
Ein M a n n k a n n mehr t h u n als die zu s e i n e m eignen Bedarf n t h i g e food

schaffen. Dieser Excess der food, von d e m i m m e r alle a n d r e n Klassen aus-
ser der a c k e r b a u e n d e n gelebt h a b e n . (35) Solange die F r u c h t b a r k e i t des
25 Bodens unerschpft u n d die ussersten limits of increasing subsistence
have not b e e n attained, the s a m e proportion m u s t exist between t h e n u m -
bers of the cultivators, a n d the surplus p r o d u c e they can raise, as in the
earliest times, weil die n u m b e r of m o u t h s have increased in exactly t h e
same proportion as the n u m b e r of h a n d s . (36) Der B a n a n a b a u m , sagt
30 A. v. H u m b o l d t , will furnish food for 50 individuals on the same surface
which u n d e r wheat will only m a i n t a i n two. (38) Seit 1640 die A m e r i c a n e r
sich bestndig verdoppelt in je 33 J a h r e n . This long c o n t i n u e d a n d aston-
ishing multiplication for 2 centuries is the m o s t l u m i n o u s fact which t h e
history of the globe h a s yet exhibited of the fixed superiority which t h e pro-
35 duce of h u m a n labour is able to m a i n t a i n even over the m o s t rapidly in-
creasing multiplication of the species. (39, 40) M u zugegeben werden,
that every particular country, m a y by h u m a n industry, be cultivated to its
u t m o s t . . . Aber es ist falsch, d a long before this u l t i m a t e limit has b e e n at-
257
tained, p o p u l a t i o n h a s a t e n d e n c y to increase faster t h a n subsistence. (42,

3) (In d e m Vereinigten K i n g d o m 27,000,000 acres of land in pasture, oder
an % des land hitherto brought u n d e r cultivation. [46]) D i e G e s c h i c h t e von
E n g l a n d seit 1801 beweist, d a trotz seiner d i c h t e n Bevlkerung, t h e pow-
ers of agricultural p r o d u c t i o n in this island have kept in a d v a n c e of its pop- 5
u l a t i o n j u s t as effectually als in t h e o t h e r side of t h e A t l a n t i c - V o n
1 8 3 1 - 1 8 3 5 t h e price of every species of agricultural p r o d u c e were r u i n -
ously low. (47) G r o b r i t a n n i e n k n n t e in 5 oder 10 J a h r e n be m a d e to
m a i n t a i n double its present n u m b e r o f i n h a b i t a n t s . I n E n g l a n d u n d W a l e s
sind 27,700,000 cultivated acres; in I r l a n d 12,125,000; in Schottland an 10
5,265,000, in allem 45,090,000 u n d von diesen gegenwrtig in Cultur d u r c h
d e n Spade u n d d e n Pflug 19,237,000 acres u n d in pasturage 27,000,000.
Das ist 2 acres fr jedes h u m a n b e i n g in d e m U n i t e d K i n g d o m ; t h e n u m -
ber of i n h a b i t a n t s in G r e a t Britain u n d Ireland, in 1827, being a b o u t
23,000,000, a n d t h e s a m e proportion probably o b t a i n s at t h e present t i m e , 15
w h e n their n u m b e r s are nearly 30,000,000. N u n , a full supply of subsist-
ence for every living person in wheat is a quarter a year; so t h a t at this rate
there is only one qr raised over t h e whole empire, for every two acres of ar-
able and m e a d o w land. But an acre of arable l a n d yields im D u r c h s c h n i t t
fr ganz E n g l a n d 2 qrs 5 bushels, etwas m e h r als 2% qrs; so d a je 2 acres 20
fhig sind at t h e present average of m a i n t a i n i n g 5 h u m a n beings oder
5 times t h e present i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e empire. C a n there be t h e smallest
d o u b t d a in a few years die 1 qr per % acre m i g h t be t u r n e d i n t o 2 qr per
acre, less t h a n t h e existing average of E n g l a n d ? oder 3 qrs, still less t h a n |
|24| t h e average of m a n y of its counties? D e r erste dieser changes wrde 25
4 , der lezte 6 x der jetzigen E i n w o h n e r z a h l food geben, abgesehn v o n
d e n waste lands etc, wovon 6 M i l l i o n e n acres in arable u n d p a s t u r e l a n d s
verwandelt werden k n n e n , was zur selben R a t e a b o u t 12 M i l l i o n e n of m e n
m e h r h a l t e n k n n t e . So klar, d a 120 millions of h u m a n beings oder 180
m i t ease u n d comfort von d e m territory des U n i t e d K i n g d o m gehalten wer- 30
d e n k n n e n ; a n d supposing t h e m all t o b e m a i n t a i n e d o n w h e a t e n b r e a d
drawn from the arable, a n d b u t c h e r - m e a t , raised on t h e pasture, lands,
without any intermixture of potatoes or inferior food, w h i c h is greatly m o r e
productive. ( 4 9 - 5 1 ) It is practically k n o w n to every Scotch farmer that, by
t h e simple i n t r o d u c t i o n of tile-draining, t h e p r o d u c e of every soil, if at all 35
wet, is at o n c e raised a half, often doubled. (55) N a c h Porter: Das L a n d in-
cluded in die inclosure bills, passed seit 1826, n u r 247,000 acres; die zu der
l
Bevlkerung hinzugefgten n u m b e r s 2,703,707 souls; t h u s affording n o t / 10
of an acre per h e a d fr j e d e n a d d i t i o n a l i n h a b i t a n t . D i e Beweis von der

increased productiveness des soil. (I.e.) F r a n k r e i c h e n t h l t viel m e h r arable 40
land im Verhltni zu seiner surface als G r e a t Britain: d e n n n u r
258
9,146,000 acres p e r m a n e n t l y waste out of 132,630,000 acres in its whole

area, w h r e n d die british Islands v o n 77,000,000 statute acres 15,871,000
ganz sterile u n d u n p r o d u c t i v e e n t h a l t e n . D a s arable L a n d Frankreichs also
2x das der british Islands; u n d wie viel weniger p r o d u c e des soil hier d e -
5 voted to horses u n d cattle, folgt daraus, da, w h r e n d in Great Britain das
m e a d o w u n d pasture l a n d sich auf 27 Mill, acres behuft, in F r a n k r e i c h
n u r 24 Mill, (nach C h a t e a u Vieux) D e n n o c h h a t F r a n k r e i c h n u r 3 Millions
E i n w o h n e r m e h r als G r o b r i t t a n n i e n . H t t e wenigstens 60 Mill., w e n n es
contained so viele E i n w o h n e r als G r e a t Britain, im Verhltni zu seiner
10 Oberflche; u n d bei 1 h u m a n being zu j e d e m arable acre, which is only
supposing each acre to p r o d u c e % of the average p r o d u c e of England, oder
1 qr per acre, it would m a i n t a i n 120 Mill, souls, zu 3 qrs an acre aber
360 millions. (52 Note.) W h r e n d in Polen, der great granary of E u r o p e ,
20 agriculturists erheischt w e r d e n to p r o d u c e a surplus fr 1 manufacturer,
15 u n d in A m e r i c a 12, fr d e n s e l b e n Zweck in F r a n c e n u r 2, w h r e n d in
Great Britain o n e agriculturist is able to m a i n t a i n in ordinary years above
3 manufacturers. (61) D i e beweist, d a das surplus produce der cultivators
is continually increasing as society advances. (I.e.) Da b e r h a u p t Capital
nichts ist als subsistence stored u p , da der G e s a m m t r e i c h t h u m der W e l t
20 nichts ist als die a c c u m u l a t i o n des surplus produce, of the labours der Cul-
tivators der earth in different ages, above what was requisite for their own
support - W e n n d a h e r the efforts of h u m a n p r o d u c t i o n h a d a c o n s t a n t
tendency to sink before the gigantic powers of population in the m o r e ad-
vanced stages of society, m u t e das a n n u a l i n c r e m e n t of capital have g o n e
25 on declining m i t d e m progress of its m o r e advanced stages. U n d die grad
das Gegentheil der Wirklichkeit. (62) Die wahre relation zwischen Bevlke-
rung u n d Subsistenz ist die von cause u n d effect. (63) In China, n a c h H u m -
boldt, die Oberflche beluft sich auf 463,000 square m a r i n e leagues u n d
die population, n a c h i h m , ist 175,000,000. If it were peopled in d e m s e l b e n
30 Verhltni wie die british Islands, which c o n t a i n 2,250 to t h e square
league, it would c o n t a i n 980 M i l l i o n e n oder fast 5 x seine jetzigen Einwoh-
ner; w e n n es cultivirt wre, wie G r o b r i t a n n i e n sein k o n n t e (sieh oben)
d. h. 1 acre von je 3 gewidmet der staple food of m a n , die 2 a n d r e n zu luxu-
ries, it would m a i n t a i n 2 300 M i l l i o n e n Einwohner, 12 x seine gegenwr-
35 tige Bevlkerung. D i e P e n i n s u l a of India, n a c h H u m b o l d t , enthlt
109,200 square m a r i n e leagues u n d 134 Mill. Einwohner. W r e es in d e m -
selben Maasse bevlkert wie England, so wrde es e n t h a l t e n a b o u t
250 Mill. E i n w o h n e r oder fast 2x seine present n u m b e r . (67, 8) B i o s d e m
Malthus gegenber ist auf die ursprnglichen Productivkrfte des B o -
40 dens zu verweisen ... "the m a i n point in civilized society is not what are
the productive powers of n a t u r e in t h e soil, b u t what are the m e a n s which
the h u m a n race have for getting at these powers." (77)
259
On the Changes in the Progress of Society

which limit the Principle of Increase.
W i e nothwendig auch i m m e r a rapid increase of m a n k i n d ist in early

times, die necessity fr diese u n l i m i t e d operation des Bevlkerungsprin-
cips hrt auf im Fortschritt der Gesellschaft u n d eine Periode k m m t , wo 5
s o m e powerful restraint zu legen auf die m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of m a n k i n d . (83)
Check in d e n artificial wants u n d habits of foresight, die der Fortschritt der
society schafft. (87) D a n n der Change, which the objects of his desire u n -
dergo in the progress of society. (89) D i e gradation of ranks. (I.e.) D i e Z a h l
der Kinder vermindert sich m i t der Contraction der H e i r a t h e n in m i d d l e 10
life, statt of early youth. (136) D i e G r o s s e n Stdte. (138)
On the Circumstances in the Progress of

Society which limit the demand for Labour.
Diese U m s t n d e sind: change in the employment of capital. (146) there is a

limit imposed to the growth of capital in every country, by the height to 15
which itself has arisen; a n d that it flows into foreign channels, when the
reservoirs at h o m e are supplied, as naturally a n d inevitably as a stream
which has fertilized its own plains descends to enrich inferior soils. (157, 8)
Change in the direction of wealth from productive to u n p r o d u c t i v e employ-
m e n t , (p. 162 sqq.) (In allen diesen Fllen, sei es eine V e r s c h w e n d u n g von 20
Einzelnen, oder von Regierungen, b e r h a u p t Verausgabung als Revenue)
t h e capital, das die Arbeit in Bewegung sezt d u r c h seine Nachfrage, is not
reproduced by their exertions, b u t is entirely dissipated. (164) the wealth
which is devoted to productive investments, in addition to the encourage-
m e n t given to the persons employed, reproduces itself in the h a n d s of the 25
spender, and p e r m a n e n t l y enriches h i m a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s ; whereas t h a t
which is s q u a n d e r e d in t h e purchase of luxuries is in great part lost to h i m
a n d his heirs, a n d reproduces itself only in the persons of those whose pro-
ductions he acquires. Also im ersten Fall doppelter emploi. (166) |
|25| T h e exchange of the surplus of o n e productive citizen against the 30
productive surplus produce of another, creates n o t only a m u t u a l encour-
a g e m e n t to industry, b u t a m u t u a l growth of capital in the h a n d s of b o t h
parties, whereas, when o n e of the parties is a m e r e idle c o n s u m e r , the
growth goes on only on o n e side. (167) Zunahme der Circulation, damit rela-
tive Depreciation des Gelds u n d Steigen der Preisse. (170 sqq.) 35
260
HBP
w
Theilung der Arbeit u n d Verbesserung der Maschinerie. (181) E a c h w o r k m a n

in der cotton m a n u f a c t u r e s u p e r i n t e n d s as m u c h work as would have b e e n
d o n e by 200 or 300 sixty years ago. As m u c h work is d o n e by a steampow-
ermill m i t 750 m e n as 200,000 could do w i t h o u t machinery. (188) Die ex-
5 ports von Great Britain im D u r c h s c h n i t t der 7 J a h r e e n d e n d m i t 1806
= 2 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ; im average der 7 J a h r e e n d e n d m i t 1836 7 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . D i e
Bevlkerung der island in der ersten Periode 10,942,000, in der lezten
18,000,000. Also ganz andre V e r m e h r u n g des p r o d u c e als der labourers.
(188 [,189]) In Glasgow (1840) 3000 publichouses auf 290,000 persons in-
10 eluded in 58,000 families; fast 1 p u b l i c h o u s e auf 20 families. B e w o h n t e
te
Huser ungefhr 30,000, so d a j e d e s 1 0 h o u s e appropriated to t h e sale of
spirits: a proportion u n e x a m p l e d in any other city of the globe. 1830 war
1 Public h o u s e auf 12 Huser. (190, 1) Diese Z a h l gestiegen von 1600 seit
1821, obgleich n u r 140,000 Seelen w h r e n d derselben Periode der Bevlke-
15 rung hinzugefgt. (191) the s a m e individuals, who, a year before, were re-
duced to pawn their last shreds of furniture to procure subsistence, reck-
lessly throw away the surplus earnings of m o r e prosperous times in the
lowest debauchery. (I.e.) It seems the peculiar effect of such debasing e m -
ployments, to render the c o n d i t i o n of m e n precarious at the s a m e t i m e that
20 it m a k e s their habits irregular: to subject t h e m at o n c e to the m o s t trying
fluctuations of condition, a n d the m o s t fatal improvidence of character.
(I.e.) Experience has proved ... that the proportion of marriages in these
classes is m u c h greater t h a n in the agricultural districts; a n d the increase of
population is still m o r e rapid, as the dissolution of m a n n e r s h a s multiplied
25 to an incredible degree the n u m b e r s of bastards. (192) while the improve-
m e n t of science a n d the extension of art is daily encroaching on the field
of industry in the often-debasing e m p l o y m e n t s of manufactures, t h e wide
and healthful field of agricultural o c c u p a t i o n r e m a i n s for ever o p e n to the
industry of m a n k i n d , (194) the i m p r o v e m e n t of husbandry, indeed, has a
30 directly opposed t e n d e n c y from the growth of manufactures, a n d in the lat-
er ages of society the n u m b e r of persons employed in the cultivation of the
earth is greater t h a n in its earlier periods. W h e r e agriculture has attained to
a high degree of perfection, as in Flanders, Lombardy, a n d Tuscany, t h e
value of land, a n d the great d e m a n d for its varied produce, leads to the ro-
35 tation of crops, a n d the garden system of h u s b a n d r y . This change a u g m e n t s
immensely the n u m b e r of persons engaged in its cultivation. It has b e e n
calculated, that at least d o u b l e the n u m b e r of labourers are o c c u p i e d on a
farm of equal extent in the level fields of Brabant, or on the A p e n n i n e s ,
from those d e e m e d necessary in the best cultivated parts of Britain. T h e
40 growth of agricultural wealth leads to the division of farms; the improve-
m e n t of agricultural knowledge multiplies the n u m b e r of crops which c a n
261
be raised from soil, the necessity for e c o n o m i s i n g b o t h space a n d l a b o u r in-

troduces the garden cultivation. By no possible contrivance c a n the same
p r o d u c e be raised from good land, as by treating it like a k i t c h e n garden
with the spade a n d the h o e ; a n d this is accordingly t h e m e t h o d adopted in
those countries where agriculture h a s b e e n longest practised with success, 5
a n d is best u n d e r s t o o d ; an extraordinary fact, der zeigt wie der M e n s c h an
die Erde g e b u n d e n etc (194, 5) Herr A l i s o n k m m t auf folgendes schne
Naturgesetz, wovon grade das Gegentheil in der Praxis existirt: It was
for no light reasons, therefore, that n a t u r e established this eternal distinc-
tion between the labour of the country a n d t h a t of the town, a n d m a d e the 10
increase of wealth a n d progress of civilisation a t t e n d e d with constant re-
straints on the e n c o u r a g e m e n t to labour, from m a n u f a c t u r i n g , a n d con-
stant ||26| increase to t h e d e m a n d for industry or agricultural employ-
ments. (197) Ferner, wird im Fortschritt der Gesellschaft das W a c h s t h u m
generis h u m a n i aufgehalten d u r c h d e n increase of horses fr L u x u s oder 15
conveyance oder agriculture. 1 Pferd erheischt so viel food als 8 persons.
(197, 8) W a h r s c h e i n l i c h n a c h den g e n a u s t e n Berichten d a die Pferde Lon-
d o n s so viel food verzehren als seine Einwohner. (198) In der Agricultur in
E n g l a n d 832,000 Pferde gebraucht; sie verzehren die food von fast 11 mil-
lions of m e n . Viel m e h r als die h u m a n labourers. (198, 9) D i e wchst im 20
Fortschritt der commercial opulence. (199) the multiplication of horses
goes on at increased ratio in the advanced stages of ... opulent societies;
a n d an a n i m a l which at first is valued only for its useful qualities, a n d as
the fellow labourer of its master, b e c o m e s in the progress of opulence, the
most costly article of luxury, a n d the principal sign of the distinction of 25
rank. (199) D a n n m i t d e m increase of wealth ebenso wichtiger change in
the food, which is c o n s u m e d by the better classes of society. Metzgerfleisch,
Butter, Ks werden ein H a u p t t h e i l der N a h r u n g der poor. (Esel!) ... 50 %
m e h r Fleisch in Britannien als Frankreich c o n s u m i r t ... In den British is-
lands b e s t i m m t 27,386,000 acres fr pasturage u n d n u r 19,135,000 fr 30
K o r n ... Die Verhltni h e r s t a m m e n d aus d e m fortgeschrittnen R e i c h -
t h u m Englands u n d d e n gestiegnen Bedrfnissen der M e h r z a h l ... D a n n
absorption of a considerable portion of grain fr Brauen u n d Destilliren u n d
Z i e h e n ghrender u n d gebrannter G e t r n k e in the later stages of society ...
N u r in fortgeschrittnen stages of society the quantity of grain c o n s u m e d in 35
this form b e c o m e s an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in estimating the m e a n s of n a -
tional subsistence. ... Seit 1825 (reduction d a m a l s der duties) in Grobri-
t a n n i e n die Z a h l der gallons spirituser G e t r n k e gewachsen von 16 Millio-
n e n auf 24,493,000 (bis 1837) ... N a c h C o l q u h o u n wird in d e n british
isles: 40
262
Consumed by man 18,750,000 qrs (grain)

Thiere (abgesehn von 11,829,000
grass, hay, straw)
Brauerei u n d Destillation 4,250,000. ( 1 9 9 - 2 0 4 )
5 A deficiency in the crop in C h i n a or H i n d u s t a n u n m i t t e l b a r gefolgt von

famine, in England it p r o d u c e s only a d i m i n u t i o n in the n u m b e r of horses,
a stoppage of the d e s t i n a t i o n from grain, a n d a general saving in t h e u s e of
bread or a n i m a l food. (205) In F r a n k r e i c h 20 Millions Agriculturists n t h i g
um sich u n d 10 m i l l i o n s Stdter etc zu e r n h r e n ; in England (Britain)
10 4 Millions fr sich u n d fr 14 millions in a n d r e n trades. (205, 6) (In F r a n k -
reich 2 cultivators m a i n t a i n 1 von d e n a n d r e n Klassen; in B r i t a n n i e n 1 cul-
tivator m a i n t a i n s 4 von d e n a n d r e n Klassen. In Polen, R u l a n d etc 15 oder
20 agriculturists erhalten 1 von d e n a n d r e n Klassen.) W h e n so large a pro-
portion as % f the fruits of the soil is c o n s u m e d in articles of luxury, the
15 rent of land rises, a n d the price of agricultural labour is e n h a n c e d long be-
fore population has reached its u t m o s t limits. (206) In d e n earlier periods
of agriculture, farms berall u n d in allen Zeitaltern small, aus M a n g e l an
Capital u n d A r m u t h der cultivators. D a n n engrossing of farms ... D i e Be-
drfni hrt auf, sobald die great operations of agriculture have b e e n c o m -
20 pleted, the principal drains m a d e , woods cleared, a n d enclosures fin-
ished ... u n d d a n n die operations der h u m a n h a n d nthiger als die des
Capitals u n d die c o m p e t i t i o n of agricultural capital fhrt d a n n zur subdivi-
sion of farms, and the change in their m o d e of cultivation. ... Das G a r t e n -
system of h u s b a n d r y verdrngt d a n n j e d e s andre. So in J a p a n . ( 2 1 8 - 2 0 )
25 Modifications of these principles

from human corruption.
W e n n redundant population existirt, von d e n o b e n entwickelten G e s e t z e n ,

die n u r der h u m a n corruption z u z u s c h r e i b e n . (225) (die n m l i c h die n a -
trlich limiting principles ber H a u f e n wirft.) Er trstet sich m e i s t e n s bi-
30 blisch: "the poor will be always with u s . " (226 W e n n er selbst nicht der
poor ist, sehr ertrglich.) ( D a m i t er b e c o m e s qualified for H e a v e n (226)
m u es Arme geben.) Schlechte Regierung. (229) B e h a u p t e n die Advoca-
ten der necessary misery der M e n s c h h e i t , d a die actual victims of oppres-
sion wenige sind im Verhltni zu d e n D u l d e r n aus U n k l u g h e i t etc die
35 richtig. Wollen sie aber b e h a u p t e n , t h a t this i m p r u d e n c e is n o t m a i n l y ow-
ing to erroneous institutions or h u m a n wickedness, and t h a t a t e n d e n c y to
263
increase faster t h a n subsistence can be provided in t h e m , is i n h e r e n t in h u -

m a n nature, i n d e p e n d e n t of the operation of m o r a l causes, there c a n n o t be
a greater or a m o r e fatal error. (231, 2) |
|27| Bis 1690 ungefhr (bis zur U n i o n der K i n g d o m s ) war % der g a n z e n
Bevlkerung von Schottland, a m o u n t i n g to 200,000 persons, in a state of 5
i m p o r t u n a t e a n d helpless mendicity, so grosse Proportion wie je in Irland
in its periods of greatest distress. (250, 1)
Principles of Decay and Renovation in Human Affairs.
W h e n the lower orders, as in t h e R o m a n or G r e c i a n States, are enslaved,

the social system d e p e n d s entirely on t h e valour a n d industry of the higher 10
ranks. (283)
On the Action of the Principle of Increase in the East.
1) Turkey.
Hier allgemeines System: t h e capital owerflows with riches, while the prov-
inces languish in the most extreme poverty. (314) In the rich plain of R o m e - 15
lia, in t h e vicinity of Constantinople, the cultivation is beyond m e a s u r e
wretched. T h e G r a n d Seignior publicly m o n o p o l i z e s all the corn, a n d with
it furnishes the capital. He draws his supplies from the m a r i t i m e provinces,
which are subject to a k i n d of tax called Ichtirach, consisting in the obliga-
tion do deliver to the Sultan, at a very low rate, a certain quantity of grain, 20
which he retails to others. (315) Das trkische government m a y be consid-
ered as an army e n c a m p e d , the general of which issues orders to forage the
country. (319) T h e sale of all e m p l o y m e n t s , a n d the precarious t e n u r e by
which they are held, converts the depositaries of authority into oppressors.
Justice is venal, because the Cadis have b e e n laid u n d e r contribution. All 25
persons who receive pay from the Sultan ... are liable every instant to
d e a t h a n d confiscation. This inspires fear, a n d p r o m p t s those in office to
m a k e the most of what they hold by so frail a t e n u r e . (320, 1) I n s t i t u t i o n
der A z a m s , die die I n d i v i d u e n gegen die Pachas zu s c h t z e n h a b e n . In
Stdten, sind alle die von E i n e m trade in corporations vereinigt, the chiefs 30
of which watch over the individuals composing it. E n d l i c h das village sys-
tem, which prevails almost universally over the east ... By this institu-
tion ... the whole country is divided into little c o m m u n i t i e s , who pay a cer-
tain fixed tax or rather tribute to the G o v e r n m e n t or Pacha, in
264

c o n s i d e r a t i o n of w h i c h they are relieved from all further e x a c t i o n on t h e

part of these officers. (321, 2) (The p r o p o r t i o n in which e a c h individual in
t h e c o m m u n i t y is to b e a r his share of t h i s b u r d e n is ascertained with
nicety, a n d , in general, faithfully observed. [322]) Property vested in m o r t -
5 m a i n , in t h e h a n d s of t h e m i n i s t e r s of religion, is in general tolerably se
cure, a n d it is with t h e m , t h a t t h e little capital which arises from t r a d e or
c o m m e r c e , is c o m m o n l y invested. ... G e n e r a l l y speaking ... t h e hill dis
tricts of Turkey, b o t h in E u r o p e a n d Asia, are far better cultivated t h a n t h e
plains ... das t u r k i s h e m p i r e , das in E u r o p e u n d Asia e m b r a c e s 815,000 fj]
10 miles, c o n t a i n s n u r 25,000,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , also 28 per mile, n i c h t % der
p o p u l a t i o n i t c o n t a i n e d i n t h e days o f t h e r o m a n a n d persian empires u n d
k a u m m e h r als / 0 vieler c o u n t r i e s in m o d e r n E u r o p e . (323, 4)
2) Ejypt.
Die p e a s a n t s dieses L a n d e s afford a m e m o r a b l e e x a m p l e of t h e greatest

15 excess of h u m a n misery, arising solely from t h e oppression of t h e p o o r e r
classes. (327) In t h e Provinces of U p p e r Ejypt die r e t u r n s of agriculture
have b e e n estimated = 80:1 u n d die m o s t m o d e r a t e calculations zeigen
e i n e n D u r c h s c h n i t t s r e t u r n von 25 oder 3 0 : 1 . ... this fertility ... great as it
is, die s p o n t a n e o u s gift of N a t u r e : t h e m e a n s of irrigation ... neglected or
20 lost: ignorant u n d lazy die h u s b a n d m e n . (328, 9) Aejypten zeugt von der
propensity to increase, operating with t h e most force, w h e n t h e r e is t h e
least scope afforded for t h e subsistence of t h e people. (335)
3) Barbary.
T h e only ploughing which they e m p l o y is a species of scratching 6 i n c h e s

25 deep, frequently d o n e with a w o o d e n plough. T h e i r only m a n u r e is t h e an
n u a l b u r n i n g of t h e stubble. (338, 9)
4) Syria, Palaestina, Asia Minor.
P o p u l a t i o n thinly scattered a n d miserably indigent. (341) T h e plough is of

t e n no m o r e t h a n t h e b r a n c h of a tree. (I.e.) t h e cause of t h e r e m a r k a b l e
30 difference between t h e n u m b e r s of t h e people, a n d capacities w h i c h t h e
country affords for subsistence, is to be found in t h e tyranny of t h e t u r k i s h
g o v e r n m e n t . (342, 3) L i m i t e d by t h e tyranny, to which they are subjected to
265
the a n i m a l wants of our nature, e a c h family m a n u f a c t u r e s its own clothes,

has a portable mill to grind corn, a n d this is all t h a t they require. (346)
D r u s e n u n d M a r o n i t e n (Gebirgsbewohner) bilden A u s n a h m e . ([352,] 353)
5) India.
W h a t e v e r m a y be the p r o d u c e of their labour, the c o n d i t i o n of the peasant 5

is nearly the same: he is universally poor: for the c o n t i n u a l exactions of his
superiors leave h i m n o t h i n g b u t the necessaries of life. (354) So great is the
indigence a m o n g the artisans, that the employer is obliged in every case to
advance a certain proportion of the price of t h e m a n u f a c t u r e , in order to
e n a b l e the manufacturer to live while he is engaged in completing it. U n - 10
able to wait the market, or anticipate its d e m a n d , he c a n only follow his
t r a d e w h e n called to it by the d e m a n d s of his c u s t o m e r s ; when these fail,
he is obliged to take to some other m o d e of subsistence, and agriculture is
the general resource by which the u n e m p l o y e d manufacturers gain a pre-
carious livelihood. Over the greater part of India, the p r o d u c e is at least 3 x 15
what it is on a similar extent in England, even u n d e r the present wretched
m a n a g e m e n t ; d e n n die W r m e des Climas giebt i m m e r 2, oft 3 crops u n d
grre als hier. Ein acre will ||28| yield von 1 3 - 1 4 qrs wheat in I n d i e n jhr-
lich; in England 3 qrs der average des whole country u n d 4 is considered as
a large allowance. (357, 8) W h e n this extreme fertility of the soil is consid- 20
ered, the population of H i n d u s t a n is small ... T h o u g h the population ... is
everywhere r e d u n d a n t , it is greatly within the capabilities of subsistence
which the soil a n d the country afford. (358) the peculiarities in the condi-
tion a n d habits of the I n d i a n people; the small a m o u n t of the revenue and
of the land u n d e r tillage; the r e d u n d a n c e of the p o p u l a t i o n w h e n compared 25
with the d e m a n d for labour, and its scantiness w h e n c o m p a r e d with the
capabilities of the soil; all arise from the government, the religion, a n d ex-
isting institutions. (359) K a u m 1 acre auf 50 ist cultivirt in d e m greater
part der M a h r a t t a states. (362) the levying of rents, in ganz I n d i e n , is every-
where almost a scene of fraud and evasion on the o n e part, a n d of p l u n d e r 30
a n d oppression on the other. (364)
6) China.
C h i n a n a c h George S t a u n t o n 330, n a c h M a l t e B r u n 175 M i l l i o n e n Einwoh-

ner. (372) the labouring classes are over the whole country in a state of t h e
greatest indigence; their furniture is wretched ... N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the m o s t 35
266
economical arrangements, the labouring poor are almost everywhere re-

duced to vegetable food, with a very rare a n d scanty relish of any richer
substance. ... In the great towns ... the i n d i g e n c e of the lower people can-
not be exceeded. (373) farms are universally small; a n d the division of
5 m a n u a l labour is carried to its u t m o s t length, without ever having led to
any agricultural m a c h i n e r y for the d i m i n u t i o n of the w o r k m e n employed.
(376) famine ... recurs in C h i n a in general at t h e expiration of every 3 or
4 years. (377)
7) Japan.
10 the m e t h o d of h u s b a n d r y , universally adopted, is the garden style; the soil

is all t u r n e d up by t h e spade, a n d incredible pains are t a k e n in weeding the
crops. (393) of luxuries they have no conception. (395) with the exception
of the emperor, no person has the m e a n s of getting rich in J a p a n b u t t h e
m e r c h a n t ; and this class of m e n frequently a c c u m u l a t e considerable
15 wealth; b u t the profession is, nevertheless, universally despised. (395)
8) Persia and Affghanistaun.
Artificial wants are u n k n o w n a m o n g the labouring classes in Persia; t h e

fare of the poor is simplest imaginable; the use of a n i m a l food or luxuries
of any kind is u n k n o w n . ... their only luxury consists in the m u l t i t u d e of
20 horses. (402) T h e whole plain of M e s o p o t a m i a is susceptible of an artificial
supply of water. ... Aber: T h e old c h a n n e l s for the conveyance of water
were neglected or allowed to get into disrepair during some of the tartar in-
vasions; the insecurity of property, u n d e r s u b s e q u e n t dynasties, r e n d e r e d
their restoration impossible; the richest p l a i n in the world was i m m e d i a t e l y
25 converted into a moving sand; a n d t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g waters of t h e E u -
phrates a n d the Tigris, fed by the eternal snows of the Caucasus, have, for
ages, rolled their u n d i s t u r b e d waters to the I n d i a n Ocean. (403)
On the Action of the Principle of Increase in Europe.
In der Lombardei die Bauern, i n h a b i t i n g a country which a b o u n d s in wine,

30 it is seldom they drink anything b u t water; their clothing is scanty a n d
wretched; their dwellings destitute of all t h e comforts of life. On the public
roads, in the villages, in the cities, the traveller is assailed by m u l t i t u d e s of
267
beggars. Die proprietors residiren alle in d e n Stdten. Das land is all let to
middlemen, who relet their farms to the actual cultivators, a n d such is the
a c c u m u l a t e d weight t h u s heaped u p o n the farmers that, in spite of the
riches of the soil, they can barely procure the necessaries of life. T h e first
crop goes to the landlord, die peasantry m u subsist on the m o r e precar- 5
ious u n d u n c e r t a i n returns of the second harvest. D i e cultivators h a b e n
m e i s t a piece of land m i t 1 oder 2 cows ... by yielding the people a subsist-
ence and nothing more, it gives an improper a n d uncalled for facility to their
increase. (454, 5) Dasselbe oppressive u n d r u i n o u s system of m i d d l e m e n in
d e n states von P a r m a , M o d e n a u n d d e m district von P a d u a . (455) In N e a - 10
pel u n d Sicilien die cottagers live on chestnuts, or other casual a n d u n s u b -
stantial n u t r i m e n t , instead of the rich a n d wholesome diet which the c o u n -
try affords ... whatever the country produces is owing to the m i l d n e s s of
the climate or the goodness of the soil, aber fast nichts der industry or skill
der E i n w o h n e r (458) Italien k n n t e 2x seine jetzige E i n w o h n e r z a h l reich- 15
licher e r n h r e n als die jetzige: Schwer to estimate the capabilities of a
country where the plains yield d o u b l e a n d triple crops, the hills an inex-
haustible supply of oil a n d wine, the m o u n t a i n s a p e r m a n e n t provision
from their chestnut forests, a n d the highest s u m m i t s a range of the finest
a n d coolest pasturage. (463) ||29| In Spanien residiren die l a n d e d proprie- 20
tors i m m e r in den Stdten, die great nobles zu M a d r i d . (464) A l m o s t all
the farms are too large: cultivation is generally n o t attempted on the half of
it, a n d large quantities of arable land everywhere lie in a state of N a t u r e .
(464, 5) Spanien enthielt frher eine viel grre Bevlkerung. (465) D a s
k i n g d o m von G r e n a d a enthielt u n t e r d e n M o o r s 3 Mill. Einwohner, jezt 25
n u r n o c h 661,000. (466) D e r B o d e n b e r a l l von N a t u r sehr fruchtbar. (467)
Alcavalas tax of 14 % auf W a a r e n , so oft they pass from h a n d to h a n d . ... it
affects heritable as well as movable property. (467, 8) Millones % auf W e i n ,
Oel, butchers m e a t etc. (468) The laws of the Mesta ... 5 millions of sheep,
u n d e r the sanction of a particular code, n o t only fail to enrich the land on 30
which they feed, b u t effectually prevent its cultivation. Die C o m p a n y der
M e s t a besizt grossen Einflu, e n o r m e u n d schamlose Privilegien. Ein be-
sondres T r i b u n a l : "The H o n o u r a b l e Council of the Mesta," which superin-
t e n d s the preservation of these i m m u n i t i e s . ... the cultivated l a n d s which
lie near the route which the flocks take, suffer the greatest depredations; 35
der court entscheidet sich fast i m m e r in favour of its own servants. A u c h
die c o m m o n lands devastated d u r c h die i m m e n s e flocks which traverse
t h e m ... 5 millions of sheep annually migrating in this m a n n e r , n o t only
convert an i m m e n s e tract of highly valuable land into pasturage, b u t pre-
vent any agricultural produce being ever raised u p o n it. (469, 70) Das 40
grte U e b e l Spaniens ( n a c h J o v e l l a n o s , T o w n s e n d , C a m p o m a n e s , L a -
268
borde etc) ist das engrossing of large estates in d e n h a n d s von I n d i v i d u e n ,

die weder Mittel n o c h N e i g u n g h a b e n es zu verbessern. Fast ganz A n d a l u -
sien in den h a n d s der D u k e s von O s u n a , Alba, M e d i n a Coeli; der leztre
claims by descent fast ganz Catalonia. % von Spanien gehalten v o n d e n
5 families of M e d i n a Coeli, Alba, Infantado, u n d some other grandees, the
archbishops of Toledo, Compostella, Valencia, Seville, M u r c i a etc u n d a
few of the religious orders; t h e nobles a n d the clergy possess nearly the
whole country; u n d der major part der lands belonging diesen great pro-
prietors is u n d e r grass. Sie leben in cities u n d berlassen alles d e m m a n -
10 agement der stewards ... andres U e b e l die great possessions of towns. An
vielen Pltzen h a b e n sie l a n d e d estates, oft 10 oder 15 miles in diameter.
Diese tracts are c o m m o n property a n d of course n o t h i n g is d o n e to im-
prove t h e m . E n t s t a n d e n w h r e n d der wars der Moors u n d Christen, when
the peasants des country were compelled to herd together into towns for
15 their m u t u a l protection. D a h e r im S d e n Spaniens, wo diese* wars pre-
vailed, i n d e p e n d e n t farms, d e t a c h e d from e a c h other, k a u m zu sehn. N e a r
the village you see grain, olives u n d vines; beyond this all is desolate. A
foreigner would hardly credit t h e extent of land which is necessarily waste
by being kept in a state of c o m m o n t y t h r o u g h o u t the m i d d l e a n d s o u t h e r n
20 province of Spain ... To complete t h e evils arising from this unjust m o n o p -
oly of land, the system of entails u n d mortmain tenure prevails m e h r in Spa-
nien als irgend wo sonst, locks up the l a n d of the chief proprietors in t h e
h a n d s of its present possessors; a n d n o t only prevents either capital or in-
dustry from being exerted on the estates which are subject to these fetters,
25 but raises the price of the whole land in t h e country to a m o s t exorbitant
a n d r u i n o u s height. ... It has b e e n observed by C a m p o m a n e s , that A n d a l u -
sia, obgleich eine der fruchtbarsten Provinzen Spaniens, is destitute of in-
dustry; weil das land occupied by a few proprietors whose estates pass by
entail. T h e bulk der people sind daylabourers, who only find occasional
30 e m p l o y m e n t . H e n c e , clothed in rags and wretchedness, they crowd into
cities, where they o b t a i n a scanty livelihood by the b o u n t y of ecclesiastics.
( 4 7 0 - 3 ) In Spain ... resoluto j u r e dantis, resolvitur jus accipientis; a n d this
has checked b o t h the progress of wealth towards farming, a n d t h e exertions
of the cultivators, by the precarious n a t u r e of the t e n u r e by which they held
35 their possessions. (474) A u s n a h m e , plus ou m o i n s , Catalonia. H i e r das
establishment of feus or emphyteutic contracts has broken down the |
|30| landed property. Wo die System etablirt, h o h e r G r a d von I n d u s t r i e .
Every parish that will till or feu at a m o d e r a t e price is sure to be cultivated;
but the great lord who will never sell any, is equally sure of perpetuating
40 deserts to the disgrace of t h e country. ... Wo die lords die n i c h t wollen
number of wastes in Catalonia u n d selbst in dieser industrious province 288
269
1
deserted villages. In a country where the farmers are absolutely destitute of

capital, a n d where there is no such thing to be seen as a g e n t l e m a n residing
on his estate, leicht to see d a cultivation can m a k e no progress where the
labourer is not possessed in property of t h e soil which he improves. (476, 7)
Valencia ist frei von den oppressive taxes which desolate the greater part 5
der spanischen M o n a r c h i e . Die, v e r b u n d e n m i t der extreme fertility des
soil, u n d der absence der great proprietors, has i n d u c e d the a d m i r a b l e cul-
tivation u n d die happy appearance dieser Provinz. (478) A b e r Biscaya das
einzige E x a m p l e of a p o p u l a t i o n completely happy u n t e r der Spanish m o n -
archy. (Siehe S w i n b u r n e , F i s h e r , M a r s h a l l ) Diese Provinz eigentlich n u r 10
u n t e r spanischer Protection; being a small republic u n i t e d to a great m o n -
archy. K e i n e royal taxes ausser d e m d o n a t i v e Biscay d u r c h kein state of
the province regirt. (479[, 480])
Portugal. In der reichen u n d fruchtbaren Provinz von Alenteijo the privi-
leges belonging to the flocks der nobles, e q u a l those of the m e s t a in Spain 15
u n d a t t e n d e d m i t denselben r u i n o u s effects. T h e s a m e evils from the enor-
m o u s size of estates, u n d der prevalence of entails, to which the prevalence
of estates held in j o i n t t e n a n c y is to be added, which are generally covered
with heath. T h e principal obstacle to t h e progress of agriculture, however,
is the extreme badness of the roads, which r e n d e r the riches of n a t u r e , 20
wholly unavailing b o t h to their possessors a n d the state. A u s n a h m e Provinz
Minho, 900,000 souls, obgleich das whole country consists of ridges of gran-
ite m o u n t a i n s intersected with precipitous vales. Die steep acclivities der
hills are cut into terraces and planted m i t m a i z e , while the slopes are
covered with vines, a n d yield the finest fruits. ... the whole country m i t 25
A u s n a h m e des d e m monastery g e h r e n d e n property, is in the h a n d s of the
actual cultivators, which is the real cause of the prosperity of t h e province.
(Link, Silviera.) (480, 1) In der g a n z e n pyrenischen Halbinsel: In the prov-
inces where the n u m b e r s of the people are m o s t scanty, the indigence t h a t
prevails is the greatest; while in those where industry a n d property have 30
b e e n suffered to establish themselves, vast n u m b e r s are m a i n t a i n e d in
comfort a n d affluence. (481, 2)
Action of the Principle of Increase

in the United States of America.
Seit 1640, wo die P u r i t a n e r in A m e r i c a gelandet, sie sich i m m e r verdoppelt 35

in 23 J a h r e n . (542) 1790 waren sie 3,929,128 u n d 1830: 12,856,165. (I.e.)
Das valley des Mississippi, der richest part of A m e r i c a , enthlt b e r 1 Mill.
270
square geographical miles, oder an 14 x die area der British islands, h a t

sich die population in d e n lezten 40 J a h r e n 31 x vermehrt, w h r e n d in der-
selben Periode in d e n g a n z e n Vereinigten Staaten n u r verdreifacht.
(543[, 544]) D u r c h E m i g r a t i o n z u m grossen T h e i l von E u r o p a u n d d e m
5 amerikanischen K s t e n l a n d . (544) So was, wie dieser grosse Strom v o m
Osten von A m e r i c a n a c h d e m W e s t e n , aus der Civilisation in die W i l d n i
n o c h n i e gesehn. Vast as were the savage m u l t i t u d e s which a m b i t i o n or lust
of p l u n d e r in G e n g i s k h a n or T i m o u r b r o u g h t down from the plains of Tar-
tary to overwhelm the o p u l e n t regions of the earth, they are as n o t h i n g
10 compared to the ceaseless flood of h u m a n beings which is now in its t u r n
sent forth from t h e abodes of civilized m a n into the desert parts of the
world. M i n d e s t e n s 300,000 persons j h r l i c h cross the Alleghany m o u n -
tains ... their war is with the forest a n d t h e m a r s h , n o t against the cor-
rupted cities of longestablished m a n . (545) S t e a m Navigation is the vital
15 m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n by w h i c h this extraordinary activity is propelled
into distant regions. (547) D a s T h a l des Mississippi, w e n n so dicht bevl-
kert wie Frankreich, k n n t e allein e n t h a l t e n 250 Mill, souls. (Europa bis zu
den Ural m o u n t a i n s enthlt 227 Mill.) (548) In A m e r i c a zuerst scheint das
a t t a c h m e n t der owners des soil zu ihren little freeholds to be entirely oblit-
20 erated ... |
| 3 1 | However long a n d happily a proprietor m a y have lived u p o n his little
d o m a i n , he is always ready to sell it if he can m a k e any profit by t h e trans-
action; and putting himself a n d his family with all his effects on board t h e
first steamboat, transport himself to a different part of the country a n d
25 c o m m e n c e , perhaps at the distance of s o m e 100 miles, the great a n d en-
grossing work of a c c u m u l a t i n g m o n e y . D i e peculiarity, ganz u n b e k a n n t in
irgend einer frhren Periode der G e s c h i c h t e - t h e Nomad Agricultural State.
( 5 5 0 - 2 ) E r giebt i m A p p e n d i x z u T . I :
Countries. Population Territory in Verhltni per

30 1825. square marine square league,
leagues.
America 34,284,000 1,186,930 29
Ruland 54,000,000 616,000 87
Nordamerika 19,650,000 607,337 32
35 Sdamerika 12,161,000 571,300 21
Asiatisch Ruland 2,000,000 465,600 4
Chinese Empire 175,000,000 463,200 377
United States 10,220,000 174,300 58
China proper 150,000,000 128,000 1172
40 Buenos Ayres 2,300,000 126,800 18
India 101,000,000 109,200 925
271
[Countries.] [Population [Territory in [Verhltniper

1825.] squaremarine squareleague.]
leagues.]
United States west
vom Mississippi 366,000 96,600 4 5
United States east
vom Mississippi 9,404,000 77,700 121
British India 73,000,000 90,100 810
Die 15 states on the
Atlantic der United 10
States 7,421,000 30,900 240
Austrian Empire. 29,000,000 21,900 1324
Germany. 30,500,000 21,300 1432
Spain und Portugal 14,619,000 18,150 805
France und Corsica 30,616,000 17,100 1790 15
Spain 11,446,000 15,000 763
Italy 20,100,000 10,240 1967
British Islands 21,200,800 10,000 2120
Prussia 11,663,000 8,900 1311
England 12,218,500 4,840 2524 20
Mexico 1,770,000 3,800 465
Schweiz 1,940,000 1,330 1175
Aejypten 2,489,000 1,400 1737
Holland. 2,100,000 900 1330
Valencia 1,200,000 640 1874 25
Departements of the
Charente in France 347,000 186 1865
(p. 572 aus Humboldt.)
T.II
t h e acquisition of land, w h e n u n a c c o m p a n i e d by political oppression, is 30

n o t only t h e strongest s t i m u l u s to industry, b u t t h e m o s t powerful security
against t h e u n d u e increase of t h e people. (39) W h a t in t h e e n d is to distin
guish t h e french p e a s a n t s from t h e ryots of H i n d o s t a n ? (73)
On the Corn Laws.
T h e m o n e y r a t e of wages, wholly i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e price of provisions 35

from year to year, is entirely regulated by it, o t h e r things b e i n g equal, from
10 J a h r e to 10 J a h r e . (418) . r e c h n e t fr 1 8 3 5 - 1 8 3 7 as being
1 4 8 , 0 5 0 , 0 0 0 Manufacturwaaren, wovon ausgefhrt n u r 48,500,000 also,
m e h r als % fr d e n i n n e r n C o n s u m . (427) t h e ||32| m a n u f a c t u r e s for t h e ex-
272
l
port sales hardly p r o d u c e / des a n n u a l i n c o m e derived from the industry
u
of the nation, and will bear no proportion, weder in Grsse n o c h Wichtig-

keit, weder zu den agriculturists n o c h d e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s des h o m e m a r k e t .
t e n
Die ersten produce 5 x, die 2 a b o u t double, t h e value annually created by
5 the manufacturers for the export sales. (428) U n s r e foreign m a n u f a c t u r e s
nicht y deren d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e agriculture a n d h o m e m a n u f a c t u r e s of
5
the kingdom. (429)

N a c h Porters Progress of the N a t i o n : (fr 1827)
Acres Acres Acres Summary
10 cultivated uncultivated unprofitable
England 25,632,000 3,454,000 3,256,400 32,342,400
Wales 3,117,000 530,000 1,105,000 4,752,000
Scotland 5,265,000 5,950,000 8,523,930 19,738,930
Ireland 12,125,280 4,900,000 2,416,664 19,441,944
15 British Islands 383,690 166,000 569,469 1,119,159
46,522,970 15,000,000 15,871,463 77,394,433 (P. 435)
a quarter per h u m a n being die average c o n s u m p t i o n fr ein ganzes Jahr.
(436) quarter = 8 bushels. (I.e.) while every i n h a b i t a n t of A m e r i c a con-
s u m e s 19 sh. and 6 d. worth of british m a n u f a c t u r e s , of the W e s t i n d i e s 3 I.
20 10 sh. worth, of Australia 111, worth, every i n h a b i t a n t of Prussia takes off
only 3 d. worth davon u n d of R u s s i a n u r 6 d. worth. (447) C o n s u m p t i o n per
Kopf in
Great Britain Preussischer France
Zollverein
25 Zucker per Kopf 17.1 lbs 3.9 lbs 4.3 lbs
Tea 1 % of an ounce
Salt 22 16 13
Cotton goods 9.2. 4.35.
Wool 4 1.67
30 Woollen cloth 5 ells 2.17 ells
4
Coal 10 / tons 5 1 tons.
(Bowrings Report on Prusso-Germanic League. 26, 29) [p. 459]
While the descendants of t h e dwellers in the cities of the plain have

hardly expanded b e y o n d the first cradle of m a n k i n d , the children of t h e
35 desert have covered the globe. ... to the vigour of the h e r d s m e n who p e n e -
trated from the centre of Asia t h r o u g h the wilderness of Europe, the glories
of m o d e r n civilisation are entirely to be ascribed. (466) 1575 Peru con-
tained 8,280,000 souls, enthlt n u n , Chili eingeschlossen, n u r n o c h
2,500,000. (474) W r e das Chinesische R e i c h bevlkert wie das brittische
40 es wrde statt 175 M i l l i o n e n 971 e n t h a l t e n . (482) Palestine, which formerly
was so richly cultivated in g a r d e n a n d terrace husbandry, m i g h t again be
273
converted by irrigation into a land flowing with milk a n d honey. T h e des-

erts of M e s o p o t a m i a , now so barren, were overloaded in a n c i e n t t i m e s with
the riches of n a t u r e ; and nothing b u t a renewed distribution of the waters
of the E u p h r a t e s is necessary to revive t h e p r o d u c e of the soil; a n d in all
the plains of Persia, now for the m o s t part deserted, traces of a system of ir- 5
rigation are to be seen equal to the boasted work des m i l a n e s e territory.
... there is hardly any country in the world except Peru, where rain does
n o t fall in sufficient quantities, if carefully collected, to furnish the m e a n s
of artificial watering ... H u m b o l d t erwhnt, da dieselbe R u m d e in W e i -
z e n n u r food fr Zwei, im Banana Crop fr 50 I n d i v i d u e n food giebt ... 10
S u c h is the produce of the soil in Ceylon (Heber) da whole families are
frequently m a i n t a i n e d for successive generations on the fruit of a single
tree u n d es ist nicht u n u s u a l to see part of a cocoa tree alienated as a
separate property. ( 4 8 5 - 7 ) T h e fertility of the soil over the whole globe is
constantly increasing, from the a n n u a l decay of vegetable matter, the addi- 15
tion of a n i m a l droppings or r e m a i n s , a n d the washing down of the soil from
superior situations. ... D a s Deposit der a m e r i c a n lakes is daily forming an
alluvial soil below their waves, which at no distant period will convert t h e m
into vast morasses, and ultimately into fertile plains; the e n o r m o u s masses
of wood and earth which are rolled down by the rivers ||33| of the new 20
world, are incessantly producing beds of c o m b i n e d vegetable a n d a n i m a l
matter, from which the u t m o s t luxuriance of vegetation will hereafter
spring; and in the i m m e n s e marshy plain which forms the centre of N e w
Holland, the powers of vegetation are unceasingly acting, and preparing in
silence the extension of the earth. (487, 8) Das Meer: those who are 25
alarmed at the possibility of a geometrical increase of h u m a n beings, c o m -
pared with the extent of the terraqueous globe, would do well to consider
the rate of multiplication in the finny tribes, c o m p a r e d with the b o u n d l e s s
surface of the sea. U n d das M e e r gleich prolific in allen Z o n e n . G r a d e in
d e n Eisgegenden sind annually impelled those s t u p e n d o u s shoals which 30
carry to temperate zones the inexhaustible riches of a n i m a t e d life. ... die
multiplication der aquatic tribes gesichert in regions wo der foot des m a n
l
is never destined to approach. (490) W e n n / o des irischen Volks engagirt
2
wrde in Fischerei womit die coasts dieser island a b o u n d u n d der Rest en-
gagirt in der Cultur des Bodens, wrde die d o u b l e t h e riches des country. 35
... In d e n s e l b e n waves, worin die Fische, zu finden an inexhaustible supply
of salt. (491) Die field of subsistence ist n o c h almost u n t o u c h e d . (492) It
is impossible to guess even at t h e a m o u n t of those vast shoals which a n n u -
ally migrate from the n o r t h a n d s o u t h poles to the t e m p e r a t e latitudes. (I.e.)
While m a n in the old world is pining u n d e r the miseries etc an insect in 40
the Pacific (Die Coralle) is calling a new world into existence, a n d count-
274
less myriads of a n i m a l s are labouring to extend the c o n t i n e n t s over

which ... die m e n s c h l i c h e R a c e is to extend. (499) Die Civilisirten, n a -
m e n t l i c h u n t e r despotischen Regierungen, bevlkern nie die Welt. D i e
democratic passion bildet diese Centrifugalkraft. (507, 8) T h e d e m o c r a t i c
5 principle is the great moving power which expels from the old established
centres of civilisation the race of m e n to distant a n d u n p e o p l e d regions.
(512) While the naval strength a n d colonial d o m i n i o n s of E n g l a n d h a v e
steadily and unceasingly advanced in W e s t e r n E u r o p e ... another, and an
equally irresistible power has risen up in the Eastern H e m i s p h e r e , ... R u -
10 land. (517) T h e moving power dieser (stlichen) vast bodies of m e n ist die
lust of conquest, and a passion for southern enjoyment. (519) the t i m e will
never c o m e w h e n n o r t h e r n valour will not press on s o u t h e r n wealth.
(520)
275
Johnston (J. F. W.): Lectures on

Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.
2 ed. L o n d o n . 1847.
T h e r e is a wide difference in m o s t countries between the actual a m o u n t of

food produced by the land, a n d that which, in the m o s t favourable circum- 5
stances, it would delight to yield. An imperial acre of l a n d in our island has
b e e n k n o w n to yield of Wheat 80 bushels (10 qrs), barley, 80, oats 100, In-
dian corn 170, beans 70, potatoes 30 tons, turnips 60. Aber das average pro-
d u c e des L a n d s weit u n t e r diesen quantities. Schwer dieses true average
produce zu b e s t i m m e n . M a c C u l l o c h schzt es: 10
W h e a t zu 26 bushels an acre,
Barley 32
Oats 36. Sir Charles Lemon giebt fr das average p r o d u c e of
all England u n d for the highest a n d lowest county averages folgende Z a h -
len: 15
Average for all England Highest county average Lowest county avera
in bushels in bushels in bushels
Wheat 21 26 Nottinghamshire 16 Dorset.
Barley 32 40 Huntingdon 24 Devon.
Oats 35 48 Lincolnshire 20 Gloucester 20
Potatoes 241 360 Cheshire 100 Durham.
Mr Dudgeon giebt fr das Good Land Lighter land

average Corn in
Schottland: Wheat 30-32 bushels 22-26 bushels
Barley 40-44 34-38 25
Oats 46-50 36-43.
276
Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology
die gbe als die averages fr das whole Island: Wheat 24 bushels, bar-
ley 34, oats 37, rye 25, potatoes 6 tons, turnips 10 u n d der average des rich
state of Ohio in d e n U n i t e d States n i c h t b e r 15 bushels of wheat.
( 8 4 5 - 8 4 7 ) T h o u g h all c i r c u m s t a n c e s c a n n o t as yet be controlled, a n d dif-
5 ferences to a certain a m o u n t are therefore u n a v o i d a b l e , yet m e a n s are al-
ready known by w h i c h the fertility of the richer lands m a y be m a i n t a i n e d
or increased and t h e crops of t h e less productive indefinitely enlarged. (848
D i e U n t e r s c h i e d e v o n Natur sehr gro. K a n n m a n aber die U m s t n d e
unter die Controlle ||34| n e h m e n , die sie erzeugen, so sehr v e r m i n d e r t . )
10 Die quantity of food p r o d u c e d by a given extent of land is affected by t h e

climate, by the season, by the soil, by the n a t u r e of the crop, by t h e variety
sown or planted, by t h e general m e t h o d of culture, by the k i n d a n d q u a n -
tity of m a n u r e employed, a n d by t h e rotation or course of cropping that is
adopted. (848) 1) Climate. W r m e des Climas, Lnge des S o m m e r s , Q u a n t i -
15 tat von Regen, die fllt. D i e W r m e der equatorial regions m a i n t a i n s a per-
petual verdure, while the short n o r t h e r n s u m m e r s afford only a few m o n t h s
of pasture to the s t u n t e d cattle. 2) Season, wet or dry, warm or cold, c a n n o t
be entirely overcome. ... the greater the a t t e n t i o n which is paid to the m e -
chanical and physical c o n d i t i o n of the soil, the less will be t h e influence of
20 a change of season on t h e average p r o d u c e of the land. 3) Soil. A poor sand
is not expected to give the s a m e return as a rich clay. Yet in regard to t h e
capabilities of soils u n d e r skilful m a n a g e m e n t , practical agriculture has yet
m u c h to learn. Are there any m e t h o d s h i t h e r t o little tried by which soils of
known poverty m a y be c o m p e n d i o u s l y a n d cheaply treated, so as to pro-
25 duce a greatly larger return? Science says that there are, a n d she points to a
wide field of experimental research, by the diligent culture of which this
great result will hereafter be generally attained. Into a poor or e x h a u s t e d
soil i n t r o d u c e those substances which a given crop requires, and if the soil
be otherwise properly treated a n d the climate favourable, the crop m a y be
30 expected to grow. S u c h is the simple principle, u n d e r the g u i d a n c e of
which agricultural practice m a y h o p e to overcome the influence of diver-
sity of soil. 4) Kind of Crop. E i n crop of 30 bushels of wheat giebt n u r a b o u t
1 4 0 0 lbs of fine flour, while a crop of 6 tons of potatoes giebt an 3 500 lbs
of an agreeable, dry, a n d m e a l y food. So das gross weight of food for m a n
35 in d e m e i n e n Fall 2% m e h r als in d e m a n d r e n . E b e n s o a crop of clover, of
tares, of rape, of potatoes, turnips, or cabbages giebt m i n d e s t e n s 3 x so viel
food for cattle als 1 of pasture Grass of m e d i u m quality. 5) Variety of Seed
Sown. I do not refer to the well k n o w n necessity of changing the seed if t h e
same land is to c o n t i n u e to yield good crops, b u t to the general fact t h a t
40 2 varieties of the s a m e species will often yield very u n l i k e weights of corn,
277
of turnips, or of potatoes. Oberst Le C o u t e u r fand, d a die varieties k n o w n

by t h e n a m e of W h i t e downy, a n d t h e Jersey D a n t z i c yielded respec-
tively:
Grain. Weight Straw. Fine flour. Fine dto P.C.
per bushel. 5
White downy 48 bushels 62 lbs. 4557 lbs. 2402 lbs. 80 lbs.
Jersey Dantzic 43 63 4681 2161 79,
while on a different soil a n d treated differently from t h e above, 2 other

varieties yielded:
Grain. Weight Straw Fine Flour Fine dto P.C. 10

per bushel
Whittington 33 bushel 61 lbs 7786 1454 lbs 12% lbs
Belle Vue.
Talavera 52 61 lbs 5480 lbs 2485 lbs 78lbs
In the s a m e field I have k n o w n t h e Golden Kent a n d t h e Flanders Red 15

varieties, sown in the s a m e spring, to thrive so differently, that, while t h e
former was an excellent crop, t h e latter was almost a total failure.
6) Influence of the Method of General Culture,

kind of manuring, and of the rotation followed,
upon the produce of food. 20
In a land of m e d i u m quality, our o p i n i o n in regard to t h e q u a n t i t y of food

it is likely to yield would be greatly affected by t h e answers we should ob-
t a i n to the following questions: a) Is the land in permanent pasture, or is it un-
der the plough? M i t der exception of rich pastures, it is said that land, u n d e r
clover or turnips, will p r o d u c e 3 x as m u c h food for cattle as w h e n u n d e r 25
grass. If such a green crop t h e n be m a d e to alternate with o n e of corn, t h e
s a m e land would every 2 years p r o d u c e as m u c h food for stock as it would
during 3 years if lying in grassbesides t h e crop of corn as food for m a n ,
a n d of straw for the p r o d u c t i o n of m a n u r e , ) What kind and quantity of ma
nure are applied? ) In what way is the manure applied? . B. Topdressing m i t 30
fermenting farmyard m a n u r e (topdressing die obre D n g u n g legen, o h n e
d e n D n g e r unterzupflgen) o r bury d e n m a n u r e ||35| m i t d e m t u r n i p
crop in der u s u a l m a n n e r . . B. an acre of grass land, p r o d u c i r e j h r l i c h
o h n e m a n u r e 1 % tons of hay, werde top-dressed every spring or a u t u m n m i t
5 tons of farmyard m a n u r e per acre. Unterstelle e i n e n a n d r e n acre dessel- 35
b e n Landes in arable culture to be m a n u r e d for turnips m i t 20 t o n s of farm-
278
yard m a n u r e at once. T h e n t h e grass land, by the aid of the m a n u r e , would

l
n o t produce m o r e t h a n d o u b l e its n a t u r a l crop, or 2 / tons an acre, i.e.
2
10 tons of hay in 4 years. A b e r das arable L a n d , in d e m 4 Jahr, if of the

same quality, m a y be expected to p r o d u c e :
5 Turnips 20 T o n s
Barley 36 bushels
Clover 2 % Tons
Wheat 28 bushels, besides upwards of 4 tons of straw. In all
d i e s e m z u s a m m e n , there m u s t b e m u c h m o r e food t h a n i n the t e n tons o f
10 hay. R e c h n e n wir d e n Geldprofit des farmer, so das result sehr verschieden.
Die cost of raising the 10 tons of hay, exclusive rent, m a y be r e c k o n e d at %
the produce, and of the several crops in t h e 4 years' rotation at % of the pro-
duce. We thus have for the clear r e t u r n or profit to the farmerexclusive
of t h e interest of his capital, w h i c h forms part of the expense of raising t h e
15 crops,
In the one case In dem andern case

half the Produce Y des Produce.
4
5 tons of hay 5 tons of turnips.

9 bushels of barley.
20 % t o n of clover.
7 bushels of wheat.
1 ton of straw. Let the clover a n d t h e
straw together equal in value only o n e ton of t h e hay, and the m o n e y value
in the 2 cases will stand as follows:
25 . S. P.
Hay, 4 tons at 5 => 20
Turnips, 5 tons, at sh. 10 = 10.
2,
Barley 9 bushels at 4 sh. = 1.
16
Wheat 7 bushels, at 7 S. = 29
30 6, 15, 0 . leaving a gain u p o n t h e
grass land of 13 I. 5 S. oder 3 / . 6 sh. an acre every year. T h u s , t h o u g h m o r e
food is raised by converting the l a n d to arable purposes, t h o u g h m o r e capi-
tal m a y be profitably employed u p o n the s a m e extent of surface, a n d m o r e
people m a y be sustained by it, yet m o r e profit m a y be m a d e by t h e farmer
35 whose m e a n s are small by keeping t h e land in m e a d o w . But this result c a n
be obtained only where a ready m a r k e t exists for the hay, where it is al-
lowed to be sold off the farm, a n d where a b u n d a n c e of m a n u r e can be o b -
tained for the purpose of top-dressing the grass every year, also in der N h e
279
von Stdten. T h e farmer, however, is never prohibited from selling his corn
off the farm, or his fat stock, or his dairy p r o d u c e , a n d t h u s at a distance
from large towns he m u s t t u r n his attention to the raising of o n e or other of
these kinds of produce. ( 8 4 8 - 8 5 3 )
Theory of the rotation of crops. 5
Decandolle glaubte, da die excrements of o n e species are p o i s o n o u s to it-

self, b u t nutritive to other species. So e r k l r t e er die R o t a t i o n s t h e o r i e . ...
D e r wahre G r u n d why a second or third crop of the s a m e k i n d will n o t grow
well, i s n o t that the soil c o n t a i n s too much of any, b u t t h a t it contains too
little of one or m o r e kinds of matter. If after a skilful m a n u r i n g turnips 10
grow luxuriantly, it is because the soil has b e e n enriched with all that the
crop requires. If a healthy barley crop follow the turnips, it is because the
soil still contains all the food of this new plant. If clover thrive after this, it
is because it naturally requires certain k i n d s of n o u r i s h m e n t , which n e i t h e r
of the former crops has exhausted. If, again, l u x u r i a n t wheat succeeds, | 15
|36| it is b e c a u s e the soil a b o u n d s still in all t h a t the wheatcrop n e e d s t h e
failing vegetable and other matters of the surface being increased a n d re-
newed by the decaying roots of the preceding crop of clover. A n d if now
turnips refuse again to give a fair return, it is because you have n o t a d d e d
to the soil a fresh supply of that m a n u r e without which they c a n n o t thrive. 20
A d d the m a n u r e , and the s a m e rotation of crops m a y again ensue. ... dif-
ferent species von Pflanzen erheischen sehr u n g l e i c h e proportions der
several kinds of inorganic food which they derive from the soil. S o m e re-
quire a large proportion of o n e kind, s o m e of a n o t h e r kind. If a soil abound
besonders in einer dieser varieties of inorganic food, o n e kind of plant will 25
especially flourish u p o n itwhile, if it be greatly deficient in a n o t h e r sub-
stance, a second plant will remarkably languish u p o n it. If it a b o u n d in
b o t h substances, t h e n either crop will grow well, or they m a y be alternately
cultivated with a fair return from each, ... at all events it does n o t s e e m im-
possible, chemically speaking, to obtain crop after crop of the same kind. 30
Erste Regel, to grow alternately as many different classes or families of plants
as possiblerepeating each class at the longest possible intervals of t i m e .
... A perfect rotation would i n c l u d e all those classes of plants which the
soil, climate, a n d other circumstances allow to be cultivated with a
profit. ... A second rule is to repeat t h e same species of plant at the greatest 35
convenient distance of t i m e . In corncrops t h e r e is n o t m u c h choice, since
in a four years' course 2 corncrops, out of the 3 (barley, wheat, oats),
usually grown in our islands, m u s t be raised. But of the l e g u m i n o u s crops
280
we have the choice of beans, peas, vetches, a n d clovers, of root crops, tur-
nips, carrots, parsnips, beets, m a n g o l d wurtzel, a n d potatoeswhile of
grasses, there is a great variety. Instead, therefore, of a constant repetition
of the turnip every 4 years, theory says, m a k e the carrot or the p o t a t o take
5 its place now a n d t h e n , a n d instead of perpetual clover, let tares, or b e a n s ,
or peas occasionally succeed to your crops of corn. T h e land loves a c h a n g e
of crop, because it is better prepared with t h a t food which the new crop will
relish, t h a n with s u c h as the plant it has long fed before c o n t i n u e s to re-
quire. ( 8 5 4 - 5 7 )
10 Theory of fallows.
1) In strong claylands o n e great benefit derived from a n a k e d fallow is t h e

opportunity it affords for keeping the land clean. ... A b e r neglect auf vielen
farms da sie andre available m e t h o d s of extirpating weeds vernachlssi-
gen. 2) In almost every instance where l a n d lies without an artificial crop
15 during the whole s u m m e r , a crop of n a t u r a l herbage springs u p , the burying
of which in the soil m u s t be productive of considerable good. 3) By lying
fallow (einige Stellen der surface being m e h r erschpft als die a n d e r n , u n d
b e i m Fallen des R e g e n d u r c h circuliren der solublen Stoffe b e r die ganze
Oberflche) the land b e c o m e s equally furnished over its whole surface, a n d
20 to a greater or less depth, with all those substances required by plants
which are anywhere to be found in it. etc etc. (860 sq.) Bei schwerem L a n d
where there is no sufficient drainage, fallowing is m o r e necessary u n d
where a good drainage exists, t h e u s e of n a k e d fallows even u p o n stiff clay
lands b e c o m e s less necessary. (861, 2)
25 T h e practical farmer already rejoices in having in o n e t o n of b o n e or rape

dust, or in half that weight of P e r u v i a n G u a n o , the equivalent of 40 tons of
farm yard m a n u r e : a n d it appears n o t unlikely that m e t h o d s will ere long
be discovered for compressing into a still less bulky form the substances es-
pecially required by all o u r cultivated crops, a n d t h a t extensive m a n u f a c t o -
30 ries will by and by be established for the preparation of these c o n d e n s e d
m a n u r e s . (8) As a whole the island does n o t at present p r o d u c e % t h e food
for m a n which it m a y be m a d e to bear with profit to the farmer. (I.e.)
Trained up in a n c i e n t m e t h o d s , attached generally to conservative ideas in
every shape, the practical agriculturists, as a body, have always b e e n m o r e
35 opposed to change t h a n any other large class of the c o m m u n i t y . (9) No n a -
tional efforts have b e e n m a d e for t h e general i m p r o v e m e n t of the m e t h o d s
of culture. (I.e.)
281
1
Plants grow m o r e or less luxuriantly a n d their several parts are m o r e or less

largely developed n a c h folgenden c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; 1) M a n c h m a l fr die
Wurzel der Zutritt der a t m o s p h r i s c h e n Luft nthig, b e i a n d r e n nicht. Die
m e c h a n i c a l c o n d i t i o n des Bodens m u modificiren seine fitness fr d e n
growth ||37| dieser oder j e n e r Sorte von Pflanzen. D a n n die c h e m i s c h e Be- 5
schaffenheit des Bodens, ob er schdliche S u b s t a n z e n e n t h l t oder M a n g e l
a n d e n zur vlligen A u s b i l d u n g der Pflanzen n o t h w e n d i g e n a n o r g a n i s c h e n
S u b s t a n z e n . 2) D e r ascent of the sap is modified chiefly by t h e season of t h e
year, by t h e h e a t of t h e day, a n d by t h e g e n u s a n d age of t h e p l a n t or tree.
. . . As the tree advances in age, the vessels of t h e interior will b e c o m e m o r e 10
or less obliterated, a n d t h e general course of t h e sap will be gradually trans-
ferred to a n n u a l layers, m o r e a n d m o r e r e m o v e d from the centre. It is this
transference of t h e vital circulation to newer a n d m o r e perfect vessels that
enables t h e tree to grow a n d b l o s s o m a n d bear fruit t h r o u g h so long a life.
. . . t h e entire c h e m i c a l functions of t h e p l a n t m u s t be d e p e n d e n t u p o n , a n d 15
m u s t be modified by, t h e n a t u r e of substances, w h i c h t h e soil a n d t h e air
respectively present to the roots a n d to t h e leaves. 4) Die discharge ihrer
functions von d e n leaves verndert n a c h d e m die S o n n e above or below t h e
horizon, n a c h der T e m p e r a t u r u n d m o i s t u r e der air ... t h e leaf b e c o m e s
green a n d oxygen is given off in t h e presence of t h e sun, while in his ab- 20
sence carbonic acid is disengaged, a n d t h e whole plant is b l a n c h e d . 5) t h e
rapidity with which a p l a n t grows h a s an i m p o r t a n t influence u p o n t h e
share which t h e bark is p e r m i t t e d to take in the general n o u r i s h m e n t of t h e
whole. ( 1 5 2 - 5 7 )
T h e supply of carbonic acid in the a t m o s p h e r e is kept up partly by the res- 25

piration of a n i m a l s , partly by the n a t u r a l decay of dead vegetable matter,
a n d partly by c o m b u s t i o n . A m m o n i a is p r o d u c e d a n d supplied to plants
chiefly by t h e n a t u r a l decay of a n i m a l a n d vegetable substances, t h o u g h oc-
casionally it m a y be formed in the air, a n d nitric acid is p r o d u c e d partly by
t h e n a t u r a l oxidation of dead organic matter, a n d partly by t h e direct u n i o n 30
of t h e oxygen a n d nitrogen of t h e air, t h r o u g h t h e agency of t h e a t m o s -
pheric electricity. (298)
Organic matter of the soil.
Alle soils die in i h r e m existing state fhig sind of bearing profitable crops
in our climate, possess o n e character - they all c o n t a i n organic matter in 35
greater or less proportion. Diese organische M a t e r i e besteht . T h . a u s de
cayed a n i m a l , aber b e s o n d e r s of decayed vegetable substances. D i e
282

wieder i n v e r s c h i e d n e n F o r m e n . T h e p r o p o r t i o n der organic m a t t e r i n soils

die are naturally p r o d u c t i v e of any useful crops varies v o n % bis zu 70 % of
their whole weight. W i t h less t h a n t h e former p r o p o r t i o n they will scarcely
support a profitable vegetation, with m o r e t h a n t h e latter, they r e q u i r e
5 m u c h a d m i x t u r e before they c a n be b r o u g h t i n t o a fertile state of cultiva
tion. N u r i n sumpfigen u n d torfartigen soils findet m a n j e die above large
p r o p o r t i o n - in d e n best soils die organic m a t t e r does n o t average 5 % a n d
rarely exceeds 10 or 12. Oats a n d rye will grow u p o n l a n d c o n t a i n i n g only 1
or 1 %, barley m i t 2 o d e r 3 %, aber good w h e a t soils c o n t a i n in g e n e r a l v o n
10 4 - 8 %, u n d if very stiff a n d clayey, 1 0 - 1 2 % of organic m a t t e r . D i e organic
m a t t e r m a c h t e i n e n B o d e n allein n i c h t fruchtbar. Von 2 soils in d e r s e l b e n
n e i g h b o u r h o o d e n t h i e l t der eine 4.05 % of organic m a t t e r u n d war sehr
fruchtbar; der a n d r e 14.9 % u n d war almost b a r r e n . D i e h n g t z u s a m m e n
m i t d e m influence exercised by t h e d e a d inorganic m a t t e r of t h e soil on t h e
15 general h e a l t h a n d l u x u r i a n c e of vegetation. (439, 40)
General Composition of the earthy part of the Soil.
In u n s e r m Clima der earthy part u n s r e s soil does n o t constitute less als

96 % of its whole weight, w h e n free from water. Dieser erdige T h e i l besteht
besonders aus 3 I n g r e d i e n z i e n : 1) Silica (Kieselerde) sei es n u n S a n d oder
20 Kies, von verschiednen Stufen von F e i n h e i t von der of an i m p a l p a b l e pow-
der, as it occurs in clay soils, to t h e large a n d m o r e or less r o u n d e d sand-
stones of t h e gravel beds. 2) Alumina (Alaunerde) gewhnlich in der F o r m
von clay (Thon) aber gelegentlich occurring in schieferartigen m a s s e s m o r e
or less hard, intermingled m i t d e m soil. 3) Lime (Kalk) in der F o r m von
25 chalk (Kreide) oder als fragments von l i m e s t o n e s . Soils b e s t e h n selten a u s
E i n e r einzigen dieser 3 S u b s t a n z e n , heissen sandig, w e n n der Kiesel, Thon-
boden, w e n n der A l a u n u n d calcareous (kalkartig) wo carbonate of l i m e vor-
herrscht. R e i n e r clayboden findet sich n i c h t in der N a t u r vor. D i e pure
porcelain clays die reichsten an a l u m i n a , e n t h a l t e n n u r 4 2 - 4 8 % dieser E r d e
30 u n d 5 2 - 5 8 Kieselerde. B o d e n z u m grossen T h e i l b e s t e h n aus d i e s e n 3 S u b -
stances in a state of mechanical mixture. D i e stets der Fall m i t siliceous
sand u n d d e m carbonate of lime, aber in d e n clays, die a l u m i n a u n d silica
woraus sie b e s t e h n , in a state of chemical combination. Die clays (das p u r e
porcelain) rarely form a soil - ||38| the strongest agricultural clays (pipe-
35 clays), consist, in t h e dry state, of 5 6 - 6 2 silica, 3 6 - 4 0 a l u m i n a , 3 o d e r 4 of
oxide of iron, and a trace of lime. D e u t s c h e u n d franzsische (Thaer) ltre
Schriftsteller n e n n e n die d e n r e i n e n T h o n b o d e n . A u s d i e s e m agricultural
283
clay (zu u n t e r s c h e i d e n von d e m a l u m i n a l e n ) t h e earthy part of all known

soils is m a d e u p , by m e r e m e c h a n i c a l a d m i x t u r e m i t sand u n d lime, in va-
riable proportions. ( 4 4 0 - 4 3 )
Classification of soils from their chemical constituents.
Pure clay (Pipe clay), Strongest clay soil. Clay loam, Sandy loam, Sandy soil. 5
(Diese Beiden b e s t e h n n u r aus clay u n d sand.) Marly soils, Calcareous Soils,
Vegetable moulds. ( D a m m o d e r F r u c h t o d e r G a r t e n e r d e zu D e u t s c h ) , ver-
schiedne A r t e n von der G a r t e n e r d e , die 5 - 1 0 % , bis z u m Sumpfboden, der
6 0 - 7 0 % organische m a t t e r enthlt. Diese, wie die a n d e r n soils, clayey,
loamy, oder sandy, je n a c h d e m p r e d o m i n a n t character der earthy a d m i x - 10
tures. ( 4 4 3 - 5 )
Soils and subsoils.
B e n e a t h the i m m e d i a t e surface soil, t h r o u g h which the plough m a k e s its

way, a n d to which the seed is entrusted, lies der s.g. subsoil (Untergrund).
T h e subsoil often consists of a m i x t u r e of the general constituents of soils 15
in proportions originally different from that which forms the surface
layeras when clay above has a sandy bed below, or a light soil on the sur-
face rests on a retentive clay b e n e a t h . T h e peculiar characters des soil u n d
subsoil often result from the slow operation of n a t u r a l causes. In a m a s s of
loose m a t t e r of considerable depth, spread over an extent of country, it is 20
easy [to] u n d e r s t a n d , howeven t h o u g h originally alike t h r o u g h its whole
m a s s a few inches at the surface should gradually acquire different physi-
cal and c h e m i c a l characters from the rest, a n d how there should t h u s be
gradually established i m p o r t a n t agricultural distinctions between t h e first
12 or 15 inches (the soil) the next 15 (the subsoil), a n d the r e m a i n i n g body 25
of the mass, which, lying still lower, does n o t c o m e u n d e r the observation
of the practical agriculturist. On the surface plants grow a n d die. T h r o u g h
the first inches their roots penetrate, a n d in the same the dead plants are
buried. This portion, therefore, by degrees, assumes a brown colour, m o r e
or less dark, according to the quantity of vegetable m a t t e r which has b e e n 30
permitted to a c c u m u l a t e in it. I n t o the subsoil, however, the roots p e n e -
trate less abundantly, and the dead plants are rarely buried at so great a
depth. Still this inferior layer is n o t wholly destitute of vegetable or other
organic matter. However comparatively impervious it m a y be, still water
m a k e s its way t h r o u g h it, m o r e or less, a n d carries down soluble organic sub- 35
stances, which are continually in the act of being p r o d u c e d during the de-
284
cay of the vegetable m a t t e r lying above. T h u s , t h o u g h n o t sensibly discol-

oured by an a d m i x t u r e of decayed roots a n d stems, the subsoil m a y in
reality contain an appreciable quantity of organic m a t t e r which can be dis-
tinctly estimated. Again, the c o n t i n u a l descent of the rains u p o n the sur-
5 face soil washes down the salts of p o t a s h a n d soda, the carbonates of lime,
iron, a n d magnesia, as well as other soluble substancesit even, by de-
grees, carries down t h e fine clay also, so as gradually to establish a m o r e or
less manifest difference between t h e u p p e r and lower layers, in reference
even to the earthy ingredients which they respectively contain. But, except
10 in the case of very porous rocks or a c c u m u l a t i o n s of earthy matter, these
surface waters rarely descend to any great depth, and h e n c e after sinking
through a variable thickness of subsoil, we c o m e , in general, to earthy lay-
ers, in which little vegetable m a t t e r can be detected, a n d to which the lime,
iron, a n d m a g n e s i a of the superficial covering h a s never b e e n able to de-
15 scend. T h u s the character of the soil is, that it contains m o r e brown or-
ganic, chiefly vegetable, m a t t e r in a state of decayof the subsoil, that t h e
organic m a t t e r is less in quantity a n d has entered it chiefly in a soluble
state, a n d that earthy m a t t e r s are present in it which have b e e n washed o u t
of the superior soiland of the subjacent mass t h a t it has r e m a i n e d nearly
20 unaffected by the changes which vegetation, culture, and a t m o s p h e r i c
agents have produced u p o n the portions t h a t lie above it. D a h e r der effect
of t r e n c h (rajolen v o n Rajolpflug) u n d subsoil ploughing, in altering m o r e
or less materially t h e proportions of the earthy constituents in the surface
soil, in that which the long action of rains a n d frosts has caused to sink b e -
25 yond the ordinary reach of the p l o u g h is, by s u c h m e t h o d s , b r o u g h t again
to the surface. W h e n the substances so brought up are directly beneficial to
vegetation, or are fitted to improve t h e texture of the soil, its fertility is in-
creased. W h e r e the contrary is the case, the productive capabilities m a y for
a longer or shorter period be manifestly d i m i n i s h e d . ( 4 4 7 - 9 )
30 On the general origin of soils.
An einigen Stellen der Erdoberflche n a k e d rocks, o h n e alle D e c k e von

loose materials from which a soil c a n be formed. Die besonders der Fall
in m o u n t a i n o u s u n d granitic districts. A b e r in der greater portion sind die
rocks ||39| covered m i t a c c u m u l a t i o n s m o r e or less deep, of loose m a t e r i -
35 als - sands, gravels, a n d clays chiefly - the u p p e r layer of which is m o r e or
less susceptible of cultivation ... This superficial covering of loose m a t e r i -
als varies from a few inches to 1 or 200 feet in depth, u n d besteht oft of dif-
ferent layers or beds, placed o n e over the other - such as a b e d of clay over
285
o n e of gravel or sand, a n d a loamy b e d u n d e r or over both. In s u c h cases

the characters a n d capabilities of the soil m u s t d e p e n d u p o n which of these
layers m a y c h a n c e to be u p p e r m o s t a n d its qualities m a y often be benefi-
cially altered by a j u d i c i o u s a d m i x t u r e with portions of the subjacent lay-
ers. It is often observed, where n a k e d rocks present themselves, either in 5
cliffs or on m o r e level parts of the earth, that the action der rains u n d frosts
causes their surfaces gradually to shiver off, c r u m b l e down, or wear away.
H e n c e at t h e base of cliffs loose m a t t e r collects, on comparatively level sur-
faces the crumbling of the rocks gradually forms a soil, while from those
which are sufficiently inclined the rains wash away t h e loose materials as 10
soon as they are separated, and carry t h e m down to form deep deposits in
the valleys. Diese superficial a c c u m u l a t i o n s , die an m a n y places zu einer
Tiefe von 1 - 2 0 0 F u die Erde b e d e c k e n , consist of materials thus washed
down or otherwise transported - by water, by winds, or by other geological
agents. M u c h of these heaps of transported m a t t e r is in the state of too fine 15
a powder to p e r m i t us to say u p o n e x a m i n i n g it from w h e n c e it has b e e n
derived. ... the earthy m a t t e r of all soils has b e e n p r o d u c e d by the gradual
decay, degradation, or crumbling down of previously existing rocks. It is
evident therefore: 1) that whenever a soil rests i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n the rock
from which it has b e e n derived, it m a y be expected to partake m o r e or less 20
of the composition a n d characters of t h a t rock. 2) that where the soil forms
only the surface layer of a considerable depth of transported materials, it
m a y have no relation whatever either in mineralogical characters or in
chemical constitution to the i m m e d i a t e l y subjacent rocks. (449, 50)
On the general structure of the earth's crust, 25

and the general composition of rocks.
1) U n t e r d e m B o d e n u n d d e n loose or drifted m a t t e r s on which it rests,

finden wir berall den solid rock. This rock in m o s t countries is s e e n i n
m i n e s , quarries, a n d cliffsto consist of beds or layers of varied thickness
placed one over the other. Diese layers heissen strata (Lager, Schicht) u n d 30
rocks thus m a d e up of m a n y separate layers heissen stratified (schichtenfr-
mig, flzartig) rocks. M a n c h e grosse Berge, so weit wir g e k o m m e n , b e s t e h n
nicht aus beds, sondern aus d e m s e l b e n material. Diese rocks heissen un-
stratified. Sie alle, die unstratified, like the volcanic lavas, waren in a m o r e
or less perfectly m e l t e d state, ihre appearance is owing to the action of fire, 35
d a h e r heissen sie igneous or pyrogenous rocks. Sie exhibit oft eine m e h r
oder m i n d e r crystallinische oder glasige Struktur, oder c o n t a i n i m b e d d e d
in t h e m , n u m e r o u s regular crystals of m i n e r a l substances; heissen d a h e r
286
m a n c h m a l a u c h crystalline rocks. D a s folgende D i a g r a m m exhibits t h e gen-

eral a p p e a r a n c e of t h e stratified rocks as they are found to occur in c o n t a c t
with unstratified m a s s e s in various parts of t h e globe: -
A an unstratified m o u n t a i n m a s s rising up d u r c h die stratified deposits.

5 T h e b e n d i n g up of t h e edges (das K r m m e n der S u m e ) of t h e latter i n d i -
cates that after the beds were deposited in a nearly level position, t h e m a s s
A was i n t r u d e d or forced up t h r o u g h t h e m , carrying the b r o k e n edges of t h e
beds along m i t it. zeigt d e n m o r e quiet way, worin veins or dikes of u n
stratified green-stone, o d e r trap (Porphyr) oder lava cut t h r o u g h t h e b e d s
10 without materially displacing t h e m , as if w h e n in a fluid state it h a d risen
up a n d filled a previously existing crack or c h a s m . F a s t alle u n s r e coal
fields zeigen in i h r e n dikes B. C u n d D exhibit t h e m a n n e r in which t h e
strata overlie o n e a n o t h e r in nearly a h o r i z o n t a l position, - 1, 2, 3, indicat
ing different k i n d of rocks, as a l i m e s t o n e , a s a n d s t o n e a n d a clay, w h i c h
15 again are subdivided i n t o b e d s or t h i n n e r layers. D i e stratified rocks liegen
m a n c h m a l h o r i z o n t a l o d e r nearly level over large tracts of country wie in
d e m obigen D i a g r a m m . M a n c h m a l sind sie m e h r o d e r m i n d e r i n c l i n e d o r
appear to dip (versenken, sich n e i g e n ) in o n e to rise in t h e opposite direc
tion, as if a surface, formerly level, h a d b e e n p u s h e d down at t h e o n e e n d
20 a n d raised up ||40| at t h e other, a n d s o m e t i m e s they s e e m to rest entirely
u p o n their edges. U p o n t h e m o d e in w h i c h they t h u s lie, t h e uniformity of
t h e soil, in a district where it reposes i m m e d i a t e l y on t h e rocks from w h i c h
it is derived, is materially d e p e n d e n t .
A bis a tract of c o u n t r y worin die rocks in different parts diese different

25 degrees of i n c l i n a t i o n h a b e n , b e i A vertical, m e h r inclined, C - E m e h r
h o r i z o n t a l . Klar, d a w e n n die o u t e r surface dieser several rocks c r u m b l e
u n d form a soil w h i c h rests where it is p r o d u c e d , t h e n t h e quality of t h e soil
287
on every spot will be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e n a t u r e of t h e rock b e n e a t h . V o n

vorgehend finden wir d e n soil pretty u n i f o r m in quality bis wir z u m edge of
t h e b e d of D k o m m e n , d a n n wieder u n i f o r m , t h o u g h p e r h a p s different from
t h e former, bis z u m S t r a t u m [C], wo wieder u n i f o r m betrchtliche Strecke
till we begin to climb t h e hill to B. D i e g a n z e hillside in ascending to v o n 5
einer u n d derselben B o d e n a r t . Aber wo wir h e r a b s t e i g e n on t h e o t h e r side
u n d pass we get u p o n t h e edges of t h e beds, a n d t h e n as we proceed from
o n e b e d to another, t h e quality of t h e soil m a y vary at successive short dis
t a n c e s m o r e or less according as t h e m e m b e r s of this group of b e d s are
m o r e or less different from each other. Steigen wir aber d e n hill zu A h i n - 10
auf; wo die beds, besides being vertical, are also very t h i n , t h e soil m a y
c h a n g e at almost every step, w e n n die m i n e r a l o g i c a l characters der several
vertical layers be sensibly u n l i k e . S u c h dissimilarities in the angular position
of the strata ... are of c o n s t a n t o c c u r r e n c e n o t only in o u r islands, b u t over
all parts of t h e globe; a n d they illustrate very clearly one i m p o r t a n t cause of 15
t h a t want of uniformity in t h e n a t u r e a n d capabilities of t h e soil w h i c h is
m o r e or less observable in every u n d u l a t i n g a n d in s o m e comparatively lev
el c o u n t r i e s also. 2) Alle stratified rocks b e s t e h n of a l t e r n a t i o n s or a d m i x
tures von 3 k i n d s of rock only, of s a n d s t o n e s , l i m e s t o n e s , a n d clays. Sand-
stein v o n d e m loose s a n d der new-red u n d green-sand formations bis z u m 20
almost perfect quartz rock n o t u n f r e q u e n t l y associated m i t d e n oldest
strata. D i e limestones wechseln e b e n s o v o m soft chalk (Kreide) bis z u m
h a r d m o u n t a i n lime-stone u n d d e m crystalline statuary marble; w h r e n d
clays von alien degrees of h a r d n e s s von d e n e n which soften in water bis
z u m Dachschiefer u n d e n d l i c h d e n Gneissrocks w h i c h rest i m m e d i a t e l y 25
u p o n the granite, a n d which appear to be only t h e oldest clays altered by
t h e action of heat. A b e r die stratified rocks, obgleich so u n t e r s c h e i d b a r in
3 Hauptvarieties, b e s t e h n selten aus n u r diesen S u b s t a n z e n im u n g e -
m i s c h t e n state. Sandstein enthlt oft etwas clay or lime, w h r e n d die l i m e -
stones u n d clays oft m i t Sand u n d m i t each o t h e r gemischt. Die soils 30
formed von d e n stratified rocks by n a t u r a l c r u m b l i n g or decay m u s t have a
similar composition. Sandy soil gebildet von e i n e m s a n d s t o n e etc u n d ein
gemischter von a m i x e d soil. ( 4 5 0 - 5 4 )
Relative Positions and Peculiar characters of the several strata.
1) Die several strata, or series of strata, which present themselves in t h e 35

crust of t h e globe, always m a i n t a i n the s a m e relative positions. So . B. bei
d e n 3 series of beds k n o w n by t h e n a m e s of m a g n e s i a n l i m e s t o n e , t h e lower
new-red s a n d s t o n e , u n d der coal m e a s u r e s , liegt i m m e r der l i m e s t o n e u p -
288
Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston:
Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology.
Heft XIII. Seite 39
permost, der s a n d s t o n e n e x t u n d das c o a l m e a s u r e u n t e r b e i d e n . W h e n e v e r

these 3 rocks are m e t with n e a r e a c h other, they always occupy t h e s a m e
relative position. 2) Diese beds generally c o n t i n u o u s b e r very large areas,
or are found to stretch, o h n e U n t e r b r e c h u n g , over a great extent of country.
5 H e n c e w h e n they dip b e n e a t h other beds ... k a n n m a n m i t grosser W a h r -
scheinlichkeit schliessen auf ihre presence at a greater or less depth, wher-
ever we observe on the surface those other beds which are known usually to
lie i m m e d i a t e l y above t h e m . So, w e n n in a tract of a country consisting of
the m a g n e s i a n l i m e s t o n e ... deep valleys occur wahrscheinlich d a der
10 B o d e n in diesen T h l e r n will rest u p o n , a n d m a y be formed from, the u n -
derlying red sandstones or c o a l m e a s u r e s ; a n d t h a t it will therefore possess
very different agricultural capabilities from the soil that generally prevails
a r o u n d it. ... ||41| 3) Die stratified rocks so zahlreich u n d so varied in ap-
pearance yet consist generally of repeated alternations of limestones, sand-
15 stones, a n d clays, or of m i x t u r e s of 2 or m o r e of these earthy substances.
D e n n o c h die several series of strata sehr verschieden von e i n a n d e r d u r c h
peculiar u n d oft wellmarked characters. So sind einige soft, c r u m b l e read-
ily u n d bilden bald a soil, w h r e n d andre, obgleich aus d e n s e l b e n ingre-
dients bestehend, long refuse to break into m i n u t e fragments, a n d t h u s
20 c o n d e m n the surface of t h e country where they occur to m o r e or less partial
barrenness. In a n d r e n die Proportions von sand u n d lime so varied, v o n
bed zu bed, d a der character der m i x t u r e in e a c h gnzlich different ist. In
einigen Rocks die r e m a i n s of vegetables in betrchtlicher Q u a n t i t t zuge-
gen, oder b o n e s or shells of a n i m a l s in greater or less a b u n d a n c e , j e d e r von
25 welchen U m s t n d e n die agricultural characters u n d capabilities der soils
m e h r oder less afficirt. Schlielich an a d m i x t u r e of other earthy substances
gives a peculiar character to m a n y rocks. So das Per-oxide of iron, which
imparts their red colour to m a n y strata, wie d e n r o t h e n sandstones, influ-
ences nicht n u r d e n mineralogischen character des rock, sondern a u c h die
30 quality des soil which is formed by its decay. E b e n s o die Presence of m a g -
nesia, m a n c h m a l in large quantity, in m a n y lime stones, p r o d u c e s an i m -
portant modification in the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d mineralogical char-
acters of the rock, as well as in its relations to practical agriculture. V o n
diesen peculiarities the special agricultural capabilities dieser parts des
35 globe wo each series of beds occurs are in a great degree d e p e n d a n t . 4)
Dieser peculiar character ist m e h r oder m i n d e r c o n t i n u o u s b e r very large
areas. T h u s if a given s t r a t u m be found on the surface in any part of Eng-
land, a n d again in any part of Russia, the soil formed from that b e d will
generally exhibit very nearly the s a m e qualities in b o t h countries. E i n e
40 K e n n t n i der Geologie daher, d. h. of the kind of rock which appears on
the surface in any part of a country, enables us to predict generally the k i n d
291
Heft XIII. Seite 40
of soil which ought to rest u p o n it, if it be n o t covered by foreign a c c u m u l a -

tions, the m i n e r a l substances in which it is likely to be deficient, a n d
where, as when lime is one of t h e m , they m a y be o b t a i n e d at the least cost.
Andrerseits a knowledge of the agricultural capabilities of any o n e district
in which certain rocks are known to lie i m m e d i a t e l y b e n e a t h the soil, and 5
of the agricultural practice suited to that district, will i n d i c a t e the probable
capabilities of any other tract worin the s a m e k i n d of rock is known to ap-
pear on the surface, and of the kind of culture which m a y be most success-
fully applied to it. ( 4 5 4 - 6 )
Classification of the stratified rocks. 10
D i e niedrigsten layers in der Erdkruste sind die ltesten. In Bezug auf ihr
relatives Alter die stratified rocks getheilt in primre, s e c u n d r e , tertire
(jngste u n d die overlie both.) Diese 3 series of strata wieder u n t e r e i n g e -
theilt in systems u n d diese in m i n o r groups, called formations, the several
m e m b e r s of each system and formation having s u c h a c o m m o n resem- 15
blance, either in mineralogical character or in t h e k i n d of a n i m a l a n d veg-
etable r e m a i n s found in t h e m , as to show t h a t they were deposited u n d e r
very nearly the s a m e general physical conditions of the globe. 1) The Ter-
tiary Strata. Charakterisirt by containing, a m o n g other fossils, the r e m a i n s
of animals, which are identical with existing species. 2) Secondary Strata. 20
c o n t a i n no a n i m a l r e m a i n s zu identificiren m i t d e n jetzigen, aber a u c h fast
all different von d e n e n in den primary strata below. 3) Primary Strata hier
the r e m a i n s von animals all belong to extinct species, the greater part to ex-
tinct genera a n d families u n d oft d e n existing races so u n h n l i c h , d a es
oft schwer irgend eine Aehnlichkeit zu finden zwischen d e n j e z t l e b e n d e n 25
T h i e r e n u n d those which inhabited the waters der a n c i e n t periods in which
these primary strata were deposited. ( 4 5 6 - 8 2 )
Die Unstratified Rocks
(oder crystalline) form soils von ganz peculiar character.
Granitic Rocks 30
G r a n i t besteht aus Quartz, Mica (Glimmer) u n d Felspar (Feldspath) (483)
292
It is chiefly to t h e chemical decomposition of t h e felspar t h a t t h e wearing

away of granite rocks is d u e , a n d t h e formation of a soil from their c r u m -
bling substance. (488)
trap (Basalt) T h e granites a b o u n d in p o t a s h : but except in t h e syenites they

5 rarely contain lime, and their soils are generally poor. Let t h e m be m i x e d
with the trap soil, a n d they are e n r i c h e d . ... t h e fertility of t h e one is
m a i n l y d u e to the presence of lime, a n d t h e b a r r e n n e s s of t h e o t h e r to t h e
absence of this earth. (497)
Die geological structure of a country, as well as t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n

10 of t h e minerals of w h i c h its several rocks consist, has a primary a n d funda-
m e n t a l influence u p o n t h e ||42| agricultural capabilities of its surface. (498)
A b e r in vielen G e g e n d e n der soil ganz different von d e m der producirt
werden w r d e d u r c h d i e D e c o m p o s i t i o n oder D e g r a d a t i o n der soils worauf
er rests. ... In solchen F l l e n new c o n d i t i o n s have supervened, w h i c h rend-
is er the n a t u r a l relations between soils a n d rocks in those places less sim-
ple ... W r e n die surfaces der rocks uniformly level, u n d die of every c o u n -
try flat, the c r u m b l e d materials would generally r e m a i n on t h e spots where
they were formed. A b e r die rocks rarely lie in a h o r i z o n t a l position, b u t rest
always m o r e or less on their edges, u n d d i e surface des country is often
20 m o u n t a i n o u s or hilly u n d everywhere u n d u l a t i n g . H e n c e t h e rains are con-
tinually washing off t h e finer particles from t h e higher, and bearing t h e m
to the lower grounds u n d b e i G e l e g e n h e i t grosser F l u t h e n vast q u a n t i t i e s
even of heavy materials b o r n e to great distances, and spread s o m e t i m e s to
a great d e p t h a n d over a great e x t e n t of country. T h u s the spoils of o n e
25 rocky formation are b o r n e from their native seat and are strewed over t h e
surface of other kinds of rock of a totally different character. . B. die Frag
m e n t e von d e n G r a n i t , G n e i s s , slate rocks der high lands sind scattered
over t h e old red s a n d s t o n e s , w h i c h lie at a lower level - u n d die der b l u e
limestone m o u n t a i n s over t h e millstone grits, t h e coalmeasures, a n d t h e
30 new red sandstones, which stretch away from their feet. D i e effects pro
d u c e d d u r c h diese n a t u r a l cause zeigen sich in ihrer g a n z e n Grsse in dis-
tricts, wo, wie in d e n G h a u t s , die separate das levelland der M a l a b a r coast
(the Concan) von d e m high table land of D e c c a n , 120 i n c h e s of r a i n
m a n c h m a l in e i n e m m o n t h fallen u n d 240 i n c h e s oder 20 feet, j e d e s Jahr,
35 im D u r c h s c h n i t t von J u n e to September. A n d to what vast distances m u s t
materials be transported by great rivers wie d e m Mississippi, A m a z o n f l u ,
G a n g e s , I n d u s , die t a u s e n d e von miles durchlaufen, before sie sich in die
See ergiessen. W h a t necessary c o n n e c t i o n s c a n the deposits of m u d a n d
sand, which yearly collect at t h e m o u t h s a n d in the places overflowed by
293
t h e waters of these great rivers, have with t h e n a t u r e of t h e rocks on which

these transported materials m a y h a p p e n t o rest? F e r n e r : die c o n s t a n t m o -
t i o n der waters der sea washes down t h e cliffs on o n e coast, a n d carries
away their ruins to be deposited, either in its own depths, or along o t h e r
m o r e sheltered shores. H e n c e s a n d b a n k s a c c u m u l a t e , as in t h e centre of 5
o u r own N o r t h Sea; or t h e l a n d gains u p o n t h e water in o n e spot what it
loses in another. In b e i d e n F l l e n die so d u r c h oder von der See g a i n e d
soils, k n n e n keine relation h a b e n zu d e n rocks worauf sie rest. A g a i n t h e
sea, in general, carries with it a n d deposits in its own b o s o m t h e finest par-
ticles of clay, lime, a n d other earthy m a t t e r s , a n d leaves along its shores ac- 10
c u m u l a t i o n s of fine siliceous sand. This sand, w h e n dry, t h e sea winds b e a r
before t h e m a n d strew over t h e land, forming sandhills a n d downs, some-
t i m e s of considerable h e i g h t a n d of great extent. So b e s o n d e r s in d e n east-
e r n shores der Bai von Biscaya u n d in d e n coasts von J u t l a n d , b o t h ex-
p o s e d to violent seawinds. Before these winds t h e light sands are 15
continually drifting, and, year by year, a d v a n c e further a n d further into t h e
country, gradually driving lakes before t h e m , swallowing up forests a n d cul-
tivated fields, with t h e h o u s e s of t h e cultivators (in d e n L a n d e s der advance
of t h e downs is estimated auf 6 0 - 7 0 F u j e d e s Jahr), a n d burying alike t h e
fertile soils a n d t h e rocks from w h i c h they were originally derived. So wirk- 20
t e n die W i n d e in Africa, wo sie p o p u l o u s cities u n d fertile plains in deserts
verwandelten. ( 4 9 8 - 5 0 2 )
Being a c q u a i n t e d with t h e n a t u r e of t h e rocks in a country, a n d with its

physical geographyi.e. which of these rocks form t h e hills, a n d w h i c h t h e
valleys or plainswe c a n predict, in general, t h a t t h e materials of t h e hills 25
will be strewed to a greater or less distance over t h e lower grounds, a n d t h a t
these lower soils will t h u s be m o r e or less altered in their m i n e r a l character.
A n d w h e n the debris of t h e hills is of a m o r e fertile character t h a n that of
t h e rocks which form t h e plains, that the soils will be materially improved
by this covering; t h e soil of t h e millstone grit . B. by t h e debris of t h e 30
m o u n t a i n limestone, or of a decayed g r e e n s t o n e or a basalt. Andrerseits,
where t h e higher rocks are m o r e unfruitful, a n d t h e low l a n d s are covered
with sterile drifted sands, b r o u g h t down from t h e m o r e elevated g r o u n d s -
a knowledge of t h e n a t u r e of t h e subjacent rock m a y at o n c e suggest t h e
m e a n s of ameliorating a n d improving t h e u n p r o m i s i n g surface drift. T h u s 35
t h e loose sand of Norfolk is fertilized by t h e subjacent chalk m a r l : a n d
even sterile h e a t h s (Hounslow), on w h i c h n o t h i n g grew before, have, by this
m e a n s , b e e n m a d e to p r o d u c e l u x u r i a n t crops of every k i n d of grain.
(510) I
294
w
|43| Soils are fertile which, besides b e i n g in a proper m e c h a n i c a l or physical

condition, c o n t a i n the necessary organic substances, a n d also a sufficient
supply of all t h e m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s w h i c h t h e plants to be grown u p o n
t h e m are likely to require. (519) Zu d i e s e n g e h r e n soils, die a n a t u r a l
5 source of fertility h a b e n , (durch springs oder sonst) constantly supplied
werden m i t soluble saline, a n d o t h e r substances, as to e n a b l e t h e m to yield
a succession of crops w i t h o u t m a n u r e u n d w i t h o u t apparent deterioration.
(521, 2) I m p o r t a n c e of d e p t h a n d u n i f o r m i t y of soil: If t h e surface soil be of
a fertile quality, a n d other c i r c u m s t a n c e s be favourable a m p l e r e t u r n s will
10 be sure from any cultivated crops. B u t where t h e subsoil is similar in c o m -
position to t h a t of t h e surface, n o t only m a y t h e fertility of t h e land be con-
sidered as almost i n e x h a u s t i b l e , b u t those crops also which send their roots
far down will be able to flourish p e r m a n e n t l y in it. (523)
B a r r e n or Unfruitful Soils.
15 Soils are unfruitful or altogether b a r r e n , either w h e n they c o n t a i n t o o little

of one or m o r e of the inorganic c o n s t i t u e n t s of plants, or w h e n s o m e s u b -
stance is present in t h e m in s u c h q u a n t i t i e s as to b e c o m e hurtful or poison-
ous to vegetation. . B. s u l p h a t e of i r o n in d e m subsoil. (524) . B. M o o r
l a n d s u n p r o d u c t i v wegen ihrer deficiency i n t h e n u m e r o u s substances,
20 bewiesen d u r c h das fact, t h a t w h e n dressed with a covering of t h e subsoil
they b e c o m e capable of successful cultivation. D e r subsoil e n t h l t d a n n a
n o t a b l e proportion of all t h o s e m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s in which t h e soil itself
is defective. (525) Es giebt nearly b a r r e n soils die sehr viel h u m i c acid ent-
halten, besides a m u c h larger proportion of insoluble organic m a t t e r . E i n
25 B o d e n k a n n b a r r e n sein trotz sehr viel organic matter. (525, 6) If t h e a d d i -
t i o n of a given m a n u r e to t h e soil r e n d e r it m o r e fertile, so die der Fall
weil der soil defective in o n e or m o r e der m a t t e r s die der m a n u r e c o n t a i n s
oder weil der m a n u r e , wie oft m i t d e m l i m e der F a l l ist, r e n d e r s m o r e avail-
able to the plant what is already present in t h e soil. (529) Chemically
30 speaking, a soil will p r o d u c e any crop a b u n d a n t l y , provided it c o n t a i n an
a m p l e supply of all that t h e crop we wish to raise requires from t h e soil. B u t
in practice soils which do c o n t a i n all these substances plentifully, are yet
found to differ in their power of yielding plentiful returns to t h e h u s b a n d -
m a n u n d die rhrt d a n n von ihren physical properties her. (I.e.)
295
Physical Properties of the Soil.
D i e physical properties in n a t u r e u n t e r g e o r d n e t gegen die c h e m i c a l c o m p o -

sition der soils. ... Plants m a y grow u p o n a soil, whatever its physical con-
d i t i o n i f all the food they require be within their reachwhile, however
favourable the physical c o n d i t i o n m a y be, n o t h i n g can vegetate in a healthy 5
m a n n e r , if the soil be deficient in some necessary kind of food, or c o n t a i n
what is destructive to vegetable life. (529, 530)
M e c h a n i c a l Relations of Soils.
1) the density und absolute weight of a soil. Sandy soils sind die heaviest. T h e
weight diminishes m i t d e m increase of clay u n d lessens n o c h m e h r wie die 10
quantity of vegetable m a t t e r a u g m e n t s . Je dichter a soil, desto weniger in-
jury i h m g e t h a n d u r c h die passage of carts u n d das treading of cattle in t h e
ordinary operations of h u s b a n d r y . Die denser soils retain ihre W r m e ln-
ger w e n n die Sonne u n t e r g e h t oder kalter W i n d blst. A b e r in very close or
c o m p a c t Erdarten the air gains slow a n d imperfect admission. 2) State of di- 15
vision of the constituent Parts of the soil. Dieser status h a t a m a t e r i a l influ-
e n c e u p o n its productive character u n d its m o n e y value, da die labours des
h u s b a n d m a n , in lands of a stiffer a n d m o r e c o h e r e n t n a t u r e , are chiefly ex-
p e n d e d in bringing t h e m into this m o r e favourable powdery condition. 3)
Firmness and adhesive power of soils. Pure clays wird sehr hart w e n n getrock- 20
n e t u n d schwer z u pulverisiren. Diese tenacity u n d h a r d n e s s v e r m i n d e r t i m
Verhltni wie Sand beigemengt. D i e m e i s t zu kostspielig auf a large
scale. A b e r thorough draining, subsoil ploughing u n d careful tillage, will
gradually bring the m o s t refractory soils of this character into a c o n d i t i o n
worin they can be m o r e perfectly a n d m o r e economically worked. Soils also 25
a d h e r e to the plough in different degrees u n d present so a m o r e or less
powerful obstruction to its passage. Alle bieten grren W i d e r s t a n d w e n n
wet als w e n n dry u n d m e h r e i n e m hlzernen als e i n e m eisernen Pflug, a
sandy soil, n a bietet a resistance to the passage of agricultural i m p l e m e n t s
= 4 lbs, to the square foot of the surface which passes t h r o u g h it - a fertile 30
vegetable soil or rich garden m o u l d e i n e n W i d e r s t a n d von a b o u t 6 lbs u n d
a clay von 8 - 2 5 lbs auf d e n f o o t .
296
Relations of Soils to Water.
1) Power of imbibing moisture from the air. In h o t climates a n d in dry seasons

diese Eigenschaft des soil sehr wichtig, restoring as it does to t h e thirsty
soil, and bringing in d e n r e a c h der plants, a portion of the m o i s t u r e , w h i c h
5 during the day they h a d so copiously exhaled. Different soils besitzen diese
Eigenschaft in v e r s c h i e d n e m G r a d e , fertile soils besitzen sie in a very con-
siderable degree. Anderseits peaty soils ||44| u n d very strong clays are still
m o r e absorbent of m o i s t u r e . 2) Power of containing or holding water, the rain
falls and is d r u n k in, the dew (Thau) descends, a n d is t h u s t a k e n possession
10 of by the soil. But after m u c h rain has fallen t h e earth b e c o m e s saturated,
a n d the rest either runs off from t h e surface or sinks t h r o u g h to t h e drains.
This h a p p e n s m o r e speedily in s o m e soils t h a n in others. In dry climates
this power of holding water m u s t r e n d e r a soil m o r e valuable. 3) Power of re-
taining water when exposed to the air. those soils which are capable of arrest-
15 ing and containing the largest portion of the rain that falls, r e t a i n it also
m i t der greatest obstinacy, a n d take the longest t i m e to dry. T h u s a sand
will b e c o m e as dry in o n e h o u r as a pure clay in 3, or a piece of peat in
4 hours. 4) Capillary power of the soil. W h e n water is p o u r e d into t h e sole of
a flowerpot, the soil gradually sucks it in and b e c o m e s moist even to the
20 surface. T h e same takes place in the soil of the o p e n fields. T h e water from
b e n e a t h t h a t contained in t h e subsoilis gradually sucked up to the sur-
face. W h e r e water is present in excess this capillary action keeps t h e soil al-
ways moist a n d cold. T h e t e n d e n c y of the water to ascend is n o t t h e s a m e
in all soils. In those which, like sandy soils u n d such as c o n t a i n m u c h veg-
25 etable matter, are o p e n a n d porous, it probably ascends m o s t freely, while
stiff clays will transmit it with less rapidity. 5) Contraction of the soil on dry-
ing. Some soils in dry w h e a t h e r d i m i n i s h very m u c h in bulk, shrink in, a n d
crack. T h e m o r e clay or vegetable m a t t e r ein B o d e n enthlt, the m o r e it
swells u n d contracts in alternate wet a n d dry weather. This contraction in
30 stiff clays m u schdlich sein to young roots from the pressure u p o n the
t e n d e r fibres to which it m u s t give rise, w h r e n d in leichten sandy soils die
compression der roots b e i n a h e u n i f o r m in all weathers, and they are u n d i s -
turbed in their n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y to throw out offshoots in every direction.
Dieses eine andre gute Qualitt der light soils.
297
-'
R e l a t i o n s of the Soil to t h e A t m o s p h e r e .
1) Power of absorbing oxygen and other gaseous substances from the air. s o m e
soils, u n t e r allen U m s t n d e n , absorbiren oxygen rascher u n d i n larger
q u a n t i t y als andre. Clays m e h r als sandy soils u n d vegetable m o u l d s or
p e a t s m e h r als clays. W e n n der clay Eisen oder M a n g a n e s e e n t h l t in t h e 5
state of first or prot-oxides, these will naturally absorb oxygen for t h e pur-
pose of c o m b i n i n g with it ... all soils absorb gaseous substances of every
k i n d m o s t easily u n d in der greatest a b u n d a n c e w h e n sie in a m o i s t state
sind. So wirkt leiser R e g e n s c h a u e r u n d T h a u e n i c h t n u r gnstig d u r c h die
supply of water to t h e thirsty g r o u n d , s o n d e r n a u c h d u r c h die power die sie 10
i m p a r t d e m m o i s t e n e d soil, of extracting for itself new supplies of gaseous
m a t t e r from t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a t m o s p h e r e .
R e l a t i o n s of t h e Soil to H e a t .
1) Power of absorbing heat. Darkcoloured, s u c h as black a n d brownish red,

soils absorb t h e h e a t of t h e s u n m o s t rapidly, a n d therefore b e c o m e w a r m 15
t h e soonest. Sie attain a u c h e i n e u m einige G r a d e h h e r e T e m p e r a t u r als
a n d r e soils of other colours u n d t h u s , u n t e r der action derselben sun, pro-
m o t e rascher vegetation. D i e e Eigenschaft weniger wichtig in L n d e r n wo
s u n s h i n e a b o u n d s ; aber sehr wichtig in solchen wie E n g l a n d , hier besizt sie
a considerable e c o n o m i c a l value. D i e zu verstehn v o n soils die u n t e r d e n - 20
selben U m s t n d e n der S o n n e ausgesezt. Wo die exposure oder der aspect
des soil giebt the prolonged benefit of t h e s u n ' s rays, or to shelter it from
cold winds, gnstiger der Vegetation als m i n d e r gnstig situated, t h o u g h
darker in colour a n d m o r e free from superfluous m o i s t u r e . 2) Power of re-
taining heat. But soils differ m o r e in their power of retaining t h e h e a t they 25
have t h u s absorbed. Alle bodies, der air ausgesezt, erkalten. So do all soils,
aber ein sandiger B o d e n l a n g s a m e r als a clay u n d dieser als ein B o d e n
r e i c h an D a r n m e r d e . . . . Plants m u s t be firmly fixedtherefore t h e soil
m u s t have a certain consistency, their roots m u s t find a ready passage in
every directiontherefore t h e soils m u s t be s o m e w h a t loose a n d open. ... 30
D i e i m m e d i a t e agency v o n S a n d u n d a l u m i n a m e h r physical als c h e m i c a l .
D e r B o d e n im Bezug auf die V e g e t a t i o n performs 4 functions. 1) It u p h o l d s
a n d sustains the plant, affording it a sure a n d safe anchorage. 2) It absorbs
water, air a n d heat, to p r o m o t e its growth. (Dieses sind die m e c h a n i c a l u n d
physical functions.) 3) It c o n t a i n s u n d supplies to t h e plant b o t h organic 35
298
F
and inorganic food as its wants require; a n d 4) It is a workshop, in which

by the aid of air a n d m o i s t u r e , c h e m i c a l changes are continually going on,
by which changes these several k i n d s of food are prepared for a d m i s s i o n
into the living roots. ( 5 3 1 - 5 4 1 ) |
5 |45| On the Improvement of the Soil by

Chemical and Mechanical Means.
t h e ability of the farmer to grow this or t h a t crop u p o n his land, ist sehr b e -
schrnkt d u r c h its natural character und composition. E a c h soil establishes
u p o n itself, so to speak, a vegetation suited to its own n a t u r e . ... A b e r der
10 farmer can change the character of the land itself. He can alter b o t h its physi-
cal qualities a n d its c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and t h u s can fit it for growing
other races of plants t h a n those which it naturally bearsor, if he choose,
the same races in greater a b u n d a n c e a n d with increased l u x u r i a n c e ... In
t h e p r o d u c t i o n of such c h a n g e s n e a r l y all the l a b o u r and practical skill of
15 the h u s b a n d m a n is constantly e x p e n d e d . (545) W h e r e a soil c o n t a i n s n a t u -
rally all that the crops we desire to grow are likely to require, m e r e m e c h a n -
ical operations m a y suffice to r e n d e r it fertile. Sonst a u c h c h e m i s c h e n o -
ting. Drains, ploughs, subsoils b e z i e h n sich auf die physische V e r n d e r u n g .
([545,] 546)
20 Connection between the kind of soil

and the kind of plants that grow upon it.
A n e r k a n n t u n t e r d e n Practikern d a clay soils am besten fr wheat, l o a m y

soils fr barley, sandy l o a m s fr oats or barley, n o c h sandigere fr oats or
rye u n d die fast ganz sandigen von d e n cornbearing crops n u r fr rye. (bar-
25 ley Gerste, oat Hafer, rye Roggen) (I.e.) Im N a t u r z u s t a n d finden wir special
difference u n t e r d e n s p o n t a n e o u s products des soil, m e h r oder m i n d e r
traceable auf die c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n der spots wo sie wachsen. So: 1)
A u f d e n sandy soils der sea shores u n d d e n saltsteppes Ungarns u n d R u -
lands the sandworts (wort Kraut, W r z ) saltworts, glass worts u n d a n d r e
30 salzliebende Pflanzen a b o u n d . W e r d e n diese lands inclosed u n d drained,
so der excess von Salz allmhlig washed o u t by the rains, oder in s o m e
countries entfernt by reaping j h r l i c h die salineplants u n d b u r n i n g t h e m
for soda (barilla), when wholesome u n d nutritive grasses take their place;
aber der white clover u n d das daisy u n d d a n d e l i o n m s s e n erst erscheinen,
299
eh, im allgemeinen, er m i t Vortheil gepflgt u n d m i t Korn best w e r d e n

k a n n . 2) Die dry drifted sands, m o r e or less r e m o t e von der See, produciren
keine solche Pflanzen, sondern ihre eignen coarse grasses. 3) A u f gewhn-
lichen sandy soils sind die l e g u m i n o u s plants (Hlsentragende) selten u n d
das herbage oft scanty u n d void of n o u r i s h m e n t . Ist aber m a r l gegenwrtig 5
in s u c h soils, the n a t u r a l growth of l e g u m i n o u s plants increases. D e r colt's-
foot (Huflattich) u n d die butter-bur (Rostpappel, Pestilenzwurz) wachsen
n i c h t n u r von selbst, wo der B o d e n marly, s o n d e r n infest ihn oft so sehr
da ihre Extirpation sehr schwierig. A u f calcareous soils oder sehr limehal-
tigen ist das couchgrass selten gesehn als a weed, whrend der poppy, the 10
vetch, and the darnel a b o u n d . 4) Peaty soils, when laid down to grass,
slowly select fr sich selbst a peculiar tribe of grasses, ihrer b e s o n d e r n n a -
ture entsprechend, besonders der H o l c u s l a n a t u s (meadow soft-grass)
a b u n d a n t . Alter their constitution by a heavy liming u n d sie p r o d u c i r e n
l u x u r i a n t green crops in a great bulk of straw, b u t give a coarse thick- 15
skinned grain, m o r e or less imperfectly filled. Alter t h e m further by a dress-
ing of clay, or keep t h e m in arable culture, stiffen t h e m with composts, a n d
enrich t h e m with bones, a n d they will be converted into rich a n d s o u n d
cornbearing lands. 5) In the waters t h a t gush from the sides of lime-stone-
hillson the b o t t o m of ditches t h a t are formed of lime-stones or m a r l s , 20
a n d in the springs that have their rise in m a n y trap rocks, the watercress a p -
pears a n d accompanies the r u n n i n g waters, s o m e t i m e s for miles on their
course. (547, 8) Diese facts beweisen, da alle a n d e r n U m s t n d e Clima etc
gleich gesezt, the n a t u r a l vegetation, that which grows best on a given spot,
is intimately connected with the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of the soil. A b e r der 25
B o d e n u n d die Pflanzen, die er nhrt, u n t e r g e h n slow b u t n a t u r a l changes.
Lay down a piece of land to grass u n d n a c h einer R e i h e von J a h r e n der
Boden, ursprnglich vielleicht v o m stiffest clay, wird a rich, light, vegetable
m o u l d , bearing a thick sward of n o u r i s h i n g grasses d u r c h a u s verschieden
von d e n e n die es vor seiner Verwandlung in pasture trug. So in a wider 30
field u n d on a larger scale, the s a m e slow changes are exhibited in the vast
n a t u r a l forests die lange extensive tracts in various countries Europas be-
deckt h a b e n . Geschichtlich da Karl der G r o e h u n t e d in d e m forest von
G e r a r d m e r , damals bestehend aus oak (Eiche) u n d beech (Buche) ; jezt ent-
hlt derselbe Wald n u r n o c h verschiedne species von Fichten, (pine) Im 35
Palatinat die Pinus sylvestris folgt a u c h der Eiche. Im J u r a u n d in Tyrol the
beech a n d the p i n e ersetzen sich m u t u a l l y ... When the time for a change
of ||46| crop arrives, the existing trees begin to languish o n e after another,
their branches die, a n d finally their dry a n d n a k e d tops are seen sur-
r o u n d e d by the luxuriant foliage of other races. In Georgia (United States) 40
die Castanea p u m i l a is rapidly disappearing, the L a u r a s geniculata, which,
300
u n t i l lately, formed large c l u m p s in the p i n e barrens, is n o w rarely to be

seen a m i d the forests of P i n u s palustris, whole forests of the G o r d o n i a li-
seanthus are seen to die o u t in 2 or 3 years, u n d die q u e r c u s rubra u n d
Laurus sasafras are showing similar s y m p t o m s of decay. Diese facts zeigen
5 die existence of slow n a t u r a l changes in der c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n des soil
itself, which lead necessarily to changes in the vegetation also. We can our-
selves, in the case of a n c i e n t forests, effect s u c h changes. W e n n in d e n Ver-
einigten Staaten von A m e r i k a ein forest von E i c h e n oder m a p l e (Ahorn) ist
cut down, o n e of p i n e springs up in its place; while on the site of a p i n e for-
10 est, oaks and other broad leaved trees speedily appear. But if the full n a t u -
ral t i m e for s u c h changes has not yet c o m e , the new generation m a y be
overtaken, a n d smothered by the original tribes. T h u s , when the p i n e for-
ests of Sweden are b u r n e d down, a y o u n g growth of birch (Birke) succeeds,
b u t after a t i m e the pines again appear a n d u s u r p their former d o m i n i o n .
15 T h e soil still r e m a i n s m o r e propitious to t h e growth of t h e latter t h a n of t h e
former k i n d of tree. W n s c h e n wir also a luxuriant vegetation auf e i n e m
gegebnen spot, entweder z u whlen die d e m B o d e n a m entsprechendste Art
des S a a m e n s , oder n d e r n the n a t u r e des land so as to adapt it to o u r crop.
A n d , even w h e n we have o n c e prepared it to yield a b u n d a n t returns of a
20 particular kind, the changes we have p r o d u c e d c a n only be m o r e or less of a
temporary n a t u r e . O u r care a n d a t t e n t i o n m u s t still be bestowed u p o n it,
that it m a y be enabled to resist the slow natural causes of alteration, by which
it is gradually unfitted to n o u r i s h those vegetable tribes which it appears
now to delight in m a i n t a i n i n g . (548, 9)
25 Of draining, its mode of action and its effects.
Das draining (Trockenlegen d u r c h Abzugscanle) carries off all stagnant

water u n d giebt a ready escape to t h e excess of what falls in rain; Es hlt
d e n ascent des Wassers von u n t e n u n t e n , sei es d u r c h capillary action oder
d u r c h die force of springs auf u n d preservirt so nicht n u r den o b e r e n B o d e n
30 von u n d u e moisture, s o n d e r n befreit a u c h d e n subsoil von der lingering
presence der n o x i o u s substances, die so oft in u n d r a i n e d land lodge in it
u n d impair the growth of deeprooted plants. Er erlaubt d e m Regenwasser,
statt n u r b e r d e n B o d e n wegzufliessen u n d oft injuriously zu waschen die
surface, to m a k e its way easily t h r o u g h t h e soil. U n d so durchfiltrirend
35 theilt das rainwater d e m B o d e n n i c h t n u r die zur Vegetation n t z l i c h e n
Substanzen mit, die es enthlt, sondern es wscht aus von d e m obren Bo-
den, u n d wenn die drains tief g e n u g sind, von d e m subsoil, such n o x i o u s
substances as naturally collect u n d m a y have b e e n long a c c u m u l a t i n g
301
there, rendering it u n s o u n d a n d hurtful to the roots. D e r leztre Vortheil

folgt gradually the draining of land. W h e n o n c e thoroughly effected, it con-
stitutes a m o s t i m p o r t a n t p e r m a n e n t i m p r o v e m e n t . P e r m a n e n t inde n u r
so lang die drains gehalten werden in good condition. Dieselbe openness
des Boden, die die rains befhigt to wash o u t those soluble n o x i o u s sub- 5
stances, die sich lange angesammelt, erlaubt t h e m to carry off also s u c h die
sich graduell bilden u n d so es in g e s u n d e m state zu h a l t e n ; b u t let this
o p e n n e s s be m o r e or less impaired by a neglect of the drainage u n d der
original state des land will again gradually return. Fllt der R e g e n so it en-
ters the soil u n d displaces m e h r oder m i n d e r vollstndig die in seinen 10
P o r e n enthaltne Luft. This air either descends to the drains or rises into the
a t m o s p h e r e . W e n n der rain ceases, the water, as it sinks, again leaves the
pores of the u p p e r soil open, a n d fresh air consequently follows it. T h e air
is in fact sucked in after the water, as t h e latter gradually passes down to
the drains. So d u r c h die drainage der B o d e n supplied m i t renewed accs- 15
sions of fresh air. Ferner: W e n n so readily freed von der constant presence
of water, wird der soil gradually drier, sweeter, looser u n d m o r e friable. Die
h a r d l u m p s der stiff claylands m o r e or less disappear. They c r u m b l e m o r e
freely, offer less resistance to the plough u n d sind so leichter u n d k o n o -
m i s c h e r worked. Der B o d e n wird a u c h erwrmt; w e n n voll von Wasser hlt 20
die large evaporation die surface stets cool u n d retards the growth der
crops. Das Wasser entfernt, die evaporation ceases. D i e plants wachsen
rascher u n d ppiger. Die air die descends u n d der Regen fhren diese
m i l d e T e m p e r a t u r in d e n u n t e r n soil. W e n n es die surface der earth er-
reicht, das Regenwasser gewhnlich von derselben T e m p e r a t u r als die Luft 25
w o d u r c h es gefallen u n d wie es sinkt w r m t es graduell den B o d e n durch
d e n es passirt. Im S o m m e r wird der R e g e n selbst wrmer d u r c h den hotter
soil auf den er fllt u n d bringt d e m subsoil diese grre W r m e . It t h u s
conveys downwards a n d distributes m o r e generally a n d to a greater d e p t h
the effect of the sun's rays. Daher, m i t d e m p e r m a n e n t state of moisture, 30
the p e r m a n e n t s.g. coldness vieler soils verschwindet rapidly. D i e backward-
ness der crops in spring u n d die Sptheit der E r n d t e n im Herbst are less
frequently c o m p l a i n e d of, d e n n in m a n y localities the drainage p r o d u c e s
effects which are equivalent to a change ||47| of climate. In c o n s e q u e n c e of
the drainage which has t a k e n place in the parish of Peterhead, in Aber- 35
deenshire, during the last 20 years, the crops arrive at maturity 10 bis
14 Tage frher als frher u n d dasselbe zu e i n e m n o c h greater extent true in
vielen other localities. Auf stiff clay lands, well adapted for wheat, wet
weather im Herbst verzgert hufig das S e n von W i n t e r k o r n oder verhin-
dert es ganz. An efficient drainage fhrt das Wasser so rasch ab as to bring 40
the land in a workable state soon after t h e rain has ceased u n d so, to a cer-
302
tain extent, it rescues the farmer von d e m fickle d o m i n i o n of the u n c e r t a i n

seasons. Aber auf jeder Art von L a n d this removal of t h e superfluous water
is equivalent to an actual deepening of the soil. D a s Wasser bleibt sonst n m -
lich in der Tiefe stehn, selbst w e n n die surface trocken. D e r subsoil so re-
5 pels the approach der roots des grains, a n d compels t h e m to seek their
n o u r i s h m e n t from the surface soil only. Das Wasser entfernt wird der
B o d e n dry to a greater depth. D i e Luft dringt ein u n d verbreitet sich wher-
ever the water has been. T h e roots n o w freely a n d safely descend into t h e
almost virgin soil b e n e a t h . U n d n i c h t n u r h a b e n sie a larger space t h r o u g h
10 which to send out their fibres in search of food, sondern in d e m bis d a h i n
u n g e n i a l soil finden sie a store of substances, vielleicht n u r sparsam vor-
h a n d e n in d e m soil above, which the long c o n t i n u e d washing der rains, or
the d e m a n d of frequent crops, m a y have removed, die aber w h r e n d der
g a n z e n Zeit sich a c c u m u l i r t h a b e n im subsoil, wohin die roots of culti-
15 vated plants could rarely with safety descend. So nicht n u r V e r m i n d e r u n g
der Productionskost d u r c h die drainage, sondern b e d e u t e n d vermehrtes
Product in K o r n u n d G r a s ; wird gefunden da die vermehrte produce al-
lein h i n r e i c h e n d to repay the entire cost of t h o r o u g h draining in 2 oder
3 Jahren. Je tiefer daher die drains (provided the water have still a ready es-
20 cape) desto grsser die Tiefe des B o d e n s der available g e m a c h t ist for t h e
purposes of vegetable n u t r i t i o n . Tiefwurzelnde plants, wie L u z e r n e , often
fail, selbst in moderately deep soils, weil Excess von Wasser oder G e g e n -
wart schdlicher S u b s t a n z e n , die deep drains would remove, prevents their
natural descent in search of food. Selbst plants, wie wheat oder clover, die
25 gewhnlich ihre roots n i c h t so far senden, where the subsoil is s o u n d and
dry, extend their fibres for 3 or m o r e feet in depth, in quest of m o r e a b u n -
d a n t n o u r i s h m e n t . Sie v e r m e h r e n so p e r m a n e n t die available d e p t h des Bo-
dens. Ferner: It is n o t till the land is r e n d e r e d dry, da Feld fr die b r i g e n
exertions. In wet soils, b o n e s , wood-ashes, rape-dust, nitrate of soda u n d
30 andre artificial m a n u r e s are almost thrown away. Even lime exhibits b u t %
of its fertilizing virtue, where water is allowed to stagnate in the soil. Ein ef-
ficient system of drainage is a necessary preparative o h n e welche alle andre
Verberungen u n m g l i c h . ... It has b e e n calculated, d a die drainage al-
lein der lands die at present in arable culture in d i e s e m B o d e n (10 Millions
35 of acres) ihr Product at o n c e v e r m e h r e n wrde um 10 millions qrs der va-
rious kinds of grain now grown u p o n t h e m u n d a similar drainage der u n c u l -
tivated lands (15 Mill, acres) 20 Mill, qrs geben wrde. 30 mill, qrs is = fast
% unsrer Present c o n s u m p t i o n (65 millions of qrs) of all kinds of grain, so
that were it possible to effect at o n c e this general drainage, a large superflu-
40 ity of corn would by this i m p r o v e m e n t alone, be raised from the british
soil. Diese general drainage k a n n a b e r n i c h t be effected in any given t i m e .
303
In m a n y cases die individual resources der land owners are insufficient to

m e e t the expense u n d solche calculations sollen h a u p t s c h l i c h stimuliren
die exertions deren die Capital zu sparen h a b e n , oder d e n e n ein Ueber-
schu von E i n k o m m e n erlaubt to invest an a n n u a l portion p e r m a n e n t l y in
the soil, to drain 25 millions of acres zu 6 an acre wrde 150 mill. I. St. 5
kosten, a s u m equal, probably, d e m g a n z e n Capital gegenwrtig invested in
farming the land. A b e r jezt b e h a u p t e t , d a das land can be efficiently
drained m i t pipe tiles zu 3 per acre. Wer drains und sein eignes Land verbes-
sert, confers a benefit to his neighbours also. In der vicinity von wet u n d boggy
lands mists are frequent u n d rains hufiger on the edges of the m o o r , u n d 10
mildews (Mehlthau) retard the maturity u n d often seriously injure the
crop. Of u n d r a i n e d land, in general, the s a m e is true to a less extent, a n d
the presence of one u n i m p r o v e d property in t h e centre of an enterprising
district, m a y long withhold from the adjoining farms das ihr m o n e y u n d
skill bringen wrde. (So wahr da wir alle von e i n a n d e r a b h n g e n u n d d a 15
die kindly co-operation aller allein sichern k a n n that ample return of good,
which the culture either of the dead earth or of the living intellect appears
willing to confer u p o n our entire race p. 556) Jezt sieht m a n a u c h ein, wie
leichte und sandige soils oder solche die lie on a sloping (abschssige) surface
sehr gewinnen k n n e n durch draining. W h e r e no o p e n outlet exists u n d e r a 20
loamy or sandy surface \\48\ soil, any n o x i o u s m a t t e r s that either sink from
above, or ooze up from b e n e a t h , will long r e m a i n in the subsoil u n d ihn
m e h r oder m i n d e r u n g e s u n d m a c h e n fr cultivirte Pflanzen. Solch an out-
let g e m a c h t durch das establishment of drains u n d das which rises from be-
n e a t h will be arrested, while that which descends from above will escape. 25
T h e rainwaters passing t h r o u g h will wash the whole soil also as deep as the
b o t t o m of the drains, a n d the a t m o s p h e r i c air will a c c o m p a n y or follow
t h e m . Dasselbe gilt fr lands die so great a n a t u r a l inclination besitzen da
ihre Oberflche raschen Ablauf des Wassers gestattet. Der subsoil wird da-
d u r c h nicht nothwendig dry, befreit von schdlichen S u b s t a n z e n oder 30
leichtrer Lufterneurung zugnglich. Small feeders of water occasionally
m a k e their way n e a r to the surface, a n d linger long in the subsoil before
they m a k e their escape. D i e schon ein Uebel; aber wenn s u c h springs are
impregnated m i t iron solche Ursache allein h i n r e i c h e n d to produce perfect
barrenness. To bring such lands by degrees to a s o u n d a n d healthy state ... 35
a system of drains or outlets b e n e a t h is often sufficient. It is to this linger-
ing of u n w h o l e s o m e waters b e n e a t h , da der origin vieler u n s r e r moor-
lands, besonders on higher grounds, in grossem M a a zuzuschreiben. A
calcareous or a ferruginous spring sends up its waters into the subsoil. D e r
slow access of air from above, or it m a y be the escape of air from the water 40
itself, causes a m o r e or less ochrey deposit, which adheres to a n d gradually
304
c e m e n t s t h e stones or earthy particles, a m o n g w h i c h t h e water is lodged.

T h u s a layer of solid stone is gradually f o r m e d t h e m o o r - b a n d p a n of
m a n y districtswhich n e i t h e r allows t h e roots of plants to d e s c e n d n o r t h e
surface water to escape. Hopeless barrenness therefore, slowly e n s u e s .
5 Coarse grasses, mosses a n d h e a t h , grow a n d a c c u m u l a t e u p o n soils n o t orig-
inally inclined to n o u r i s h t h e m , a n d by w h i c h a better herbage h a d previ-
ously b e e n long sustained. Of such l a n d s m a n y tracts have b e e n r e c l a i m e d
d u r c h breaking u p this m o o r - b a n d p a v e m e n t , aber solch i m p r o v e m e n t ,
w e n n n i c h t preceded von drainage, n u r temporr. N o t only is t h e drainage
10 equivalent to a change of climate in reference to t h e growth a n d ripening of
plants, b u t it is so also in reference to t h e general health of the people, a n d to
t h e n u m b e r and kind of t h e diseases d e n e n sie exponirt sind ... Dr W i l s o n
h a t gezeigt, d a in d e m Distrikt von Kelso, da fever a n d ague, die fast %
der diseases der P o p u l a t i o n w h r e n d der 10 ersten Jahre (whrend der Peri-
ls ode der lezten 20 Jahre) bildeten, fast g a n z v e r s c h w u n d e n sind w h r e n d
der lezten 10 Jahre, in Folge der general e x t e n s i o n of an efficient drainage
t h r o u g h the country: w h r e n d gleichzeitig die fatality of disease, o d e r die
comparative n u m b e r of d e a t h s von je 100 F l l e n ernstlicher K r a n k h e i t sich
v e r m i n d e r t von 4.6 auf 2.59. ( 5 5 0 - 5 8 )
20 Quellen.
Wasser findet oft its way to great d e p t h s without passing d u r c h die superior
strata u n d selbst w e n n diese absolut impervious sind d e m Regen, der auf
sie fllt.
Lngst d e m country von A bis u n d b e s o n d e r s towards A t h e surface soil

25 rests auf d e n u p p e r edges der strata. D i e b e d s 1, 2, 3 seien i m p e r v i o u s to
water. So von d e m h c h s t e n P u n k t C wird das W a s s e r descend on either
side gegen a u n d b. Bei b m a g es stagniren u n d e i n e n bog bilden, d e n n es
k a n n n i c h t descend d u r c h das bed (2), das forms the b o t t o m des valley;
dasselbe gilt von hollow c, wo a n d r e portions des water m a y rest. All this
30 tract of country d a h e r will be m o r e or less cold, wet, u n d folglich u n p r o d u c -
305
tiv. A b e r lat das bed (4), dessen edge die surface at a bildet, be p o r o u s or
p e r m e a b l e , d a n n das Wasser, das fallt auf d i e s e n spot oder w h i c h d e s c e n d s
von d e n higher g r o u n d s a b o u t A u n d C, will readily sink a n d drain off, de-
s c e n d i n g von a n a c h d along t h e inclined b e d till it finds an outlet in t h e
latter direction. So k a n n a naturally dry a n d fertile valley, wie at a, exist in 5
no great distance von m a r s h y u n d insalubrious wie b u n d c, u n d wo artifi-
cial drainage alone c a n develope t h e agricultural capabilities of t h e soil.
So, obgleich in e i n e m Distrikt die rocks u n m i t t e l b a r u n t e r der surface kein
W a s s e r e n t h a l t e n m g e n , yet ||49| other beds, perhaps at a great d e p t h b e -
n e a t h , m a y c o n t a i n m u c h . It is, in fact, this a c c u m u l a t i o n of water below 10
impervious beds that gives rise to m a n y n a t u r a l springs, a n d enables us by
artificial wells to bring water to t h e surface, often where t h e land would
otherwise be wholly u n i n h a b i t a b l e . (560, 61) D i e Wasser in der Tiefe
ready a n d willing to rise if a passage be o p e n e d to it. Such is t h e case m i t
der folgenden site der City von L o n d o n . 15
1) M a r i n e Sand. 2) L o n d o n Clay, (almost impermeable.) 3) Plastic Clay

and Sand. 4) Chalk, both full of water. D a s rainwater das fllt zwischen a
u n d A einerseits u n d auf d e n plastischen clay zwischen d u n d andrerseits
sinks into these 2 beds a n d rests in t h e m till it finds an escape. It c a n n o t
rise d u r c h die great thickness of impervious clay on w h i c h L o n d o n u n d 20
seine N a c h b a r s c h a f t steht, unless wo wells s u n k sind, wie a, b, c, d, sei es in
d e n plastic clay (3) o d e r in d e n chalk (4), w h e n t h e water ascends copiously
till it reaches t h e general level of t h e c o u n t r y a b o u t St Albans, t h e lowest
part of t h e basin where t h e p e r m e a b l e beds form t h e surface. H e n c e im
T h a l der T h e m s e , b e i b, it rises above t h e surface u n d forms a living spring, 25
w h r e n d in a n d r e n P l t z e n wie a, c, d it h a s still to be p u m p e d up from a
greater or less depth. It is t h e existence of water b e n e a t h t h e surface where
t h e soils rest on i m p e r m e a b l e beds, a n d t h e known t e n d e n c y of these wa-
ters to rise when a boring is s u n k to t h e m , that have given rise to t h e estab-
l i s h m e n t of Artesian wells ... T h e r e is probably no geological fact t h a t 30
promises hereafter to be of m o r e practical value to m a n k i n d t h a n this,
w h e n good g o v e r n m e n t u n d die arts of peace shall o b t a i n a p e r m a n e n t rest-
306
ingplace in d e n countries die o h n e Irrigation hopelessly barren bleiben.

Wo lebende Quellen in d e n sands A r a b i a n s , in d e n african deserts, in d e n
parched plains von Sdamerika, ist an island of p e r e n n i a l verdure u n d wo
in solchen countries die m e n s c h l i c h e Arbeit verwendet in digging wells
5 u n d in raising water von i h n e n fr artificial irrigation, dieselbe b e a u t y u n d
fertility. It has recently be found t h a t the Oases of T h e b e s u n d Garba, in
U p p e r Ejypt, where t h e blown s a n d s now hold a scarcely disputed d o m i n -
ion, are almost riddled m i t wells s u n k by the a n c i e n t Ejyptians, aber for the
greater part long since filled u p . T h e reopening of such wells m i g h t restore
10 to these regions their long lost fertility, as the sinking of new ones by o u r
easier and m o r e e c o n o m i c a l m e t h o d s m i g h t reclaim m a n y other wide
tracts, and convert t h e m to the use of m a n . (563, 4)
Of ordinary ploughing.
Destroying weeds u n d insects ... der i m m e d i a t e advantage sought by t h e

15 farmer is the r e d u c t i o n of his soil to a state of m i n u t e division. In this state
it is n o t only m o r e pervious to the roots of his corn, b u t it also gives a m o r e
ready admission to the air a n d to water. So n t z l i c h wie der easy descent
u n d escape des Wassers von der surface ist die permeability des soil fr die
natural powers of p r o d u c t i o n . U n t e r a n d r e n i m m e d i a t e benefits derived
20 from the free access of the air into the soil, we m a y e n u m e r a t e the follow-
ing: 1) die presence von oxygen in t h e soil nothwendig fr die healthy ger-
m i n a t i o n of all seeds, a n d it is chiefly because they are placed b e y o n d its
reach, that those of m a n y plants r e m a i n b u r i e d for years without signs of
life t h o u g h they freely sprout when again brought to the surface and ex-
25 posed to the air. Ferner: die roots of living plants require a supply of oxy-
gen um gesund zu bleiben. Dieser supply n u r zu erhalten, w e n n der B o d e n
h i n r e i c h e n d offen ist to p e r m i t the free circulation of the air a m o n g its
pores. 2) In Gegenwart der Luft geht die D e c o m p o s i t i o n der vegetable m a t -
ter des soil rascher vor sich. It is m o r e speedily resolved into the h u m i c , ul-
30 mic, a n d ||50| (ulmic a c i d " a d j . v o n u l m i n H u m u s s u r e . ) geic acids, i n t o
water, carbonic acid a n d a m m o n i a , those forms of m a t t e r which are fitted
to minister to the growth of new vegetable races. In the absence of the air
also die substances i m m e d i a t e l y p r o d u c e d by it are frequently u n w h o l e -
some to the plant u n d daher fitted to injure, or materially to retard, its
35 growth. 3) W h e n the oxygen of the air is m o r e or less excluded, the veg-
etable m a t t e r of the soil takes this e l e m e n t from s u c h of the earthy s u b -
stances as it is capable of decomposing, a n d reduces t h e m to a lower state
of oxydation. Verwandelt so das red or per-oxide of iron into t h e prot-oxide
307
u n d acts ebenso auf die oxides of m a n g a n e s e . It also takes their oxygen

from the sulphates (as from gypsum) a n d converts t h e m into sulphurets.
These lower oxides of iron a n d m a n g a n e s e oft injurious to vegetation u n d
einer der n t z l i c h e n Erfolge des Pflgens oder auf andre W e i s e Lockerns
des B o d e n s to allow the free admission of a t m o s p h e r i c air, da die n a t u r a l 5
p r o d u c t i o n dieser oxides entweder z u m grossen Theil prvenirt, oder da,
w e n n producirt, sie rasch b e c o m e harmless again by the absorption of an
additional dose of oxygen. 4) W e n i g e soils e n t h a l t e n n i c h t eins oder das
a n d r e der c o m p o u n d m i n e r a l substances woraus die crystalline rocks be-
stehn, wie H o r n b l e n d e , mica, felspar etc in a d e c o m p o s i n g state. F r o m 10
these minerals, as they d e c o m p o s e , the soil, a n d therefore that plants that
grow in it, derive new supplies of several dieser u n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n
die nthig sind fr die gesunde N a h r u n g der cultivated crops. D i e fortdau-
ernde D e c o m p o s i t i o n dieser m i n e r a l fragments is aided durch d e n Access
von Luft u n d besonders by the carbonic acid which the air contains. A 15
state of porosity oder a frequent exposure to air gnstig d e m W a c h s t h u m
der Pflanzen, by presenting to its roots a larger a b u n d a n c e n o t only of or-
ganic b u t also of inorganic food. 5) Die P r o d u c t i o n von A m m o n i a u n d ni-
tric acid im soil rascher u n d in larger quantity, je fter das L a n d is t u r n e d
by the plough, broken by the clodcrusher, or stirred up by the harrow. 20
(Egge) Whatever a m o u n t either of these c o m p o u n d s the surface soil is ca-
pable of extracting from the atmosphere, t h e entire quantity t h u s absorbed
so grsser u n d its distribution m o r e uniform, je vollstndiger der whole soil
has b e e n exposed to its influence. 6) W e n n so every where pervious to the
air, t h e roots also can penetrate the soil in every direction. N o n e of the 25
food a r o u n d t h e m is shut up from the approach of their n u m e r o u s fibres,
n o r are they prevented, by the presence of n o x i o u s substances, from throw-
ing o u t branches in every direction. A deep soil is n o t absolutely necessary
for the production of valuable crops. A well pulverised a n d mellow soil, to
which the air and the roots have every where ready access, will, t h o u g h 30
shallow, less frequently disappoint the hopes of the h u s b a n d m a n , t h a n
where a greater depth prevails, less p e r m e a b l e to the air u n d less whole-
some to the growing roots. ( 5 6 7 - 9 )
Of subsoil ploughing and forking.
A b e r im Allgemeinen d o c h a deep soil sehr superior in value to a shallow 35

soil of the same n a t u r e . ... in m a n y cases the available qualities of deep
soils bis jezt vernachlssigt. Das general principle, da je tiefer der B o d e n
desto besser er k a n n be cropped without the risk of exhaustion u n d desto
308
grsser die variety of crops, deep as well as shallowrooted ... A soil is virtu-
ally shallow where a few inches of p o r o u s earth, often t u r n e d by the plough,
rest u p o n a subsoil, hard, stiff u n d almost impervious ... a subsoil m u s t be
dried, o p e n e d u p , mellowed by the air, a n d r e n d e r e d at once pervious u n d
5 wholesome to the roots of plants, before it can be m a d e available for t h e
growth of corn. D i e zu bewirken, after draining, d u r c h d e n use des subsoil
plough, an i n s t r u m e n t equalled only (at present) by the fork, for giving a
real, practical, a n d m o n e y v a l u e to stiff u n d h i t h e r t o almost worthless
clayey subsoils. It is an auxiliary b o t h to the surface plough u n d to t h e
10 drain. 1) Der surface p l o u g h t u r n s over a n d loosens the soil zur Tiefe von
6 - 1 0 inches, der subsoil plough tears o p e n u n d loosens ihn weiter to a fur-
ther depth of 8 or 10 inches. So erhlt das water a more easy descent, u n d
die air penetrates u n d die roots m o r e readily m a k e their way a m o n g t h e
particles of the undersoil. So an auxiliary to the c o m m o n plough u n d as-
15 sists it in aerating u n d mellowing t h e soil. 2) auxiliary to the drain. Fehler
aber oft da m a n das d r a i n n i c h t vorher angewandt. T h e s a m e e n d which is
gained durch d e n subsoil plough a u c h attained durch die fork. W i t h this
simple three-pronged i m p l e m e n t der subsoil loosened or t u r n e d over to a
depth of 10 or 12 inches after the top soil has b e e n t a k e n off a n d thrown
20 forward by the c o m m o n spade. ... loosens the subsoil even m o r e c o m -
pletely als der subsoil plough. ( 5 6 9 - 5 7 1 )
Of deep ploughing and trenching.
Sein Characteristicum to bring up to the surface and to m i x | | 5 1 | with the

upper soil a portion of that which h a s lain long at a considerable depth, a n d
25 has b e e n m o r e or less u n d i s t u r b e d . Bekannt, d a schwerer Regenfall sinks
in den soil u n d carries down m i t sich such readily soluble substances als er
auf der Oberflche findet. A b e r a u c h a n d r e m i n d e r lsbare S u b s t a n z e n ,
slowly u n d gradually, finden i h r e n way in d e n subsoil u n d bleiben dort
m e h r oder less p e r m a n e n t . D a r u n t e r gypsum u n d die d e m W a c h s t h u m der
30 Pflanzen n t z l i c h e n Silicates of p o t a s h u n d soda. Sie naturally a c c u m u l a t e
u n t e r d e m reach des gewhnlichen Pfluges. Insoluble substances likewise
slowly sink. So lime, when laid u p o n or ploughed into the land. So clay
wenn mixed m i t a surface soil of sand or peat. Alle descend bis ausser d e m
Bereich des c o m m o n plough u n d schneller w e n n das land is laid down in
35 grass als w e n n sie constantly brought to the surface again in arable culture.
So geschiehts, da n a c h d e m der surface soil exhausted von einer oder der
andren c o m p o u n d s die die crops require, an a m p l e supply davon n o c h im
subsoil present, obgleich, u n t i l t u r n e d up, werthlos. So ein P c h t e r m i t al-
309
lern Dnger, lime etc n u r mittelmssige crops. Pflgt n u r zu 3 oder

4 inches. Der folgende zu 7 oder 8. He t h u s brings to t h e surface the lime
a n d the a c c u m u l a t e d m a n u r e s which have naturally sunk, a n d which his
predecessor has permitted J a h r n a c h J a h r to bury themselves in his subsoil.
He t h u s has a new, often a rich, a n d almost always a virgin soil to work 5
u p o n - o n e which from being long buried, m a y require a winter's exposure
a n d mellowing in the air, die aber in d e n m e i s t e n Fllen zahlt fr die Ex-
tracost. D a s deep ploughing, das zu 14 inches descends, oder das trenching
das brings up a new soil von der depth of 20 or 30 inches n u r an extension
of the s a m e practice. So n e u e r B o d e n fr die Pflanzen zu i h r e n W u r z e l n 10
gebracht, a u c h i h n e n afforded a deeper u n d m o r e o p e n subsoil t h r o u g h
which their fibres m a y proceed in every direction in search of food. D o c h
full benefit erst after draining, for it matters n o t how deep the loosened a n d
p e r m e a b l e soils m a y be, if the a c c u m u l a t i o n of water prevent the roots
from descending. ... Aber a u c h mglich da der deeper soil m a y c o n t a i n 15
some substance decidedly n o x i o u s to vegetation. ... Der subsoil plough
u n d der drain sind die most certain available r e m e d i e s fr such a state of
the subsoil. In m a n y localities, however, the exposure of such an u n d e r s o i l
to a winter's frost, or to a s u m m e r fallow, will so far improve a n d mellow it,
as to r e n d e r it capable of being safely m i x e d with the surface soil. Unless, 20
however, this mellowing be effected at once, a n d before a d m i x t u r e a long
t i m e m a y elapse ere the entire soil attain to its m o s t perfect condition. (Der
M a r q u i s von Tweeddale, in his h o m e farm at Yester, has raised his l a n d in
value 8 x (von 5 zu 40 sh. per acre) by draining u n d deep ploughing. After
draining, the fields of stiff clay, with streaks of sand in the subsoil, are 25
t u r n e d over to a depth of 12 or 14 inches, by 2 ploughs (2 horses each) fol-
lowing one another, the u n d e r 6 inches being thrown on the top. In this
state it is left to the winter's frost, when it falls to a yellow marly looking
soil. D a n n ploughed again to a d e p t h von 9 oder 10 inches, w o d u r c h half
t h e original soil is brought again to the surface. By a cross ploughing this is 30
m i x e d with the new soil, after which the field is prepared in the u s u a l way
for turnips.) In m a n c h e n districts m e h r schdliche Insects. Diese, ihre eggs
oder larvae generally bury themselves in the u n d i s t u r b e d soil, u n m i t t e l b a r
ausser d e m ordinary reach des Pflugs. W e n n sie gnzlich ungestrt bleiben
w h r e n d der Z u b e r e i t u n g des Bodens, some species r e m a i n in a d o r m a n t 35
state u n d der s u b s e q u e n t crop m a y in a great m e a s u r e escape. Pflge das
L a n d tiefer als gewhnlich u n d you bring t h e m all to the surface. G e -
schiehts im Herbst, u n d leave your land u n s o w n u n d der frost of a severe
winter m a y kill the greater part, so that your crops m a y thereafter grow in
safety. But cover t h e m up again with your winter corn, or let this deep 40
ploughing be d o n e in the spring, a n d you bring all these insects within the
310
reach of t h e early sun, a n d t h u s call t h e m to life in s u c h n u m b e r s as almost

to ensure t h e destruction of your c o m i n g crop. ( 5 7 1 - 7 4 )
Improvement of the soil by mixing.
Einige soils so offen defective in c o m p o s i t i o n d a der gewhnlichste observ-

5 er sehn k a n n wie sie zu verbessern d u r c h m e c h a n i c a l a d m i x t u r e s of vari-
ous kinds. Peaty soils h a b e n oft zu viel vegetable m a t t e r ; a m i x t u r e of
earthy substances of almost any c o m m o n kind verbessert. So g e b e n wir
consistence d e n sandy soils d u r c h a d m i x t u r e von clay u n d o p e n n e s s u n d
porosity d e n stiff clays d u r c h die a d d i t i o n von Sand. ... F e h l t d e m clay
10 . . aber s o m e necessary c o n s t i t u e n t of a fertile soil, so k a n n der S a n d
zwar die physical alteration hervorbringen, aber s o m e o t h e r s u b s t a n c e
d a n n nthig u m d e n n t h i g e n c h e m i c a l change z u bewirken. D i e Z u m i -
schung von clay zu peaty u n d sandy soils bewirken n i c h t n u r den physical
change, d e n B o d e n firmer oder solider zu m a c h e n , sondern bewirken a u c h
15 c h e m i s c h e n c h a n g e ; sie e r h a l t e n v o m clay s o m e der m i n e r a l substances die
sie frher c o n t a i n e d in less a b u n d a n c e . D i e a d d i t i o n von m a r l to t h e l a n d
wirkt a u c h in a similar twofold capacity. M a c h t claylands m o r e o p e n u n d
friable, a n d to all soils brings an a d d i t i o n of carbonate u n d generally of
p h o s p h o r a t e of lime, b e i d e absolut nthig zur g e s u n d e n Vegetation. A b e r
20 b e i m Pchter i m m e r die Frage des Profits ... a larger r e t u r n m a y be ob-
t a i n e d by t h e i n v e s t m e n t of m o n e y in p u r c h a s i n g new t h a n in improving
old lands. It is quite true that t h e country at large is no gainer by t h e m e r e
transfer of t h e land from [|52| the h a n d s of A to those of u n d der sicher
der verdienstlichste Brger, der, by e x p e n d i n g his m o n e y in improving t h e
25 soil adds to the b r e a d t h of t h e land, in causing it to yield a larger p r o d u c e .
Yet it is n o t less true t h a t t h e e m p l o y m e n t of individual capital in s u c h im-
p r o v e m e n t is n o t to be expected generally to take place unless it be m a d e to
appear that such an i n v e s t m e n t is likely to be as profitable as any o t h e r
within t h e r e a c h of its possessor. ...
311
alternate hills von Sand (3) u n d hollows u n d flats of clay (4), m a n y spots
wo diese b e i d e n kinds of soil n a h b e i e i n a n d e r verbessert werden k n n t e n
d u r c h m u t u a l a d m i x t u r e at a cost of l a b o u r which the alteration in der
quality des lands m i g h t be well expected to repay. In dieser Lage ein b e -
trchtlicher Theil der Grafschaft D u r h a m u n d besonders die neighbour- 5
h o o d von Castle Eden, wo a cold, stiff, at present oft poorly productive clay
rests u p o n red, richlooking, loamy sand, in m a n y places easily accessible.
In this wie in vielen a n d r e n localities, die G e l d i n t e r e s s e n t e n des L a n d e s
often rest satisfied that their fields are i n c a p a b l e of such i m p r o v e m e n t or
would give no a d e q u a t e return for the outlay required, - Ausser solchen gen- 10
eral a d m i x t u r e s fr die Verbesserung von L a n d , the geological formation of
certain districts places within the r e a c h of its intellegent farmers m e a n s of
i m p r o v e m e n t of a special kind ... thus b o t h in E u r o p e a n d in A m e r i c a the
green-sand soils are found to be very fertile, u n d die sandy portion of its for-
m a t i o n oft in easy distance of the stiff clays of the gault u n d die poor soils 15
der chalk, with either of which they m i g h t be m i x e d with m o s t beneficial
effects. D i e soils die rest auf d e m new u n d selbst some parts des old red
sandstone, are in like m a n n e r oft in an available distance of beds of red
m a r l of a very fertilizing character, while in the granitic, a n d trap districts
the materials of which these rocks consist may, by a j u d i c i o u s a d m i x t u r e , 20
be m a d e materially to benefit some of the n e i g h b o u r i n g soils. ( 5 7 5 - 8 )
Improvement of the Soil by Chemical means.
Die c h e m i c a l m e t h o d s of improving the soil b e r u h n auf folgenden Princi-

pien: 1) Die Pflanzen erhalten von a fertile soil a variable proportion ihrer
organic food, of their nitrogen wahrscheinlich d e n greatest part. 2) Inorga- 25
n i s c h e substances, die sie n u r v o m B o d e n erhalten. 3) Verschiedne species
von Pflanzen erheischen a special supply of different kinds of inorganic
food, or of the same kinds, in different proportions. 4) Die inorganic sub-
stance, m a g E i n B o d e n a b u n d a n t oder deficient sein, another soil in an-
other; u n d inde daher this or that plant will prefer to grow on t h e o n e or 30
the other accordingly. D a r a u f b e r u h t die ganze K u n s t of improving d e n soil
by c h e m i c a l m e a n s . Es giebt 3 distinct m e t h o d s of operation by which a
soil m a y be improved: 1) By removing from it s o m e noxious ingredient. D i e
n u r mglich durch draining, providing an outlet by which it m a y escape
oder wodurch der R e g e n oder water applied in artificial irrigation m a y 35
wash it away. 2) D u r c h changing the n a t u r e or state of c o m b i n a t i o n of s o m e
n o x i o u s ingredient, die wir n i c h t soon remove k n n e n im obigen W e g ;
oder of some inert ingredient, which, in its existing condition, is unfit to
312
Heft XIII. Seite 52
b e c o m e food for plants. D i e sind rein c h e m i s c h e Processe u n d wir setzen

sie respectively in practice w h e n we add l i m e to peaty soils, or to s u c h as
a b o u n d in t h e sulphate or other hurtful salts of iron, w h e n by a d m i t t i n g t h e
air into the subsoil we c h a n g e the prot-oxide into the per-oxide of iron, or
5 when by adding certain k n o w n c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d s we p r o d u c e similar
beneficial c h e m i c a l alterations u p o n other c o m p o u n d s already existing in
the soil. 3) By adding to the soil those substances which are fitted to b e -
come the food of plants. ... die geschieht d u r c h das eigentliche manuring
the soil, obgleich wir u n a b l e in vielen cases to say, ob das von u n s h i n z u g e -
10 fgte promotes vegetation by actually feeding t h e plant and entering into
his substance, or only by preparing food for it. G r u n d zu glauben, d a
m a n y substances, wie Potasche, Soda etc act in several capacities, n o w pre-
paring food for the plant in the soil, now bearing it into the living circula-
tion, a n d now actually entering into the perfect substance of the growing
15 vegetable. ... Saline oder mineral manures, Vegetable Manures, Animal Ma-
nures. (579-581)1
|53| At the foot of M o u n t E t n a , whenever a crevice (Ri, Spalte) appears
in the old lavas, a b r a n c h or j o i n t of an Opuntia (Cactus O p u n t i a - E u r o -
p e a n Indian-fig) is stuck in, w h e n the roots i n s i n u a t e themselves into every
20 fissure, expand, a n d finally break up the lava into fragments. These plants
are t h u s n o t only t h e m e a n s of p r o d u c i n g a soil, b u t they yield also m u c h
fruit, which is sold as a refreshing fruit t h r o u g h o u t all the towns of Sicily.
(633, 4)
Permanent Pasture or Meadow. W h e n land is laid down to p e r m a n e n t grass,

25 it undergoes a series of c h a n g e s : a) W e n n grass seeds are sown for t h e pur-
pose of forming a p e r m a n e n t sward (Rasen), a rich crop of grass is o b t a i n e d
during the first, u n d vielleicht a u c h das 2te Jahr, b u t n a c h 3 oder 4 J a h r e n
das produce lessens u n d der value der pasture diminishes. Die plants grad-
ually die u n d leave blank spaces, a n d these again are slowly filled up by t h e
30 sprouting of seeds of other species, which have either lain long b u r i e d in
the soil or have b e e n brought t h i t h e r by the winds. Dieser first change, fast
i m m e r bemerkt in fields of artificial grass, arises theils von d e m c h a n g e des
Bodens selbst during t h e few years the grass seeds were sown, u n d z u m
Theil von der species von grass selected n o t being s u c h as the soil, at any
35 time, could p e r m a n e n t l y sustain, b) W h e n this deterioration, arising from
the dying out of the sown grasses, seinen u t m o s t point erreichte, t h e sward
begins gradually to improve, n a t u r a l grasses suited to the soil spring up in
the blank places u n d J a h r z u J a h r das p r o d u c e b e c o m e s greater u n d t h e
land yields a m o r e valuable pasture. D i e aber erreicht wieder e i n e n
40 W e n d e p u n k t , wenn vielleicht a u c h erst n a c h A b l a u f einer lease oder selbst
315
fr die lifetime eines single observer, c) This again is owing to a new

change which has c o m e over the soil. It has b e c o m e , in s o m e degree, ex-
hausted of those substances die nthig sind to the growth of the m o r e valu-
able grasses; less nutritive species, therefore, a n d s u c h as are less willingly
e a t e n by cattle, take their place. ... t h e rich grass lands of our fathers are 5
found now in too m a n y cases to yield a herbage of little value. H e n c e , also,
in nearly all countries, o n e of the first steps of improving agriculture is to
plough o u t the old u n d failing pastures, u n d entweder p e r m a n e n t sie in ar-
able fields zu verwandeln, oder n a c h a few years cropping u n d m a n u r i n g ,
again to lay t h e m down to grass. But w h e n thus ploughed out, the surface 10
soil u p o n old grass l a n d is found to have u n d e r g o n e a remarkable altera-
tion. W h e n sown with grass seeds, it m a y have b e e n a stiff, m o r e or less
grey, blue, or yellow claywhen ploughed out it consists to a certain depth
of a rich brown, generally light and friable vegetable m o u l d . Or when laid
down it m a y have been a pale-coloured, red, or yellow sand or loam. In this 15
case the surface soil is still, w h e n t u r n e d u p , of a rich brown colour, it is
lighter only a n d m o r e sandy t h a n in the former case, a n d rests u p o n a sub-
soil of land or l o a m instead of o n e of clay. It is from the p r o d u c t i o n of this
change that the i m p r o v e m e n t caused by laying l a n d down to grass princi-
pally results. ( 7 4 8 - 5 0 ) We c a n n o t tell how often different kinds of grass 20
succeed each other u p o n the soil, b u t we know that the final rich sward
which covers a grass field when it has reached its m o s t valuable condition,
is the result of a long series of n a t u r a l changes which t i m e only can bring
about. (753)
Improvement of the Soil by the Planting of trees. 25
Seit lang beobachtet von practical m e n , d a w e n n a r m e , d n n e , u n p r o d u c -

tive soils fr some t i m e bedeckt m i t Holz\wood, ihre quality materially im-
proves. In the intervals of the open forest they will p r o d u c e a valuable herb-
age, or when cleared of trees they m a y for some t i m e be m a d e to yield
profitable crops of corn. (755) T h e m a i n cause of this i m p r o v e m e n t besteht 30
in d e m n a t u r a l m a n u r i n g m i t recent vegetable matter, to which the soil
year by year is so long subjected. Trees u n t e r s c h e i d e n sich von grasses n u r
darin, da die leztren enrich the soil b o t h by their root u n d by their leaves,
the former m a n u r e its surface only by the leaves which they shed. T h e
leaves of trees, like those of the grasses, c o n t a i n m u c h inorganic matter, 35
a n d this when annually spread u p o n the ground slowly adds to the d e p t h as
well as to the richness of the soil. ... deeprooted trees verbessern d e n
B o d e n m e h r als such, die gleich der Esche, spread themselves along at the
316
depth sometimes of a few inches only, a n d t h u s draw their s u s t e n a n c e from

the surface soil itself. ... U n t e r d e n overshadowing b r a n c h e s eines forest,
der soil v o m W i n d geschzt u n d dieser protection schreibt Sprengel so viel
zu von d e m rapid i m p r o v e m e n t so generally experienced where land is
covered m i t wood. T h e winds b e a r along particles of earthy matter, which
they deposit again in ||54| still forests; and t h u s gradually form a soil even
o n the m o s t n a k e d places. ( 7 5 5 - 8 )
317
?
Alison: Nachtrag.
If a boundless store of subsistence is provided for m a n k i n d in the multipli-
cation of fish in incalculable quantities in the arctic region, whether of the
n o r t h e r n or the southern h e m i s p h e r e , a progress is going forward in the
milder regions of the Pacific, not less fitted in the e n d to extend the m e a n s 5
of h u m a n subsistence, and multiply the fields of h u m a n industry. A m i d s t
t h e verdant slopes a n d s u n n y isles of t h e Pacific; in regions blessed with
perpetual spring, and in an ocean which is hardly ever ruffled by a tempes-
t u o u s gale, the process of creation is going on with ceaseless activity; a n d
myriads of insects, hardly visible to t h e h u m a n eye, are preparing b e n e a t h 10
the glassy wave, a future c o n t i n e n t of vast extent for the h a b i t a t i o n of m a n .
T h e whole islands which stretch from the western coast of South A m e r i c a
a n d the foot of the A n d e s , to the shores of Australia, a n d t h e Alps of N e w
Z e a l a n d a n d form as it were a z o n e of paradise a r o u n d the globe, are, with
a very few exceptions, composed of coral reefs, some of which are still 15
nearly on the level of the original elements in which they were formed,
while others have b e e n raised up into islands and m o u n t a i n s by the force of
central heat. T h e intervening ocean is in great part filled with these infant
islands a n d continents, which are slowly b u t certainly rising to the surface
of the water, a n d which, from being altogether invisible except in a ruffled 20
sea, constitute the chief danger of navigation in those heavenly climates.
As soon as the little architects of these s u b m a r i n e c o n t i n e n t s have brought
their fabric to the surface of the water, they t e r m i n a t e their labours, a n d
transfer elsewhere the ceaseless activity of their tribes; the o c e a n labourers
have d o n e their work; terrestrial agents a n d a n i m a l s take the embryo conti- 25
n e n t from the tenants of the deep. Subterraneous fires elevate some of t h e
aquatic strata into lofty m o u n t a i n s , while others, the destined plains of the
world, are subjected to a process m o r e slow, b u t in the e n d n o t less effica-
cious. I n n u m e r a b l e aquatic birds perch at intervals on the tiny s u m m i t s
318
Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population (Nachtrag)
which rise above the flood, a n d by their droppings c o m m e n c e the forma-

tion of earth; m a r i n e plants clasp r o u n d t h e projecting points, a n d fill up
the n u m e r o u s cavities of the coral reefs; the ceaseless agitation of t h e
ocean wafts to t h e m the b r a n c h e s , leaves, a n d vegetable r e m a i n s which are
5 floating a b o u t in those tepid seas, or have b e e n washed from the shores of
their n u m e r o u s islands. Successive generations of m a r i n e a n i m a l s leave
their r e m a i n s on its surface, a n d at length the n a k e d rock assumes the con-
sistency of an earthy c o n t i n e n t . T h e transition is m a d e from m a r i n e to ter-
restrial formation. T h e process of terrestrial creation t h e n c o m m e n c e s ; the
10 tribes of s e m i m a r i n e plants first begin to flourish on t h e surface hardly yet
emerged from the d e e p ; n e x t a salt m a r s h appears filled with the r a n k luxu-
riance of tropical vegetation, a n d in the course of ages it b e c o m e s filled
with the h u g e lizards, crocodiles, saurian a n d aquatic a n i m a l s of infant ex-
istence; and they, in their t u r n , after having r u n their span of life, contri-
15 b u t e to swell the a m p h i b i o u s r e m a i n s which are conspiring in the ceaseless
work of creation. F r o m t h e m i n g l e d a n i m a l a n d vegetable deposit of suc-
cessive generations, an alluvial soil is finally formed, slowly the solid earth
rises above the level of its a q u e o u s cradle, t h e t e n a n t s of the deep forsake a
region no longer fitted for their h a b i t a t i o n , the dove appears with t h e olive
20 b r a n c h from the abodes of terrestrial life, a green turf springs up on t h e sur-
face of the rich alluvial soil which so m a n y ages, a n d the c o m b i n e d efforts
of so m a n y generations of ani||55|mated life when living, a n d their r e m a i n s
when dead, have c o n t r i b u t e d to form; flights of birds from the nearest is-
lands in quest of their prey bring the seeds of the adjacent land suited to
25 the soil; the grassy surface is e n a m e l l e d with the flowers and the colour of
spring; trees take root on the fertile expanse, a n d , from the a n n u a l fall of
their leaves, a rich deposit of vegetable earth is rapidly formed, on w h i c h
the harvests and the pastures of future n a t i o n s are destined to be reared. ...
It is impossible to form an estimate of the extent of the surface, which, in a
30 climate enjoying a perpetual spring, is t h u s preparing for h u m a n habita-
tion; b u t if we cast our eyes on the globe, a n d survey the vast z o n e of is-
lands in the Pacific, m a r k i n g the direction where this s u b m a r i n e c o n t i n e n t
is forming, it may safely be affirmed, that it will o n e day, to all h u m a n ap-
p e a r a n c e , equal, if not exceed, in expanse, the vast surface of the asiatic
35 continent. At least 20 millions of r j m i l e s , capable of containing 5 X the
whole present i n h a b i t a n t s of the globe in affluence u n d plenty, are there in
the course of creation, a n d slowly b u t certainly acquiring consistency in
the depths of the ocean, to rise by alluvial formation above the level of t h e
deep, or be elevated by the awful power of internal fire into the Alps a n d
40 the A n d e s of a future world. O n e m o s t remarkable circumstance deserves
particular attention, in t h e formation of the great terrestrial regions of t h e
319
southern hemisphere. M a l t e Brun has told us that all the coralreefs and all
the chains of m o u n t a i n s r u n from n o r t h to s o u t h t h r o u g h the whole of
these latitudes. But the winds blow with as invariable regularity, a n d t h e
currents set in from east to west. T h u s a certain provision is m a d e for the
deposit of the ocean being intercepted on the n u m e r o u s bars which insect 5
labour has shot across its wide expanse, a n d terrestrial formation assumes
the character of long promontories, delicious islands, a n d narrow strips of
land, intersected and s u r r o u n d e d by frequent c h a n n e l s of the sea. Such, ac-
cordingly, is precisely the character of the i m m e n s e archipelago of Eastern
Oceanica. H o w beautiful the provision thus m a d e for the creation of l a n d 10
in s u c h a form as will t e m p e r the fiery heats of these tropical regions by t h e
cool breezes of the adjacent Ocean. P r o m p t e d by a mysterious instinct, the
coral insects direct the labours of their successive generations in the very
way calculated to form future and delightful abodes for civilized m a n ; a n d
while performing their little functions in life, are laying the foundations of 15
straits exceeding the Bosphorus, a n d seas outstripping the Aegean, in fra-
grance a n d beauty, (t. II, 4 9 6 - 5 0 3 . )
1
320
Aus The Economist. Juni 1851
I56| Economist. 28 June 1851.

Stand der Zuckerproduction 1828 nach der lezten Ausgabe
von McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, (p. 1485)
1) British 2) Foreign 3) Foreign
5 Possessions. freelabour Slave labour,
produce
Tons Tons Tons tons
Westindies 210,500 Java 5,000 Cuba und 65,000 Dutch Guiana 10,000
Portorico +
10 Mauritius 18,000 Mauritius, 10,000 Brazil 28,000 Lousiana 20,000
Siam, etc
British 7,800 Beet Root, 7,000 French Colonies 50,000
India Europe
Danish und
15 Swedish 10,000
236,300 22,000 183,000.
Alles zusammen 441,300 tons. Dagegen
Production of Sugar in 1850.

1) Free labour. 2) Slave Labour. 3) Grand Total.
20 tons tons
British Possessions 260,000 Cuba 250,000 1,251,000
Foreign free labour: Porto Rico 46,000
Java 90,000 Brazil 110,000
Manilla, Siam und China 30,000 Dutch Westindies 13,000
25 United States Maple Sugar 70,000 Danish 8,000
French Westindies und Bourbon 60,000 Lousiana United States 124,000
Europe beet-root 190,000 zusammen 440,000
Total of free labour sugar 700,000 551,600 (p. 698)
A u s diesen Z a h l e n folgt: 1) Die T o t a l z u c k e r p r o d u k t i o n in der Welt ge-

30 wachsen in 22 J a h r e n von 441,300 tons auf 1,251,000 tons. 2) W h r e n d
1828 n u r 22,000 tons von 441,000 d u r c h free labour producirt waren, 1850
dagegen 700,000 von 1,251,000. 1828 n u r 5 % der g a n z e n Z u c k e r p r o d u c t i o n
321
of free labour Zucker u n d 9 5 % aus slavelabour sugar 1850 dagegen 5 6 %

n u n free labour sugar u n d n u r 44 % of slavelabour. In k e i n e m L a n d die Pro-
d u c t i o n in solchem Verhltni gewachsen als in Java, M a n i l l a u n d Siam.
(I.e.)
Irische Bevlkerung. 5
N a c h d e m official return die Z a h l der E m i g r a n t s von Irland 1850: 207,853.

1 8 4 3 - 1 8 4 7 Der a n n u a l average der emigration 69,687; 1 8 4 7 - 1 8 5 0 :
204,651. M a n k a n n r e c h n e n von 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 5 0 : 1,188,051. 1841 war die Be-
vlkerung von Irland 8,175,124; 1831 n u r 7,767,401, 4,5 per Jahr. 1850 die
p o p u l a t i o n wahrscheinlich n i c h t viel b e r 7,000,000. (701.) N a c h d e m 10
Fourth Annual Report der Poorlaw Commissioners, just (Ende Juni) presented to
Parliament:
Rate of Mortality in Workhouses per 1,000 Inmates weekly:

Date. Maximum. Minimum.
3 April 1847 25.3 15
6 November 1847 5.0
8 Januar 1848 11.8.
30 September 1848 2.6
5 May 1849 12.4
3 November 1849 2.4 20
23 March 6.1
14 December 1850 2.4
15 March 1851 6.4
H t t e die R a t e v o m 3 Mrz 1847 zu 25.3 wchentlich fortgedauert, so

alle 1000 gestorben vor d e m E n d e von 10 m o n t h s , (p. 700) | 25
322
Aus The Economist. Juli 1851
|57| The Economist. July 5.1851.
Frankreich und England.
1835 1850
5 frs fr. St.
Total importations
of all kinds 760,700,000 30,280,000
Total exportations: 834,400,000 33,376,000
1,595,100,000 63,656,000 2,565,000,000 102,600,000
10 Der increase also 969,900,000 f. oder 38,944,000 I. Also fr Volk von fast
40 Mill, giebt k a u m 11. auf d e n Kopf der g a n z e n Bevlkerung.
Commerce of the United Kingdom. 1835 und 1850.

1835. 1850.
f
15 Imports 48,911,000 100,460,000
Export of British manufacture 47,372,000 71,359,000
Exports of foreign
Produce 12,797,000 21,893,000
109,080,000 193,712,000
20 Net Increase von 84,632,000.

England m i t seinen 28 millions W a c h s t h u m at the rate of 3 I. per h e a d .
Aber von diesen 15 J a h r e n bis 1842 strikte Protection in England.
323
Commerce of France 1842 und 1850.

1842. 1850.
fcs fcs St.
Total Imports 1,142,000,000 45,680,000
Total Exports 940,300,000 37,612,000 5
2,082,300,000 83,292,000 2,565,000,000 102,600,000
Commerce of the United Kingdom. 1842 und 1850.

1842. 1850.

Imports 65,204,000 100,460,000 10
Exports of British Manufacture 47,381,000 71,359,000
Exports of foreign produce 13,584,000 21,893,000
126,169,000 193,712,000
( A n n u a l F i n a n c e A c c o u n t s 1843 p. 128 u n d 1851 p. 122)
D e r N e t Increase von F r a n k r e i c h d a h e r von 1 8 4 2 - 1 8 5 0 : 19,308,000 1., 15

ungefhr 10 sh. per Kopf der g a n z e n Bevlkerung. D e r Zuwachs von Eng-
land 67,543,000 /. oder 2 / . 8 sh. per Kopf. A b e r die Exports in F r a n c e still
kept n a c h d e m old official value u n d nicht n a c h d e m real oder declared
value. Setzen wir fr E n g l a n d a u c h den official value so k o m m t 1842 fr
Exports von brittischen W a a r e n 100,260,000 u n d 1850: 175,416,000 u n d if 20
das 1842 erhaltne war n o c h Total 179,048,000 /., fr 1850: 297,769,000 /.
G i e b t e i n e n increase von 118,721,000/. in 8 J a h r e n statt 19,308,000 in
F r a n c e , der former at the rate von m e h r als 4 /. per h e a d . (726, 7)
Irische Bevlkerung.
D i e m a l giebt er die official r e t u r n s , we frankly acknowledge, that, after 25

m a k i n g the most liberal allowance for emigration, we were n o t prepared for
the dismal tale which the actual e n u m e r a t i o n of the People of Ireland u n -
folds :
Abstract of the Irish Census in 1841 und 1851.

1841 1851 30
Houses. Inhabited. 1,328,839 1,047,735
uninhabited, built 52,208 65,159
building 3,313 2,113
Total 1,384,360 1,115,007. (728) |
324
H e f t XIV
m XIV
Dureau de Lamalle.
conomie Politique des Romains.
Paris. 1840.
5 Tome I.
Livre I. Maasse. Geld. Census und Cadaster.
A R o m e , la socit forme d e u x classes distinctes, la p r e m i r e c o m p o s e

des propritaires fonciers (vivant de leurs revenus), la seconde de leurs servi-
teurs ou des pauvres, (vivant des gages.) Cette seconde classe est dans la
10 d p e n d a n c e directe de la premire. (3.) Celle qui vit de ses profits, les m a r -
chands, les manufacturiers, y est si faible q u ' o n p e u t peine la compter.
(1. c.) Un peuple guerrier et agricole, pour ainsi dire sans c o m m e r c e ni m a -
n u f a c t u r e s ; les proprits trs divises, p e u de terres affermes; dans ces
sortes de biens le fermage pay en n a t u r e par u n e portion fixe des produits.
15 Enfin la terre productive, le capital employ son exploitation souvent
l'ouvrier charg de la culture, les bestiaux, les engrais, les outils et les ins-
t r u m e n t s ncessaires, taient tous la proprit de la m m e p e r s o n n e . (4)
325
Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 Heft XIV
Poids et mesures des Romains.
Die E i n h e i t des Lngenmaasses bei d e n R m e r n der Fu, getheilt in 4 pal-

mes u n d der p a l m e in 4 doigts. (10) Die unit agraire war das jugerum, ge-
theilt in 2 actus quadratus, dieser = un carr de 120 pieds r o m a i n s de cte,
verfllt in 4 clima; der clima = 36 d e c e m p e d a q u a d r a t a u n d dieser 5
= 100 pieds carrs. (1. c.)
D i e unit de capacit war die amphora oder quadrantal = 2 urnes = 3 mo-
dius. D i e a m p h o r a = un pied cube. (11)
D i e unit de poids der as oder libra, getheilt in 12 Unzen, j e d e U n z e in
24 scrupula, also 288 Scrupeln auf das Pfund. ([11,] 12) l'eau de pluie con-
t e n u e d a n s l ' a m p h o r e pesait e x a c t e m e n t 80 livres r o m a i n e s . (14)
Monnaies Romaines.
D i e R m e r h a t t e n ursprnglich G e l d von b r o n z e coule trs lourde. D i e

u n i t m o n t a i r e war der as de bronze d'un livre (aes grave, e m e r e per aes et
libram). 485 schlug m a n des deniers d'argent valant 10 as libraux de b r o n z e , 15
diese deniers waren 40 la livre ; 510 schlug m a n 75 deniers la livre u n d
j e d e r denier n o c h = 10 as, aber 10 as von 4 U n z e n . 513 der as reducirt auf
2 U n z e n u n d der denier, i m m e r = 10 as, n u r n o c h ] / des Pfundes Silber.
M
Leztre Zahl, hielt sich bis z u m E n d e der Republik, aber 537 galt der d e -
nier 16 as d ' u n e o n c e u n d 665 n u r m e h r 16 as einer h a l b e n U n z e . D e r de- 20
nier = 2 quinaires u n d der q u i n a i r e = 2 sesterces. (15, 16) 547 schlugen
die R m e r Goldgeld, 1 s c r u p u l u m fr 20 sestercia, spter 40 deniers ou au-
reus la livre. Also das Goldgeld anfangs b e z o g e n auf das s c r u p u l u m , sp-
ter auf das Pfund. ([16,] 17)
E i n rmisches Pfund G o l d = 1124 frcs jetziges G e l d u n d ein livre d'argent 25

p u r = 72fcs. (die D e c i m a l t h e i l e fortgelassen.) ... Bei d e n R m e r n G o l d
u n d Silber ungefhr = 1 7 : 1 . A b e r als der a u r e u s g e m a c h t w u r d e = 1 2 : 1 .
(40, 1) D e r a u r e u s u n t e r Caesar = 27 f. 95 c, u n t e r A u g u s t = 26 f. 89 c,
u n t e r N e r o = 25 fs. 42 c, von G a l b a bis zu d e n A n t o n i n s = 24 f. 93 c. (44)
D e r solidus u n t e r C o n s t a n t i n = 15 f. 53 c, spter im D u r c h s c h n i t t 15 f. 30
10 c. (46) Der denarius (Silber) a. 485 der R e p u b l i k = 1 f. 63, 510 = 0 f. 87,
5 1 3 - 7 0 7 = Of. 78. (448) V o n G a l b a bis d e n A n t o n i n s 1 fc. (450)
326
'
Aus Adolphe-Jules-Csar-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: conomie politique des Romains
Rapports des Mtaux prcieux.
Gold lang vor d e m Silber angewandt, weil es sich rein oder n u r m i t ein we-
nig Silber alliirt vorfindet, on l'obtient p a r un simple lavage. D a s Silber
existirt im A l l g e m e i n e n in filons encastrs d a n s les roches les plus dures
5 des terrains primitifs ; il exige, p o u r son extraction des m a c h i n e s et des tra-
vaux compliqus de Poryctognosie. ... D a n s l'amrique m r i d i o n a l e das or
en filons nicht exploitirt, s o n d e r n das or dissmin en p o u d r e et en grains
dans les terrains d'alluvions. E b e n s o zur Zeit des Herodot. ([48,] 49) Die
ltesten M o n u m e n t e v o n G r i e c h e n l a n d , Asien, N o r d e u r o p a u n d der N e u e n
10 Welt beweisen, d a der G e b r a u c h des G o l d e s en ustensiles u n d bijoux p e u t
trs bien s'allier avec un tat de choses voisin de la barbarie, w h r e n d der
emploi d'argent z u m selben Zweck d n o t e par lui seul un tat social assez
avanc. [49] ||2| In A m e r i c a fand m a n d e n G e b r a u c h von Silber n u r in M e -
xico u n d Peru, d e n b e i d e n civilisirtesten Staaten; sie fhrten a u c h allein
15 steinerne G e b u d e auf u n d besassen des h a c h e s , des ciseaux etc en cuivre,
m t a l was sie hart u n d t r a n c h a n t m a c h t e n d u r c h eine alliage von tain,
a m a l g a m e , das u n t e r d e m N a m e n von b r o n z e u n d airain, die alten Vlker
des Orients ebenfalls vor d e m Eisen a n w a n d t e n . ([50,] 51) Dasselbe gilt
von den ltesten Vlkern Asiens u n d Africas; m i t A u s n a h m e v o n I n d i e n
20 u n d Aejypten, wo die Civilisation sehr alt. (1. c.) Wahrscheinlich, d a v o m
1 5 - 6 sicle avant l're vulgaire (in Asien etc) das Gold z u m Silber = 1 : 6
oder = 1:8, rapport, der in C h i n e u n d J a p o n bis z u m Anfang des 19 Jh. exi-
stirte u n d n i c h t = 1:13, wie H e r o d o t es fixirt fr Persien u n t e r Darius,
Sohn des Hystaspes. D a s G e s e t z b u c h des M a n o u , geschrieben zwischen
25 1300 u n d 600 vor Chr. giebt encore un rapport plus faible, n m l i c h = 1:2%.
(54) Die m i n e s d'argent finden sich n u r in d e n terrains primitifs, besonders
den terrains couches u n d in einigen filons des terrains secondaires. (54,
55) Les gangues de l'argent, statt sables d'alluvion zu sein, sind gewhnlich
les roches les plus compactes et les plus dures, telles q u e le quartz, le ptro-
30 silex etc. Ce m t a l est plus c o m m u n d a n s les rgions froides, soit par leur
latitude, soit par leur lvation absolue, q u e l'or, qui en gnral affecte les
pays c h a u d s . M a n findet das Silber selten im r e i n e n Z u s t a n d u n d selbst in
den M i n e n von Potosi, die von 1 5 4 5 - 1 6 3 8 396 millions de piastres p r o d u -
cirten, existirt es n u r l'tat de m u r i a t e et de sulfure noir. (55) H e u t z u t a g e
35 giebt es 52 x m e h r Silber als Gold, aber das Verhltni = 1 5 : 1 . (56) D a s
cuivre natif wie das Silber a pour g i s e m e n t les terrains p r i m o r d i n a u x an-
ciens. Das reinste u n d reichste findet sich l'tat de cuivre sulfur ; u n t e r
der forme von cuivre gris findet m a n es m i t Silber alliirt. A b e r es findet
sich auch sehr oft an der Oberflche der Erde, oder de petites profon-
327
deurs, agglomr en masses pures, oft von b e t r c h t l i c h e m Gewicht. (Zu

Brasilien fand m a n eine Masse Kupfer von 2616 livres.) Dewegen wohl
das Kupfer zuerst bearbeitet u n d diente es vor d e m Eisen d e n alten Vl-
kern im Krieg u n d Frieden. (56) Im 9 Jh. vor Christi das cuivre natif sehr
a b u n d a n t in Italien, das Eisen dagegen sehr rar, p u i s q u ' i l y tait import de 5
la G r c e et de l'Asie, deren Civilisation u n d I n d u s t r i e damais fortgeschritt-
n e r als die Italiens. ... Grosse M a s s e von cuivre brut ou frapp en circula-
tion d a n s l'Italie, soumise aux R o m a i n s , v o m 1-5 Jh. der Republik. (57)
D e r G e b r a u c h von Gold u n d Kupfer vertrgt sich m i t h a l b b a r b a r i s c h e m
Z u s t a n d . (1. c.) Eisen n i c h t g e k a n n t vor 1431 vor Chr. Selbst b e i m H o m e r 10
Eisen selten gegen airain, diese m l a n g e von cuivre, Z i n k ou tain, deren
sich die griechische u n d r m i s c h e Gesellschaft so lang b e d i e n t e n , selbst
fr h a c h e s u n d rasoirs. (58) N u n leicht zu erklren die variation de rapport
de l'or, de l'argent et du cuivre entre eux diverses poques, et d a n s les di-
verses parties du m o n d e c o n n u des anciens. ([58,] 59) Das c o u l e m e n t der 15
m t a u x prcieux a suivi dans l'antiquit, wenigstens bis z u m ersten Jahr-
h u n d e r t unsrer Z e i t r e c h n u n g u n e direction inverse de celle qu'il suit de
nos j o u r s . A m e r i c a ist j e z t seine H a u p t q u e l l e ; von A m e r i c a gehts n a c h
E u r o p e u n d von d a n a c h Asien. I n den t e m p s anciens schlo Asien die
reichsten u n d fruchtbarsten M i n e n ein. Fortgesezte Exploitation whrend 20
m e h r e n J a h r h u n d e r t e n oder vielmehr die Entvlkerung bewirkt d u r c h die
blutigen Einflle der R m e r u n d d u r c h die H r t e ihrer Verwaltung seit der
Erobrung von M a c d o n i e n bis zur Schlacht von A c t i u m v e r m i n d e r t e n die
P r o d u c t i o n von Gold u n d Silber. Diese Metalle flssen von Asien n a c h
G r i e c h e n l a n d u n d Italien, zuerst langsam d u r c h d e n H a n d e l , d a n n in 25
Grossen Strmen d u r c h die E r o b e r u n g e n der G r i e c h e n u n d R m e r . M a n
m a c h t sich eine Vorstellung von diesen Massen aus der Liste der trsors
royaux deren sich Alexander der Grosse b e m c h t i g t e , conserv von Q u i n -
tus Curtius, Strabo, Justinus, Arrien, Diodore u n d Plutarch. (59) Er n a h m
in d e m Feld des Darius u n d zu Babylon, Persepolis, Pasagarde, E c b a t a n al- 30
lein 1,930,500,000 fcs. Seit dieser Zeit renchrissement notable in den prix de
salaire, des denres u n d betrchtliches Steigen des i m p t a n n u e l . ([59,] 60)
(Folgt die A u f z h l u n g e n der G e g e n d e n in Asien, die das edle Metall lie-
ferten.) W i r finden selbst bei Strabo, d a bei u n e n a t i o n voisine den Sa-
bens (asiatisches Volk) das Kupfer 3 x u n d das Silber 2 x d e n W e r t h des 35
Goldes hatte. Agatarchides sagt, da diese Vlker das Eisen 2 x sein G e -
wicht in Gold zahlten u n d 10 Pfunde Gold fr 1 Pfund Silber gaben. ... bei
diesem arabischen Volke, sagt Strabo, fand sich das Gold en petites boules
grosses au m o i n s c o m m e un noyau, au plus c o m m e u n e noix, et qui n ' a -
vaient pas besoin ||3| d'affinage. Strabo fgt h i n z u , da der G r u n d des n i e - 40
deren Preisses dieses Metalls zu erklren ist aus der inexprience dieser peu-
328
plades arabes travailler ce m t a l , et d a n s la raret des objets d ' c h a n g e

der nothwendigsten Lebensmittel. ( 6 1 , 62) A u s s e r d e m , um das reine Gold
zu erhalten von d e n i m m e n s e s terrains d'alluvion situs zwischen d e m I n -
d o u - K o s h u n d d e m H i m a l a y a , bedurfte e s n u r einer einfachen W s c h e .
5 D a m a l s diese G e g e n d e n von Asien sehr bevlkert u n d folglich die m a i n
d'oeuvre sehr wohlfeil. D a s Silber, d u r c h die N a t u r de son gisement, d u r c h
d e n tat d'alliage, worin es sich findet, viel schwerer a u s z u z i e h n . D i e u n -
v o l l k o m m e n e n procds des m i n e u r u n d mtallurgiste, die A b w e s e n h e i t
von M a s c h i n e n u n d des m o y e n s d ' p u i s e m e n t , e n d l i c h die Schwierigkeit
10 der Exploitation m u t e n d e n W e r t h des Silbers sehr h e b e n v e r h l t n i m s -
sig zur raret u n d zu d e n avantages respectifs des d e u x m t a u x . (62) D e r
effet contraire producirte sich in A s i e n u n d G r i e c h e n l a n d seit d e m T o d
Alexanders. D e r G o l d s a n d erschpfte sich; der Prei der Sklaven u n d der
H a n d a r b e i t stieg; da die M e c h a n i k u n d G e o m e t r i e seit Euclid u n d Archi-
15 m e d e s i m m e n s e Fortschritte g e m a c h t , k o n n t e m a n exploitiren m i t Vortheil
die riches filons des m i n e s d'argent de l'Asie, T h r a c i e n s u n d Spaniens u n d
da das Silber 52 x plus a b o n d a n t ist als das Gold, m u t e das Werthverhlt-
n i der b e i d e n Metalle wechseln u n d das Pfund Gold, das zur Zeit des X e -
n o p h o n s , 350 Jahre vor der re vulgaire sich gegen 10 Pfund Silber aus-
20 tauschte, valait 18 Pfund davon 422 J a h r e n a c h Christi G e b u r t . (62, 63)
Das c h a n g e m e n t successif zwischen Gold u n d Silber, Silber u n d Kupfer in
verschiednen E p o c h e n , m u t e z u n c h s t a b h n g e n von der n a t u r e d u gise-
m e n t de ces 3 m t a u x , et de l'tat plus ou m o i n s p u r d a n s lequel ils se trou-
vent. (63) Italien war im Anfang sehr a r m an G o l d u n d Silber. D i e L a n d
25 enthielt seiner geologischen Construction n a c h sehr wenige M i n e n edler
Metalle. Dagegen assez riche en cuivre natif; bis 247 vor J. C. das Kupfer
das N o r m a l Geld, die u n i t m o n t a i r e im mittleren Italien. Die griechi-
schen Colonien im S d e n der Halbinsel zogen von G r i e c h e n l a n d oder
Asien, direkt oder d u r c h Tyros oder Carthago, das Silber wovon sie M n -
30 zen fabricirten seit d e m 5 u n d 6' Jh. vor J. C. (64) Trotz dieser N a c h b a r -
schaft, die R m e r aus politischen G r n d e n proscribirten d e n G e b r a u c h
von Gold u n d Silber. Volk u n d Senat fhlten, d a ein so leichtes Circula-
tionsmittel Concentration, Z u n a h m e von Sklaven, Verfall der alten Sitten
u n d Agricultur herbeifhren w r d e n . (65) R o m h a t t e brigens Silbergeld
35 vor 485 v. Chr. u n d vielleicht schon u n t e r d e n lezten Knigen. ([65,] 66)
329
Kupfer-Silber-Mnzen und ihr Verhltni.
Ursprnglich bei d e n R m e r n k e i n e a n d r e n M n z e n als die in d e n Schatz

d u r c h Erobrung k a m e n . (66) F r h e r b e d i e n t e m a n sich fr d e n A u s t a u s c h
de m t a l en lingots, aes r u d e . (67) Die u n i t m o n t a i r e war der as de
cuivre, der bis z u m ersten p u n i s c h e n Krieg ein r m i s c h e s Pfund wog. (68) 5
D i e m o n n a i e d'argent n ' a t frappe als von 485, frher w u r d e sie f o n d u e .
(69) Servius gab d e n R m e r n zuerst g e m n z t e s Geld. ([70,] 71) Z u r Zeit
des Servius Silber: Kupfer = 2 7 9 : 1 . (73) E i n Pfund Silber von d e n ltesten
Z e i t e n bis z u m Anfang des p u n i s c h e n Kriegs = 40 d e n a r i u s ( d a r i n e i n g e -
theilt.) 1 denarius (Silber) = 10 as Kupfer. D a s Pfund Kupfer verhielt sich 10
also z u m Pfund Silber = % . ([76,] 77) W h r e n d des ersten p u n i s c h e n
00
Kriegs der as (Kupfer) v e r m i n d e r t auf % seines W e r t h s oder 2 U n z e n . D e r

D e n a r i u s auf % des Pfundes Silber herabgesezt. Galt i m m e r n o c h 10 as de
4
cuivre, die aber n u r m e h r = 2 U n z e n . D e r rapport des g e m n z t e n Kupfers

z u m Silber d a h e r d a m a l s = y . (77) W h r e n d des langen Laufens dieses
i40 15
Krieges s u c h t e n die R m e r die Erschpfung des Schatzes d u r c h successive
altrations de la m o n n a i e zu heilen. (78) L ' a n de R o m e 537, u n t e r der Dik-
t a t u r von Q. F a b i u s M a x i m u s , in Folge der Unglcksflle im Anfang des
l
2 p u n i s c h e n Kriegs, der As reducirt auf das G e w i c h t von einer U n z e . D e r
D e n i e r aber galt 16 as n u n statt 10. W h r e n d dieser Zeit das Werthverhlt- 20
n i von Kupfer zu Silber = y . ([81,] 82) Spter der as auf % U n z e redu-
u2
cirt ... zur Zeit der guerre sociale (665 von R o m d u r c h die lex Papiria).
l
( 8 2 - 8 4 ) U n t e r N e r o schon der denarius / des Pfundes Silber. (85) Seit
96
seiner R e d u c t i o n auf 1 U n z e war das Kupfer as n u r n o c h u n e m o n n a i e

d'appoint. Le sesterce tait d e v e n u l'unit m o n t a i r e , et t o u s les grands 25
p a i e m e n t se faisaient en argent. (84)
Gold- und Silbergeld und ihr Verhltni.
Das Gold im Anfang sehr rar in R o m ; 365 k o n n t e n der Staat u n d die parti-
culiers k a u m 1000 livres r u n i r p o u r se racheter des G a u l o i s . D a s Silber
viel hufiger. D e r Besitz der spanischen M i n e n ; bis z u m J a h r h u n d e r t der 30
T r i b u t der Besiegten u n d b e s o n d e r s von Carthago in Silber gezahlt, die
hielt das Gold auf h o h e m N i v e a u . D i e M e t a l l n u r in lingots gebraucht bis
547. D i e Jahr schlug m a n zu R o m zuerst G o l d m n z e n . ([85,] 86) Das
G o l d war z u m Silber im H a n d e l = 13,71:1, ||4| in d e n m o n n a i e s = 17,14:1.
... 1 scrupule d'or valait 20 sesterces = 5 d e n i e r s ; der d e n i e r war y eines 35
M
Pfundes Silber. (87) U n t e r Caesar 1 a u r e u s = 25 d e n a r i u s ; G o l d z u m Silber
330
= 12:1. (88, 89) B e i m A u s b r u c h des Brgerkriegs sank das G o l d z u m Sil-

ber = 8:1, d u r c h P l n d e r u n g des r m i s c h e n Schatzes von Caesar. Dieses
a e r a r i u m enthielt 663, vor der guerre sociale 1,620,829 (nach Plinius) r m i -
sche Pfunde Gold, ungefhr 1 milliard 800 000 fcs. 705, als Csar sich sei-
5 n e r b e m c h t i g t e , enthielt es an 2 milliards fcs. ([90,] 91) V o m a u r e u s gin-
gen 40 bis 45 auf das Pfund, v o m solidus (aureus u n t e r C o n s t a n t i n ) 72 auf
das Pfund. (93) U n t e r H o n o r i u s u n d A r c a d i u s (397) fixirt das V e r h l t n i
von Silber zu G o l d = 1:14,4; u n t e r H o n o r i u s u n d T h o d o s e - l e - J e u n e (422)
= 1:18. (95) U n t e r d e n K a i s e r n des O c c i d e n t u n d Orient die G o l d m n z e
10 wie in E n g l a n d die regulirende u n d ihr poids u n d titre nie alterirt. (96) U n -
ter A r c a d i u s u n d H o n o r i u s 1 Pf. G o l d = 1800 Pfd. Kupfer. 1 Pfund Silber
= 100 Pf. Kupfer. (96)
Durchschnittsprei des Getreides.
In der E p o c h e von C l a u d i u s bis Titus der Prei des Brodes u n d M e h l s u n -

15 gefhr wie in L o n d o n im 19 J h . (110)
Prei der Lebensmittel.
(denres) W i r besitzen in der inscription de Stratonice, p u b l i e v o n Cardi-

n a l i etc, u n prix m o y e n des denres, tarif par l ' e m p e r e u r lui m m e (Dio-
cletian A . D . 303) et q u ' o n ne pouvait dpasser sans s'exposer la p e i n e ca-
20 pitale. (111) D r a c h m e a t t i q u e war werth Ofr 92 c; der d e n a r i u s d'argent
schwankte von A u g u s t bis G o r d i a n von 1 f. 11 c auf Of. 99 c. (113) V o n
C o n s t a n t i n bis V a l e n t i n i a n war das G e t r e i d e n u r um % wohlfeiler als in
F r a n k r e i c h von 1 8 1 5 - 1 8 3 0 . (124) D e r vin c o m m u n war t h e u r e r im 4* J h .
als jezt in F r a n k r e i c h , n m l i c h 80 c. der litre. (124) U e b e r d i e a n d r e n a n a -
25 l o g e n P r e i s s e , . B. ein Pfund Rindfleisch = 20 c. s i e h p. 125. (125) D i e
W a a r e n i m A l l g e m e i n e n s o t h e u e r i m 4 l J h . i m r m i s c h e n R e i c h wie jezt i n
Frankreich. (126)
Tagelohn de l'homme libre.
Von d e m p e l o p o n n e s i s c h e n Krieg bis z u A u g u s t u s u n d d e n A n t o n i n e n der

30 Tagelphn de l ' h o m m e libre, m a n u v r e , laboureur, jardinier, m e u n i e r ,
charpentier ou m a o n n u r % u n t e r d e m gegenwrtigen D u r c h s c h n i t t s Tage-
331
lohn in F r a n k r e i c h fr dieselbe Arbeit. (128, 9) N a c h Varro zog m a n die

freien Arbeiter von d e n Sklaven in d e n c a n t o n s malsains et p o u r les gros
ouvrages des labours, des semailles, des fenaisons et de la m o i s s o n . (130)
(Sieh die Preilisten 1 3 1 - 1 3 3 )
Vom Sold der Truppen. 5
In G r i e c h e n l a n d der Durchschnittssold des fantassin, n o u r r i t u r e comprise,

m i n d e s t e n s 61 c e n t i m e s , in R o m seit Caesar 70 c, u n t e r D o m i t i a n 83 c.
u n d das 4fache fr d e n cavalier. In F r a n k r e i c h fr un soldat d'infanterie
92 c. par jour. R e c h n e t m a n d e n transport de m a c h i n e s , des quipages de
sige etc h i n z u , so folgt, da eine A r m e e h e u t e weniger kostet als in G r c e
u n d Asie seit Pericles bis A l e x a n d e r u n d i m r m i s c h e n R e i c h v o n Csar
bis J u s t i n i a n . (141, 2)
Vom Prei der Sklaven.
E r will n u r d e n D u r c h s c h n i t t s p r e i b e s t i m m e n der esclaves propres a u x

travaux de l'agriculture ou l'exercice d ' u n m t i e r ordinaire. (143) En ad- 15
d i t i o n n a n t le capital employ l'achat de l'esclave, l'intrt de ce capital,
la n o u r r i t u r e et le vtement, le d c h e t a n n u e l et en c o m p a r a n t ce rsultat
avec la s o m m e de travail produit, on voit q u e ce prix s'lve fort a u d e s s u s
des salaires les plus h a u t s du j o u r n a l i e r ou d o m e s t i q u e cultivateur d'Italie,
de F r a n c e , et m m e d'Angleterre. (151) Z w i s c h e n d e m 2* p u n i s c h e n Krieg 20
bis z u r Herrschaft Trajans, hielt sich der Prei des esclave cultivateur zwi-
s c h e n 2000 u n d 2500 fcs. C'tait, avant 1789, le prix d ' u n b o n ngre a d u l t e
S a i n t - D o m i n g u e . (154) je crois avoir prouv q u e le rapport des m t a u x
p r c i e u x au prix m o y e n du bl, de la solde et de la j o u r n e du travail, tait,
d a n s le h a u t et d a n s le bas e m p i r e [romain], peu prs gal ce qu'il est 25
a u j o u r d h u i en F r a n c e . (157)
Il est vident q u e les m t a u x p r c i e u x se r p a n d e n t a u j o u r d ' h u i d a n s les
cinq parties du m o n d e , et q u e , d a n s l'antiquit, leur usage tait limit au
bassin de la M d i t e r r a n n e et q u e l q u e s contres de l'Afrique et de l'Asie.
S'il y avait 5 x m o i n s d'or et d'argent q u ' a u j o u r d ' h u i , il y avait 5 x m o i n s 30
de besoins. L'industrie des m a n u f a c t u r e s tait m o i n s perfectionne, le
c o m m e r c e m o i n s actif, et la valeur relative des m t a u x p u t tre la m m e ,
q u o i q u e la q u a n t i t m i s e en circulation ait b e a u c o u p a u g m e n t d e p u i s les
sicles de Pricls et de C o n s t a n t i n , j u s q u ' l ' p o q u e actuelle. (158) N o u s
trouvons la proportion de l'or l'argent de 1 12 d a n s les 2 premiers si- 35
332
cles de l're vulgaire, de 1 15, c o m m e prsent en E u r o p e , d u r a n t pres-

que tout le III sicle, de 1 18 la fin du IV et dans la premire m o i t i du
V. (158, 9) I
|5| Origine du Cens.
5 les divisions des plbjens et des patriciens ... prouvaient le besoin de dis-
traire le peuple et de l'occuper au dehors, firent de la guerre un systme, un
moyen, un ressort du g o u v e r n e m e n t r o m a i n , (p. 159 wie b e i d e n E n g l n -
d e r n a u s d e r E r o b e r u n g s t e t s n e u e r M r k t e . ) L a connaissance exacte d e
leurs ressources en h o m m e s , en argent et en vivres, tait la c o n d i t i o n indis-
10 pensable du succs. La ncessit cra d o n c chez ce peuple guerrier la sta-
tistique, le cadastre, les registres de naissance et de dcs. T o u t cela fut
compris dans l'institution du cens, et cette institution, base f o n d a m e n t a l e
du g o u v e r n e m e n t et de la p u i s s a n c e r o m a i n e , est d u e Servais Tullius, le
sixime des rois de R o m e , et date de l'an 197 de cette ville, 555 ans avant
15 J. C. (160) Aile 5 Jahre d u r c h die C e n s o r e n gemacht. (161) Les 20,000 ci-
toyens d'Athnes, les 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s du temps de Csar taient
rellement u n e noblesse privilgie, quoiqu'elle portt le n o m de peuple,
les esclaves, les trangers ne jouissaient pas des m m e s droits. De m m e
enfin que le Livre d'or Venise c o n t e n a i t l'tat de toutes les familles patri-
20 ciennes, q u e le nobiliaire de F r a n c e c o m p r e n d le n o m et les armes de
80,000 familles nobles, de m m e les registres de naissance, de dcs, par
sexe et par ge, taient indispensables R o m e et dans l'Italie. L'ge a u q u e l
un citoyen prenait la prtexte, la robe virile, y tait consign. Sans cela,
c o m m e n t aurait-on pu tablir son admissibilit aux divers emplois p u -
25 blies? La loi fixait un ge p o u r sortir de tutelle, un ge p o u r tre a d m i s
dans l'ordre questre ou snatorial, p o u r tre n o m m t r i b u n du peuple,
questeur, dile, prteur, censeur ou consul. Il en tait de m m e p o u r tre
apte se marier, tester, contracter, prter serment en justice. (164, 5)
Pour les b i e n fonds diese t a b u l a e censuales basirt auf e i n e m Cadaster u n d
30 u n e estimation vrifis tous les l u s t r e s ; elles c o n t e n a i e n t la qualit du
c h a m p , la n a t u r e des cultures, soit bl, fourrages, vignes, oliviers etc. (165)
Du Cadastre.
Le plan cadastral du territoire entier tait grav sur cuivre et dpos dans le
Tabellarium, soit de la R p u b l i q u e , soit de l ' e m p e r e u r ; un d o u b l e tait
35 conserv dans les archives de la colonie ou du m u n i c i p e . (169) La descrip-
333
tion j o i n t e ce plan, m e n t i o n n a n t toutes les conditions de la proprit,

data, assignata, excepta, c o m m u t a t a , reddita veteri possessori, tait grave
sur cuivre, signe par l'auteur du cadastre, puis transporte sur des toiles de
lin, dposes et conserves aussi dans les archives. (170)
A u g u s t u s schrieb eigenhndig das Cadaster u n d das r e c e n s e m e n t gnral 5

de l'empire romain, das enthielt le r s u m des ressources de l'empire, le
n o m b r e des citoyens et des allis sous les armes, l'tat des flottes, des pro-
vinces, des royaumes, des tributs, des impts directs ou indirects, des d-
penses ncessaires et des gratifications. (191[, 192]) ( D i e w a r n a t r l i c h
ein A u s z u g a u s d e r ffentlichen Arbeit, die er m a c h e n lie.) 10
Livre II. Population.
Population libre de l'Italie.
In d e m 35. Census, J a h r 488 der Republik, vor d e m ersten p u n i s c h e n Krieg,

fand m a n 292 334 rmische Brger; (209) le cadastre et la statistique ro-
m a i n e s'appliquaient i m m d i a t e m e n t toutes les contres soumises. (210) 15
Kurz vor d e m 2' p u n i s c h e n Krieg, gegen 527, r e c e n s e m e n t de ses (de R o m e )
forces et de ses allis [209, 210]; giebt 770,000 waffenfhige M n n e r . (214)
Waffenfhig in gewhnlichen Fllen von 1 7 - 4 5 Jahren, in ausserordentli-
c h e n (wie damals, wo t u m u l t u s gallicus) von 1 7 - 6 0 J a h r e n . (216, 17) B e -
r e c h n e t die population libre totale d a n a c h auf 3 Millionen. (218) Les m - 20
t q u e s ou peregrini taient des h o m m e s libres, m a i s privs des droits de
cit et de suffrage, qui exeraient les professions industrielles ou m e r c a n t i -
les. (225)
De la Population servile.
D i e R m e r im IV u n d V J a h r h u n d e r t R o m s h a t t e n sehr wenige Sklaven; 25

bei i h r e m einfachen L e b e n k o n n t e n sie n u r wenige b r a u c h e n u n d halten.
(233) Die lois agraires, proposes p o u r la p r e m i r e fois l'an de R o m e 268,
stets erneuert; (in d e n 3 ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n seit Vertreibung des T a r q u i -
nius) elles limitaient de 2 7 jugres l ' t e n d u e de la proprit de c h a q u e
citoyen. (234) (on les lude en distribuant au peuple les terres conquises. 30
1. c.) L ' a n de R o m e 388 Licinius Stolo fit passer la loi die j e d e m Brger ver-
bot m e h r als 500 jugres zu h a b e n (126 hectares) et o r d o n n a i t q u e l'ex-
c d a n t serait t aux riches et distribu ceux q u i n ' a v a i e n t a u c u n e
334
proprit foncire. Dasselbe Gesetz fixe un n o m b r e circonscrit de

domestiques et d'esclaves p o u r faire valoir ces terres ainsi partages, et en-
j o i n t de se servir d'Italiens et d ' h o m m e s libres. (235) Valerius M a x i m u s
sagt v o m 5' Jh. Kein oder fast k e i n Geld, wenig Sklaven, 7 jugera L a n d ,
5 l'indigence dans les familles, les obsques payes par l'tat, les filles sans
dot ; m a i s d'illustres consulats, de merveilleuses dictatures, d ' i n n o m b r a b l e s
triomphes". (238) Diese einfachen u n d frugalen Sitten existirten n o c h in
der ersten Hlfte des 6' Jhdts; aber seit d e m E n d e des 2' p u n i s c h e n Kriegs,
besonders n a c h der E i n n a h m e von Carthago u n d Corinth, le tableau
10 change totalement. (238) Diese einfachen Sitten d a u e r t e n bis zur Erobe-
rung von M a c d o n i e n . (240) V o n 550 de R o m e bis 575 die Cultur gefhrt
fast ganz von E i g e n t h m e r n u n d journaliers libres. (1. c.) U e b e r h a u p t wer-
d e n von d e n R m e r n weniger Sklaven zur Agricultur angewandt als m a n
gewhnlich glaubt; der service d o m e s t i q u e dans les villes leur tait particu-
15 lirement affect. (243)
N a c h Varro der Sklave ein i n s t r u m e n t u m vocale, die Thiere i n s t r u m e n t u m

s e m i - m u t u m , Pflug i n s t r u m e n t u m m u t u m . ([253,] 254) |
|6| Die Z a h l der m n n l i c h e n Sklaven war 4 oder 5x grsser als die der
weiblichen; die E h e n in dieser Klasse im A l l g e m e i n e n verboten; die Skla-
20 venbevlkerung rekrutirte sich n u r d u r c h d e n Krieg, la traite, les ventes vo-
luntaires u n d d i m i n u a i t par l'affranchissement. D e r Prei des esclave m l e ,
adulte, propre aux travaux de l'agriculture, oscillirte in G r i e c h e n l a n d u n d
Italien, v o m m e d i s c h e n Krieg bis z u m E n d e des 2' p u n i s c h e n Kriegs, zwi-
schen 500 u n d 1200 fcs. (252, 3)
25 Die Z a h l der Sklaven m u t e in d e n 5 ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n R o m s sehr

schwach sein ... m a n n a h m d e n besiegten Vlkern e i n e n Theil ihres Terri-
toriums, um des colons libres draufzusetzen u n d , gnralement, on les sou-
m e t t a i t un tribut m o d r sans les asservir. Das demokratische E l e m e n t ,
das 388 sein Vorherrschen zeigt in d e n licinischen Gesetzen, prvalut
30 R o m e bis zur Eroberung von M a c d o n i e n . (265) D i e Lnder, die G r i e c h e n -
land u n d R o m h a u p t s c h l i c h Sklaven lieferten bis zur E r o b e r u n g von Gal-
lien d u r c h Csar, waren Thracien, Scythien, Dacien, G e t i e n , Phrygien, le
Pont ( E u x i n u s ) ; m i t e i n e m Wort der S d e n d e l'Europe occidentale u n d
ein Theil von Asia m i n o r . Die H a u p t m r k t e des Sklavenhandels waren, fr
35 den N o r d e n l ' E m p o r i u m de T a n a s ; fr Kleinasien Ephesos u n d Side, fr
G r i e c h e n l a n d Samos, A t h e n u n d Delos. (266)
Letronne hat bewiesen, da von Anfang des peloponnesischen Kriegs bis

zur Schlacht von C h r o n e in Attica 110,000 Sklaven auf 130,000 Freie
335
f
von allen ges u n d sexes k a m e n , also n i c h t 1 Sklave auf e i n e n Freien.

(270) N a c h D . , g e s t z t auf Dionys von Halycarnass im J a h r 278 der Stadt
R o m 440,000 Einwohner, n m l i c h 390,290 r m i s c h e Brger u n d Brgerin-
n e n (110,000 Waffenfhige von 1 7 - 6 0 Jahre), 32,523 m t q u e s ou affran-
chis u n d n u r 17,186 Sklaven. Diese verhielten sich also zu d e n F r e i e n 5
= 2 5 : 1 . ([270,] 271) Das produit m o y e n du bl im alten Italien zur Zeit des
Varro = 5:1 (fr Sicilien; fr R o m zur Zeit des Columella = 4:1), obgleich
einige privilegirte Theile Italiens u n d Etruriens n a c h Varro r e n d a i e n t 10
u n d 15 grains pour 1. Jezt ist der prix m o y e n in d e n K i r c h e n s t a a t e n c i n q u e
per u n o . Zu Pisa, jezt, n a c h der Kadasterschtzung, das Product der 10
schlechtesten L n d e r e i e n = 3 : 1 , der besten = 8:1, p o u r le bl, l'avoine, les
haricots, le seigle etc. Der mas rend 4 0 : 1 . Dieselbe Proportion existirt im
Territorium von A r e z z o ; aber in d e n u n f r u c h t b a r e n terrains bepflanzt m a n
n u r Y der terres u n d lt die a n d r e n brachliegen. (272 Note) Cato fixirt die
2
n o u r r i t u r e der travailleurs n a c h d e n verschiednen Jahreszeiten auf 4 u n d 15

5 livres r o m a i n e s de pain, wovon der D u r c h s c h n i t t m a c h t 3 livres franais,
poids de m a r c . (273) Sallust beweist, da die Plebejer, die R o m b e w o h n t e n ,
dots par la loi frumentaire, jeder, wie die Gefangnen 5 m o d i u s (66 livres)
de bl fr d e n M o n a t erhielten u n d d a diese N a h r u n g k a u m h i n r e i c h t e .
... Seneca giebt dieselbe Q u a n t i t d ' a l i m e n t den Sklaven der Stadt u n d 20
d e n c o m d i e n s : servus est ; q u i n q u e m o d i o s accipit. Also der tgliche G e -
t r e i d e c o n s u m der Plebejer tglich etwas m e h r als 2 franzsische livres.
(274) Also die c o n s u m t i o n (journalire) eines citadin de R o m e etwas m e h r
als 2 livres franaises, eines c a m p a g n a r d 3 livres. (275) Die Sklaven erhiel-
ten n u r das z u m L e b e n nthige et n o n pour se nourrir c o m p l t e m e n t . (1. c.) 25
E i n Pariser verzehrt an Brod 0,93, ein c a m p a g n a r d (in d e n 20 d p a r t e m e n t
wo das bl die H a u p t n a h r u n g ) 1,70 (livre). (277) E. Biot h a t gefunden fr
die tgliche R e i s c o n s u m t i o n der familles agricoles de C h i n e 1 livre, 8 on-
ces. D. h a t g e f u n d e n im jetzigen Italien, in d e n T h e i l e n wo bl die H a u p t -
n a h r u n g , 1 livre, 8 onces fr das individu der famille agricole. ([277,] 278) 30
W a r u m assen die R m e r verhltnimssig m e h r ? Ursprnglich assen sie
das bl cru oder n u r ramolli d a n s l'eau; n a c h h e r ils s'avisrent de le griller.
Spter k a m m a n zur art de m o u d r e u n d anfangs a m a n crue la pte faite
avec cette farine. On se servait, p o u r m o u d r e le grain, d ' u n pilon ou de
d e u x pierres frappes ou tournes l'une sur l'autre ... Diese pte crue, puis, 35
appretirte sich der r m i s c h e Soldat fr m e h r e Tage. D a n n erfand m a n le
van, qui nettoie le grain, on trouva le m o y e n de sparer le son de la farine ;
endlich on ajouta le levain u n d d'abord on m a n g e a le p a i n cru, bis der Z u -
fall lehrte, da en le cuisant on l'empchait de s'aigrir et m a n le conservait
bien plus longtemps. Erst n a c h d e m Krieg gegen Perseus, 580, h a t t e R o m 40
des boulangers. ([278,] 279) Vor der christlichen Z e i t r e c h n u n g k a n n t e n die
336
r
R m e r keine W i n d m h l e n . (280) P a r m e n t i e r h a t bewiesen da i n Frank-

reich seit Louis XIV die K u n s t des M a h l e n s grosse Fortschritte g e m a c h t
u n d da der U n t e r s c h i e d der alten u n d der n e u e n m o u t u r e sich auf % des
von d e m s e l b e n G e t r e i d e gelieferten Brods erstreckt. D ' a b o r d assignirte
5 m a n 4, d a n n 3, d a n n 2, d a n n e n d l i c h 1 setier des bl pour la c o n s o m m a -
tion annuelle d ' u n h a b i t a n t de Paris. (1. c.) A i n s i s'explique facilement
l'norme disproportion entre la c o n s o m m a t i o n journalire de bl chez les
R o m a i n s et chez n o u s ; aus der imperfection der procds de m o u t u r e et de
la panification. (281) Er rechnet heraus fr 529 fr das m i t R o m ver-
10 b u n d n e Italien 4,978,482 Einwohner, wovon 2,312,677 Sklaven u n d
2,665,805 Freie. Die freie Bevlkerung also zur population affranchie, m -
t q u e ou esclave, peu prs = 2 6 : 2 3 . (289) (Unter die Sklaven hier mit-
gerechnet die affranchis et m t q u e s ) |
|7| U n t e r d e m Kaiserreich a u c h die Z a h l der Sklaven geringer als die der

15 freien. (300)
Er schzt die Bevlkerung des Theils des alten Galliens, der d e m h e u t i g e n

Frankreich entspricht auf 10,617,215. (313)
Extension du droit de cit depuis Csar et Auguste.
D e r dernier cens e x c u t sous la rpublique, 683, durch die censeurs

20 L. Gellius Poplicola u n d C. L. C l o d i a n u s zeigt n u r 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s
waffenfhig (von 1 7 - 6 0 J a h r e n ) . 708 u n t e r Caesar eine andre D e n o m i n a -
tion zeigt grosse V e r m i n d e r u n g in Folge der Brgerkriege. (314) 42 J a h r e
n a c h h e r census u n t e r A u g u s t zeigt Z a h l von 4,063,000 citoyens r o m a i n s .
(316) W o h e r diese grosse A u s d e h n u n g des droit de cit? D i e grossen Er-
25 oberungen von P o m p e u n d Csar, en reculant les frontires de l'empire,
l'avaient mis, vers l'Occident et le Nord, en contact i m m d i a t e avec le
puissant r o y a u m e des Parthes et les n a t i o n s libres et guerrires de la G e r m a -
nie. Die Gallier erst unterjocht n a c h lOjhrigem Krieg, verdchtig d e n Sie-
gern. Also grre Z a h l von L e g i o n e n bestndig u n t e r d e n F a h n e n nthig
30 geworden. Also grre Basis fr d e n entretien des armes n a t i o n a l e s , die
o h n e usserste Gefahr fr den Staat d e n corps auxiliaires nicht infrieures
sein durften. (317, 18) W h r e n d seiner Dictatur, 705, gab Caesar das droit
de cit complet t o u t e la G a u l e t r a n s p a d a n e . (318.) Seit d e n Brgerkrie-
gen von M a r i u s u n d Sylla bis zur Schlacht von A c t i u m , u n g e h e u r e A r m e e n
35 von R m e r n gegen R m e r . Octavius u n d A n t o n i u s , B r u t u s u n d Cassius
hatten, 711, 59 lgions. (295,000 h o m m e s , o h n e die r m i s c h e Cavalerie,
337
die lgion zu 5000 soldats) (318, 9) M a r c A n t o i n e w h r e n d seines C o n s u -

lats gab Sicilien u n d g a n z e n Provinzen le droit de cit complet. (319) (Die
e x e m p t i o n d'impts folgte n o t h w e n d i g d e m droit d e cit complet u n d A n -
t o n i u s lie sich die Verleihung dieses Privilegiums bezahlen.) M a n entging
so e i n e m grave inconvnient, d e m m a n seit M a r i u s u n d Sylla ausgesezt 5
war, in die L e g i o n e n e i n g e h n zu lassen die proltaires u n d affranchis. H u -
fige rvoltes dieser corps, b e d r o h t e n m e h r m a l s die Existenz der M a c h t von
Csar u n d Octave; m a n war gezwungen diese rvoltes zu besnftigen d u r c h
distributions d'argent u n d gewaltsam der besiegten Parthei f o r t g e n o m m e n e
L n d e r e i e n ; vols, brigandages folgten d e m l i c e n c i e m e n t dieser armes, for-
m e s en grande partie de l ' c u m e de la socit. (320) Caesar n a h m die Pro-
vinzen g a n z auf. A u g u s t n u r die magistrats des cits, les notables et les
grands propritaires des provinces. (321) Das Brgerrecht befreite v o m im-
pt foncier, des droits de d o u a n e , d'octroi u n d de page. (323) A u g u s t b r i -
gens selbst gezwungen einer M a s s e Sklaven u n d affranchis z u m B e h u f des 15
Kriegs das r m i s c h e Brgerrecht zu ertheilen. ([322,] 323) Das Brgerrecht
n a h m a u s v o m i m p t foncier seit 585, von d e n a n d r e n seit 694 de R o m e .
(323) U n t e r A u g u s t in 20 J a h r e n die Z a h l der citoyens r o m a i n s um % ver-
0
m e h r t . Diese a d m i s s i o n avait d i m i n u la q u o t i t de m a t i r e imposable,

w h r e n d die A u s g a b e n wuchsen. (326) V o n A u g u s t bis Vespasian die Z a h l 20
der r m i s c h e n Brger wahrscheinlich um die Hlfte gewachsen. Der cens,
opr u n t e r Claudius, 801, stieg auf 5,984,072. N e r o u n d C l a u d i u s ou ses
affranchis sehr verschwenderisch d a m i t . D a h e r betrchtliche d i m i n u t i o n
dans les revenus de l'tat. A b e r Caligula, C l a u d i u s , N e r o , w e n n sie d e n
Schatz erschpften, fllten i h n wieder d u r c h m e u r t r e s u n d confiscations. 25
(327, 8) V o n G a l b a bis Trajan wird Differenz in d e n R e c h t e n g e m a c h t zwi-
schen d e n anciens u n d nouveaux citoyens. A b e r die Jagd auf das r m i s c h e
Brgerrecht so gro, d a m a n Sklave wurde, um sich d a n n affranchir zu
lassen u n d r m i s c h e r Brger zu werden. ([328,] 329) V o n Vespasian bis Ca-
racalla die das r m i s c h e Brgerrecht erhielten, genossen n i c h t m e h r die- 30
selbe e x e m p t i o n von d e n Steuern wie frher, . B. v o m 2 0 e sur les succes
sions en ligne directe. O h n e das l ' e x t e n s i o n prodigieuse du droit de cit
aurait presque e n t i r e m e n t tari la source des revenus de l'tat. (330) Cara-
calla gab das droit de cit t o u s les sujets de l'empire. (1. c.) cette noblesse
privilgie qui portait le n o m du peuple r o m a i n . (335) Der Verkauf, der 35
H a n d e l m i t d e m r m i s c h e n Brgerrecht war sicher die H a u p t q u e l l e der
n o r m e s fortunes der affranchis des Claudius, des N e r o , des G a l b a u n d Vi-
tellius. (336) Die 6 oder 7 M i l l i o n e n de citoyens r o m a i n s , gewhlt u n t e r
d e n reichsten propritaires des empire, v e r m e h r t e n ihr fortune d u r c h die
e x e m p t i o n d'impts attache ce titre, d u r c h d e n W u c h e r , d u r c h die ac- 40
quisitions successives. H a l b e Provinz Africa gehrte 6 I n d i v i d u e n , die
338
N e r o ft prir p o u r s'emparer de leurs dpouilles. Diese m o n s t r u o s e C o n -

centration der proprit in der classe der citoyens r o m a i n s , die U n m g l i c h -
keit Steuern auf diese privilegirte Klasse zu e r h e b e n u n d d u r c h e m p r u n t s
das dficit der ressources ordinaires zu decken, erklren die crimes des e m -
5 pereurs. Es trieb sie d a z u der b e s o i n d'argent q u i renaissait sans cesse u n d
d e n sie d u r c h voies lgales n i c h t befriedigen k o n n t e n . ... la c r u a u t ne vint
q u ' la suite de la prodigalit. ([336,] 337) la m m e ncessit contraignit
a u x m m e s crimes et l'empire O t t o m a n et ce rgime de 93 q u i battait m o n -
naie sur la place de la Revolution. (338)
10 Etendue et Population de Rome.
A t h e n war / des Paris v o n 1813 in Bezug auf Oberflche u n d Bevlkerung.

H a t t e 100,000 Einwohner. (344) Die superficie dieses R o m e superbe weni-
ger als y der von Paris in 1840, circonscrit par le m u r des barrires. (347)
s
D i e superficie comprise dans l'enceinte des m u r s d'Aurlien etwas m e h r

15 als % der von Paris. (1. c.) Selbst, was zuviel ist, a n g e n o m m e n , die Bevlke-
r u n g von R o m , im V e r h l t n i zur superficie der Stadt sei 2 x strker gewe-
sen als zu Paris, so hielt das R o m des A u g u s t u n d N e r o , o h n e die fau-
bourgs, n u r 266,684 Einwohner. (370)
Des Faubourgs de Rome.
20 V e r s t e h t u n t e r F a u b o u r g s die quartiers u n d bourgs contigus a u x m u r a i l l e s

de l ' a n c i e n n e R o m e , telles qu'elles existaient sous N r o n . (371)
(cf 3 7 6 - 3 8 7 . )
Des Maisons de Rome.
N i m m t an d a im IV Jh. der re c h r t i e n n e die faubourgs 120,000 Einwoh-

25 n e r enthielten, die e n c e i n t e d ' A u r l i e n 382,695, z u s a m m e n 502,695 oder
en s o m m e r o n d e 502,000 Einwohner. 30,000 Soldaten. F r e m d e 30,000. Z u -
s a m m e n 562,000 ttes. (403) M a d r i d , w h r e n d 1 sicles seit Karl V
H a u p t s t a d t eines Theils von E u r o p a u n d einer Hlfte der n e u e n W e l t viele
rapports m i t R o m . A u c h seine Bevlkerung wuchs n i c h t i m V e r h l t n i z u
30 seiner politischen B e d e u t u n g . (405, 6) |
339
|8| Obstacles la Population.
Bei d e n G r i e c h e n u n d R m e r n le peuple, investi du pouvoir judiciaire et

lgislatif, est u n e vritable noblesse, u n e oligarchie t e n d u e , et d a n s ces
classes les familles t e n d e n t toujours se r e s t r e i n d r e : l'oligarchie hrdi-
taire t e n d toujours se resserrer. ([408,] 409) Les lois fixent un cens p o u r 5
la participation au pouvoir; elles b o r n e n t le n o m b r e des citoyens actifs:
aussi ... elles p e r m e t t e n t l'avortement, l'infanticide, l'exposition des en-
fans ; elles d o n n e n t l'autorit paternelle un pouvoir illimit. Les femmes,
les enfants en bas ge sont rangs, n o n dans la classe des personnes, mais
d a n s celle des c h o s e s ; on peut s'en dfaire c o m m e d ' u n m e u b l e inutile. 10
(1. c.) Die fixation du cens u n d die Z a h l der Brger a d m i s l'exercice des
droits politiques begnstigten die gots contre n a t u r e u n d die n o m b r e im-
m e n s e de courtisanes in R o m u n d A t h e n . (1. c.) Die Sklaven, in R o m u n d
G r i e c h e n l a n d in einer condition trs dure, m a l vtus, m a l logs, m a l n o u r -
ris, c o n d a m n s aux travaux de m i n e s , aux fonctions les plus pnibles et les 15
plus dltres dans la m a r i n e , les m a n u f a c t u r e s et les applications des pro-
cds de l ' i n d u s t r i e ; die b e s c h r n k t e Z a h l der weiblichen Sklaven, ein
Theil davon der Prostitution b e s t i m m t ; d e n Sklaven von d e n M e i s t e r n auf-
erlegtes clibat rigoureux; ihr massiger Prei m a c h t e es vortheilhafter sie
rascher zu exploitiren, als sie zu lever; alles d a s k o n n t e v o n dieser Seite 20
h e r die B e v l k e r u n g n i c h t f r d e r n . (410, 11) Aristoteles will in einer wei-
sen Republik eine b e s t i m m t e Z a h l von citoyens u n d eine t e n d u e b o r n e
des territoire, damit sie h i n r e i c h e n d e ressources h a b e n um zu leben, sich
u n d ihr Territorium genau k e n n e n k n n e n . Plato will in seiner R e p u b l i k
n u r 5040 Brger. A t h e n hatte zur Zeit des Solon n u r 10,800; 20,000 en 25
m a x i m u m von Pericles bis Alexander. Sparta h a t t e h c h s t e n s 7000. (412) la
limitation du n o m b r e des citoyens tait la base du g o u v e r n e m e n t de la
Grce, besonders des gouvernements rpublicains. (413) le n o m b r e des ci-
toyens tait limit dans presque toutes les rpubliques de la Grce, l ' a m o u r
antiphysique tait u n e m e s u r e politique employe par les lgislateurs afin 30
de restreindre l'accroissement de la population. (415) Fast in ganz Grie-
c h e n l a n d hatte der Vater das R e c h t o h n e A p p e l zu entscheiden b e r L e b e n
u n d T o d seiner Kinder. Sobald sie geboren, legt m a n sie zu seinen F s s e n :
w e n n er sie in seine A r m e n i m m t , sind sie gerettet; w e n n er n i c h t reich ge-
n u g ist um sie aufzuziehn oder w e n n sie certains vices de conformation ha- 35
ben, il dtourne les yeux u n d m a n sezt sie aus oder n i m m t i h n e n das Le-
ben. Aristoteles sagt Polit. VII, 16: Das Gesetz h a t zu b e s t i m m e n welche
N e u g e b o r n e n ausgesezt oder ernhrt werden sollen ... W e n n m a n d e n ex-
cs der Bevlkerung aufhalten m u u n d Sitten u n d I n s t i t u t i o n e n sich d e m
340
Aussetzen der N e u g e b o r n e n widersetzen, wird der Magistrat d e n p o u x die

Zahl ihrer K i n d e r fixiren; w e n n die M u t t e r vient concevoir b e r die vor-
g e s c h r i e b e Zahl h i n a u s , elle sera t e n u e de se faire avorter avant q u e l'em-
bryon soit a n i m . " (415, 16) Plato sagt Rep. V. p. 460 u . a . : les enfants des
5 h o m m e s pervers, c e u x q u i n a t r a i e n t difformes, les fruits illgitimes, les en-
fants de pre et m r e trop gs, seront exposs ; on ne doit pas en surchar-
ger la r p u b l i q u e . (416) Das fait der destruction graduelle et constan-
te des classes privilgies, lorsqu'elles ne se recrutent pas par des a d m i s -
sions de proltaires, oder d'trangers bewiesen d u r c h die ganze griechische
10 u n d rmische G e s c h i c h t e . (420) Sptes Alter fr das H e i r a t h e n fixirt.
(421[, 422]) barbarie des Kriegsrechts bei d e n Alten. (422) Die r m i s c h e
Agricultur h a t alles von d e n G r i e c h e n entlehnt. ... Un systme d'assole-
m e n t vicieux, u n e jachre b i e n n a l e , l'ignorance des procds de l'alter-
n a n c e des rcoltes, la rotation trop frquente du bl sur les m m e s terres,
15 l'insuffisance et la m a u v a i s e prparation des engrais, le peu d'extension
d o n n e aux prairies artificielles, le petit n o m b r e de bestiaux rpartis sur les
cultures, l'imperfection des m t h o d e s et des i n s t r u m e n t s aratoires, l'usage
vicieux de brler les c h a u m e s sur la place au lieu de les convertir en fu-
mier, cent autre pratiques funestes ... tel est le tableau affligeant ... der
20 agriculture grecque et r o m a i n e . (426, 27) Fast alle proprits rurales in
Grce u n d in Italie entweder rgies, fr R e c h n u n g du matre, par un inten-
d a n t esclave oder verpachtet an e i n e n colon partiaire, der d e n 9\ n i e m e h r
als d e n 6' Theil der rcolte erhielt. (427) Zu R o m , le corps des citoyens ac-
tifs, plbjens, chevaliers, snateurs, ne p u t j a m a i s se m a i n t e n i r au complet
25 sans se recruter par des adjonctions successives de citoyens libres des peu-
ples voisins. (429) En G r c e et dans l'Italie r o m a i n e c'tait la qualit, n o n
la quantit des citoyens q u ' o n s'tudiait obtenir. (430)
Tome II
Livre III. Agriculture. Produits.
30 Agriculture Romaine.
Die Blthe der r m i s c h e n Agricultur seit der Vertreibung der Knige bis
z u m Krieg gegen H a n n i b a l ... W e n n ein M e n s c h n u r ein kleines Stck
Land fr seine Existenz u n d die seiner F a m i l i e zu verwerthen hat, il e m -
ploie ncessairement toutes ses facults. (2) Die R m e r Hessen % ihrer Fel-
35 der brachliegen. (3) In Irland die Bevlkerung ne songe pas gagner, elle
songe vivre. (5) In Frankreich, in der L i m a g n e d'Auvergne tout se cultive
341
bras, dans la Beauce tout la charrue ; in der ersten die Bevlkerung

l
3,500 individus, in der 2 7 - 8 0 0 par lieue carre. D i e proprits u n d die
culture Italiens in d e n ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n R o m s , wenigstens bis 560 wie
Irland u n d la L i m a g n e . Aber E n g l a n d cherche borner, R o m e d a n s ses
6 premiers sicles tendait tendre l'accroissement de sa population. (6, 7) 5
tat Physique de l'Italie.
D e r B o d e n i m A l l g e m e i n e n G e s u n d , w e n n die F o r m des Terrains d e n A b -

flu des Wassers erlaubt, u n g e s u n d im gegentheiligen Fall. (9)
Die sptre extension n o r m e der possessions veranlate die Verwandlung

von Ackerland in Viehweide. (47) D e r influence de la c o u c h e de gazon e m -
p c h e l'coulement des eaux, retient l ' h u m i d i t u n d favorise, p e n d a n t les
chaleurs, l'exhalaison des m i a s m e s putrides. (48) Le luxe, l'avidit et la
g o u r m a n d i s e runis ont invent des piscines, des tangs d'eau d o r m a n t e ,
d o u c e ou sale, et ont cre par l de n o u v e a u x foyers d'infections. (50) D i e
Sklaven oder Kriegsgefangenen, gaulois ou syriens, asiatiques ou m a u r e s , 15
ne travaillaient q u ' e n c h a n s , vivaient le reste du t e m p s entasss d a n s des
cachots (ergastulis) u n d ihre G e s u n d h e i t , geschwcht schon d u r c h die
Transplantation in ein fremdes Clima, h a t t e zu leiden von mauvais traite-
m e n t , mauvaise nourriture, rclusion, m a n q u e d'air et d'espace. ([50,] 51)
D i e Ursachen des accroissement der Be||9|vlkerung des c a n t o n s infects 20
de l'Italie in den ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n der R e p u b l i k waren:
1) D i e Ankunft pelasgischer u n d griechischer Colonien, sorties d ' u n cli-
m a t semblables et de cantons malsains, gewohnt l'intemprie et aux pr-
c a u t i o n s salutaires qui la c o m b a t t e n t ; 2) Die Entwicklung der Cultur, utile
l'coulement des eaux, der V e r d u n s t u n g der Feuchtigkeit u n d d e m assai- 25
n i s s e m e n t de l'air, en d i m i n u a n t la putrfaction des substances a n i m a l e s
ou vgtales. (51) Die Hauptgrnde des Wachsthums der Ungesundheit und der
Verminderung der Bevlkerung waren: 1) Die guerres d ' e x t e r m i n a t i o n en Ita-
lie; 2) Die Zerstrung des petites proprits; 3) D i e Verwandlung von Ak-
kerbau in Wiesen, Folge der C o n c e n t r a t i o n u n d extension der proprits. 30
4) l ' a b a n d o n des prcautions sanitaires. 5) die Ersetzung d ' h o m m e s libres
d u r c h Sklaven. 6) Die Einfuhr fremder Sklaven u n d ihre u n g e s u n d e n Ver-
hltnisse. 7) Die s t e h e n d e n sssen u n d salzigen Fischteiche ... n o u v e a u x
centres d'exhalaisons pernicieuses, wie die W e i d e n u n d die Gefngnisse
der Sklaven. (52) 35
342
Agrikultur des Cato.
(Cato geboren 520 l'an de R o m e , starb 605, 148 vor J.C.) Alle l o b e n die r-
mische Agricultur im 4 u n d 5 Jh. ... die C o n c e n t r a t i o n u n d E i n s c h i e b u n g
von Sklaven s'opra in d e n 40 lezten J a h r e n des 6* Jh., n a c h der E r o b e r u n g
5 von M a c d o n i e n d u r c h P a u l u s A e m i l i u s ; die effets strker gefhlt im VII
u n d VIII Jh., seit der Zerstrung Carthagos bis z u m E n d e der R e g i e r u n g
N e r o s . ( 5 2 - 5 4 ) Die G e s e t z e b e r Ex- u n d I m p o r t des G e t r e i d e s wirkten
auch. (54) Im J h . da der B o d e n erschpft d u r c h bestndige Folge v o n
W e i z e n b a u ; producirte n u r m e h r u n e q u a n t i t m d i o c r e d e crales;
10 d a r u m verwandelte m a n in W e i d e n e i n e n grossen T h e i l der terres labou-
rables Italiens u n d der c h a m p de bl s c h o n zur Zeit Catos n u r im 6' R a n g
dans l'ordre de la valeur et du rapport, ou p r o d u i t n e t des fonds de terre.
(54) La terre tait puise par la petite culture. (55) Im 6 u n d J h . gab d e r
l
italische B o d e n l/2 weniger grain. (56) F r die Cultur von O l i v e n b u m e n

15 auf 240 jugera n a c h Cato n u r 13 P e r s o n e n nthig. (56) ( M a n b r a u c h t e
m e h r D n g e r u n d h a t t e w e n i g e r K o r n . ) D i e R m e r w a n d t e n eine sehr ge-
ringe Zahl von T h i e r e n an. (57) les crales n ' t a i e n t fumes que par la j a -
chre. (58)
Du Mode de fermage.
20 Z u r Zeit des Cato, aile proprits, die die E i g e n t h m e r n i c h t selbst b e -

wirthschafteten d u r c h sich selbst oder d u r c h e i n e n rgisseur, affermes
un politor oder colon partiaire, partiarius. Der E i g e n t h m e r lieferte Skla-
ven oder journaliers, bestiaux, s e m e n c e s , outils, vases ou i n s t r u m e n t s , kurz
das ganze m o b i l i e r ncessaire l'exploitation. (60) In d e n terrains von Ca-
25 s i n u m u n d Vnafre, sagt Cato, u n d in e i n e m g u t e n terrain, wird er h a b e n
te te te
die 8 corbeille, in e i n e m sol assez b o n , die 7 , in e i n e m 3' Q u a l i t t die 6 .
l
D a n s le Vnafre die 9 corbeille (panier.) (60) % war das h c h s t e fr d e n
m t a y e r r o m a i n ; in F r a n k r e i c h h a t der m t a y e r cheptel %. (61) In F r a n k -
reich die mtayers m i t der Hlfte elend. In d e n franzsischen Provinzen,
30 wo baux fixes r e c h n e t m a n % des p r o d u i t b r u t fr die R e n t e , % fr die Kul-
turkosten, Steuern, N a h r u n g der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere die nthig sind fr
die Exploitation u n d % als Z i n s u n d Profit des Pchters. Der r m i s c h e m -
taire oft n o c h schlechter dran, wie der Sklave. ([61,] 62)
343
Procds d'Agriculture.
Bei der Catonischen Agricultur zu loben l'emploi du travail, l'ordre et la vi-

gilance qui taient la base de cette agriculture. (62, 3) Im III, IV u n d V Jh.
mit d e n lois agraires u n d der grossen T h e i l u n g des G r u n d b e s i t z e s das pro-
duit b r u t sehr gro. D a h e r W a c h s t h u m der Bevlkerung trotz der b e s t n d i - 5
gen Kriege. Andrerseits, n o r m i t des frais de cette culture bras,
schlechte M e t h o d e n u n d I n s t r u m e n t e , U n k e n n t n i der R o t a t i o n , grosser
G e t r e i d e c o n s u m der cultivateurs b e i ihrer U n k e n n t n i vortheilhaften M a h -
lens u n d B r o d m a c h e n s , erklrt, wie die r m i s c h e n Plebejer m i t 1 oder
3 arpent de proprits, i m m e r a r m u n d verschuldet waren; sie waren in 10
der Lage der Irlnder. Der m a n q u e d'engrais, n o t h w e n d i g e Folge der klei-
n e n Cultur bras, de la rotation b i e n n a l e du bl u n d einer zu grossen A u s -
d e h n u n g der W e i z e n p r o d u c t i o n , erklrt die a b n e h m e n d e Fruchtbarkeit des
italischen Bodens u n d die Verwandlung eines grossen Theils davon in
Viehweiden. (67) Die distributions gratuites de bl waren die Armentaxe der 15
R m e r . (68) Die Concurrenz der terres de l'Ejypte, de la Sicile, de l'Afrique
trug a u c h das ihrige z u m Verfall der G e t r e i d e k u l t u r bei. (1. c.) Ce change-
m e n t fut trs prompt et ses effets trs rapides, puisqu'ils causrent, von 619
bis 630, die m o u v e m e n t s des G r a c q u e s , et leurs propositions. (1. c.)
Agriculture de Varro. 20
I t a q u e sub urbe (in der N h e der Stadt) hortos colre late expedit, sic viola-
ria, ac rosaria, (Veilchen- u n d Rosengrten) i t e m m u l t a , q u a e urbs recipit.
(76)
Des Instruments d'Agriculture.
M a n sieht aus einer Stelle des Varro, da la majeure partie des propri- 25
taires, et tous les grands propritaires sans exception taient obligs de
faire fabriquer chez eux tous les objets ncessaires leurs besoins. (82)
344
Semences et Engrais.
M a n cultivirte die lys, d e n safran, les roses et le serpolet im Grossen. (87)

So gro war d a m a l s die c o n s o m m a t i o n des grives et des merles engraisss
d a n s les volires, da ihr K o t h (leur fiente) als D n g e r p o u r les terres
5 diente. (89)
Patrie des Crales.
G l a u b t da das T h a l des J o r d a n s ( J u d a ) das Vaterland des bl u n d orge

ist, weil hier u. a. diese F r c h t e , n a c h d e m m a n sie abgeschnitten, sich im
2' J a h r von selbst wieder aus d e m Stengel erzeugen. (117[, 118]) Also la
10 chane du Liban. (118) |
|10| Rapport de la Semence au Produit.
Die terres fcondes des L o n t i n s (agri L e o n t i n i E b n e n von Catania (Sici-

lien)) gaben n a c h Varro 8, 10 u n d 15 grains pour un ; die m o y e n n e war n u r
4:1 zur Zeit des Columella im grten Theil von Italien. Die plaines de Ca-
15 t a n e gaben n o c h 8:1 in d e n guten, 10:1 in d e n ausserordentlich fruchtbaren
Jahren. 4:1 ist n o c h das p r o d u i t m o y e n du froment in P i m o n t . ( 1 1 9 - 1 2 1 )
Sehr wenige endroits en Toscane g e b e n jezt n o c h 10:1 en b l ; das Val
d'Arno giebt n u r n o c h 6:1. La m a r c h e d ' A n c n e in d e n saisons favorables
10:1. ... Le val de Chiana, qui, dans le 17 sicle, n ' t a i t presque q u ' u n lac
20 et un marais pestilentiel, a t dessch, et le bl y rapporte c o m m u n m e n t
10 12 boisseaux pour u n . (Nach J. S y m o n d s p. 122) D e r c o m t e Prospra
Balbo u n d M. Charles Pictet, dans leurs m m o i r e s sur l'agriculture de Pi-
m o n t , d o n n e n t les rapports de la s e m e n c e au produit, ganz g e m d e n e n
die Columella berichtet. Ihre B e m e r k u n g e n erklren zugleich das P h n o -
25 m e n einer grossen Bevlkerung m i t schlechten assolements u n d u n e agri-
culture peu habile. N a c h i h n e n der rapport en bl = 1:4, der des seigle
= 1:9; keine j a c h r e s ; 2 rcoltes p a r an. W e n i g Dnger, relativement
cette c o n t i n u i t de p r o d u c t i o n ; aber die prs fast ganz fconds d u r c h irri-
gations u n d liefern 3 rcoltes de foin. Die feuilles des arbres d i e n e n z u m
30 Thierfutter. C'est surtout l'excellente construction de la charrue p i m o n -
taise, l'araire, conduite par 2 boeufs et 1 h o m m e , ce sont les 4 ou 5 labours
q u ' o n d o n n e avec la charrue p o u r la culture du froment, ce sont les binages
rpts pour les mas et les lgumes, qui, selon M. Pictet, sont la cause de
345
cette a b o n d a n c e de produits bruts. La terre est t o u t e entire afferme

moiti, lorsqu'elle produit du bl, du mas, du seigle, du riz et de la soie ;
les prs sont seuls rente fixe et afferms la m o i t i du revenu net. Le pro-
pritaire paie les impts ; le m t a y e r fournit les bestiaux et les i n s t r u m e n t s
aratoires. (123, 4) La Toscane et l'tat de L u c q u e s , o il y a 5 ou 6 mille ha- 5
bitants par lieue carre, et o l'on ne cultive pas la p o m m e de terre, o le
produit net est trs faible, m a i s le produit b r u t n o r m e et employ presque
en totalit la p r o d u c t i o n des h o m m e s , explique trs b i e n le p h n o m n e
de la grande p o p u l a t i o n italienne dans les 5 premiers sicles de la rpubli-
q u e r o m a i n e ; car m m e systme de culture, de b a u x part de fruits, 10
m m e s outils aratoires imparfaits, m m e assolement vicieux. (124) D a s
produit m o y e n en bl de la F r a n c e geschzt 5 - 6 : 1 in 1780 d u r c h N e c k e r
u n d Lavoisier, jezt von 7 - 8 , grce aux progrs q u ' a faits la culture depuis
46 ans. (124, 5) Zu Varros Zeit der D u r c h s c h n i t t h c h s t e n s von 5:1. D i e
erklrt, p o u r q u o i cette poque, le prix du bl tant a u g m e n t d ' u n tiers, 15
on convertit en ptures la plus grande parties des terres labourables.
L ' n o r m i t des frais de culture, accrue encore par la substitution du travail
des esclaves celui des h o m m e s libres, r e n d raison de ce fait. (125)
Revenu des terres labourables et des Prs.
Si l'on songe que les anciens faisaient usage alors de faux d'airain, i. e. 20
d ' u n alliage d'tain et de cuivre j a u n e ; qu'ils ne connaissaient pas l'art de
b i e n tremper le fer et de fabriquer l'acier ; qu'ils n ' o n t dcouvert qu'assez
tard l'espce de pierre propre aiguiser la faux, on ne sera pas t o n n
qu'ils fussent obligs de faire en d e u x fois, et par u n e m a i n d ' u v r e b i e n
plus chre, l'opration du fauchage des prs q u e n o u s excutons d ' u n seul 25
coup. Ce n'est m m e , c o m m e on sait, q u e depuis le dernier sicle q u e la fa-
brication des fers de faux a t porte u n e assez grande perfection.
... D a s moissonner erheischte a u c h u n e m a i n d ' u v r e double de la n t r e
q u a n d n o u s coupons le bl la faucille, et plus que le quadruple si n o u s
n o u s servons de la faux. (129, 30) 30
Des Troupeaux.
Presque tous nos espces d o m e s t i q u e s sont originaires de l'Asie. (138)
346
F
Du menu btail. (144 sqq.)
Du Gros Btail. (150 sqq.)
Des Mulets et des Chiens. (159)
Des Bergers et de leurs travaux.
5 C'est encore un des fruits de la domesticit que la production p e r m a n e n t e s

de lait chez les vaches, les brebis et les chvres ; les espces sauvages ne le
conservent q u e le t e m p s ncessaire p o u r q u e leurs petits puissent s'habi-
tuer d'autres aliments. (170) |
| 1 1 | Produits de la Villa; Des Volires.
10 U n t e r Villa verstand m a n u n t e r a n d e r e m a u c h u n e m n a g e r i e p o u r lever

et engraisser des a n i m a u x , des oiseaux, des poissons, des insectes et des
m o l l u s q u e s recherchs par le luxe des tables. (175, 6) M a n m s t e t e knst-
lich des ortolans, des cailles et des grives. (179) On les privait de la lu-
mire ; on les nourrissait de boulettes faites avec des figues et de la farine
15 d'peautre, on faisait passer d a n s la volire un petit canal d'eau c o u r a n t e
pour qu'ils pussent boire et se baigner volont. On tenait la volire trs
propre. Vingt jours avant de les p r e n d r e p o u r la c o n s o m m a t i o n , on aug-
m e n t a i t leur nourriture, on y m e t t a i t de la farine plus fine. A ct de la
grande volire, on en avait u n e petite plus claire, o l'on faisait entrer les
20 oiseaux gras q u ' o n voulait tuer. (179, 180) d u c a t i o n des paons. (180) Les
pigeons. (184) d u c a t i o n des tourterelles. (186) Les poules. (187) etc. la do-
mestication du canard tait nglige chez les anciens. Chez n o u s ces
oiseaux vivent libres et ne p e n s e n t pas s'envoler. (199)
Des Parcs D'animaux.
25 Enthielt zur Zeit Varros n i c h t m e h r 1 oder 2 jugera de terrain et q u e l q u e s

livres, sondern eine grosse Z a h l d'arpents peupls de cerf et de chevreuils.
(200) Die R m e r engraissaient des l i m a o n s et des loirs. (1. c.) Le 14ime
chapitre de Varron traite de l'ducation des mollusques d'eau d o u c e co-
quilles, q u ' o n engraissait aussi dans les parcs p o u r les dlice de la table.
30 (202, 3) Parcs d'escargots. (204)
347
Des Viviers
(bassins d'eau peupl de poissons.) (d'eau d o u c e et d'eau sale) L e s vi-

viers aliments par la m e r sont l'apanage de n o t r e noblesse. (p. 209) (Ils
c o t e n t b e a u c o u p construire, b e a u c o u p peupler, et b e a u c o u p nourrir.)
(209) Lucius Lucullus avait fait percer u n e m o n t a g n e prs de Naples et 5
avait introduit dans ses viviers des fleuves m a r i n s q u i coulaient ou s'cou-
laient par le flux et le reflux ... il p e r m i t son architecte de c o n s u m e r sa
fortune, pourvu qu'il lui conduist u n e galerie souterraine depuis ses viviers
j u s q u ' la mer, en la fermant d ' u n e b o n d e qui permt la m a r e , d'y entrer
et d'en sortir d e u x fois par jour. (212, 13) (et de renouveler ainsi l'eau de 10
ses piscines. [213]) On a d r e m a r q u e r q u e cette culture en grand des
fleurs, cette industrie si productive d ' a n i m a u x de t o u t e espce, nourris et
engraisss dans les villas, n ' t a i e n t destines q u ' a u luxe de la capitale, et
restaient concentres dans un rayon circonscrit a u t o u r de R o m e . L'tat so-
cial des R o m a i n s ressemblait alors b e a u c o u p plus celui de la Russie ou 15
de l'empire o t t o m a n q u ' celui de la F r a n c e ou de l'Angleterre: p e u de
c o m m e r c e ou d'industrie ; des fortunes i m m e n s e s ct d ' u n e extrme m i -
sre. (214) V o n 388 de R o m e bis 609, diese 2 J a h r h u n d e r t e n a c h Errich-
tung der lois liciniennes grte Blthe der Agricultur in R o m . E p o c h e der
T h e i l u n g der proprits, des emploi de la p o p u l a t i o n libre l'agriculture, 20
Erfindung des m t h o d e s savantes ... W a c h s t h u m der freien Population,
Italien producirt m e h r als es consumirt, fhrt Korn aus. D i e Cultur sehr
dispendieuse, I n s t r u m e n t e u n v o l l k o m m e n , die travail m a i n allgemein
adopt; folglich das produit b r u t viel strker als das produit net. ... Seit der
Zerstrung Carthagos, wo die Oligarchie sich des pouvoir bemchtigt, die 25
licinischen Gesetze abgeschafft, die proprit des plbjens usurpirt, die
R e i c h t h m e r accumulirt u n d concentrirt, Corruption der Sitten, Einfh-
rung des Luxus, E n t s t e h e n des W u c h e r s , Geld wird eine M a c h t , u n e n t g e l d -
liche Vertheilung von bl, Export desselben von Italien verboten, I m p o r t
von Africa, Sicilien u n d Sardinien d u r c h P r m i e n begnstigt; Volk wird oi- 30
sif u n d turbulent, a b a n d o n n e la culture des terre, mprise la profession de
journalier : il faut importer u n e n o r m e q u a n t i t d'esclaves. La culture des
grains devient trop dispendieuse, la c o n c u r r e n c e des grains trangers trop
redoutable. Verwandlung in ptures d ' u n e grande partie des terre en la-
b o u r ; on cre des basses cours, des colombiers, des viviers, des parcs de 35
btes fauves, p o u r la c o n s o m m a t i o n de l'oligarchie de la capitale. Le pro-
duit, la valeur des terres d i m i n u e ; l'agriculture confie des esclaves d-
choit. Entvlkerung, la population libre dcrot avec les produits. ( 2 1 5 - 1 7 )
Die 19 J a h r h u n d e r t e seit Varro h a b e n exerc u n e influence m a r q u e sur la
348
domesticit d e plusieurs a n i m a u x d e n o s tables u n d m e h r e r o i s e a u x der

basses cours. (217) |
|12| Concentration des Proprits.
G e s c h i c h t e des u n d 8' J h . zeigt Agricultur, Bevlkerung, Producte Roms ver-

5 fallen wachsend m i t der A u s d e h n u n g seiner M a c h t u n d d e m A n z i e h n eines
grossen Theils des R e i c h t h u m s der d a m a l i g e n Welt. Concentration des
Reichthums; wunderbar wachsende Zahl der Sklaven. Kaiser Tiberius dagegen.
Latifundia perdidere Italiam, j a m vero et provincias; sex d o m i n i s e m i s s e m
Africae possidebant c u m interfecit eos N e r o princeps. (Plinius) Z u r Zeit
10 des H o n o r i u s u n d A r c a d i u s , wo der R e i c h t h u m sehr verfallen, besassen ei-
nige grosse r m i s c h e F a m i l i e n , en argent et en produits ruraux, n o c h reve-
n u s von 2 millions fcs. A u g u s t u s klagte b e r die distribution gratuite de vi-
vres als eine U r s a c h e des Verfalls der Agricultur. A p p i a n u s sagt: L e s
distributions de bl q u ' o n faisait R o m e a u x citoyens pauvres y avaient at-
15 tir tous les fainants, t o u s les m e n d i a n t s , tous les sditieux de l'Italie.
S c h o n vor J. Caesar erhielten 320,000 citoyens gratis du bl, m i t 3 m u l t i p l i -
cirt fr W e i b e r u n d K i n d e r giebt 960,000 oisifs. Caesar reducirte sie auf
150,000. Cherts des vivres u n t e r d e n 12 ersten Csars. Die R m e r b e -
zweckten in i h r e m Colonisationssystem d e n a c k e r b a u t r e i b e n d e n T h e i l der
20 italischen Bevlkerung zu v e r m e h r e n . Gegentheiliger Erfolg. Die r e i c h e n
citoyens b e m c h t i g t e n sich des grten Theils der eroberten L n d e r e i e n ,
die n i c h t verkauft oder abgetreten waren, u n d b e t r a c h t e t e n sich auf die
Lnge als deren E i g e n t h m e r . D a s E i g e n t h u m ihrer k l e i n e n N a c h b a r n
b r a c h t e n sie an sich d u r c h persuasion, violence, C h i c a n e s . So vastes d o -
25 m a i n e s . L n d e r e i e n u n d H e r d e n d e n Sklaven anvertraut, die n i c h t u n t e r -
worfen d e n charges die die conscription militaire auf die F r e i e n fallen lie.
A u s d e m Columella sieht m a n , d a zu seiner Zeit, die Weiber, in Stadt
u n d L a n d sich n i c h t m e h r u m d e n m n a g e k m m e r t e n , s o n d e r n i n
S c h m u c k u n d L u x u s g e g e n s t n d e n das Capital verpraten, das auf die Agri-
30 cultur htte verwendet werden m s s e n . N a c h Plinius in d e n ersten 5 Jahr-
h u n d e r t e n der Prei der vivres u n g l a u b l i c h niedrig. Ce bas prix du bl fut
une des causes qui en firent abandonner la culture. ( 2 1 8 - 2 3 4 )
349
Destruction de la classe moyenne.
V o n d e n G r a c c h e n bis August systme d'exactions, de concussions, de

confiscations, de proscriptions. Das e n v a h i s s e m e n t c o n t i n u e l des petits
propritaires par les h o m m e s riches et puissants zerstrte vollstndig die
classe m o y e n n e , active et industrieuse. M o r d u n d Proscription n a c h der 5
Niederlage der G r a c c h e n . G u e r r e sociale von 3 J a h r e n , n a h m Italien
300,000 M a n n . Die Proscriptions u n t e r M a r i u s u n d Sylla. Die classe
m o y e n n e h a t t e besonders m i t M a r i u s gehalten. Sylla gezwungen, 10,000
Sklaven zu Brgern zu m a c h e n . Vertheilte d e n 23 lgions die proprits
foncires etc der Proscrits. Csar etablirte m e h r als 120,000 lgionnaires. 10
683 n u r n o c h 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s von 1 7 - 6 0 J a h r e n . E n d l i c h der
Krieg von Spartacus. U n t e r Csar disette de subsistance u n d F o r d e r u n g der
abolition der dettes, gestzt auf die Verringerung des W e r t h s der L n d e -
reien in Folge der guerres et sditions. D u r c h die lex Julia erlaubte er den
dbiteurs de s'acquitter en livrant des fonds de terres estims au prix o ils 15
taient avent la guerre civile ; die loi retranchait aussi du capital der dette
die W u c h e r z i n s e n , die % der Schuld bildeten. U n t e r Csar n u r n o c h
450,000 waffenfhige Brger u n d also ungefhr (a. 683) 1,800,000 person-
nes libres, wo 529: 750,000 c o m b a t t a n t s u n d ungefhr 3 m i l l i o n e n freie
Brger. U n t e r Caesar daher lex Julia b e r die mariage. Prrogatives assu- 20
res ceux qui auraient plusieurs enfans. Proscriptions u n d confiscations
u n t e r Octave, A n t o i n e u n d Lpide. Vertheilung u n t e r d e n Soldaten, tat
dplorable de la culture tombes dans les m a i n s de ces guerriers avides et
prodigues. ( 2 3 4 - 2 4 4 )
Diminution de la Population et des Produits. 25
U n t e r August jhrlich n a c h R o m u n d Italien, von Aejypten u n d Africa,

60 M i l l i o n e n m o d i u s bl gebracht, la disette d ' h o m m e s libres so gro gen
E n d e der Regierung des August, da m a n gezwungen d'enrler les affran-
chis dans les lgions. C o n c e n t r a t i o n der proprits, e n o r m e r W u c h e r z i n s ,
culture vicieuse, Fortschritte des L u x u s die j e d e s J a h r m e h r terrain der 30
Agricultur entzogen, die multiplicit des ftes et des jours consacrs aux
j e u x , V e r m i n d e r u n g der freien Bevlkerung d u r c h die v e r d o r b n e n Sitten,
gots contre nature, l'usage der avortements u n d expositions der enfants,
u n t e r August m e h r clibateurs als maris ... so die produits v e r m i n d e r t de
rgne en rgne. D a z u der despotisme imprial u n d die instabilit des 35
E i g e n t h u m s . G e g e n a n s t r e n g u n g e n des Tiberius. Leiden des Volks u n t e r
350
i h m von disette u n d chert des vivres. 785 u n t e r i h m Gefahr eines Auf-

ruhrs wegen disette. U n t e r Claudius n o c h grre d i m i n u t i o n der produits
de l'Italie. 804 furchtbare disette zu R o m . C l a u d e assailli sur son tribunal.
U n t e r i h m lex Papia zur Befrderung der mariages. U n t e r Nero famine in
5 R o m ; m a n war oblig T a r e n t e u n d A n t i u m zu versuchen zu repeupler
d u r c h Veteranen. Seit d e n Brgerkriegen von M a r i u s u n d Sylla, wieviel
R m e r enrls in die lgions wo die 20 ersten J a h r e ihres e n g a g e m e n t
s'coulaient d a n s le clibat. Die Veterans, nourris in d e n Brgerkriegen,
d e n e n m a n vertheilte die biens der proscrits oder die territoires der Stdte
10 q u i avaient t e n u le parti contraire, prodigues et dpravs, rebelles a u x lois
de mariage, inhabiles lever des enfants, s t r m t e n n a c h R o m pour y j o u i r
des jeux, des spectacles, des festins, des distributions gratuites, verschulde-
t e n sich b e r die O h r e n u n d erwarteten d a n n oder suscitaient des n o u -
veaux troubles um zu rparer leur r u i n e par de nouvelles u s u r p a t i o n s . Also
15 das Clibat der Soldaten H i n d e r n i fr die R e p r o d u c t i o n der Freien, wie
die dure condition der esclaves fr ihre R e p r o d u c t i o n . ( 2 4 5 - 2 5 4 )
Livre IV Institutions Politiques. -

Administration. - Finances.
Nature des Lois Agraires.
20 loi agraire war u n e limitation de la proprit foncire entre les citoyens ac-
tifs ... diese Beschrnkung des Besitzes die G r u n d l a g e der Existenz u n d
prosprit der alten R e p u b l i k e n . (256, 7) |
|13| De l'Intrt lgal de l'argent.
Das Gesetz b e r die S c h u l d e n (260) h a t t e einfach statuirt da die intrts

25 perus seraient passs en c o m p t e et en d d u c t i o n du capital u n d d a d e n
S c h u l d n e r n 3 Jahre gegeben w r d e n um s'acquitter du reste en 3 paie-
m e n t s gaux. ... Das Gesetz der 12 Tafeln, 303, sezte d e n Geldzinsfu auf
1 % par an. 398, durch D u i l i u s die Gesetz hergestellt u n d der Zinsfu von
n e u e m auf 1 % gesezt. A u f % % reducirt 408 u n d 413 a b s o l u m e n t dfendu
30 par un plbiscite, m u l t i s q u e plebiscitis, sagt Tacitus, obviam i t u m fraudi-
b u s quae, totiens repressae, m i r a s per artes r u r s u m oriebantur. A b e r d a m a l s
zugleich der c o m m e r c e en gros et en dtail interdit aux citoyens. Dieser
Z u s t a n d dauerte 3 J h d t e bis zur E r o b e r u n g von Carthago. Als die Oligar-
chie gesiegt 12 % erlaubt b e i m L e i h e n , aber 6 % der t a u x c o m m u n de l'int-
351
1
rt a n n u e l . 429 die contrainte par corps abgeschafft u n d die cranciers n u r

m e h r actions auf die biens de leurs dbiteurs, die cessrent d'tre livrs
l'esclavage. ( 2 5 9 - 2 6 6 )
Des Lois Liciniennes.
t e
Das 2 (388) dieser Gesetze erlaubte k e i n e m Brger b e r 500 jugera, Gra- 5
tisvertheilung oder Verpachtung des Ueberschusses an die a r m e n Brger,
m i n d e s t e n s in dieser partage 7 jugera pro Kopf, n u r b e s t i m m t e Z a h l von
Sklaven auf diesen terres, Z a h l der t r o u p e a u x b e s c h r n k t u n d im Verhlt-
ni zur Grsse der b e s e n e n L n d e r e i e n ; da die R e i c h s t e n weder n h r e n
n o c h envoyer drften auf d e n c o m m u n a u x u n d pturages publics m e h r als 10
100 H o r n v i e h u n d 500 Schafe; a m e n d e bei U e b e r t r e t u n g von 10,000 as
(1630 fcs.). Das 3* Gesetz erffnete d e n Plebejern das Consulat, 398 ein ple-
bejischer Dictator, 403 u n d 406 Censor, zugelassen zur Pretur 417 u n d zu
den sacerdoces 452. (Carthago zerstrt 608) Les t r i o m p h e s de la rpublique
a m e n r e n t la ruine de sa constitution. Die E r o b e r u n g von M a c d o n i e n ver- 15
darb die Sitten des Volks. C e r o y a u m e subjugu, sagt Polybe, on crut pou-
voir vivre dans u n e entire scurit et j o u i r t r a n q u i l l e m e n t de l'empire de
l'univers. La plupart vivaient R o m e dans un d r a n g e m e n t t r a n g e ;
l'amour emportait la jeunesse a u x excs les plus h o n t e u x . On s'adonnait
a u x spectacles, aux festins, aux luxes, a u x dsordres de tout genre, d o n t on 20
n'avait q u e trop v i d e m m e n t pris l'exemple chez les Grecs p e n d a n t la
guerre contre Perse. Die dsordre stieg m i t der M a c h t , bis der Sturz Car-
thagos, ayant livr aux grands d ' i m m e n s e s possessions, porta la corruption
au plus h a u t degr. Das Gesetz das d e n Besitz b e r 500 jugera verbot,
zuerst frauduls u m g a n g e n . Die riches erwarben betrchtlichere Besitzun- 25
gen u n t e r erborgten N a m e n ; d a n n , encourags par leur n o m b r e , fuhren sie
fort zu besitzen par u n e violation ouverte des Gesetzes. ... D i e grands lies-
sen sich v o m ager publicus adjuger vil prix des vastes portions; ils avaient
eu le crdit d'obtenir des b a u x rente m o d i q u e ou des distributions privi-
lgies dans les diverses colonies de la rpublique. Um ihre d o m e s t i q u e s 30
d e n charges du service militaire zu e n t z i e h n , fhrten sie statt ihrer auf ih-
ren terres fremde Sklaven ein, rduisirent par l les h o m m e s de c a m p a g n e s
la plus grande misre, et les forcrent se rfugier au sein des villes p o u r
y trouver leur subsistance d a n s les largesses des grands u n d vendre leur suf-
frage au plus offrant. A p p i a n sagt: L e s riches se firent adjuger la plus 35
grande partie des terres n o n distribues ; ils achetrent ou prirent de force
les petits hritages des pauvres gens leurs voisins et firent ainsi de leurs
champs d'immenses domaines. (266-279)
352
f.
Lois de Tiberius Gracchus.
T. G. 619, z u m T r i b u n e r n a n n t , beschlo die licinische loi agraire wieder

in Kraft zu setzen. Ausser den 500 j u g e r a erlaubte er d e n fils der riches
propritaires 250 u n d n u r das surplus sollte d e n pauvres vertheilt werden.
5 Verbot den R e i c h e n diese biens zu kaufen und den Armen sie zu verkaufen.
Auf den W i d e r s t a n d des T r i b u n Octavius verlangt er direkte Wiederherstel-
lung der alten Gesetze u n d das a b a n d o n n e m e n t der surplus terres auf der
Stelle. 3 Commissaire e r n a n n t fr die D u r c h f h r u n g seines Gesetzes, wor-
u n t e r er selbst. Einige Zeit n a c h h e r , als Attale Philomtor, lezter K n i g
10 von Pergamus, das rmische Volk zu s e i n e m E r b e n einsezte, schlug Tibe-
rius ein neues Gesetz vor, da tout l'argent c o m p t a n t de la succession de
ce prince serait distribu aux pauvres citoyens, afin qu'ils eussent de q u o i
s ' e m m n a g e r dans leurs nouvelles possessions, et se pourvoir des instruments
ncessaire l'agriculture". C i c e r o Schuft. D i e Proletarier gleichzeitig von
15 den L n d e r e i e n h e r a u s g e s c h m i s s e n u n d d u r c h die Sklaven von der Arbeit
verdrngt, hatten nichts m e h r zu verkaufen als ihre S t i m m e n . Voyez, sur la
vnalit des lections et les m a n u v r e s employes p o u r acheter le consu-
lat, la prture, l'dilit die 2* R e d e gegen Verres. D a h e r die Corruption g-
nrale. Sie fingen an, wie Sallust sagt, vendre la rpublique avec leur pro-
20 pre libert. Die U s u r p a t i o n datirte von 12 J a h r e n vor T. G r a c c h u s .
(280-299)
Lois de Cajus Gracchus.
U. A. dits qu'il prsenta, eines qui regardait les colonies u n d d e n a r m e n

citoyens die terres des villes gab, w o h i n m a n sie schickte um diese zu re-
25 peupler; andres zu G u n s t e n der T r u p p e n ; ein andres das allen Vlkern Ita-
liens le droit de suffrage gab; ein andres, das den Getreideprei fr die Ar-
m e n verminderte; e n d l i c h eins, das d e n S e n a t o r e n die richterliche Gewalt
n a h m u n d sie d e n Chevaliers gab, die sie 16 oder 17 J a h r e wirklich genos-
sen. Das schlimme u n t e r seinen G e s e t z e n die lex frumentaria, w o d u r c h ein
30 Brger den m o d i u s (13 de nos livres) fr % eines as erhielt. Concession
oblige de l'oligarchie envers le peuple, on regardait la fortune p u b l i q u e
c o m m e u n e proprit c o m m u n e qui devait tre partage entre les particu-
liers. Die Vertheilung des bl waren die r m i s c h e Paupertaxe. A u f die
450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s (705, 48 J a h r e vor Ch.) 320,000 erhielten gratis
35 bl von der Republik. Diese Vertheilung aber u m g e k e h r t e n Effect wie die
A r m e n t a x e in England - n m l i c h d i m i n u t i o n de la population. Z u r Zeit
Ciceros nicht 2000 h o m i n u m q u i r e m haberent. ( 2 9 9 - 3 2 2 ) |
353
|14| Lois de Rullus, de Flavius, et de Csar.
D a s Gesetz des Tiberius G r a c c h u s erhielt d e n Anfang von Ausfhrung seit

seiner Promulgation, 621 bis z u m T o d e von Cajus G r a c c h u s , 6 3 3 . Kurz
n a c h h e r u n e loi porte, die erlaubte de vendre et d'acheter les portions
concdes du d o m a i n e public. D i e riches renouvelrent leurs u s u r p a t i o n s 5
u n d die pauvres colons dpossds. 15 J a h r e n a c h der P r o m u l g a t i o n der
Gesetze des Cajus blieb d e n plbjens ni terres concdes, ni distribution
d'argent et de bl. 6 9 1 , seit d e m entre Ciceros z u m Consulat, schlug der
Volkstribun Servilius Rullus ein n e u e s Agrargesetz vor, das u n t e r d e m Vor-
wand du soulagement des pauvres, einigen citoyens alle D o m n e n u n d R e - 10
v e n u e n der Republik preigab et confrait aux decemvirs chargs de son
excution un pouvoir exorbitant. 694, Pompejus revenu de l'Asie, wollte
seinen soldats u n e distribution de terres m a c h e n . D a z u schlug der T r i b u n
Flavius eine lex agraria vor. afin q u e t o u t le peuple p t y p r e n d r e intrt, ils
associaient les autres citoyens au partage des terres. 695 J. Csar, consul, 15
reprit les propositions de Rullus et Flavius, m a i s en les modifiant, et pr-
senta de n o u v e a u u n e loi agraire. Il parat que, par suite de la loi agraire de
J. Csar, toutes les terres d o m a n i a l e s situes en Italie, furent distribues
a u x plbjens; d e n n Cicero sagt in e i n e m Brief an A t t i c u s : A p r s la distri-
b u t i o n des terres de la C a m p a n i e et l'abolition des d o u a n e s et des entres, 20
m e
q u e l revenu reste-t-il en Italie la r p u b l i q u e , except le 2 0 assis sur la
vente et l'affranchissement des esclaves? ( 3 2 2 - 3 3 2 )
Droits Civils et Politiques.
le g o u v e r n e m e n t r o m a i n n ' a t q u ' u n e n s e m b l e d'institutions m u n i c i -

pales. Q u a n d R o m e s'est t e n d u e , ce n ' a d tre q u ' u n e agglomration de 25
colonies de m u n i c i p e s , de petits tats fait pour l'isolement et l'indpen-
d a n c e . Das G e h e i m n i der d e n n o c h i g e n u n i t des r m i s c h e n R e i c h s ist
das systme gradu de diffrents droits accords, soit a u x individus, soit
a u x cits, soit enfin aux peuples s o u m i s la d o m i n a t i o n r o m a i n e . Optimum
jus civis romani, R e c h t e d ' u n citoyen envoy dans u n e colonie, j u s l a t i n u m , 30
j u s italicum, j u s des m u n i c i p e s , des villes libres ou fdres, enfin les
droits et les charges des villes et des c a n t o n s tributaires. ... 585 la victoire
de P a u l Emile affranchit le peuple r o m a i n de l'impt foncier u n d die droits
de d o u a n e et d'octroi abgeschafft in Italien u n d R o m , 694, par la loi de
Metellus N e p o s . ( 3 3 2 - 3 5 2 ) 35
354
Administration Civile et judiciaire.
Il y avait dans les provinces des terres qui taient la proprit d o m a n i a l e de

la rpublique. Les a n c i e n s d o m a i n e s des rois de M a c d o i n e , de P e r g a m e ,
de Bithynie, de Cyrne, de Chypre, et les territoires confisqus lors de la
5 c o n q u t e c o m p o s a i e n t l'ensemble de ce p a t r i m o i n e public, toutes ces
terres s'affermaient en argent au profit de l'tat. ( 3 5 2 - 3 6 4 . ) (Concussion,
Exhaustion, Prellerei etc.)
Effets de lAdministration Provinciale.
Le pillage des contres opulentes de la G r c e et de l'Asie avait cr, p o u r

10 un certain n o m b r e de snateurs, des fortunes i m m e n s e s ; ils en employ-
rent u n e partie p o u r a m u s e r le p e u p l e par des jeux, des ftes, des specta-
cles, des combats de btes froces ou de gladiateurs. Ils s'attachrent
faire natre chez leurs anciens rivaux la d b a u c h e et la paresse. Bientt la
misre ... gagna t o u t le corps des plbjens et les m i t sous la d p e n d a n c e
15 absolue des riches qui fournissaient a u x plaisirs et a u x besoins de leur vie.
C o m m e le cens et les proprits foncires confraient un pouvoir politique,
les riches en dpouillrent p e u p e u les plbjens par l'usure, la sduction,
la fraude ou la violence. ... La vanit des grands s'enorgueillissait d'exercer
un i m m e n s e patronage. ... foule de clients ... R o m e devint un sjour de
20 dlices et d'oisivet, et les peuples de l'Italie ... quittrent en foule leurs
villes, leurs ateliers et leurs cultures pour venir s'tablir d a n s la capitale et
y jouir des plaisirs et de l ' e x e m p t i o n de travail qu'elle offrait ses h a b i -
tants. ( 3 6 4 - 3 7 6 )
Population et Produits de la Sicile.
25 In Sicilien l'usage des grandes ferme. ... la Sicile fabriquait b e a u c o u p

d'toffes prcieuses, soit pour la parure, soit p o u r l ' a m e u b l e m e n t ; des m e u -
bles, des o r n e m e n t s , des objets d'art et de luxe, excuts avec le got et
l'lgance propres la n a t i o n grecque, sortaient en foule de ses ateliers et
de ses manufactures. ( 3 7 6 - 3 8 4 ) (Sicilien hatte zur Zeit Ciceros
30 1,190,592 Einwohner.)
355
De la Province d'Asie.
Kleinasien sehr productiv, t o n n a n t e population, richesses, industrie. Ci-

cero sagt, da diese province a b o n d e en richesses et en b e a u t s de t o u t
genre, esclaves superbes, m t a u x prcieux, toffes recherches, vases, ta-
b l e a u x et statues. Zahlreiche Stdte. Er sagt: les tributs des autres pro- 5
vinces suffisent peine leur dfense ; m a i s l'Asie est si riche et si fertile
que, par la fcondit de ses c h a m p s , l ' t e n d u e de ses pturages, la varit
de ses produits ||15| et la m u l t i t u d e des objets q u i en sont exports, elle sur-
passe de b e a u c o u p tous les autres pays. Les tributs perus par les publi-
cains, qui avaient dans la r p u b l i q u e le m m e e m p l o i q u e nos anciens fer- 10
miers gnraux, consistaient en redevances fixes, capitation sur les
h o m m e s et sur le btail, droits de d o u a n e s , d'octroi, de page, impts sur
les portes, et sur la vente du sel. Sie w u r d e n g e n o m m e n , diese fermiers,
dans l'ordre des chevaliers u n d waren organiss en grandes compagnies, et
b e a u c o u p des R o m a i n s des autres classes, attirs en Asie par des spcula- 15
tions de t o u t e espce, y avaient port u n e si grande m a s s e de leurs capitaux
propres ou emprunts, q u e l'tat des affaires dans cette province tait de-
v e n u le rgulateur du crdit et du t a u x de l'intrt d a n s la capitale. ... les
publicains aggravaient n o r m m e n t le poids des charges, et foraient les
villes de l'Asie, qui taient solidaires de la totalit des impts, payer, 20
p o u r les termes arrirs, un intrt usuraire qui m o n t a i t souvent 48 pour
% par an. Les gouverneurs taient p o u r t a n t forcs de m n a g e r cette corpo-
ration puissante, qui forme des chevaliers r o m a i n s , tait alors investie du
pouvoir judiciaire et se mettait souvent audessus des lois. ... Aus e i n e m
Briefe Ciceros an Atticus folgt, d a die chevaliers r o m a i n s p r e n a i e n t 25
ferme, p o u r cinq ans, tous les revenus de la r p u b l i q u e d a n s u n e province,
et qu'ils les louaient et sous louaient ensuite des traitants et des sous
traitants. ... E i n Gesetz von Solon o r d o n n a i t de vendre prix fixe, sans dol
ni f r a u d e ; les agoranomes veillaient la stricte excution de cette loi.
... Ces rpubliques asiatiques loin de fltrir, c o m m e Sparte et R o m e , le 30
c o m m e r c e et l'industrie, les h o n o r a i e n t et les encourageaient puissam-
m e n t . ... Cicero's esprit aristocratique s'indigne de voir dans la Phrygie et
d a n s la Mysie, Pergame, Tralles, les artisans prendre part a u x dlibra-
tions publiques. Er erzhlt da diese asiatischen Stdte weder trsors n o c h
d o m a i n e s publics hatten, sie h a t t e n n u r 2 M i t t e l sich Geld zu verschaffen: 35
des impts et des e m p r u n t s . ... Cicero - Consul - interdit a u x juifs, alors
b a n q u i e r s et usuriers R o m e , c o m m e ils l'ont t partout, la facult d'ex-
porter de l'or tous les ans, pour Jrusalem, de l'Italie et des provinces. ...
N o c h whrend des bas empire u n d des m o y e n ge sehn wir d e n O c c i d e n t
356
Aus Adoiphe-Jules-Csar-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: conomie politique des Romains
i m m e r pauvre u n d strile, d e n O r i e n t a b o n d a n t e n m t a u x , e n p r o d u c t i o n s
de t o u t genre . . . L'Italie r o m a i n e , d e p u i s la destruction de Carthage
j u s q u ' la fondation de C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , avait exist, vis--vis de la G r c e et
de l'Orient, dans le m m e tat o l'Espagne, p e n d a n t le 18 sicle, s'est
5 trouve l'gard de l'Europe. A l b e r o n i disait: l ' E s p a g n e est l'Europe ce
que la b o u c h e est au corps ; t o u t y passe, rien n ' y reste. So das r m i s c h e
Italien i m lezten J h . der R e p u b l i k u n d u n t e r d e n Kaisern. R o m e attirait,
engouffrait l'or des provinces, wie S p a n i e n die edlen Metalle M e x i c o ' s u n d
Peru's . . . l'argent s'coulait sans cesse de leurs m a i n s ; d e n n Italien, wie
10 Spanien, c o n s u m i r t e , o h n e zu reproduire. D e r Orient war wesentlich p r o -
ducteur, c o m m e r a n t et m a n u f a c t u r i e r ; die i m p t s , die concussions, die
avanies, faisaient couler sans cesse R o m e de nouvelles richesses, q u e le
travail i n d u s t r i e u x de l'Ejypte, de la G r c e et de l'Asie r e p o m p a i t par des
changes et r a m e n a i t leur source par le g r a n d c a n a l du c o m m e r c e et de la
15 navigation. D e r R o m unterworfne O c c i d e n t , wie die i h m f o l g e n d e n B a r b a -
r e n n a h m e n seine a n t i c o m m e r c i e l l e n u n d antiindustriellen Vorurtheile an.
Im Orient bei d e n griechisch s p r e c h e n d e n Vlkern U m g e k e h r t : elles attri-
b u a i e n t a u x professions m e r c a n t i l e s des droits politiques gaux, souvent
suprieurs ceux des autres c o n d i t i o n s sociales. Ces villes d'Ejypte, de
20 G r c e et d'Asie, sont l'Occident, sous le h a u t empire et dans le m o y e n
ge, ce que Venise, G n e s et F l o r e n c e sont l'Europe depuis le 1 3 - 1 6 si-
cle. ( 3 8 5 - 4 0 2 )
Systme des Impts.
les revenus de l'tat consistaient en d o m a i n e s , contributions en n a t u r e ,

25 corves, et quelques i m p t s en argent pays l'entre et la sortie des m a r -
chandises, ou perus sur la vente de certaines denres. Diese m o d e existirt
fast n o c h o h n e A e n d r u n g im e m p i r e o t t o m a n ... Z u r Zeit der D i k t a t u r Syl-
las u n d selbst am E n d e des J h . n a h m die r m i s c h e R e p u b l i k n u r 40 M i l -
l i o n e n fcs jhrlich ein. ( n h m l i c h 697) ... 1780 das revenu des t r k i s c h e n
30 Sultans, in piastres en n u m r a i r e , n u r 35,000,000 piastres oder 70 Millio-
n e n fcs. ... Die R o m a i n s u n d die Turcs prlevaient en n a t u r e la plus
g r a n d e partie de leurs revenu. Bei d e n R m e r n J/ der grains, % der 10
l
F r c h t e , bei d e n T r k e n von / auf Y der produits wechselnd. Da das r m i -
2 w
sche R e i c h n u r eine A g g l o m e r a t i o n i m m e n s e d e m u n i c i p e s i n d p e n d a n t s ,
35 blieb der grte T h e i l der charges u n d dpenses c o m m u n a l e . Der fisc u n d
der trsor n u r belastet m i t d e n K o s t e n de l ' a r m e de terre et de m e r u n d de-
n e n der a d m i n i s t r a t i o n dans les provinces impriales. ... Grosse A e h n l i c h -
keit zwischen d e m Steuersystem des empire r o m a i n u n d d e n Vereinigten
357
Staaten von N o r d a m e r i k a , wo a u c h die A u s g a b e n der Centrairegierung ge-

ring. ( 4 0 2 - 4 0 7 )
Conditions des terres Imposables.
N u r wenige impts u n t e r d e n rois, gezahlt en n a t u r e , except le produit de

la vente du sel. D e r impt rgulier assis sur le cens gezahlt d u r c h die Plebejer; 5
t r i b u t u m abgeleitet von d e n tribus dieses ordre. W a r u n e taxe t a n t par
mille, variable n a c h d e n Staatsbedrfnissen ... c o n t r i b u t i o n directe sur les
choses sans gard leurs produits. Diese charge frappait n u r die assidui;
die Proltaires n u r t e n u s la dclaration de leur avoir. W e n n die R m e r
ein Volk unterjocht, legten sie i h m e i n e n j h r l i c h e n T r i b u t fr die Kriegs- 10
kosten auf oder n a h m e n i h n e n ganz oder theilweis ihr territorium ab, das
sie zur d o m a i n e public schlugen. M a n c h m a l etablirten sie des colons auf
d e n terres conquises, die d e m trsor public u n e certaine partie du revenu
de ces terres z a h l e n m u t e n . ... In der alten R e p u b l i k die 3 Hauptzweige
der impositions waren assises sur les c h a m p s cultivs, die pturages u n d 15
die m a r c h a n d i s e s die ein droit z a h l t e n b e i m entre oder sortie der villes
u n d ports. ||16| Diese Steuern hiessen d e c u m a , scriptura u n d portorium.
die terres du d o m a i n e public hiessen agri publia, parce q u e la proprit
d e m Staat gehrte, der davon die F r u c h t zog, oder vectigales, weil m a n die
possession concedirt hatte an particuliers m o y e n n a n t u n e redevance en n a - 20
ture, vectigal. ( vehendo) Die terres du d o m a i n e public erworben, w e n n
eine Stadt freiwillig toutes ses proprits d e m r m i s c h e n Volk gab oder
w e n n die Eroberung es en avait investi. Diese d o m a i n e s , in gewhnlichen
Zeiten, die Base der Staatsrevenus; ihr Verkauf, d a n s les besoins pressants,
u n e ressource assure. Einigen Vlkern n a h m e n die R m e r %, % ihres ter- 25
ritoire; a n d r e n gaben sie die proprit de leurs fonds zurck ... Fast ganz
Etrurien, weil es der Parthei des M a r i u s gegen Sylla gefolgt, fut dpouille
de ses proprits foncires. ... Ein andrer Theil der terres enleves a u x peu-
ples vaincus vertheilt u n t e r die Veterans oder der r m i s c h e n plbe indi-
gente et sditieuse. So die proltaires zu G r u n d e i g e n t h m e r n g e m a c h t , die 30
Soldaten belohnt, die n e u unterjochten peuples c o n q u i s d u r c h ces colonies
places dans les villes fortes. Die vtrans z a h l t e n d e n alten E i g e n t h m e r n
fr die i h n e n assignirten terres u n e petite rente ... die colons, d e n e n m a n
die eroberten terres vertheilte soumis einer massigen R e n t e an d e n trsor
public n a c h der Z a h l der i h n e n zugefallenen jugera. ... die terres q u i 35
taient possdes von den clans patriciens (gentes) oder consacres a u x
dieux oder affectes l'entretien des temples, wie in F r a n k r e i c h vor 1789,
exemptes de t o u t e espce d'imposition ... Der U e b e r s c h u der theilbaren
358
F
terres b e r die Z a h l der colons, blieb das surplus d e m fisc, von i h m lou
oder v e n d u oder j o i n t partiellement a u x proprits concdes, m a i s en
p a y a n t un i m p t (ebenso verhielt es sich m i t d e m ager subsecivus, portion
de terrain vague et n o n b o r n e , a t t e n a n t a u x terres arables partages a u x
5 colons) oder r e n d u d e n a n c i e n s possesseurs, gegen die charge eines Z e h n -
ten des Products, oder en c o m m u n d e n colons gelassen, die u n e faible r-
tribution dafr zahlten. D i e M u n i c i p i e n h a t t e n a u c h das R e c h t des b i e n s
fonds zu besitzen, deren revenu servait soutenir les charges de la ville ...
D i e biens c o m m u n a u x fast i m m e r des terrains vagues ou de ptures, u n d
10 n a n n t e n sich c o m p a s c u a , weil alle Thiere der Colonie y avaient droit de pa-
cage. Diese G t e r oft sehr entfernt von d e r Stadt, die sie besa ... D i e
villes affermaient ihre terres perptuit, d . h . m o y e n n a n t le p a i e m e n t
exact du prix stipul, ni les fermiers ni leurs successeurs ne p o u v a i e n t tre
vincs. ... Diese sortes de proprits m u n i c i p a l e s n a n n t e Coelius agros
15 fructuarios. ... Ces proprits p u b l i q u e s furent conserves aux villes par les
empereurs. ( 4 0 7 - 4 1 7 )
Revenus des terres du Domaine de la Rpublique.
D i e Einknfte der terres die das p a t r i m o i n e der rpublique waren b i l d e t e n

le revenu le plus considrable de l'tat, wie die d o m a i n e der franzsischen
20 rois im c o m m e n c e m e n t der 3' R a c e . ... R p a n d u s dans toutes les provinces
conquises, ces biens taient o r d i n a i r e m e n t m i s en rgie, c o m m e le sont en
F r a n c e les bois de l'tat, et on les faisait valoir pour le c o m p t e de la rpu-
blique, der produits war das m a x i m u m des i m p t foncier. ... D i e fo-
rts de chnes u n d die taillis z a h l t e n geringren i m p t als die oliviers u n d
25 die vignes. ( 4 1 7 - 4 2 1 )
Prestations en Nature.
Die durch Krieg unterworfnen pays, surtout hors de l'Italie, unterworfen

e i n e m i m p t fixe, bas sur le cadastre ... So Sardinien, Africa, Spanien,
A s i e n u n d die a n d r e n Provinzen m i t A u s n a h m e von Sicilien. Vectigal cer-
30 tum, annuum. Ein Theil dieses Tributs, stipendiarium, in Geld gezahlt ...
A s i e n u n d die a n d r e n Provinzen z a h l t e n ausser der dme e i n e n impt, den-
selben in fruchtbaren wie sterilen J a h r e n ; elles supportaient en outre des
frais de recouvrement considrables, tant soumises au rgime des p u b l i -
cains ou des fermiers g n r a u x . D i e C e n s o r e n k o n n t e n alle 5 J a h r e aug-
35 m e n t e r l'impt u n d l'adjugeaient l'enchre des compagnies qui se char-
359
geaient de le recouvrer. (Censoria locatio) ... D i e pturages, lacs u n d

tangs a u c h soumis un impt direct ... le lac L u c r i n afferm par les cen-
seurs, hauptschlich wegen der Austern, sehr recherches von d e n R m e r n .
... Die quote-part der produits, die die fonds de terre des provinces z a h l e n
m u t e n , diente zur N a h r u n g , soit de la p o p u l a t i o n de R o m e , soit des n o m - 5
b r e u x soldats q u i taient sous les d r a p e a u x . ... la s o m m e totale du bl pro-
duit par les dmes tait inscrite sur des registres publics et devait tre trans-
porte intgralement R o m e ... u n e autre redevance en bl tait encore
accorde au prteur par les publicains, qui, d a n s leurs procs avec les pro-
vinciaux, avaient intrt gagner la faveur des magistrats, f r u m e n t u m h o - 10
n o r a r i u m ... le prteur ou le proconsul h a t t e das R e c h t d'exiger des habi-
tants de la province certaines redevances en n a t u r e pour sa n o u r r i t u r e et
celle de sa maison. ( 4 2 1 - 4 2 9 )
De l'Impt direct Sous l'Empire.
In d e n 2 lezten J a h r h u n d e r t e n der R e p u b l i k v e r m i n d e r t e n sich diese res- 15

sources. N a c h der Eroberung von M a c d o n i e n die r m i s c h e n Brger von
d e m impt territorial befreit. Die lois agraires verwandelten die d o m a i n e s
der rpublique in Privateigenthum. Der Volkstribun Spurius Thorius abolit
toutes les redevances tablies sur les terres de d o m a i n e public qui avaient
t concdes a u x colons. J. Caesar, in s e i n e m Consulat, n a h m der R e p u - 20
blic das Territorium de la C a m p a n i e , le seul d o m a i n e q u i lui restt alors en
proprit. Alles um die capitale zu befreien d ' u n e p o p u l a c e oisive u n d s-
ditieuse u n d um repeupler l'Italie. M a i s la plbe citadine, ignorant et m -
prisant la culture des c h a m p s , aprs avoir dissip son p a t r i m o i n e , reflua
toujours R o m e , o on lui fournissait g r a t u i t e m e n t du p a i n et des speeta- 25
cles. ... Sicilien, Sardinien, Africa, Asia, S p a n i e n zahlten a u c h u n t e r d e n
Kaisern N a t u r s t e u e r in bl. A n d r e Provinzen starke Geldsteuer. So Gal-
lien, n a c h der Eroberung von Csar m i t einer Steuer von 40 Mill, de sester-
ces (10 mill, de fcs) belastet. ... Vernderte Gestalt des impt foncier u n t e r
Augustus. Ausgaben h a t t e n zu, (Armee, Spiele etc) E i n n a h m e n a b g e n o m - 30
m e n . U n t e r d e m K a i s e r t h u m die frhre quotepart variable du produit an-
m e
n u e l pay e n n a t u r e wurde u n e quotepart fixe d u revenu p r s u m , l e 5
m e
ou 7 suivant l'estimation de la valeur des biens. Die M e h r z a h l der Pro-
vinzen zahlte n u n , was n i c h t u n t e r der Republik, ce revenu en espces. ...
I n d e u n t e r d e n sptren Kaisern, les i m p t s s'tant accrus et le n u m r a i r e 35
ayant en grande partie disparu, l'tat tait forc de recevoir et de payer en
nature. (430-439)
360
f
Impt sur les mines et les Carrires.
W a h r s c h e i n l i c h im 4' Jh. durch Senatusconsult die edlen M e t a l l m i n e n Ita-

liens geschlossen, ihre Exploitation verboten. D i e R m e r gaben ihre m i n e s
indignes auf pour les gisements plus fconds des terres conquises, wie die
5 von Spanien, M a c d o n i e n , Illyrien, G r i e c h e n l a n d , Afrika u n d Sardinien.
U n t e r der R e p u b l i k die M i n e n meist Privateigenthum, z a h l t e n l'tat
u n e ||17| redevance. U n t e r d e m empire w u r d e n sie fast alle proprit du
fisc, besonders die G o l d m i n e n . Les m i n e s a p p a r t e n a n t en propre l'tat
taient en rgie, die redevances imposes sur les autres verpachtet d e n p u -
10 blicains pour u n e p o q u e d t e r m i n e . I m p t sur la carrire. ( 4 3 9 - 4 4 4 )
Impt sur le Btail.
War zugleich u n e redevance paye en retour du droit de pacage d a n s les

ptures u n d u n droit d'enregistrement, u n e taxe par c h a q u e tte d e btail,
daher die 2 N a m e n scriptura u n d capitatio. ( 4 4 4 - 4 4 7 )
15 Impts indirects. Douanes. Octrois. Pages.
J. Csar rtablit les d o u a n e s fr die Einfuhr fremder W a a r e n ; A u g u s t

d e h n t e sie aus. Pages sur les routes u n d au passage des Ponts. D i e nor-
m i t dieser droits, v e r b u n d e n m i t den frais de transport, centuplait
R o m e , lors de la vente, le prix d ' a c h a t des m a r c h a n d i s e s de l'Inde. Sous
20 l'administration fiscale der r m i s c h e n Kaiser le cadavre m m e d ' u n m o r t ,
q u ' o n transportait du lieu de sa spulture temporaire dans un autre, tait
assujetti au page sur les routes q u ' i l parcourait. U n t e r J u s t i n i a n verlangte
m a n % v o m W e r t h an W a a r e n , i m p t n o r m e et q u i devait a n a n t i r le c o m -
merce. (447-459)
25 Impts sur les objets de Consommation.
heit: Vectigal r e r u m v e n a l i u m . il se percevait, soit sur les denres v e n d u e s

au m a r c h , soit sur les objets adjugs p u b l i q u e m e n t la crie ou a u x en-
chres. Xoo des W e r t h s der r e r u m v e n a l i u m . Etablirt von A u g u s t u s n a c h
den Brgerkriegen. N m l i c h auf die g e n i e b a r e n W a a r e n auf d e m M a r k t .
30 (marchs u n d foires.) Caligula d e h n t e i h n auf die ganze Stadt auf alle Ver-
361
kaufe aus. Traf n u r die capitale. Salzsteuer. Eingefhrt 548 de R o m e . U n t e r

d e n Kaisern y auf die Salinen, (du produit.) V o n d e n m a r a i s salants ge-
i0
h r t e n einige d e m fisc, andre Privaten. Die ersten exploits par des crimi-
nels (mancipes salinarum). Italien u n d die Provinzen dieser Steuer u n t e r -
worfen. U n t e r d e n Kaisern scheinen die Privaten avoir recouvr le droit de 5
fabriquer et de vendre du sel bas prix, soit au fisc, soit a u x fermiers gn-
r a u x des salines ... U n t e r d e n objets die die R e p u b l i k u n d das empire en
n a t u r e i h r e n magistrats ou officiers lieferten, wie bl, vin, huile, viande,
bois, h a b i l l e m e n t s , chevaux, m u l e t s , tentes, chariots, vaisselle, cuisiniers,
etc, spielte das Salz eine Hauptrolle; m a n n a n n t e diese traitements salaire, 10
solarium, (sel.) ( 4 5 9 - 4 6 6 )
Affranchissements et Successions.
D e r i m p t sur la vente et l'affranchissement des esclaves, tabli 398, exi-

stirte n o c h 543 u n d selbst 693, scheint u n t e r d r c k t zwischen 693 u n d 760.
l
A u g u s t fhrte wieder ein un i m p t du / sur la vente des esclaves. U n t e r 15
50
N e r o y . D e r impt sur l'affranchissement de l'esclave tait le prix de la li-

25
l
bert; il tait d par l'esclave affranchi, / . D e r Prei an den Herren, w e n n
20
er sich loskaufte u n d das % gezahlt, prlevs sur le pcule de l'esclave. 759

0
errichtet /2 sur les hritages, les legs ou d o n a t i o n s faites par les m o u r a n t s .

Traf alle ausser d e n agnats. A u s g e n o m m e n waren die trangers, die provin- 20
ciaux u n d um sie dieser e n o r m e n T a x e zu unterwerfen gab Caracalla das
droit de cit r o m a i n e tous ses sujets. Diese Steuer existirte n o c h u n t e r
Valens. Das produit dieses impt von August in die A r m e e k a s s e gelegt,
i h r e m entretien bestimmt. Dieselbe B e s t i m m u n g u n t e r d e n spteren K a i -
sern. ( 4 6 6 - 4 7 4 ) 25
Aqueducs et Prises d'Eau.
Das eau pure et salubre des a q u e d u c s besteuert; on l'achetait, sei es z u m

Trinken, sei es zur Irrigation des cultures et des j a r d i n s situs le long de
leur dveloppement, dans un terrain brlant qui est p e n d a n t 6 m o i s de
l ' a n n e sans recevoir d'eau de pluie. D e r erste a q u e d u c de R o m e excut 30
441 par C. Appius ... Spter des c o n d u i t s ou t u y a u x q u i a m e n a i e n t l'eau
du rservoir public dans les proprits prives ... les taxes sur les prises
d'eau existait d a n s les m u n i c i p e s , et formait u n e partie du revenu de la
commune. (475-479)
362
Impts sur les gouts et les Matires Fcales.
D i e R m e r h a t t e n viele latrines p u b l i q u e s , p l u s ncessaires chez e u x q u e

chez n o u s ... diese latrines d e n foricariis v e r p a c h t e t . . . I n R o m i n d e n car-
refours u n d in d e n coins de rue, des a m p h o r e s ou des t o n n e a u x scis en
5 deux, dolia curta, wo m a n gratis pissen k o n n t e bis Vespasian, qui dfendit
de pisser en public autre part q u e d a n s ces vases, die er a u c h verpachtete
an e n t r e p r e n e u r s ; diese percevaient u n e r t r i b u t i o n sur les p e r s o n n e s qui
en faisaient usage. D i e financiers byzantins fgten h i n z u Steuer auf die Ar-
m e n u n d Bettler, courtisanes, f e m m e s rpudies, esclaves, affranchis, btes
10 de s o m m e et les chiens. ( 4 8 0 - 8 2 )
Impts divers.
taxe fixe impose sur les propritaires p o u r l'entretien m m e des grandes

routes et voies p u b l i q u e s ... In d e n villes j e d e r verpflichtet de paver la rue
devant s a m a i s o n ... o s t i a r i u m , s c h o n u n t e r der R e p u b l i k , e n t s p r a c h d e m
15 i m p t sur les portes et fentres, aber a u c h die colonnes besteuert. . . .
(Fenstersteuer, i m p t sur l'air) ... vectigal a r t i u m , u n t e r A l e x a n -
der Severus, A e h n l i c h k e i t m i t u n s r e m i m p t des p a t e n t e s , traf aber n u r die
fabricants ou c o m m e r a n t s d'objets de luxe. Er b e s t i m m t e diese E i n n a h m e
l'entretien des t h e r m e s q u ' i l avait btis et des autres b a i n s l'usage du
20 public. ... Die Prostitus b e i d e r sexes u n d ihre e n t r e m e t t e u r s seit Caligula
d i e s e m j h r l i c h e n droit de p a t e n t e unterworfen ... Steuer auf die saccarii,
Sacktrger, waren ein corpus privilgi, h a t t e n allein das R e c h t de trans-
porter les m a r c h a n d i s e s du port d a n s les m a g a s i n s , existirt n o c h in G e n u a
u n d einigen a n d r e n Hfen des M i t t e l m e e r s . ... l ' u x o r i u m seit 350 de R o m e
25 Strafe fr die clibataires, v i d u v i u m fr die Wittwen, die n i c h t wieder hei-
r a t h e n wollten, existirt a u c h in A t h e n u n d Sparta. ( 4 8 3 - 4 9 1 )
Conclusion.
le long dbat des lois agraires ne p r o d u i s a i t que les distributions gratuites

de bl ... die Kaiser b e m c h t i g t e n sich der proprits m u n i c i p a l e s , u n d die
30 ihrer b i e n s b e r a u b t e n m u n i c i p e s h a t t e n d e n n o c h gleichzeitig ihre stdti-
schen u n d ihren Theil der a l l g e m e i n e n S t e u e r n zu tragen. Alle Verantwort-
lichkeit fiel auf ein certain part d ' h a b i t a n t s aiss, die, u n t e r d e m N a m e n
dcurions, un corps d'officiers n o m m la Curie, bildeten. Im 4' u n d 5' Jh.
363
die Lage dieser dcurions so klich, da sie sich i h n e n n u r e n t z i e h n k o n n -

t e n en se rfugiant a u x Barbares. ... D i o c l e t i a n u n d Constantin, um ein we-
nig zu r e m d i e r aux inconvnients du despotisme militaire schufen eine
breaucratische A r m e e . U n e n u e d'employs civils et administratifs se r-
p a n d i t d a n s toutes les provinces; il fallut pourvoir leur entretien et frap- 5
per de nouvelles taxes sur des contribuables seit lange puiss.
(493-496)
364
Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen ber die Politik
Ii8| A. H. L. Heeren.
Ideen ber die Politik, den Verkehr
und den Handel der alten Vlker.
Erster Theil. Asiatische Vlker.
5 Erste Abtheilung. Perser.

Gttingen. 1824.
Allgemeine Vorerinnerungen.
Erste B a n d e u n t e r d e n M e n s c h e n , welche die N a t u r selber knpfte - Fami-

lienbande. (4) In der F a m i l i e Ungleichheit. H e r r s c h e n u n d G e h o r c h e n ...
10 W e i b u n d Kind E i g e n t h u m des M a n n e s . - Familiendespotismus. D i e B a n d e
der Verwandtschaft r e i c h e n u n t e r d e n uncultivirten Vlkern weiter als u n -
ter den cultivirten. D i e e i n z e l n e n F a m i l i e n m i t g l i e d e r zerstreuen sich nicht,
wenn herangewachsen, zu mannigfaltigen Geschften. Alle fhren dieselbe
Lebensart. Jagd oder V i e h z u c h t . Die F a m i l i e n bleiben z u s a m m e n ,
15 wachsen zu Stmmen, die S t m m e zu Vlkerschaften. Stammabtheilung
herrscht daher allgemein u n d an ihr h n g t alles, bei d e n W i l d e n in N o r d -
america u n d Australien, wie bei den Halbwilden in Mittelasien u n d d e n
A r a b i s c h e n u n d Afrikanischen W s t e n . D e r S t a m m lebt z u s a m m e n u n d
wandert z u s a m m e n . D a s Bedrfni der gemeinschaftlichen Vertheidigung
20 u n d Sicherheit in d e n vielen k l e i n e n Kriegen festigt das N a t u r b a n d . Ober-
herrschaft der Stammhupter. (5, 6) Sobald Ackerbau, feste W o h n s i t z e ent-
stehn Ortschaften, Stdte. Verfassung. Gemeinschaftliche A n g e l e g e n h e i -
ten, Vertheidigung, gemeinschaftliche Berathung in Brgerversammlun-
365
gen, Vorsteher, die dieselben l e n k e n . Herrschaft der S t a m m o b e r h u p t e r

verliert sich, weil je m e h r solche Orte, T h e i l u n g der Arbeit, verschiedne Le-
bensweise, V e r m i s c h u n g der E i n g e b o r n e n m i t F r e m d e n . Diese E n t s t e h u n g
der Stdte im A l t e r t h u m Ursache der republikanischen Verfassungen ... D i e
Freistaaten der alten Welt waren n u r Stdte mit ihrem Gebiet. So die P h n i - 5
zischen, griechischen, italischen Freistaaten ... B r g e r z u s a m m e n k n f t e ,
wo alle persnlich erscheinen, also keine Representativverfassung ...
Rathsversammlung, Senat u n d Magistrate. D i e der allgemeine U m r i der re-
p u b l i k a n i s c h e n Verfassungen des A l t e r t h u m s ... V e r m g e n s u n g l e i c h h e i t ,
politische Ungleichheit ... F a m i l i e n a d e l , Patriziat ... Staaten dieser Art in 10
i h r e m Ursprung i m m e r klein ... Wo m e h r e oder viele Stdte derselben N a -
tion Verbindungen u n t e r i h n e n , besonders w e n n D r u c k von aussen g e m e i n -
schaftliche Vertheidigung nothwendig m a c h t . D i e mchtigste Stadt an der
Spitze der vielen, Principat ... R o m b e r die lateinischen, Tyrus b e r die
p h n i z i s c h e n , T h e b e n b e r die botischen Stdte u. s. w. E r o b e r u n g e n 15
d a n n u n t e r d i e s e m Principat. ( 7 - 1 2 ) A n d r e R e i h e von Staaten, die der
grossen Reiche oder Monarchien ... Einige von diesen b e s c h r n k e n sich auf
Eine Nation, gingen aus der alten Stammherrschaft hervor; so in Epirus,
M a c d o n i e n b e h a u p t e t e sich das G e s c h l e c h t der alten Stammfrsten in der
Herrschaft ... andre umfassen eine Menge von Nationen ... Ihr Ursprung in 20
der schnellen Verbreitung erobernder Vlker; b e s o n d e r s Hirtenvlker ... Mili-
trische Herrschaft, Despotismus ... Religion, so politisch wichtiger in der
G e s c h i c h t e der Vlker, je weiter m a n in der G e s c h i c h t e zurckgeht ... R e -
ligion politisch-nationales Band ... die N a t i o n gruppirt sich u m d e n T e m -
pel der Nationalgottheit ... T e m p e l des Tyrischen Hercules M i t t e l p u n k t 25
des P h n i z i s c h e n S t a a t e n b u n d s , Jupiter Latialis des lateinischen, die Grie-
c h e n fhlten sich als eine N a t i o n bei d e n O l y m p i s c h e n Spielen v e r s a m m e l t
u m d e n T e m p e l des Z e u s ... I m Orient G e s e t z g e b u n g u n d Religion unzer-
trennlich. Caste der Priester beschrnkt die Allgewalt der Herrscher. ( 1 2 - 1 8 )
Die 3 grossen Continente, die allein im A l t h e r t h u m b e k a n n t , d u r c h keine 30
weiten M e e r e getrennt, b e r h r e n sich theils wirklich, theils b e i n a h e ; u n d
das in ihrer Mitte eingeschlone M i t t e l m e e r von b e s c h r n k t e m Umfange.
Landhandel daher H a u p t , Seehandel N e b e n s a c h e ... D i e Schiffahrt im Mit-
telmeer u n d einigen K s t e n diente n u r zur Fortsetzung des L a n d h a n d e l s
u n d zu seiner Erleichterung, z u r Ueberfahrt der W a a r e n ... Grosser See- 35
h a n d e l erst e n t s t a n d e n d u r c h die Entdeckung von America - Zu j e n e r n e u e n
Welt fhren keine Wege zu L a n d e , keine Schiffe an die K s t e n oder von
Insel z u I n s e l . . . W e l t m e e r wurde Hauptstrasse fr den W e l t h a n d e l . . . N u r
die sdlichen Theile von Italien u n d G r i e c h e n l a n d gingen aus der Barbarei
heraus ... selbst der H a n d e l von G r i e c h e n l a n d u n d R o m nicht viel m e h r 40
als H a n d e l fr d e n eignen Verbrauch. ... S p a n i e n allein h a t t e d e m Orient
366
Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen ber die Politik ...
was zu bieten, edle Metalle ... A s i e n u n d Africa die H a u p t s c h a u p l t z e des

alten H a n d e l s ... Handelsgesellschaften, Caravanen ... ihr Z u s a m m e n k o m -
m e n erheischte feste B e d i n g u n g e n von Ort u n d Zeit ... Die Pltze des E i n
u n d Verkaufs m u t e n ebenfalls traditionell werden ... D i e W a h l der Stras-
5 sen d u r c h die Oasen in d e n Steppen u n d S a n d w s t e n b e s t i m m t ... So der
C a r a v a n e n h a n d e l an fixe F o r m g e b u n d e n , erhielt so e i n e n festen G a n g ,
blieb derselbe d u r c h J a h r h u n d e r t e u n d J a h r t a u s e n d e , w e n n a u c h i m E i n -
zelnen die R i c h t u n g verndert. I m A l t e r t h u m u n d Mittelalter blieb d a h e r
der G a n g des W e l t h a n d e l s derselbe. D i e V e r n d e r u n g e n bis zur E n t d e k -
10 kung von A m e r i c a bezogen sich n i c h t auf die A r t u n d Weise u n d L n d e r
wodurch er gefhrt, s o n d e r n auf die Vlker, die ihn fhrten ... Caravanen-
h a n d e l erforderte grosse Z a h l von C a m e e l e n u n d M e n s c h e n nthig, die sie
zu warten verstehn. L e b e n im F r e i e n ... I h r e n a t r l i c h e n Wrter daher die
N o m a d e n v l k e r . Sie d a h e r die W a a r e n f h r e r u n d geben d e m Bewohner der
15 H a n d e l s s t d t e die Lastthiere. H a l b a s i e n u n d Afrika aber von diesen Vl-
kern besezt. D a h e r dort so grosser U m f a n g dieses H a n d e l s . M e h r e 100 Ca-
m e l e k n n e n k a u m die Last eines grossen o s t i n d i s c h e n Schiffs fhren. D e r
L a n d h a n d e l daher in Betracht der Q u a n t i t t der W a a r e n grossen Beschrn-
k u n g e n unterworfen, die sehr schwer wiegenden, grosse Q u a n t i t t e i n n e h -
20 m e n d e n W a a r e n gar n i c h t oder in geringem G r a d G e g e n s t n d e des L a n d -
h a n d e l s . D a h e r k o m m e n viele der n t z l i c h s t e n P r o d u c t e i m A l t e r t h u m gar
n i c h t in d e n H a n d e l . So Reis, Zucker, Salpeter. Dagegen leichte u n d zu-
gleich kostbare W a a r e n : Edelsteine, Metalle, ||19| Rucherwerk, G e w r z e ,
K l e i d u n g e n aus leichten Stoffen ... Cultur von Asien u n d Africa hing vor-
25 zugsweis an d i e s e m H a n d e l . . . D e r C a r a v a n e n h a n d e l erzeugt e i n e n starken
Zwischenhandel. D e r Weg der C a r a v a n e n g e h t d u r c h viele L n d e r u n d viele
Vlkerschaften u n d ihre Bedrfnisse wie die der Kaufleute erheischen
e i n e n wechselseitigen Verkehr. ... Gewisse Pltze im I n n r e n der Lnder,
werden H a u p t p l t z e des Z w i s c h e n h a n d e l s , die grossen M r k t e , wo ein Z u -
30 s a m m e n f l u der N a t i o n e n entsteht, d u r c h die Leichtigkeit des Verkehrs
hier viele Niederlassungen, A u f b l h n grosser Stdte daher. ( 2 0 - 2 9 ) D e r
H a u p t c h a r a k t e r der alten Schiffahrt - Kstenschiffahrt ... Vor der E n t d e k -
k u n g von A m e r i c a bedurfte m a n der grossen Seefahrt n i c h t ... Sie bildet
brigens die Seeleute. D i e Fischerein bei N e u f u n d l a n d u n d die K o h l e n -
35 Schiffahrt n o c h jezt die S c h u l e n der brittischen M a r i n e . D u r c h lang fortge-
sezte Kstenschiffahrt fanden die Portugiesen d e n W e g n a c h Ostindien.
... Das Fortschiffen lngst d e n Ksten, d u r c h e i n e n langen Z e i t r a u m fort-
gesezt, ist den allmhligen Fortschritten am gnstigsten; kein P u n k t , wo
m a n aufhren m u ; G e w i n n s u c h t u n d E n t d e c k u n g s s p a fhren von d e m
40 B e k a n n t e n stets auf das U n b e k a n n t e ; P h n i z i e r u n d Carthager trieben
J a h r h u n d e r t e d u r c h ihre Schiffahrt so ungestrt ... So die N o r m a n n e n im
367
Mittelalter. ... Die Alten bei beschrnkter Ueberfahrt gegenber der offnen
See ... Mittellndische Meer H a u p t s c h a u p l a t z der Schiffahrt der alten Welt;
die vielen Inseln, womit es best, die a l l e n t h a l b e n als H a l b i n s e l n hervorra-
g e n d e n Lnder, sein massiger U m f a n g erleichtern die Beschiffung ... D e r
Indische Ocean, soweit i h n die Alten k a n n t e n , massige Entfernung der K - 5
sten, m i t Inseln bedeckt, regelmssig halbjhrig wechselnde W i n d e . ... D i e
E i n r i c h t u n g des alten Handels viel einfacher ... h a u p t s c h l i c h Waarenhan-
del ... Geldhandel blieb im A l t e r t h u m in seiner K i n d h e i t ... In A t h e n ,
R o m , A l e x a n d r i e n u n d wo sonst Z u s a m m e n f l u v o n F r e m d e n Wechsler,
aber kein W e c h s e l h a n d e l . . . keine regelmssigen Posten, keine Staatsschul- 10
d e n ... der alte H a n d e l bestand n u r i m K a u f u n d Verkauf von W a a r e n ...
kein Commissionshandel im gegenwrtigen Sinn, a u c h dieser h n g t zu sehr
von d e n Posteinrichtungen ab ... Getreidehandel im Grossen im A l t e r t h u m
beschrnkt auf die L n d e r u m das M i t t e l m e e r u n d schwarze Meer, u n d
vielleicht den arabischen u n d persischen M e e r b u s e n . ... Wein n o c h schwie- 15
riger fr d e n Landtransport, da er wie alle flssigen W a a r e n n i c h t leicht
d u r c h Thiere, sondern n u r auf W a g e n fortgeschafft werden k a n n ... Oel von
der h c h s t e n Wichtigkeit. D i e n t in d e n s d l i c h e n L n d e r n statt der Butter,
ertrgt den Transport besser. Sicilien u n d das sdliche Italien v e r d a n k t e n
d e m H a n d e l d a m i t e i n e n grossen Theil ihres R e i c h t h u m s . ... Seide, Baum- 20
wolle und feine Wolle waren n u r d e m Orient eigen k o n n t e n n a t r l i c h n i c h t
in der Q u a n t i t t wie jezt verfhrt werden ... Gewrze u n d Rucherwerk, in
u n e r m e l i c h e r Q u a n t i t t bei d e n Opfern gebraucht, s t r m t e n aus A r a b i e n
u n d I n d i e n . ( 3 0 - 4 0 ) U n t e r der persischen Monarchie: Ufer des Mittelmeers al-
l e n t h a l b e n von fleissigen u n d seefahrenden Vlkern u m g e b e n . Carthago 25
h a t t e den grten Theil der afrikanischen Kste besezt, sein Besitz des
H a n d e l s m i t d e m i n n r e n Africa, seine Hfen der H a u p t e i n g a n g , wodurch
die fremden Producte diesen Vlkern zugefhrt. Cyrene beherrschte d e n
stlichen Theil dieser Kste, seine N e b e n b u h l e r i n . Sicilischen und Italischen
Griechen durch die Cultur ihres B o d e n s grosse R e i c h t h m e r erworben. 30
K o n n t e n k a u m W e i n u n d Oel genug fr Gallien u n d Africa hervorbringen.
Italien grossentheils d u r c h die Etrusker besezt, b e h a u p t e t e n sich im Mittel-
m e e r : Rmer n u r erst H e r r e n von L a t i u m schlssen m i t d e n Carthagern
Handelsvertrge. Massilien hatte d e n Verkehr m i t i n n r e m Gallien. Gades
u n d andre u n a b h n g i g e p h n i z i s c h e Colonieen an der spanischen K s t e . 35
Corinth und Athen sich zugeeignet d e n H a n d e l des gischen u n d schwar-
zen M e e r s ; Aejypten h a t t e d e n G r i e c h e n e i n e n Freihafen in N a u c r a t i s erff-
net. Vlkerschaften des Innern Asiens d u r c h die assyrischen u n d babyloni-
schen L n d e r s t r m e r genthigt, sich g e n a u e r k e n n e n zu lernen; die
gewaltsamen Verpflanzungen der Vlker - Mittel das der D e s p o t i s m u s schon 40
in seiner K i n d h e i t erfand, um seine E r o b e r u n g e n zu b e h a u p t e n - h a t t e n
368
Bekanntschaft u n d Verkehr der Vlker vermehrt. Babylon Sitz der I n d u -

strie u n d Kultur u n d H a u p t m a r k t von Asien. Tyrus H a u p t a r m des asia-
tisch-europischen H a n d e l s . Verkehr des sdlichen Afrikas und Aethiopiens,
stand d u r c h den C a r a v a n e n h a n d e l d u r c h die afrikanischen u n d arabischen
5 W s t e n m i t Carthago u n d Tyrus in Z u s a m m e n h a n g . ( 4 0 - 3 )
Asien.
Asien s e i n e m F l c h e n i n h a l t 4 x von E u r o p a u n d % m e h r als Africa. In i h m

grte Mannigfaltigkeit von K l i m a u n d P r o d u c t e n . Seine M e e r e b i l d e n i m
S d e n berall grosse Busen, die sich tief ins L a n d h i n e i n erstrecken u n d
10 da, wo sie aufhren wieder grosse Flsse a u f n e h m e n . D i e asiatischen Step-
pen-Lnder nicht so gefhrlich fr die R e i s e n d e n wie die afrikanischen
Sandmeere. A u s n a h m e n u r die W s t e Cobi in der kleinen Bucharei, er-
schwert d e n Zutritt z u d e m W e s t e n u n d M i t t e von China. Gebirgsreihen
die das Skelett bilden: Altaigebirge (nrdliche Kette.) Taurus, die sdliche
15 Gebirgskette. E u p h r a t u n d Tigris, I n d u s u n d G a n g e s , Oxus u n d Jaxartes.
D u r c h j e n e Gebirgsketten A s i e n in 3 grosse Theile getheilt, verschieden
d u r c h Clima u n d Bodenbeschaffenheit. Der nrdlichste - Fischer und Jger-
vlker. Mittleres Asien, zwischen d e m Altai u n d T a u r u s k e t t e n . D i e weiten
Steppenlnder von d e m caspischen M e e r bis z u m stlichen Ocean, M o n g o -
20 lei u n d Tartarei. Die Strme die sie d u r c h z i e h n , reichen n i c h t h i n diese
u n g e h e u r e n E b e n e n fr d e n A c k e r b a u gehrig zu bewssern. H o c h e b e n e .
D o c h selten i n i h n e n drre u n d unfruchtbare Pltze. Z u m grten Theil
m i t d e n ppigsten F u t t e r k r u t e r n bedeckt, oft d e m w e i d e n d e n V i e h an
H h e gleich. G n z l i c h e r M a n g e l a n W a l d u n g e n u n d allen grossen Holzar-
25 ten. So b e s t i m m t z u m h e r u m z i e h e n d e n Hirtenleben. D i e weiten E b e n e n
m i t G e z e i t e n u n d Lagern bedeckt. Schaafe, Rinder, Pferde, C a m e e l e . Le-
b e n von M i l c h u n d Fleisch ihrer Stuten u n d K h e ; ihre H u t e u n d das
H a a r ihrer Camele verschafft i h n e n Kleider u n d Filze fr ihre G e z e l t e :
R o h r an den Ufern ihrer Seen u n d Flsse Bogen u n d Pfeile. An der Stelle
30 der brgerlichen Verhltnisse die n a t r l i c h e n B a n d e der Verwandtschaft;
u m s c h l i n g e n ganze S t m m e u n d Vlker. Volk zerfllt in S t m m e , diese in
H o r d e n , die wieder F a m i l i e n umfassen. Hupter der Familien und Stmme
Richter u n d Kriegsanfhrer. Sdasien. Begreift die reichsten u n d fruchtbar-
sten L n d e r der Welt. A u s i h n e n s t a m m e n die edelsten Obstarten, Thiere,
35 Baumwollstauden, S e i d e n r a u p e n , Rauchwerk, Gold, Edelsteine, Perlen etc.
(48-62) I
|20| Einfrmigkeit der asiatischen Geschichte. R e i c h e entstehn, vergehn,
aber die n e u e n t s t a n d e n e n n e h m e n i m m e r wieder dieselbe F o r m a n , wie
369
die untergegangenen. Die grossen Reiche v e r d a n k e n i h r e n Ursprung fast n u r

grossen erobernden Nomadenvlkern. D a s ganze n r d l i c h e u n d mittlere Asien
m i t solchen h e r u m z i e h e n d e n Vlkerschaften gefllt. A u c h i m s d l i c h e n
Asien m i t i h n e n besezt m a n c h e Strecken der t a u r i s c h e n Bergkette u n d fast
die ganze arabische Halbinsel. D i e s e n Vlkern d u r c h ihre Lebensart fr 5
d e n Krieg passend. R e u t e r e i besonders, die Pferde i m m e r m i t sich; k o m -
m e n a u c h in ruhigen Z e i t e n fast n i e aus den Stteln. G l e i c h verwstenden
H e u s c h r e c k e n s c h w r m e n b r e c h e n sie aus i h r e n Steppen oder Sandwsten,
wie M o n g o l e n u n d Araber, oder steigen, wie Parther u n d Perser von i h r e n
G e b i r g e n u n d b e r s c h w e m m e n die E b e n e n des s d l i c h e n Asiens. Stiften 10
d a m c h t i g e , u n g e h e u r e R e i c h e . L u x u s u n d C l i m a b r i n g e n bald a u c h bei
i h n e n vernderte Lebensart hervor; n e h m e n die Sitten der Besiegten an.
Cultur des Luxus entsteht u n t e r i h n e n . W e r d e n d a n n wieder verdrngt von
n e u e n , u n v e r d e r b t e n Vlkern, die aus d e n s e l b e n oder a n d r e n W o h n s i t z e n
hervorbrechen. So e n t s t a n d e n u n d verschwanden im A l t e r t h u m die R e i c h e 15
der Assyrer, Perser, Chalder, Parther; im Mittelalter die arabische Herr-
schaft; spter die tartarischen u n d m o n g o l i s c h e n Staaten. Allmhliges Ent-
stehen u n d Z u n e h m e n nicht mglich bei d e n asiatischen R e i c h e n ; erhal-
ten gleich n a c h i h r e m E n t s t e h n schnellen u n d grossen Umfang. D i e
n o m a d i s c h e n Vlker m s s e n so ihre E r o b e r u n g e n m a c h e n , da sie weitlu- 20
fige L n d e r zu ihrer eignen Erhaltung b r a u c h e n . J e d e g e m a c h t e Beute A n -
trieb zu n e u e n Streifzgen. H a l t e n sich fr die H e r r e n der Welt. I h r e n R e i -
c h e n k n n e n sie ursprnglich n u r eine militairische Verfassung geben. D i e
Stadthalter h a b e n d a n n n u r die T r i b u t e e i n z u t r e i b e n u n d die unterjochten
Vlker in der Abhngigkeit zu erhalten. Spter werden i h n e n die Provin- 25
zen gegen eine gewisse S u m m e , die sie jhrlich d e m kniglichen Schatz
zahlen, bergeben. Die brgerlichen E i n r i c h t u n g e n der L n d e r bleiben u n -
verndert; selbst die besiegten F r s t e n oder d o c h ihre N a c h k o m m e n b e h a l -
ten oft ihre Regierung, so u n t e r d e n Persern u n d M o n g o l e n . A u s dieser
blos militairischen Verfassung geht n a c h u n d n a c h eine Art von Staatsver- 30
fassung hervor. Die F e l d h e r r n werden zu Satrapen oder der Despot sezt
i h n e n diese aus Eifersucht zur Seite. D i e grossen asiatischen R e i c h e d a h e r
d u r c h eine Herrschaft im A l l g e m e i n e n z u s a m m e n g e h a l t e n ; grosse M a n n i g -
faltigkeit der Theile, M e n g e der verschiedensten Verfassungen - kleine Ty-
r a n n e n , beschrnkte Frsten, R e p u b l i k e n , wie die p h n i z i s c h e n u n d grie- 35
chischen Stdte in Kleinasien u n t e r der persischen Herrschaft. Schon b e i
den wilden Vlkern selbst der D e s p o t i s m u s d u r c h die u n b e s c h r n k t e Herr-
schaft ihrer S t a m m h u p t e r vorgebaut. Bei d e n M o n g o l e n das F a m i l i e n -
h a u p t der u n u m s c h r n k t e Herr seines S t a m m e s . Die ganze Stammverfas-
sung geht von der vterlichen Gewalt aus. A u c h die Grsse u n d der 40
ungeheure Umfang dieser R e i c h e befrderte d e n D e s p o t i s m u s . E n d l i c h : die
370
r
unauflsliche V e r b i n d u n g zwischen G e s e t z g e b u n g u n d Religion. E i n e

n e u e Gesetzgebung wre hier e i n e n e u e Religion. Selbst einzelne V e r n d e -
r u n g e n u n d Verbesserungen h i e r R e l i g i o n s e r n e u e r u n g e n . Hofritual u n d ce-
r e m o n i e l i n d e n H n d e n einer a b g e s o n d e r t e n Priesterkaste, deren Interesse
5 die Unvernderlichkeit. D a n n u n t e r d e n Vlkern des i n n r e n A s i e n s die Po-
lygamie. Vielweiberei g r n d e t F a m i l i e n d e s p o t i s m u s . Die Gesellschaft b e -
steht aus einer Z a h l von h u s l i c h e n Despoten, die a u c h wieder despotisirt
sein wollen. D u r c h die Polygamie wird der D e s p o t i s m u s von u n t e n auf ge-
grndet. A e h n l i c h e Einfrmigkeit, wie in der Verfassung der grossen asiati-
10 sehen Reiche in d e m Verkehr ihrer Bewohner. Caravanenhandel. Zwar waren
a u c h die grossen Flsse Asiens Handelsstrassen. A b e r weil sie d u r c h grosse
Steppenlnder fliessen, fehlt es i h r e n Ufern gewhnlich an H o l z z u m
Schiffbau, so wie in m a n c h e n G e g e n d e n an Eisen; die Fluschiffahrt erhielt
d a h e r in Asien n i c h t dieselbe Wichtigkeit wie in Europa. Der innre H a n d e l
15 d a h e r wie in Africa Landhandel u n d ebenso ausgefhrt. Heerstrassen, um
die errungne Herrschaft zu b e h a u p t e n u n d die entfernten Vlker u n t e r
d e m J o c h z u h a l t e n ; d a z u m u einer A r m e e stets der W e g z u i h n e n offen
stehn; liefen durch das ganze A s i e n im Persischen u n d m o n g o l i s c h e n Zeit-
alter, m i t e i n e m Aufwand u n d einer A n s t r e n g u n g angelegt; die n u r in sol-
20 c h e n despotischen Staaten, wo m a n die g a n z e Kraft u n d Thtigkeit der
Vlker auf E i n e n P u n k t concentriren kann, mglich sind. ... D a n n Anlage
der Caravansereien oder Stationen fr die Caravanen, grosse viereckigte G e -
b u d e , die e i n e n weiten Hof oder Platz einschliessen. ... D u r c h die E r o b e -
r u n g e n der G a n g des asiatischen H a n d e l s fr eine Zeitlang u n t e r b r o c h e n ,
25 aber nie gnzlich gestrt, u n d i m m e r rasch wieder hergestellt ... Seine
Hauptsitze vernderten sich n i c h t ... Die Bedrfnisse der M e n s c h e n , des
L u x u s u n d W o h l l e b e n s wie der Nothwendigkeit, zu fhlbar u n d dringend,
als da der Krieg oder D e s p o t i s m u s sie sehr v e r m i n d e r n oder gar aufheben
knnte. (63-80)
30
371
Johnston: (J. F. W.) Catechism of

Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.
23 ed. E d i n b u r g h . 1849.
(Apparatus speziell fr diesen K a t e c h i s m u s in L o n d o n von Mr. Button,

146, H o l b o r n Bars, from Mr. Simpson 1 u n d 2 K e n n i n g t o n R o a d , oder von
Mr Griffin, 53 Baker Street, P o r t m a n Square, 2 /. fr d e n smaller u n d 5 /.
fr den larger set. [VI])
Q what is the object of the farmer in cultivating t h e soil? A. To raise the

largest crops at the smallest cost, a n d with the least injury to land. D e r
farmer h a t 3 Hauptbeschftigungen, raises crops, rears u n d fattens stock
u n d fabricirt Butter u n d Kse. (7)
[Of the nature of the crops raised from the land.]
Alle vegetabilischen S u b s t a n z e n b e s t e h n aus 2 Theilen, e i n e m der im

F e u e r verbrennt - d e m organischen; u n d d e m a n d r e n , der n i c h t verbrennt,
d e m u n o r g a n i s c h e n . In i h n e n der organische Theil stets der grre. Bildet
9 0 - 9 9 von je 100 Pfund ihres Gewichts. D e r organische Theil der Pflanzen
besteht aus 4 Elementarkrpern, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen u n d nitrogen,
x
m i t m i n u t e quantities von Sulphur u n d Phosphor. (7, 8) Oxygen bildet / 5
der Luft die wir e i n a t h m e n . (9) 5 Gallons of air e n t h a l t e n 1 gallon of oxy-

gen u n d fast 4 gallons of nitrogen. (11) Die M e h r z a h l der vegetable sub-
stances e n t h a l t e n n u r carbon, hydrogen u n d oxygen. . B. Strke, G u m m i ,
Zucker, Holzfaser, oils u n d fats. (I.e.)
372
Aus James Finley Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology
[Of the substances found in the in-organic

or mineral part of plants.]
Die u n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheile der Pflanzen enthalten Pottasche, Soda,

Kalk, Magnesia, Eisenoxide, M a n g a n e s e o x i d e , silica, chlorine, sulphuric
5 acid, oder Vitrioll u n d p h o s p h o r i c acid. (12) (ber 200,000 Pfund Phos-
phor in L o n d o n jhrlich g e b r a u c h t zur M a n u f a c t u r von Lucifer m a -
tches.) (I.e.) 600 Pfund Wasser lsen an E i n Pfund quicklime auf, b i l d e n d
das s.g. limewater. (13) Magnesia ist the white, nearly tasteless powder sold
in the shops u n t e r d e m N a m e n of calcined magnesia extracted von Seewasser
10 u n d von d e n varieties of l i m e s t o n e called M a g n e s i a n Limestones. (14) Q.
what is oxide of iron? A. W h e n polished iron is exposed to the air it gradu-
ally b e c o m e s covered with rust. This rust consists of the m e t a l iron, and of
the gas oxygen which the iron has attracted from the moist air, a n d h e n c e it
is called an oxide of iron. (14) | | 2 1 | T h e teacher will explain m o r e fully that,
15 w h e n metals c o m b i n e m i t oxygen, they form new u n d compound sub-
stances, to which the n a m e of. oxides is given, a n d illustrate this by a refer-
ence to the red oxide of mercury, which, by the h e a t of the l a m p , he h a d re-
solved or decomposed into oxygen gas a n d metallic mercury. T h e r e are 2
oxides of iron, the black a n d t h e red. D a s red oxide building den c o m m o n
20 rust u n d gives their red or ochrey colour to soils. T h e scales which fall from
the anvil of the blacksmith c o n t a i n m u c h of t h e black oxide. ... M a n g a -
neseoxide very like oxide of iron, b u t occurs in soils u n d plants in sehr
small quantity. (14) Chlorine ist eine Gasart, die has a greenish-yellow col-
our u n d a strong suffocating smell u n d ist 4 x heavier als c o m m o n air. A
25 taper b u r n s in it with a dull smoking flame. It exists in c o m m o n salt in
large quantity. (15) 100 Pf. c o m m o n salt e n t h a l t e n 60 Pf. chlorine. (I.e.) Sul-
phuric Acid oder Vitrioll ist a very sour, b u r n i n g , oily liquid, wird h e i ,
w e n n m i t Wasser vermischt. Fabricirt wirds aus b u r n i n g sulphur (brim-
stone) u n d exists i n c o m m o n gypsum, a l u m , G l a u b e r u n d E p s o m salts.
30 (I.e.) 1 Pf. sulphur giebt b e r 3 Pf. der strongest sulphuric acid of c o m -
merce. (I.e.) Acid or Sour. Erstens sauer fr d e n G e s c h m a c k ; acid sub-
stances frben vegetable-blue colours roth, sowie decoctions of violets, of
red cabbage oder of a b l u e s u b s t a n c e sold in the shops u n d e r the n a m e of
litmus, whrend alkaline substances, wie hartshorn ( A m m o n i a ) , common
35 soda, pearlash oder quicklime restore the b l u e colour again after an acid has
r e d d e n e d t h e m . (I.e.) Phosphoric acid gebildet d u r c h V e r b r e n n e n von Phos-
phor in der Luft. Exists in large quantity in the bones of a n i m a l s . (16)
100 Pf. Phosphor verbrannt bilden 227 Pfund phosphoric acid. (I.e.) Alle
diese substances sind to be found in the ash of all our usually cultivated
373
plants. (I.e.) Einige Pflanzen, w e n n verbrannt, liefern m e h r A s c h e , a n d r e

weniger. So 100 Pf. H e u h a b e n 9 oder 10 Pf. A s c h e , w h r e n d 100 Pf. W e i -
z e n n u r 2 Pf. Asche. D i e A s c h e n der v e r s c h i e d n e n Pflanzen e n t h a l t e n n i c h t
alle diese S u b s t a n z e n in denselben, s o n d e r n in verschiednen Proportionen.
Die W e i z e n a s c h e enthlt . B. m e h r p h o s p h o r i c acid als die H e u a s c h e , 5
w h r e n d diese m e h r L i m e enthlt als die W e i z e n a s c h e . (I.e.)
Of the Organic food of Plants.
Alle Pflanzen erheischen bestndige Zufuhr von N a h r u n g , u m z u leben

u n d zu wachsen. Sie erhalten sie theils aus der Luft, theils aus d e m B o d e n .
Sie e r h e i s c h e n organisches F u t t e r fr ihren organischen, u n o r g a n i s c h e s fr 10
ihren u n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheil. D i e organische N a h r u n g liefert theils
die Luft, theils der Boden, die u n o r g a n i s c h e n u r der B o d e n . Die F o r m , wor-
in Pflanzen ihre organische N a h r u n g aus der Luft n e h m e n , ist h a u p t s c h -
lich carbonic acid gas, kohlensaures G a s . (Kohlenstoffsure) Carbonic acid
gas ist a kind of air o h n e Farbe, m i t b e s o n d r e m G e r u c h u n d leicht suerli- 15
c h e m G e s c h m a c k . B r e n n e n d e Krper erlschen i n i h m u n d T h i e r e sterben
darin. Ist um % schwerer als die c o m m o n air, renders lime water milky u n d
is taken up by its own bulk of cold water. Ist die U r s a c h e des boiling up
von Sodawasser u n d des frothing von beer u n d bildet fast % des Gewichts
aller l i m e s t o n e rocks. (17) In 5000 G a l l o n s a t m o s p h r i s c h e r Luft sind n u r 20
2 gallons of carbonic acid gas. (18) Pflanzen s a u g e n sehr viel K o h l e n s u r e
aus der Luft. D u r c h ihre Bltter, by m e a n s of a great n u m b e r of very small
openings or m o u t h s , which are spread especially over the u n d e r surface of
t h e leaf. N i c h t less als 120,000 dieser pores or little m o u t h s on a square
i n c h of t h e leaf of the lilach. A b e r dieses E i n s a u g e n von carbonic acid n u r 25
w h r e n d des Tags, geben davon ab w h r e n d der N a c h t . Carbonic acid be-
steht aus carbon oder charcoal u n d oxygen. 6 Pf. carbon u n d 16 Pf. oxygen
bilden 22 Pf. of carbonic acid. By b u r n i n g charcoal in oxygen gas bildet
m a n carbonic acid gas. Die Pflanze retains only t h e carbon, giving off the
oxygen again into the air. (19) A u s s e r d e m trinken die Pflanzen aus der 30
Luft watery vapour; it serves in part to m o i s t e n t h e leaves a n d stems, a n d
partly to p r o d u c e the substance of t h e p l a n t itself. V o n der Erde n e h m e n
die Pflanzen carbon auf in der F o r m von carbonic acid, h u m i c acid u n d
s o m e other substances which exist in t h e black vegetable m a t t e r of t h e soil.
Urn humic acid zu b i l d e n n u r nthig aufzulsen a little c o m m o n soda in 35
water, to boil t h e solution u p o n finely powdered peat or rich dark soil, to
pour off the solution w h e n it has stood to settle, a n d to add vinegar or weak
374
spirit of salt to it. Brown flocks will fall w h i c h are h u m i c acid, die n u r a u s
carbon u n d water besteht. Nitrogen n e h m e n die Pflanzen h a u p t s c h l i c h a u s
d e m B o d e n auf in der F o r m v o n Ammonia u n d nitric acid. (20)
Of the Organic Substance of Plants.
5 Die organische S u b s t a n z der Pflanzen besteht besonders aus Holzfaser

(woody fibre) Strke (starch) u n d Kleber, (gluten) Woody or cellular fibre ist
die Substanz die d e n grren T h e i l aller A r t e n v o n Holz, Stroh, H e u u n d
chaff, of the shells of n u t s , a n d of cotton, flax, h e m p etc. Diese fibres of
cotton . B. sind u n l s l i c h in Wasser, schwrzen sich by strong s u l p h u r i c
10 acid, u n d werden d u r c h nitric acid in g u n cotton verwandelt. Strke
(starch) ist a white powder, das fast die g a n z e S u b s t a n z der Kartoffel bildet
u n d a b o u t % des Gewichts von H a f e r m e h l , W e i z e n m e h l u n d des flour a n d -
rer fr food cultivirter K o r n a r t e n . Kleber (gluten) ist a s u b s t a n c e wie bird-
lime (Vogelleim), der m i t Strke in almost all plants existirt. K a n n e r h a l t e n
15 werden aus w h e a t e n flour, by m a k i n g it into a dough, a n d washing it with
water. (21) Most a b u n d a n t ist die woody fibre in d e m s t e m der plants u n d
die starch in its seeds. Exists a b u n d a n t l y in der Kartoffel u n d a n d r e n simi-
lar roots, -woody fibre u n d starch, wie gum und sugar b e s t e h n n u r of carbon
u n d water. F o l g e n d e Tabelle: |
20 |22| Carbon. Water
36 lbs und 36 lbs form 72 lbs of woody or cellular fibre.
36 lbs und 45 lbs form 81 lbs of dry starch or gum.
36 lbs und 49 y lbs form 85 % lbs of loafsugar or sugarcandy.
2
36 lbs und 64 lbs form 100 lbs of fruit, raisin, and honeysugar.
25 36 lbs und 27 lbs form 63 lbs of humic acid.
Diese S u b s t a n z e n m a y be formed from t h e kinds of food w h i c h t h e

leaves drink in from t h e air, weil sie drink in carbonic air u n d water. D i e
Pflanzen require only carbon u n d water to form t h e woody fibre u n d starch
which they c o n t a i n u n d therefore they give off t h e oxygen of t h e c a r b o n i c
30 acid i n t o the air b e c a u s e they c a n n o t m a k e use of it. D i e Pflanzen berau-
b e n die air nicht der carbonic acid, trotz ihres vielen Einschlucks davon,
weil bestndig new supplies of this gas are r e t u r n i n g into the air. (22) Diese
supplies k o m m e n v o n 3 sources: from t h e b r e a t h i n g of a n i m a l s , from t h e
b u r n i n g of wood a n d coal, a n d from t h e decay of a n i m a l s and vegetables.
35
All a n i m a l s throw off a small q u a n t i t y of carbonic acid from their lungs
every t i m e they breathe. T h e carbon which wood, coal, candles etc c o n t a i n ,
w h e n it b u r n s in t h e air, forms c a r b o n i c acid gas, j u s t as p u r e c a r b o n does
w h e n it is b u r n e d in oxygen gas. T h e decay of vegetables, of roots in the
375
soil, a n d of the r e m a i n s of animals, is only a slow kind of b u r n i n g , by

which their carbon is at last converted into carbonic acid. ... A n i m a l s u n d
plants thus appear to live for each other's support. T h e a n i m a l produces
carbonic acid, u p o n which plants live; a n d from this carbonic acid a n d wa-
ter together, plants produce starch etc, u p o n which animals live. Wasser be- 5
steht aus Oxygen u n d Hydrogen. In 9 Pfund Wasser e n t h a l t e n a b o u t 8 lbs of
oxygen u n d 1 lb of hydrogen. Wasser also, which puts out all fire besteht
aus 2 G a s e n , Eins wovon (Hydrogen) b u r n s readily, w h r e n d in d e m and-
ren (Oxygen) bodies b u r n m i t great brilliancy. Also b e s t e h n woody fibre,
starch, g u m u n d sugar aus carbon, hydrogen u n d oxygen. Gluten (Kleber) 10
besteht aus allen 4 E l e m e n t e n , carbon, hydrogen, oxygen u n d nitrogen,
u n i t e d to a little sulphur a n d p h o s p h o r u s . Die Pflanze k a n n 3 der Ele-
m e n t e , woraus G l u t e n besteht, carbon, hydrogen u n d oxygen aus der Luft
erhalten, aber nitrogen, sulphur u n d P h o s p h o r it usually obtains almost
solely from the soil. H e n c e the i m p o r t a n c e of adding to the soil m a n u r e s 15
which c o n t a i n the three latter substances. (23, 4)
Of the Soil on which Plants grow.
D e r soil besteht aus e i n e m organic oder c o m b u s t i b l e u n d aus e i n e m u n o r -

ganic oder incombustible part. (24) D e r organic part des soil is derived
from the roots and stems of decayed plants u n d von d e m d u n g u n d r e m a i n s 20
of animals u n d insects of various kinds. V o n peaty soils forms dieser or-
ganic part m a n c h m a l %, von rich u n d fertile soils gewhnlich n u r Y oder 20
Y des g a n z e n Gewichts. In u n s r e m Clima k a n n der B o d e n keine g u t e n

10
crops tragen, wenn er n i c h t e i n e n Theil of organic m a t t e r enthlt. A rich

soil enthlt m i n d e s t e n s Y seines Gewichts, 5 %, of organic matter. D i e or-
20 25
ganische m a t t e r vermehrt oder vermindert sich im B o d e n according to the
way in which it is cultivated. Sie diminishes wenn das L a n d oft gepflgt
u n d cropped oder schlecht gedngt wird; u n d wchst, w e n n das L a n d m i t
B u m e n bepflanzt, in p e r m a n e n t pasture verwandelt oder when large doses
of farm-yard m a n u r e or of peat compost are given to it. Diese organic matter 30
in d e m soil supplies the organic food which plants draw from the soil
t h r o u g h their roots. Die Q u a n t i t t dieser N a h r u n g (organische) die Pflan-
zen v o m B o d e n z i e h n wechselt m i t der Art der Pflanze, der Art des B o d e n s
u n d der season; ist aber stets betrchtlich u n d nothwendig fr d e n gesun-
d e n W u c h s der Pflanze. Wird der B o d e n badly m a n a g e d u n d constantly 35
cropped so wird er d u r c h das E n t z i e h n von organic m a t t e r von Seiten der
Pflanzen bestndig rmer an derselben. D i e supply davon wird aufrecht er-
halten durch ploughing in green crops, by growing clovers u n d other plants
376
which leave long roots in the soil, by restoring all the hay and straw to t h e
land in the form of m a n u r e , by laying down to pasture etc. D e r inorganic or
mineral part of t h e soil is derived from t h e c r u m b l i n g down of t h e solid
rocks. Diese rocks b e s t e h n aus m o r e oder less h a r d e n e d sandstones, lime-
5 stones u n d clays. ... If a soil effervesce (give off bubbles of gas) w h e n an
acid is poured u p o n it, it c o n t a i n s c a r b o n a t e of lime, a n d the degree of ef-
fervescence indicates the proportion of lime. ... Am leichtesten u n d wohl-
feilsten cultivirt die lightlands (die c o n t a i n a large proportion of sand or
gravel) called barley or turnip soils, weil diese u n d andre green crops b e -
10 sonders gut auf i h n e n f o r t k o m m e n . W e n n n o c h leichter u n d m e h r sandig,
they grow rye and b u c k wheat better. ... Drains nie flacher zu m a c h e n als
3 0 - 3 6 inches; oft tiefer, b u t where there are springs or bodies of water at a
greater depth ... D i e roots of corn, clover u n d flax g e h n down 3 F u u n d
selbst turniproots in an o p e n soil b e r 2 F u . ... W h e n my drains are so
15 deep, I can go down 20 or 24 inches with my subsoil || 231 plough, my spade,
or my fork, without any risk of injuring t h e m . ... crops which look well at
first, often droop or fail altogether w h e n their roots get down to t h e hurtful
m a t t e r im subsoil ... Subsoil ploughing stirs u n d loosens, b u t does n o t
bring up the subsoil to the surface, wie deep ploughing or trenching.
20 ... Schweres Land, so gedrained etc, would be m o r e cheaply worked, u n d
yield a greater n u m b e r of bushels of corn per acre als zuvor u n d giebt green
crops in addition. ... there is m u c h high l a n d (ber der See) which will n o t
at present pay to crop, which would yet pay well if drained a n d subsoil-
ploughed or forked. F r draining tile drains werden vorgezogen d e n stone-
25 drains. Diese b e s t e h n usually of a d e p t h of 9 or 12 inches of stones b r o k e n
the size of road m e t a l . A tile drain ist inefficient without a sole, b e c a u s e it
is liable to sink, a n d t h u s b e c o m e choked. Der advantage der pipetiles ist,
da sie cheaper, gleich wirksam u n d d a u e r n d sind, lighter to carry u n d con-
tains tile and sole in o n e . ... An i n c h pipe will carry off a m u c h larger
30 quantity of rain t h e n usually falls in our climate. ... Diese drains are to be
p u t from 15 to 18 feet distance. ( 2 5 - 3 1 )
Of the Inorganic Food of Plants.
Der inorganic oder earthy part des soil dient 1) als ein M e d i u m , worin die
W u r z e l n sich fixiren k n n e n , so as to keep the plant in an upright position
35 u n d 2) supplirt die plant m i t inorganic food. Ausser d e n H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i -
len, Sand, clay u n d lime, enthlt der inorganic part of the soil small q u a n t i -
ties von Potash, soda, magnesia, Eisenoxid, M a n g a n e s e o x i d , S u l p h u r i c Acid,
Phosphoric acid u n d Chlorine. Bilden a m u c h larger proportion of the soil
377
t h a n they generally do of plants. A u s s e r d e m e n t h l t der inorganic part des

B o d e n s alumina, while plant usually c o n t a i n s n o n e . D e r soil enthlt silica
u n d a l u m i n a , die plant silica o h n e a l u m i n a , das a n i m a l weder silica n o c h
a l u m i n a . E x c e p t i o n z u m leztren ist das fact, d a die F e d e r n der Vgel u n d
H a a r u n d Wolle von m a n u n d a n d r e n a n i m a l s silica e n t h a l t e n i n m i n u t e
q u a n t i t y b u t as an essential constituent. In s o m e plants traces of a l u m i n a
have b e e n found, b u t it does n o t as yet appear to be necessary to any w h i c h
we cultivate for profit. ... Alumina is a white, earthy, tasteless powder,
which exists in alum, a n d gives their stiffness to pipe-clays a n d to stiff clay-
soils. D i e earthy m a t t e r enters into t h e p l a n t by the roots, in a state of solu- 10
tion. T h e r a i n a n d springwater dissolve t h e m , a n d carry t h e m into t h e roots.
... V o n allen diesen i n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n p l a n t s m u s t have a certain
small quantity, b u t they require m o r e of s o m e s u b s t a n c e s t h a n of others.
1) Quantity and Composition of the Ash left

by a ton (2240 lbs) of hay of different Kinds. 15
Italian Rye Clover Hay Lucerne

grass Hay Red White Hay
Potash 17 26 24 30
Soda 7 3 10 13
Lime 13% 55 45 107 20
Magnesia 3 17 14 1%
Oxide of Iron 1 1 3 %
Sulphuric acid 4 6 12 9
Phosphoric acid 8 10 20 29
Chlorine 2 4 5 6 25
Silica 81 5 6 7
138 129 141 211
Ist ein B o d e n gnzlich entblst von o n e dieser S u b s t a n z e n , good crops

would n o t grow u p o n it; enthlt er a large supply von allen u n d n u r a small
von s o m e o n e derselben, so werden die Pflanzen well auf i h m wachsen 30
which require only a small quantity of that o n e s u b s t a n c e ; aber die viel
d a v o n erheischen wrden b e stunted u n d u n h e a l t h y . E n t h i e l t e das L a n d
. . little lime, so k n n t e es grow a good crop of rye-grass, aber n i c h t a
good crop of clover. 1st a soil destitute of a considerable n u m b e r of these
different inorganic substances, so wrde er refuse to grow good crops of any 35
k i n d whatever. It would be naturally barren. S o m e larger tracts of country,
die n i e werden cultivated by m a n , sind naturally fertile u n d a n d r e naturally
barren. In t h e fertile soils all those inorganic substances exist which our
cultivated crops require; in t h e b a r r e n soils, s o m e of these substances are
or m a y be wholly wanting. 40
Composition of Soils of different degrees. (Sieh die folgende Seite b e r d e r
378
Bodentafel.) A soil k a n n b a r r e n sein obgleich er alle substances enthlt,

which plants require. W e n n it c o n t a i n s a very large p r o p o r t i o n of s o m e o n e ,
wie oxide of iron or c o m m o n salt, d a s in great quantity injurious to t h e
soil, l a n d reclaimed from t h e sea often c o n t a i n s t o o m u c h salt w h i c h t h e
5 r a i n gradually removes. Solcher B o d e n zu verbessern d u r c h t h o r o u g h
draining u n d subsoilploughing, t h a t the r a i n s m i g h t sink t h r o u g h it a n d
wash out t h e injurious m a t t e r ; d u r c h liming, if it required lime. ( S c h l a g
um.) I
|24| II. Composition of Soils of different degrees

10 of fertility. *(Sieh die Notiz zu dieser Tafel)
Fertile Fertile with Barren

without Manure
manure
Organic matter 97 50 40
15 Silica (in the
sand and clay) 648 833 778
Alumina (in
the clay) 57 51 91
Lime 59 18 4
20 Magnesia 8 8 1
Oxides of Iron 61 30 81
Oxide of Manganese 1 3 %
Potash 2 trace trace
Soda f chiefly as 4
25 Chlorine 1 common salt 2
Sulphuric Acid 2 %
Phosphoric Acid 4
Carbonic Acid
(combined mit dem
30 lime und magnesia) 40 4
Loss 14 4
Summa: 1000 1000 1000 (p. 35)
(31-36)
Effect of Cropping upon the Soil.
35 E i n n a t r l i c h fruchtbarer B o d e n k a n n b a r r e n g e m a c h t w e r d e n d u r c h con-
t i n u e d cropping, w e n n die same kind of cropping be carried on for a long
t i m e , z. B. J. zitirt w h e a t , o a t s o d e r a n d r e g r a i n . Schlielich unfhig Eins
derselben zu tragen. W e i l sie draw certain substances von d e m soil in great
a b u n d a n c e u n d n a c h einer R e i h e von J a h r e n the soil c a n n o t furnish these
40 substances in sufficient quantity. D a s grain of our corn crops . B. e x h a u s t s
besonders d e n B o d e n von phosphoric acid, Potash u n d Magnesia. (36)
379
Composition of the Ash of Wheat, Oats, etc

exclusive of the Straw, (in a 100 pounds.)
Wheat Oats Barley Rye Indian Beans Turnips Potato

Corn
Potash und Soda 33 26 22 33 32 45 51 58 5
Lime 3 6 2 5 1 11 2
Magnesia 12 10 7 10 16 6 3 5
Oxide of Iron % % 1 1 % % % %
Phosphoric acid 49 44 39 48 45 33 11 12
Sulphuric Acid % 10 trace 1 3 4 15 13 10
Chlorine trace % trace trace % 1 5 4
Silica 2 2% 27 y2 1 % 2 4
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 (37)
(*Notizen zu Tafel II (p. 35) D e r Boden, dessen Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g in

der ersten C o l u m n e gegeben h a d p r o d u c e d crops fr 60 J a h r e o h n e m a - 15
n u r e , a n d still c o n t a i n e d a sensible q u a n t i t y of all t h e s u b s t a n c e required
l
by plants. Der in der 2 C o l u m n e p r o d u c i r t e gute crops, w e n n regulr ge-
d n g t ; it was in want of 3 or 4 substances only, w h i c h were ||25| given to it
t e
by t h e m a n u r e . D e r 3 war hopelessly barren, it was in want of m a n y sub-
stances w h i c h ordinary m a n u r i n g could not supply in sufficient quantity. 20
D a b e i enthielt er zu viel Eisen.)
Der special e x h a u s t i o n n u n z u v o r g e k o m m e n by r e t u r n i n g to t h e soil the
particular substances my crops h a d t a k e n out. . B. die p h o s p h o r i c acid zu
rckgegeben d u r c h b o n e dust or g u a n o oder p h o s p h a t e of l i m e ... J e d e r
crop takes away from the soil a certain q u a n t i t y dieser substances w h i c h all 25
plants require. If you are always taking out of a purse it will at last b e c o m e
empty. (37) A b e r w e n n der farmer p u t s in t h e soil t h e proper substances, in
t h e proper quantities, a n d at the proper times, he m a y keep up t h e fertility
of t h e land, perhaps for ever. D e r F a r m e r m u d e m L a n d p u t in at least as
m u c h as he takes out. To m a k e his l a n d better, he m u s t p u t in m o r e t h a n 30
he takes out. His profits consist in this, that he takes off the l a n d w h a t he
c a n sell for m u c h m o n e y , a n d he p u t s in what he c a n buy for comparatively
little m o n e y . If I sell my oats, hay, or turnips, I get a m u c h higher price for
t h e m t h a n I afterwards give, w h e n I buy t h e m b a c k again in t h e form of
horse or cowdung. (38) 35
380
Of Manures and Manuring the Soil.
Portable masses, die are of a small bulk or weight u n d leicht zu great dis-
tances transported w e r d e n k n n e n . I h r Vortheil: they can be b r o u g h t v o n
fremden Lndern, oder carried far inland, oder carted up to high districts
5 u n d n o c h m i t Profit v o m P c h t e r a n g e w a n d t werden. So G u a n o , b o n e s ,
rapedust, pigeon's dung, p h o s p h a t e of l i m e , gypsum, nitrate of soda etc.
... vegetable, a n i m a l , m i n e r a l m a n u r e s . (39)
Vegetable Manures.
Pflanzen, wie grass, clover, hay, straw, potatotops, rapedust etc, die usually
10 are buried in the soil for t h e purpose of m a k i n g it m o r e productive. D e r soil
is m a n u r e d m i t green grass w h e n grass l a n d is ploughed u p . E b e n s o white
m u s t a r d , rape, rye, b r o o m , an m a n c h e n Stellen a u c h turnips ploughed in
green to enrich the soil. A green crop einzupflgen in leichte u n d sandy
soils u n d in solche die very little organische M a t e r i e enthalten ... sea-
15 weed, wo es in large quantity gefunden, bereichert d e n B o d e n sehr. Es ist
either spread over the land a n d ploughed in, or is allowed to rot a n d sink
in, or is m a d e i n t o a compost. In d e n potato drills ist es oft p u t in a fresh
state, care being t a k e n to prevent t h e potato sets from touching t h e sea-
weed, by putting a little earth between t h e m . So an d e n Ost u n d W e s t k -
20 sten Schottlands, giebt large Kartoffelcrops, b u t of inferior quality. ... P o -
tato or turnip tops dug in, w h e n the roots are lifted, m a k e the n e x t year's
corn better. W i e zu erhalten die largest quantity of green m a n u r e in t h e
form of potato-tops? By pulling off the blossoms the tops are k e p t in a
green state till the potatoes are dug u p , a n d thus give m u c h green crop. Heu
25 wird gewhnlich d e n Pferden gegeben u n d d a n n aufs L a n d geworfen in t h e
shape of their dung. Stroh an s o m e places gebraucht in feeding the cattle,
an a n d r e n theils d e n cattle gegeben u n d theils t r o d d e n a m o n g t h e litter,
while in places, where few cattle are kept, it is s o m e t i m e s rotted with water
u n d a little cow's d u n g u n d put on the l a n d in a half fermented state. 1st
30 das L a n d leicht, so zu d n g e n mit*straw well fermented u n d m i x t with t h e
droppings of a good m a n y cattle; ist es heavy clay l a n d during the n a k e d
fallow before a crop of wheat, d a n n rather m i t straw m o r e loose a n d unfer-
m e n t e d . It would help to keep my l a n d o p e n . Rape-cake is t h e refuse t h a t
r e m a i n s when rape or colzaseed is crushed in t h e mill to squeeze o u t t h e
35 oil. W h e n the cake is b r o k e n to powder, it is called rapedust. R a p e d u s t is
applied to turnips or potatos either in place of the whole or a part only of
381
the c o m m o n farmyarddung - a n d it is in m a n y parts of the country u s e d

with great profit as a top-dressing to the y o u n g wheat in spring. ( 3 9 - 4 2 )
Of Animal Manures.
H a u p t s c h l i c h s t e sind: Blut, Fleisch, K n o c h e n , H a a r e , Wolle, Mist u n d

U r i n der Thiere u n d der refuse der Fische. Blut Eins der m o s t powerful m a - 5
nures. In soils, die a r m an Phosphates, b o n e s p r o d u c i r e n excellent crops of
wheat u n d t u r n i p ; w e n n reich daran, rapedust, woollen rags, the salts of
a m m o n i a u n d t h e nitrates of potash u n d Soda are applied m i t great profit
fr corn u n d root crops. T h e practical i m p o r t a n c e of Geology b e c o m e s ap-
parent, w h e n it is known that the inspection of a geological m a p enables us 10
to point out where soils rich or poor in p h o s p h a t e s are likely to occur.
Bones b e s t e h n aus gelatine or glue, w h i c h m a y be partly extracted by boiling
t h e m in water, (verbrennt, organischer Bestandtheil) u n d aus bone-earth,
die als A s c h e zurckbleibt (phosphate of lime.) (100 lbs of b o n e earth as it
is o b t a i n e d by b u r n i n g bones e n t h a l t e n 4 0 - 4 5 lbs of phosphoric acid.) Old 15
dairy pastures especially require b o n e s , weil M i l c h u n d Kse b o n e earth
e n t h a l t e n u n d diese, s o n a c h u n d n a c h d e m B o d e n entzogen, e r n u r n o c h
Grasses produciren kann, die little b o n e earth e n t h a l t e n . In 10 gallons
l
Milch e n t h a l t e n / Pf- b o n e earth. A cow daher, die 20 quarts a day giebt,
2
n i m m t a b o u t 2 Pf. b o n e earth von d e m soil j e d e W o c h e . To return these to 20

the soil 3 Pf. of dry b o n e s oder 4 Pf. of c o m m o n b o n e dust sind erheischt.
Hair u n d wool sind remarkable for c o n t a i n i n g a b o u t 5 % of sulphur. V o n
d e n E x c r e m e n t e n die n t z l i c h s t e n der R e i h e n a c h M e n s c h e n = d a n n
bird's = d a n n horse = d a n n pig's, schlielich u n d least cowdung. ( 4 2 - 4 5 ) |
|26| Nitrogen whrend der fermentation of a n i m a l m a n u r e s n i m m t erst die 25
F o r m von a m m o n i a an. Ammonia is a kind of air which has an exceedingly
strong smell u n d possesses alkaline properties. T h e h a r t s h o r n of the shops
is merely water impregnated m i t this gas. Besteht aus nitrogen u n d hy-
drogen. 14 Pf. of nitrogen u n d 3 Pf. of hydrogen m a c h e n 17 Pf. a m m o n i a .
D i e a m m o n i a , w h e n formed in m a n u r e , is dissolved in t h e soil by water 30
u n d is t h e n sucked in by the roots. D u r c h die acid of a m m o n i a in d e n
Pflanzen gebildet das gluten u n d other substances containing nitrogen. D e r
U r i n von m a n u n d von d e m pig enthlt phospates; die des horse, der cow
u n d des sheep nicht. 1845: 220,000 tons of g u a n o i m p o r t e d in the U n i t e d
K i n g d o m . 1847: 82,000, worth a b o u t 500,000. ( 4 7 - 5 1 ) 35
382
r
Of Saline or Mineral Manures.
Die wichtigsten p h o s p h a t e of lime, nitrate of soda, sulphate of Soda, sul-

p h a t e of magnesia, c o m m o n salt, gypsum, kelp, woodashes, soot u n d l i m e .
Phosphate of lime ist a white earthy s u b s t a n c e , b e s t e h e n d aus l i m e u n d
5 phosphoric acid, which in m a n y places is d u g up as a mineral, a n d is u s e d
for agricultural purpose. Es occurs a b u n d a n t l y in s o m e geological forma-
tions, besonders in d e m greensand u n d d e m crag u n d ist zu a variable ex-
tent e n t h a l t e n in allen Kalksteinen. T h e discovery dieser p h o s p h a t e b e d s
ist o n e of the i m p o r t a n t benefits w h i c h m o d e r n science has bestowed u p o n
10 practical agriculture. Wird als m a n u r e verwandt, w e n n ground to fine pow-
der oder dissolved, like b o n e s , in sulphuric acid u n d applied to t h e corn
a n d root crops. Nitrate of Soda a white saltlike (saline) substance, gefunden
in der Erde in einigen T h e i l e n von Peru u n d oft m i t Vortheil angewandt as
a topdressing to grass lands a n d to young corn. Besteht aus nitric acid u n d
15 soda. 54 Pf. of nitric acid u n d 31 Pf. of soda bilden 85 Pf. of nitrate of soda.
W e n n carbonic acid sich verbindet m i t Potasche, Soda, l i m e u n d m a g n e -
sia, bildet es a carbonate, w e n n ein phosphoric acid a phosphate, sulphuric
acid a sulphate, nitric acid a nitrate. Nitric acid a very sour, corrosive liquid,
called also a q u a fortis. Besteht aus nitrogen u n d oxygen. Sulphate of Soda
20 (Glaubersalz) besteht aus sulphuric acid (Vitrioll) u n d Soda. Sulphate of
Magnesia (Epsom salts) ist a bitter substance, consisting of sulphuric acid
u n d Magnesia. Gypsum is a white solid substance, besteht aus sulphuric
acid u n d lime. Kelp is the ash that is left w h e n sea-weed is b u r n e d in large
quantities. Soot enthlt lime, g y p s u m u n d sulphate of a m m o n i a , t h e latter
25 s o m e t i m e s to the extent of % of its whole weight. Soot, die salts of ammonia
und die nitrates give the crops a rich and luxuriant green colour. ( 5 1 - 5 6 )
Of Limestone, and of the Burning

and Use of Lime.
Limestone besteht aus lime (quicklime) in c o m b i n a t i o n m i t C a r b o n i c acid,

30 heit bei d e n chemists carbonate of lime. Varieties of limestone, einige
soft wie Kreide, andre hart, wie die c o m m o n limestones, einige m i t gelber
F a r b e wie der m a g n e s i a n l i m e s t o n e , einige wei, wie der statuary m a r b l e ,
einige schwarz, wie der Derbyshire black marble. Marl ist dasselbe wie
limestone, n m l i c h carbonate of lime, n u r oft m e t with in a soft state oder
35 in that of a fine powder, a n d often also m i x e d with earthy matter. L i m e -
383
stones u n d marls e n t h a l t e n gewhnlich a m i n u t e q u a n t i t y of p h o s p h a t e of

lime. In limestones das p h o s p h a t e oft zu 1 % % u n d in s o m e few marls zu 2,
3 oder 4 % . Shellsand or b r o k e n seashells is also nearly t h e s a m e thing as
c o m m o n l i m e s t o n e . W e n n l i m e s t o n e (carbonate of lime) is b u r n e d in t h e
kiln, t h e carbonic acid is driven off from t h e l i m e s t o n e by t h e h e a t u n d der 5
l i m e alone r e m a i n s . D i e der s.g. b u r n e d lime, q u i c k - l i m e , caustic lime,
h o t lime, lime shells etc (Alkali). D e r lime, sowohl der q u i c k l i m e als der
m i l d l i m e (leztrer s.g. w e n n g e b r a n n t e r Kalk wieder m i t W a s s e r v e r b u n d e n
u n d wieder K o h l e n s u r e aus der Luft ausgesogen h a b e n d in Pulver zerfllt)
wirkt by supplying t h e lime which all plants r e q u i r e as part of their food, by 10
c o m b i n i n g with acids in the soil, so as to r e m o v e t h e sourness of t h e land
a n d by converting the vegetable m a t t e r of t h e soil i n t o t h e food of plants.
In d i e s e m L a n d gewhnlich 8 oder 10 bushels a year a d d e d to an imperial
acre. A b e r n i c h t every year, sondern every r o t a t i o n or every second rotation
oder m a n c h m a l n u r once in the 19 J a h r e n . ( 5 6 - 6 1 ) 15
Of the composition of the crops

which the farmer reaps.
D i e different kinds of grain b e s t e h n besonders aus starch, gluten u n d oil

oder fat. 100 Pfund Roggen- oder Weizenmehl e n t h a l t e n a b o u t 50 Pf. Strke,
10 Pf. Kleber (gluten) u n d 2 oder 3 Pf. Oel. 100 Pf. oats e n t h a l t e n ungefhr 20
60 Pf. Strke, 16 Pf. gluten u n d 6 Pf. Oel. 100 Pf. Indian com ungefhr 70 Pf.
Strke, 12 Pf. gluten u n d 8 Pf. Fett. Kartoffeln und Turnips b e s t e h n beson-
ders aus Wasser. 100 Pf. potatos e n t h a l t e n an 75 Pf. Wasser. 100 Pfund of
t u r n i p s e n t h a l t e n 88 Pf. Wasser u n d 100 Pf. M a n g o l d w u r z e l an 85 Pf. Die
quantity of water oft n o c h grsser, s o m e varieties of wheat e n t h a l t e n m e h r 25
gluten als andre, some varieties of oats m e h r Oel als a n d r e , s o m e varieties
of potatoes m e h r Strke als a n d r e . Oats u n d I n d i a n corn u n d die Oelsaa-
m e n e n t h a l t e n m o s t fat; beans, pease u n d O e l s a a m e n d e n m e i s t e n gluten.
( O e l s a a m e n also . B. L e i n s a a m e n , R a p s s a a m e n , poppy seed, h e m p s e e d ) .
D a s Clima Einflu hierauf. D e r W e i z e n warmer Climate soll m e h r gluten 30
u n d die potatoes u n d barley grown auf light u n d welldrained land m e h r
Strke e n t h a l t e n . ( 6 1 - 6 2 ) |
384
|27| Uses of the Crops in Feeding.
E i n Thier m u erhalten Strke, Kleber, Oel oder Fett u n d saline or inor-

ganic matter, um to be m a i n t a i n e d in a h e a l t h y state. E i n M a n n throws off
from his lungs in a day 6 - 8 U n z e n of carbon. M u daher z u m Ersatz
5 nearly a p o u n d of starch essen. 10 o u n c e s of starch e n t h a l t e n 4 % U n z e n of
carbon. Derselbe carbon ist again u n d again transformed by the plant into
starch u n d by the a n i m a l into carbonic acid; diese changes nthig to keep
up the w a r m t h of the a n i m a l body. D e r gluten der Pflanzen ersezt die m u s -
cles der Thiere. food that c o n t a i n s m u c h oil ist die best for fattening. Dar-
io um lin-seed u n d oilcake so good for fattening stock. A b o u t 80,000 tons of
linseed cake imported jhrlich in G r e a t Britain, as food for cattle, at a cost
of nearly 700,000. P h o s p h a t e of l i m e u n d other inorganic m a t t e r s nthig
to supply the daily waste of the b o n e s , of t h e salts in the blood etc. A b e r
gluten u n d saline matter, when the a n i m a l is growing, n o t only supply t h e
15 daily waste, but are daily adding to the weight of the a n i m a l ' s body. Q.
How would you convert a ton of oats or turnips into the largest quantity of
beef or m u t t o n ? A. I would keep my cattle or sheep in a warm or sheltered
place, where they m i g h t have wholesome air, a n d b u t little light, a n d I
would disturb t h e m as little as possible. Q. If y o u wanted merely to fatten a
20 fullgrown beast, what would you do? A. I would keep it warm, disturb it
little, a n d give it fat or oily food etc with a good supply of turnips. T h e de-
gree of warmth and c o n f i n e m e n t u n d e r which a n i m a l s will thrive d e p e n d s
m u c h u p o n the breed. Q. If you wished only to convert a large quantity of
hay, straw or turnips into m a n u r e s , what would you do? I would p u t my
25 stock in a cool a n d less sheltered place, a n d I would m a k e t h e m take a
good deal of exercise. ( 6 3 - 6 7 )
Of milk and dairy Produce.
Milch besteht aus water, curd, b u t t e r u n d einer b e s o n d e r n Art Zucker, ge-

n a n n t Milchzucker. 100 Pf. oder 10 gallons of cow's milk e n t h a l t e n a b o u t
30 4 % lbs of pure curd, 3 of fat or butter, u n d 4 % of milk sugar - nearly all t h e
rest is water. W n s c h t m a n , da die K u h die mglichst grosse Quantitt
M i l c h gebe, so reicht m a n ihr rich juicy grass, turnips m i t their tops, green
rye, brewers' grains, warm m a s h e s , oder other food containing m u c h water
u n d giebt ihr so viel to drink als sie will. Will m a n aber Milch von der best-
es mglichen Qualitt erhalten, so giebt m a n ihr drier food - oats, b e a n s , b r a n ,
oilcake u n d clover hay, along with h e r turnips or boiled food. Will m a n
385
besonders Butterreiche Milch so giebt m a n ihr dasselbe k i n d of food als fr

fattening animals. Die Milch enthlt alle E l e m e n t e einer nahrhaften N a h -
rung. D i e Butter der M i l c h supplies das fat des Krpers, das curd supports
die muscles, der Milchzucker liefert d e n carbon fr die Respiration u n d
die Phosphates die earthy m a t t e r der bones ... Das a n i m a l finds ready 5
formed in t h e ripened plant, all the m o s t i m p o r t a n t substances of which its
own b o d y is composed. D e r gluten of its food ist nearly identical m i t d e m
fibre of its muscles, das oil similar d e m fat of its b o d y while the bone-earth
u n d other salts of the plant supply materials for the b o n e s a n d blood of the
a n i m a l , u n d die starch u n d sugar d e n carbon w h i c h is necessary for the 10
purpose of respiration. W h e n the vegetable food has discharged its office in
the a n i m a l body, it returns to the earth in the form of d u n g - only to enter
into the roots of new plants u n d t h u s to p r o d u c e new supplies of sustenace
for other races of animals. ( 6 7 - 9 ) D e r s e l b e J o h n s t o n u.a. n o c h g e s c h r i e -
b e n Elements of Agricultural Chemistry u n d Geology. 5 ed. W. Black- 15
wood u n d sons. E d i n b u r g h u n d L o n d o n . 1848. Instructions for the Analy-
sis of Soils. Contributions to Scientific Agriculture. 1849. E x p r i m e n -
tal Agriculture, being the Results of Past, a n d suggestions for future
e x p e r i m e n t s in scientific a n d practical agriculture. 1849.
386
Aus William Johnston: England as it is, political, social, and industrial
Johnston. (William, Barrister at Law.)

England as it is, Political, Social,
and Industrial etc 2 vol.
L o n d o n . 1851.
5 T.I.
Statistics of the Land. Farmers und Gentry.
Das U n i t e d K i n g d o m 77,394,433 acres. D a v o n 46,522,970 u n t e r irgend

einer Art von Cultur; n m l i c h 19,135,990 acres of arable land u n d g a r d e n s ;
27,386,980 acres of m e a d o w s , pastures u n d m a r s h e s ; 15,000,000 acres of
10 waste land capable of i m p r o v e m e n t , in i h r e m present state geschzt z u m
W e r t h von 5 Mill. S t . a year u n d 15,871,463 acres incapable of improve-
m e n t . (10) Spackman schzt das R e n t a l des l a n d des U n i t e d K i n g d o m zu
58,753,615 l. u n d adds da die direct u n d local taxation applicable to it
a m o u n t s zu 18,314,908 1., wovon 13,881,9111, paid von d e m l a n d e d inter-
15 est u n d 4,432,997 l. von d e m m a n u f a c t u r i n g interest. Er schzt das in der
Cultur des Bodens e m b a r k e d capital auf 250 Mill. J a m e s M a c Q u e e n esti-
m a t e s the a n n u a l agricultural p r o d u c e des U n i t e d K i n g d o m auf
686,524,132 l. u n t e r protection prices u n d auf 470,580,485 l. u n t e r d e n
prices of 1850. N a c h Porter: 19,135,000 acres zu 7 I. per acre geben
20 133,945,000; 27 Mill, acres zu 6 I. per acre 162 Mill, u n d 15 Mill, acres
wastes zu 5 Mill. G i e b t ein jhrliches P r o d u c t von 300,945,000. ( 1 0 , 1 1 ) |
|28| Spackman schzt das a n n u a l p r o d u c e [des] L a n d e s des U n i t e d King-
d o m n u r auf 250,000,000 I. St; obgleich er W e i z e n das qr zu 60 sh. n i m m t
u n d alles andre grain zu 30 sh. His calculation is:
387
22,000,000 qrs of wheat 66,000,000

34,000,000 qrs of all other grains 51,000,000
Hay, seeds, garden u n d green crops 30,000,000
2,000,000 head of cattle 30,000,000
10,000,000 sheep a n d lambs 15,000,000 5
Potatoes 25,000,000
Wool 8,000,000
Butter 5,000,000
Cheese 5,000,000
Poultry, milk, eggs, fruits u n d vegetables 3,000,000 10
200,000 horses 3,000,000
Pigs 2,000,000
All other a n i m a l s 1,000,000
Hops 1,500,000
Timber 2,500,000 15
V a l u e of uncultivated wastes u n d woods 2,000,000
250,000,000.
S p a c k m a n schzt das yield of wheat in E n g l a n d zu 18 Mill, qrs; of barley

zu 6 Mill, qrs; of oats, rye, beans u n d peas zu 12 Mill, qrs, z u m W e r t h von
54 Mill. fr wheat, 9 Mill. I. fr barley, 18 Mill. fr die other sorts of 20
grain u n d pulse. McCulloch On T a x a t i o n " , giebt sein E s t i m a t e von d e m
corn grown in England:
Wheat, 14,000,000 qrs zu 50 sh. 35,000,000

Barley 5,000,000 qrs zu 30 sh. 7,500,000
Oats, peas und beans 25
12 Mill, qrs zu 25 sh. 16,000,000
58,500,000.
1844 gab McCulloch fr das ganze e m p i r e :
P r o d u c e from arable land 138,021,548
Pasture u n d uncultivated l a n d 89,750,000 30
2 2 7 , 7 7 1 , 5 4 8 . ([11,] 12.)
M c C u l l o c h schzt das G e s a m m t G r u n d r e n t a l von E n g l a n d u n d Wales

auf 4 0 - 4 1 Millionen. (On Taxation, p. 147) Mr. Spackman giebt das gross
rental of England u n d Wales auf 40,167,088 1.; von Schottland: 5,586,628
u n d von Irland auf 13,562,946, z u s a m m e n 59,316,662 /. (13) D e r average of 35
rent per acre in England u n d Wales 1 8 4 2 - 3 war 1 /. 1 s. 8 d., having risen
to that s u m von 18 s. 6% d., which was the rate in 1 8 1 4 - 1 5 . (I.e.) 5 - 6 per
acre hielt m a n fr das capital required for the cultivation of land; aber das
high farming of m o d e r n times erfordert fast das Doppelte. (14) from state-
388
m e n t s m a d e in P a r l i a m e n t in 1845 it appeared d a das G r u n d r e n t a l of l a n d

in G r e a t Britain advanced von b e r 39, in 1814, auf b e r 45 Mill. (in
1843), while that of h o u s e s h a d increased von 16,259,399 I. in 1814 zu
38,475,738 l. G r u n d r e n t e scheint n u r um 1 2 % gestiegen zu sein, w h r e n d
H a u s r e n t e um 140 %. (16, 17) To the Lords C o m m i t t e e on Parochial A s -
sessments (May 1850) Mr Cornwall Lewis stated t h a t in 1843 das real p r o -
perty" assessed to t h e i n c o m e t a x was as follows:
Lands 40,167,088
Houses 35,556,399
10 Tithes 1,960,330
Manors 152,216
Fines 319,140
Quarries 207,009
Mines 1,903,794
15 Ironworks 412,022
Fisheries 11,104
Canals 1,229,202
Railways 2,417,609
O t h e r Property 1,466,815
20 85,802,728.
1848 lands h a d increased to 41,179,713

Houses zu 37,282,140
Railways zu 5,465,584
All other Property 7,245,034
25 Total: 91,172,471 1. ( 1 7 , 1 8 )
T h e smaller proprietors, von d e n e n der M ' C u l l o c h sagt sie seien die M a -

joritt u n d h t t e n kein E i n k o m m e n b e r 170 /. a year, sind nicht, as they
o n c e were, owners of fields, b u t of h o u s e s a n d gardens, the proprietors, in
short, of residences, b u t n o t deriving their support from the land. ([18,] 19)
30 Of t r a d e s m e n u n d h a n d i c r a f t s m e n heit es in den C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' ab-
stracts presented d e m P a r l a m e n t 1844: Of tradesmen u n d handicraftsmen
bei weitem die grte Z a h l are i n c l u d e d u n d e r the h e a d of boot u n d shoe
makers, a m o u n t i n g zu 214,780 oder fast % m e h r als die butchers, bakers,
b u t t e r m e n , m i l k m e n , grocers u n d greengrocers p u t together." (p. 25) 1849
35 waren die exports von Great Britain 58,848,042 /. u n d die schliet ein d e n
value des raw material, wovon ein grosser Theil of foreign p r o d u c t i o n ; D i e
probably nicht m e h r als % der a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n of wealth in the U n i t e d
K i n g d o m . Spackman in s e i n e m B u c h The O c c u p a t i o n s of the P e o p l e "
giebt:
389

Agriculture, annual creation of Wealth
in Great Britain 250,000,000
Manufactures (deducting the value
des raw material) 127,000,000
Mining Interest 37,000,000 5
Colonial Interest 18,000,000
Foreign commerce (including
the shipping interest) 15,000,000
Fisheries 3,000,000
450,000,000. 10
|29| S p a c k m a n schzt den gross value der m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t i o n s auf

187,184,292 1., wovon 118,600,000 l. fr d e n h o m e t r a d e u n d 58,584,292 I.
fr d e n foreign trade. Unterstellt d a von der m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry der
h o m e trade % absorbirt u n d der foreign n u r Bei der c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e
die h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n zu der e x p o r t c o n s u m p t i o n = 20:25. ([51,] 52) the 15
quantities t a k e n into h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n in 1849 waren, of wheat
4,509,626 qrs, of I n d i a n corn 2,249,571 qrs, of wheatflour 3,937,219 cwt, of
I n d i a n c o r n m e a l 102,181 cwt, besides 1,554,860 qrs of barley, 1,368,673 qrs
of oats u n d 1,417,863 cwts of potatoes. (54) 1849 foreign eggs eingefhrt
97,884,557. (55) Die Edinburgh Review sagt irgendwo: intelligent apprcia- 20
tion, childish fear, childish wonder, a feverish spirit of speculation, a n d a
strong infusion of cupidity, are all strangely m i n g l e d in the popular estimate
of what the sciences are destined to effect for the world. T h e general faith
in science as a wonder-worker is at present u n l i m i t e d ; a n d along with this
t h e r e is cherished the conviction t h a t every discovery a n d i n v e n t i o n a d m i t s 25
of practical application to the welfare of m e n . Is a new vegetable product
brought to this country from abroad, or a new c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d discov-
ered, or a novel physical p h e n o m e n o n recorded, the question is i m m e d i a t e -
ly asked, cui bono? W h a t is it good for? Is food or drink to be got out of it?
Will it m a k e hats or shoes, or cover umbrellas? Will it kill or heal? Will it 30
drive a steamengine or m a k e a mill go? ... Chemistry has long c o m e down
from her atomic altitudes a n d electric affinities, a n d now scours a n d dyes,
brews, bakes, cooks, and c o m p o u n d s drugs a n d m a n u r e s with contented
c o m p o s u r e . Electricity leaves her t h u n d e r b o l t in the sky, and, like Mercury
dismissed from Olympus, acts as lettercarrier a n d messageboy. Even myste- 35
rious m a g n e t i s m , which once seemed like a living principle to quiver in the
compass-needle, is u n c l o t h e d of mystery, a n d set to drive turning-lathes.
T h e public perceives all this, a n d has u n l i m i t e d faith in m a n ' s power to
c o n q u e r n a t u r e . T h e credulity which formerly fed u p o n u n i c o r n s , p h o e n i x -
es, m e r m a i d s , vampires, crackens, pestilential comets, fairies, ghosts, witch- 40
es, spectres, charms, curses, universal remedies, p a c t i o n s with Satan, a n d
390
the like, now tampers with chemistry, electricity a n d m a g n e t i s m , as it o n c e

did with the invisible world: Shoes of swiftness, seven-leagued boots, a n d
F o r t u n a t u s ' wishing caps are b a n i s h e d even from the nursery; b u t an elec-
tro-magnetic steam fire-balloon, which will cleave the air like a t h u n d e r -
5 bolt, and go straight to its destination as the crow flies, is an i n v e n t i o n
which m a n y h o p e to see realized before railways are quite worn to pieces.
[p. 245, 246]
By a return presented to P a r l i a m e n t at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e session of
1850 sieht m a n d e n progress of railways: (p. 262, 263)
10 Miles open in the United Kingdom at the end of

Dec. 1844 2240 J u n e 1847 3603
Juni 1845 2343 D e c . 1847 3945
Dec. 1845 2536 J u n e 1848 4478
Juni 1846 2765 D e c 1848 5127
15 Dec. 1846 3142 J u n e 1849 5447. (263)
Die general receipts waren: (Jahr i m m e r E n d e n d J u n e 30)
Receipts von Passengers Cattle, Goods etc. Total Receipts.

1845 3,976,341 2,233,373 6,209,714
1846 4,725,215 2,840,354 7,565,569
20 1847 5,148,002 3,362,884 8,510,886
1848 5,720,382 4,213,170 9,933,552
1849 6,105,975 5,094,926 11,200,901. (265)
T.II.
25 A u f d e m L a n d die boys work hard von 8 J a h r e n bis 15, at wages gradually

increasing von 4 - 1 0 d. a day, bis sie at length achieve m a n h o o d u n d der
climax von 1 8 - 2 0 d. a day gezahlt wird, in this, the dearest country in t h e
world, a n d t h e country in which the agricultural labourer works t h e hardest.
(198) A clergyman von Kent sagt, d a a great u n d oppressive misfortune
30 to the labourer's family", ist die difficulty of expending his earnings to h i s
advantage. Confined to the limits of his little circle u n d perhaps only late
on t h e Saturday evening receiving his wages, his dealings are solely m i t
d e n village shops. In diesen shops articles fr c o n s u m p t i o n von sehr m o d -
erate quality zu sehr h o h e n Preissen verkauft. There are n u m e r o u s in-
35 stances of large fortunes m a d e in places where the farmers u n d labourers
391
are the only customers; g e m a c h t n u r durch excessive profits u n d want of

competition. It is a h a r d case, says this informant vor der parliamentary
C o m m i s s i o n , to have earned 12 sh. by the sweat of t h e brow, and to be able
to procure n o t m o r e t h a n 9 s. would c o m m a n d in a town where c o m p e t i t i o n
exists ... A labourer is allowed credit for a small a m o u n t u n d t h e n obliged 5
t o deal, u m n i c h t getreten z u werden. Millers c o m m o n l y p u r s u e the same
system. Blankets are d o u b l e the price of a wholesale shop in L o n d o n ;
shoes, too, e n o r m high. (199, 200) |
|30| National and Private Indebtedness.
M a n unterstelle das s. g. real property" in E n g l a n d u n d Wales werth 10

90 Mill, oder in Capital 2,800,000,000, das der I n h a b e r der N a t i o n a l D e b t
800,000,000, so sind diese 800 M i l l i o n e n hypothesirt auf die 2,800. (270)
the terms on which loans were contracted during the reigns of W i l l i a m III,
A n n e u n d George I were m o s t unfavourable. A b e r a great advantage to the
m o n e y owners, who, because the g o v e r n m e n t was unstable, o b t a i n e d for a 15
small s u m a large lien u p o n the fruits of the future industry of the people.
(275) V o n 1 7 9 4 - 1 8 1 7 fr die a c c o m m o d a t i o n von 584 Mill, in cash (mit
g o v e r n m e n t security) the country gave its b o n d s fr 879,000,000 1., wovon
n o c h 576 Mill, out-standing u n d 303 Mill, have b e e n discharged by the
m e a n s of the sinking fund. U n d die n i c h t alles: our g o v e r n m e n t first gave 20
879 Mill. I. St. in stock fr 584 Mill. in paper m o n e y u n d t h e n the legisla-
ture m a d e a change in the law which gave to t h e whole of the o u t s t a n d i n g
stock the value of goldmoney. So die 576 Mill, of o u t s t a n d i n g stock en-
h a n c e d von 30 to 4 0 % oder, in a n d r e n W o r t e n , fr 396,352,207 1., the net
s u m received from loans von 1 7 9 4 - 1 8 1 7 , the n a t i o n is now b o u n d in a s u m 25
e q u a l to 768 Mill. of the m o n e y in which those loans were contracted.
(275, 6) N a c h den official accounts dated J a n u a r y 5, 1850, die total capital
debt das U n i t e d K i n g d o m 775,734,579 1., wovon 2,566,263 transferred to
the Commissioners for the r e d u c t i o n of the debt. D i e g a n z e u n r e d e e m e d
debt", abgesehn von den Exchequerbills, worauf die n a t i o n Z i n s zu zahlen, 30
also 773,168,316 I. (277) M'Culloch liefert eine Tabelle, w o d u r c h er beweist,
da, if no m o r e interest on debt h a d to be paid t h a n t h a t which existed in
1793, the country might have expended all that it did expend u p o n internal
government a n d foreign war von 1 7 9 3 - 1 8 1 6 u n d have incurred n u r
151,327,007 1., of new debt statt 573,377,988 I. In fact, the total expenditure 35
of the country, on account of internal government, the colonies, the war +
die debt contracted previously to 1793, von that year bis 1816, b o t h inclusive,
war n u r 151,327,007 /. grsser als die R e v e n u e actually derived from taxes
392
during that period. It was t h e profuse system of borrowing etc. (279) D e r

a m o u n t of private d e b t im U n i t e d K i n g d o m wird geschzt von 1 auf 3 Mil-
liarden /. N e h m e n wir das i n c o m e von fixed property zu 100 Mill, a year,
so /4 davon is tied up by mortgages, settlements, or i n c u m b r a n c e s of o n e
5 kind or another; interest, a n n u i t i e s etc. (281)
/
393
I3i| The Economist. Juli, 26,1851.
Patent Laws.
D a s Principle eines Patentlaw is to bestow on o n e individual the exclusive

use of some particular i n s t r u m e n t or object which he claims to have dis-
covered or invented. N u r asked to prevent some other persons from using 5
his inventions. ... It is the very n a t u r e of knowledge a n d skill, totally dis-
tinct from most kinds of property, to be improved a n d e x t e n d e d by being
imparted. To limit the exclusive use of knowledge a n d skill to one person,
as is d o n e in degree by the Patent Laws, is in fact to take m e a s u r e s to stop
their growth. ... We deny, therefore, that the claims m a d e by inventors to 10
the exclusive use of inventions is a right of property. ... M a n sagt o h n e Pa-
t e n t e wrden vielleicht n t z l i c h e Erfindungen der Gesellschaft n i c h t mit-
getheilt ... society would n o t be in t h e least injured t h o u g h all s u c h secrets
died with their possessors ... nearly all useful inventions d e p e n d less on
any individual t h a n on the progress of society. A want is f e l t . . . ingenuity is 15
directed to supply it u n d a great n u m b e r of suggestions or inventions of a
similar k i n d c o m e to light. ... So we find continually a great n u m b e r of
similar patents taken out about the same t i m e . T h u s the want suggests the
invention ... T h e progress of knowledge, a n d the progress of invention and
discovery, like the progress of p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e progress of society have 20
their ordained a n d settled course, which c a n n o t be hastened, t h o u g h per-
h a p s it m a y be retarded, by P a t e n t laws. (812)
394
Aus The Economist. August 1851
The Economist. August, 2,1851.

Englische und nordamerikanische Schiffahrt.
D i e inward u n d outward entries of ships of all kinds to u n d from the

U n i t e d States, 1850, belief sich auf 8,689,641 tons. D a v o n gehrten
5 5,205,804 tons den U n i t e d States u n d 3,483,837 d e n foreign n a t i o n s . D a -
von gehrten 2,855,338 tons d e n British ships, whrend die aller a n d r e n
L n d e r z u s a m m e n n u r 628,499 tons. Also das whole of the shipping en-
gaged im foreign trade der U n i t e d States besteht aus 6 0 % of A m e r i c a n
shipping u n d 4 0 % of foreign. D e r british shipowner hat 32 % von d e m gan-
10 z e n foreign trade der U n i t e d States u n d 82 % von d e m Theil carried on by
foreign ships. - A u s d e n accounts des U n i t e d K i n g d o m fr das J a h r en-
d e n d 5 J a n u a r 1851 folgt: da die inward u n d outward entries of ships of
all kinds, to a n d from t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , im lezten J a h r 12,020,674 tons.
D a v o n 8,039,308 of british shipping u n d 3,981,366 of foreign ships of all
15 kinds. V o n den 3,981,366 foreign tons gehrten 1,215,225 d e m a m e r i c a n
shipping u n d 2,766,141 den ships aller a n d r e n n a t i o n s . Also im G a n z e n
67 % of british shipping u n d 33 % of foreign tonnage. Die a m e r i c a n ship-
owners have obtained n u r 11 % von d e m Ganzen foreign trade des U n i t e d
K i n g d o m u n d 3 5 % von d e m by foreign ships gefhrten. (837, 8)
20
Competition. Shipping.
W i e bei Bildung der E r d r i n d e successive changes u n d zu den v e r s c h i e d n e n

E p o c h e n Pflanzen u n d Thiere verschieden u n d u n t e r i h n e n a successive
development, plants u n d a n i m a l s of a m o r e complete organisation succeed-
25 ing to plants u n d a n i m a l s of a less complete organisation, so in der G e -
schichte der M e n s c h e n . A u c h im Detail gilt d i e ; a u c h von d e n classes of
men, some of w h o m disappear like the copyists of m a n u s c r i p t s before t h e
printers; u n d in unsrer Zeit die postboys vor d e n engineers, stokers u n d
railway guards u n d gleich d e n h a n d l o o m w e a v e r s vor d e n powerloomweav-
30 ers ... U n t e r d i e s e m Gesetz des b e s t n d i g e n Wechsels u n d der b e s t n d i g e n
Entwicklung there m u s t be always s o m e a n i m a l s , some classes of h u m a n
beings, s o m e n a t i o n s m a k i n g less progress t h a n others, or decaying or dy-
ing o u t and m a k i n g r o o m for other a n i m a l s , other classes, or other n a t i o n s .
So leztlich m i t d e n Irish, m a k i n g way either for such for themselves as
395
c o m p r e h e n d the laws which govern the wellheing a n d subsistence of m a n

in Ireland, or for other m e n who c o m p r e h e n d t h e m . In all these cases of
m o d e r n i m p r o v e m e n t we see distinctly, that the race or the m a n who suc-
ceeds, possesses m o r e knowledge etc of the powers of n a t u r e as the m a n or
race who fails. N a t u r e works with the successful m a n a n d the thriving na- 5
tion. T h e y succeed by her power ... A u c h u n s e r shipping d i e s e m Gesetz u n -
terworfen. Ihre Industrie ersezt d u r c h werthvollere Industrie. T h e applica-
tion of s t e a m to propelling vessels a n d of s t e a m to drag carriages on
railroads is rendering m a n y old sailing craft comparatively valueless.
... Jezt ||32| auf grosser Stufenleiter im U n t e r g e h n begriffen our coasting 10
vessels. It is cheaper a n d quicker to send sugar or corn between L o n d o n and
Lowestoffe or L o n d o n a n d Y a r m o u t h on the east, a n d between L o n d o n a n d
Hastings on the south, a n d L o n d o n a n d S o u t h a m p t o n on t h e west, by rail
t h a n by water, a n d this change puts an end to m u c h coasting trade. M u c h
of what is retained is carried on by steamvessels, which are m o r e safe a n d 15
quicker t h a n sailing vessels. M a c h e n wahrscheinlich n u r 1 oder 2 Reisen,
wo j e n e 3. T h e least efficient of our coasting vessels are t h u s continually
b e a t e n by the rapidly extending operations of railroads u n d s t e a m b o a t s ;
they are continually b e a t e n too by improved sailing vessels; they swell t h e
a m o u n t of u n e m p l o y e d shipping; they are laid u p , or they [are] sent into 20
t h e m a r k e t as general carriers, a n d the c o m p e t i t i o n which ensues a m o n g s t
shipowners leads to those low freights of which they so loudly complain.
T h e m a i n cause of the deterioration of their property is the i m p r o v e m e n t of
other m o d e s of carriage. ... Frher war die Kstenschiffahrt die nursery for
our seamen, which our government still vainly e n d e a v o u r to protect." ... 25
laws however well i n t e n t i o n e d will n o t preserve either m a r i n e r s or postboys
in existence. T h e condition of their c o n t i n u a n c e a n d their success is, that
they do the real work of society, supply the wants of m a n cheaper a n d bet-
ter t h a n others ... It is u s u a l for those who do n o t succeed in the great
struggle of life to complain of competition. T h e successful m a n exults in it. 30
It is the stimulus to his e x e r t i o n s t h e m e a n s by which t h e m o s t energetic,
the most skilful, the m o s t knowing o b t a i n p r e p o n d e r a n c e , a n d carry for-
ward the m o r a l development which is the law of n a t u r e . It is the m e a n s by
which the imperfect are gradually weeded out of society, a n d individuals
a n d the race are ennobled. N o t h w e n d i g e C o n s e q u e n z that there m u s t al- 35
ways be some classes less successful t h a n others; s o m e classes whose occu-
pations are b e c o m i n g relatively valueless; a n d these classes, while the suc-
cessful and the prosperous are silent, fill the land with complaints. T h e
shipping interest, opposed as it is now by the new a n d thriving railway in-
terest, is somewhat in this condition; ... A part too of the present dtriora- 40
tion of some shipping is d u e to the i m p r o v e m e n t of other shipping. In
396
w
1848, said Mr L a b o u c h e r e , there were built 3 iron vessels of 1,300 tons a n d

7 wooden vessels of 3,000 tons, z u s a m m e n 10 ships u n d 4,300 tons. 1849
there were 7 iron vessels of 1,654 t o n s u n d 10 w o o d e n vessels of 5,703 tons,
z u s a m m e n 17 ships u n d 7,357 tons. 1850 there were 13 iron ships of
5 4,562 tons u n d 17 wooden ships of 9,935 tons, z u s a m m e n 30 ships u n d
14,497 tons, or exactly double the a m o u n t of t o n n a g e built in 1849. He
congratulated the h o u s e o n the extraordinary i m p r o v e m e n t that h a d t a k e n
place in the quality of the ships, a n d the increased a m o u n t of t o n n a g e . "
T h a t is the sort of i m p r o v e m e n t by which o n e class of shipowners drives an-
10 other class off the water ... Die P o p u l a t i o n des U n i t e d K i n g d o m in d e n lez-
t e n 10 J a h r e n n u r um 2% gewachsen, die der U n i t e d States um a b o u t 35 %.
Hier schon G r u n d , in the relative increase of population, fr die relativ
groe increase des shipping der U n i t e d States. (841, 2)
is The Economist. August, 9,1851.

British tonnage war 1849 z u s a m m e n : 8,152,000 u n d 1850: 8,039,000. Ver-
m i n d e r u n g u m 113,000 tons. (866)
Criminals in England and Wales. 1850.
20 (Aus d e n P a r l a m e n t s p a p i e r e n 1851) 1841 c o m m i t m e n t s 27,760; 1842

= 31,309, 1843 = 2 9 , 5 9 1 ; 1844 = 26,542, 1845 = 24,303, 1846 = 25,107;
1847 = 28,833; 1848 = 30,349; 1849 = 27,816, 1850 = 26,813. Z u s a m -
m e n 278,423. Executions fanden Statt:
1801-1810 1811-1820 1821-1830 1831-1840 1841-1850
25 302; 897; 686; 250; 107.
N u m b e r of executions 1850 n u r 6, a m i n i m u m which has b e e n 3x r e a c h e d
in the last 12 years. Capital convictions in 1850 n u r 49, being the lowest
n u m b e r ausser in 1845 wo a u c h 49; aber die transportations for life in 1850
waren in Excess gegen die 3 previous years. T h e most serious classes of of-
30 fences blieben nearly the s a m e . ... D i e tables zeigen alle how m u c h m o r e
influential are other circumstances t h a n p e n a l laws over the greater or less
quantity of crime at any given period. (868, 9) |
397
|33| The Economist. August, 16,1851.
Der Census.
V o r der Prorogation des P a r l a m e n t s ( A u g u s t 1851) w u r d e i h m vorgelegt

ein R e t u r n , betittelt: Tables of the Population and Houses in the Divisions,
Registration Counties, and Districts of England and [Wales,] Scotland etc." Es 5
sind die die tables die d e m Census Office by the Registrars of E n g l a n d
u n d the Sheriffs u n d Provosts von Scotland vorgelegt worden sind, vor der
Revision d u r c h das Central Office.
D i e Gesetze sind gemacht, s a g t d e r E c o n o m i s t , n i c h t fr die streams,
soil, b u t for the m e n who live on it; a n d as they change in relative n u m b e r s , 10
wealth a n d knowledge, the law m u s t change in conformity with t h e m .
... T h e n u m b e r s a n d the distribution of the people are the f o u n d a t i o n of all
political science. (895) Das Volk von E n g l a n d u n d Wales in 10 J a h r e n ge-
wachsen von 15,914,148 zu 17,922,768 oder um a b o u t 12 %. M e h r als % der
Bevlkerung hinzugefgt in 10 J a h r e n (Zuwachs: 1,968,341) 405,457 oder 15
fast % dieses Zuwachses in der Division of L o n d o n . D a v o n n u r sehr wenige
als m a r k e t gardeners engaged in the cultivation of soil. N a c h London der
grte increase in Lancashire 360,420; in d e m W e s t R i d i n g of Yorkshire,
162,799; a l s o e r s t e r aus d e m Baumwollsitz, zweiter d e m W o l l e n m a n u f a k -
tursitze. D r i t t e n s in Staffordshire, d e m Sitz der Erdwaare u n d iron m a n u - 20
facture 101,639; 4) in Durham, d e m grossen Kohlendistrikt, 82,853; 5) in
Sdwales, a n d r e m Sitz der E i s e n m a n u f a k t u r , 74,658; u n d in Warwickshire,
a u c h Sitz der Eisenmanufaktur, 70,841. D e r increase in d e n agricultural
districts as Sussex 33,679, oder Hampshire 45,993 oder Devonshire, 31,353
oder Bedfordshire 17,411 oder Kent 33,679, finden wir d a der principal 25
part des increase geschuldet d e m Z u w a c h s der stdtischen Bevlkerung
von Brighton u n d Hastings, P o r t s m o u t h u n d S o u t h a m p t o n , P l y m o u t h u n d
L u t o n , a t C h a t h a m , u n d Dover. I n short adding z u m Zuwachs i n L o n d o n
d e n von Lancashire, Yorkshire u n d d e n Zuwachs der Stdtischen Bevlke-
rung in d e n s. g. Agriculturdistrikts finden wir m i n d e s t e n s 1,600,000 von 30
d e n 1,968,341 als increase der town population, d, h. n i c h t u n m i t t e l b a r
oder Direct von der Agricultur fr Beschftigung u n d Bestehn a b h n g i g e n
Bevlkerung. I n d e n Agriculturdistricten, die sich a m m e i s t e n v e r m e h r t h a -
b e n , Cambridge, Lincolnshire, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk u n d East R i d i n g von
Yorkshire k m m t wieder grosser Theil auf die Stdte. V o n d e n Agricultur- 35
districten, die am wenigsten zur V e r m e h r u n g der Bevlkerung beigetragen,
398
7
Wiltshire, wo die P o p u l a t i o n abgenommen um / w %; in Shropshire i n c r e a s e
1 %, Somersetshire 2 %, Herefordshire 3 %, Westmoreland 3 %, North Riding of
York 4 %, Oxfordshire 4 %, Bucks 4 %, Berkshire 5 %, Rutlandshire 5 %, # -
ingdonshire 9 %. In allen d i e s e n Grafschaften Z u w a c h s der s t d t i s c h e n P o -
5 p u l a t i o n ; die rein l n d l i c h e also n u r s c h w a c h vermehrt, w e n n n i c h t d e -
creased; A c c u m u l a t i o n also in d e n Stdten, in d e n iron u n d coal districts
des N o r d e n s u n d W e s t e n s , i n d e n M a n u f a c t u r d i s t r i k t e n , i n d e n Seehfen
u n d Handelsmrkten; u n d Nichtvermehrung, wenn nicht Verminderung auf
d e m L a n d e . In allen Distrikten der Agricultural counties sehr viele D i -
10 strikte a b g e n o m m e n u n d in allen s d l i c h e n u n d westlichen, die n i c h t h a v e
derived an increase from their m a r i t i m e p o p u l a t i o n . D i e sdwestliche divi-
sion (einschliessend Wiltshire, Dorset, Cornwall u n d Somerset) u r n 3 % zu-
g e n o m m e n , M i n i m u m des i n c r e a s e ; die Eastern division (einschliessend
die 3 agriculturaldistricts Essex, Suffolk u n d Norfolk) um 7 % ; D i e London
15 Division u n d Northwestern Division (Lancashire u n d Cheshire) b e i d e um
21%, das M a x i m u m . D i e Grafschaft Durham ( K o h l e n d i s t r i k t ) h a t am m e i -
sten z u g e n o m m e n , 2 6 % ; d a n n k o m m t Lancashire 22%, zhlt n u n
2,063,913 persons. V o n d e n b e s o n d e r n districts in der c o u n t y of D u r h a m
der district D u r h a m u m 4 5 % u n d Houghton-le-spring 4 0 % ; Liverpool, i n -
20 eluding W e s t Derby um 3 1 % oder von 311,683 auf 408,298; Manchester
(eingeschlossen Salford u n d Chorlton) um fast 30%, von 339,734 a u f
439,757, Bradford u m 3 7 % von 132,161 z u 181,977, Leeds u n d H u d d e r s -
field jedes 14%; Halifax b e r 10%. Brighton um 4 1 % , von 46,661 zu
65,573; Bath etc n i c h t sehr. Die Seebder vielmehr als die Flubder. ||34| In
25 Fllen wie York (von 47,778 zu 57,111 oder a b o u t 20%) Peterborough (von
25,473 auf 28,966 oder 14%) Lincoln (von 36,110 auf 42,061 oder m e h r als
16%), die alle C e n t r a der Eisenbahn Communikation, o h n e sonst b e s o n d r e r
C o n s p i c u o u s source of increase, we m a y trace distinctly t h e influence of
rails in promoting t h e prosperity of towns. A b e r zu Reigate, a small Centre
30 of railway traffic, h a t die Bevlkerung a b g e n o m m e n ; zu Godstone n i c h t far
from a rail, sehr v e r m i n d e r t ; e b e n zu Canterbury, w o d u r c h a rail passes;
e b e n s o zu Chippenham a n o t h e r small centre of railway c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Wo
die Rail has superseded an ordinary road wie zu G o d s t o n e , Reigate, C a n -
terbury, its transit traffic is of far less c o n s e q u e n c e to t h e town t h a n was t h e
35 transit traffic of the road. Da in solchen Fllen, w e n n n i c h t a n d r e Q u e l l e n
der prosperity, A b n a h m e der P o p u l a t i o n . D e n n o c h clear that n o town c a n
now prosper without a rail; those destined to decay w r d e n es um so
schneller for wanting a rail. Every town n o t in c o m m u n i c a t i o n with a rail
labours u n d e r great disadvantages whatever it m a y p r o d u c e . (896)
40
399
Wiederausfuhr von fremder u n d Ausfuhr von englischer Wolle eingerech-

n e t die Zufuhr von Wolle um 3,485,619 lbs m e h r in d e n ersten 6 M o n a t e n
von 1851 als von 1850. In d e n ersten 6 M o n a t e n von 1850 eingefhrt
33,584,730 lbs; u n d in d e n ersten 6 m o n t h s von 1851, 35,243,840 lbs. [898]
Reaping by Machinery.
In der Exposition American Reaping Machine. T h e i m m e n s e cost at which

corn is cut by m a n u a l labour, and the very short period during which all
the corn of the country m u s t be cut, r e n d e r any practicable m a c h i n e r y for
t h e purpose deeply interesting to farmers. D i e Hauptschwierigkeit n o c h 10
from the deep furrows u n d laborious e m p l o y m e n t of removing the straw
when cut from the board on which it falls. These will probably be overcome
or alleviated. (McCormick, A m e r i c a n e r , der Erfinder.) Schneidet
1 0 - 1 6 acres per day, according to c i r c u m s t a n c e . A b e r hard work fr d e n
M a n n , der die geschnittene Quantity entfernen m u , to remove 1 acre per 15
hour. [899]
T h e m e n who can c o m m a n d the services of locomotives, build tubular

bridges, soar into the air, r u n with m o r e t h a n ostrich swiftness on the sur-
face of the earth, cleave the ocean with ease a n d safety, m u s t c o m e to pride 20
themselves chiefly on such wonderful achievements as these, a n d m u s t also
c o m e to look with disdain on m a n y of the representations a n d m u c h of the
tinsel a n d gilt and frippery that were the solace of t h e r u d e a n d ignorant
early i n h a b i t a n t s of Asia. ... Those, who can c o m m a n d the elements will
n o t be m u c h plagued with a m b i t i o n to c o m m a n d their fellowmen. G r e a t 25
power seems likely to be s y n o n y m o u s with general equality, a n d w h e n a m -
bition a n d a desire for worthless o r n a m e n t s are abated, there will be fewer
motives for greediness. U n s e r bisheriger L u x u s s t a m m t aus Asien, von Bar-
baren, die weder m u l e s p i n n i n g n o c h steam navigation k a n n t e n . [905]
In der Exposition an a m e r i c a n sewing machine, die u n g e h e u e r schnell arbei-

tet, u n d droht to extinguish the o c c u p a t i o n which dwarfs a race into the
th
9 part of its n o r m a l type. [702]
1
400
/ 3 0 / It is singular, that the chief arts of o r n a m e n t a n d decoration are de-

rived without m u c h i m p r o v e m e n t from a very backward, n o t to say barba-
rous c o n d i t i o n of society. In t h e o r n a m e n t s of o u r houses a n d our persons
we do little m o r e t h a n imitate the Greeks, t h e H i n d o o s , a n d the Ejyptians.
5 T h e best of these o r n a m e n t s are m o r e a d m i r e d from a kind of traditional
reverence, t h a n from their relation to the present a n d future wants of so-
ciety. They are preserved a n d h o n o u r e d as we cherish m a n y a n t i q u a t e d er-
rors a n d abuses in politics, in morals, a n d religion, m o r e from a conserva-
tive love of the past, t h a n from an enlightened anticipation of the future.
10 ... T h e o r n a m e n t s a n d the decorations t h a t will please the civilised m e n of
the future will probably be m o r e appropriate to their c o n d i t i o n a n d will be
worthy of the powerful i n s t r u m e n t s they will use. A n d as the leading m i n d s
of societyits real rulers a n d g u i d e s c o m e to love a n d a d m i r e m o r e t h e
wonders in m o d e r n art, they will disregard e m b e l l i s h m e n t s t h a t are merely
15 costly a n d wasteful. (Economist 16 A u g u s t 1851, 905.)
Schneider in L o n d o n seit 10 J a h r e n um % vermindert.
Bei d e n R m e r n (Sieh L a m a l l e ) ausdrcklich verboten, aus d e n M a t e r i a -

lien alter G e b u d e n e u e aufzufhren.
20
401
[The Times.]
Times" b e m e r k t , d a der Landweg wieder d e n Wasserweg absezt. Bis 1866
k n n e , r e c h n e t e ein I n g e n i e u r aus, die E i s e n b a h n v o m C o n t i n e n t bis Cal-
c u t t a g e b a u t sein u n d m a n in 10 Tagen da sein.
5
A m e r i k a n e r b e r d e n I s t h m u s herber.
Nhmaschine.
Rechenmaschine. 10
402
Aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Mexico
|35| Prescott. (W.H.) History of the

Conquest of Mexico.
5 e d . 3 vol. L o n d o n . 1850.
t.I.
5 B.I.
ch. 1 Ancient Mexico. Climate and Products.
Primitive Races. Aztec Empire.
A n c i e n t M e x i c a n s oder Aztecs: b i l d e t e n n u r sehr kleinen Theil, ihr L a n d ,

die m o d e r n republic of M e x i c o . (2) Covered wahrscheinlich n i c h t m e h r als
10 16,000 square leagues. In its greatest breadth, it could n o t exceed 5 degrees
a n d Y , dwindling, as it a p p r o a c h e d its southeastern limits, to less t h a n two.
2
Yet such is the r e m a r k a b l e formation of this country, that, t h o u g h n o t

m o r e 2x as large as N e w E n g l a n d , it presented every variety of climate,
and was capable of yielding nearly every fruit found between the e q u a t o r
15 a n d the Arctic circle. ([2,] 3) D i e G e g e n d in 3 terraces getheilt (tierra ca-
liente, tierra t e m p l a d a (temperate) u n d tierra fria). ( 3 - 5 ) Die kalte tierra
(Plateaus) h a t a climate, the m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e of which is n o t lower t h a n
t h a t of the central parts of Italy. (6) Der B o d e n h a t hufig a p a r c h e d u n d
barren aspect, theils aus M a n g e l of trees to shelter the soil from t h e fierce
20 influence of the s u m m e r sun. In der Zeit der Aztecs das table l a n d thickly
covered m i t larch, oak, cypresses u n d other forest trees ... t h e curse of bar-
renness in later times m e h r chargeable on m a n als auf n a t u r e . D i e early
Spaniards m a c h t e n an i n d i s c r i m i n a t e war on t h e forests. (6) Midway across
the continent, etwas n h e r d e m Pacific als d e m Atlantic, at an elevation of
403
nearly 7500 feet is the celebrated Valley von M e x i c o . ... e n c o m p a s s e d by a

towering r a m p a r t of porphyritic rock. (7) D e r Boden, frher carpeted with a
beautiful verdure u n d thickly sprinkled m i t stately trees, jezt oft bare u n d
wei in m a n y places mit der incrustation of salts, caused by the draining of
l
the waters. 5 lakes b e r das Thal, n e h m e n / seiner Oberflche ein. (7)
10 5
states of A n a h u a c . D i e Toltecs ... t h e true fountains der sptren Civilisation.
Im 7' Jh. N a c h 4 J a h r h u n d e r t e n verschwinden die Toltecs. Folgen andre rac-
es, wovon die m o s t n o t e d die Aztecs oder M e x i c a n s u n d Acolhuans oder
Tezcucans von ihrer H a u p t s t a d t Tezcuco. Breiteten ihre Herrschaft b e r die
r u d e r tribes in the n o r t h aus. D a n n geklopft d u r c h die T e p a n e c s . D a n n m i t 10
Hilfe der M e x i c a n allies wieder sich befreiend u n d n o c h brilliantre car-
rire ... A u c h die M e x i c a n s k a m e n from the r e m o t e regions of the north,
the p o p u l o u s hive of n a t i o n s in the N e w World, as it has b e e n in the old.
Sie arrived at t h e borders of A n a h u a c gen Beginn des 13 Jh., some t i m e af-
ter the o c c u p a t i o n of the land by the kindred races. Lang Zeit etablirten sie 15
sich nicht, sondern w a n d e r t e n von e i n e m Platz z u m andren. Schlielich
langten sie an den sdwestlichen borders des H a u p t s e e s an u n d m a c h t e n
dort Halt 1325. Stifteten Tenochtitlan (Mexico); lebten ursprnglich dort
von Fischen, wildem Seegevgel u n d der Cultur solcher simple vegetables
als ihre floating gardens (halbe marshes) raise k o n n t e n . D i e die begin- 20
nings des Venedig der western world. ( 8 - 1 3 ) Skandale u n d U n e i n i g k e i t e n
u n t e r sich. M a c h t e n sich im Thal R u f fr courage u n d cruelty in war. Be-
g i n n des 15* Jh. erhielten sie das L a n d der Tepanecs fr ihren Beistand, den
sie den Tezcucans leisteten. D a n n League zwischen d e n states of M e x i c o ,
Tezcuco u n d d e m kleinen N a c h b a r k i n g d o m Tlacopan. (Ueber das L a n d , 25
das sie bei knftigen Kriegen u n t e r sich vertheilen wrden) ... Z u n c h s t
h a t t e n die allies genug zu t h u n in i h r e m eignen Thal. G e g e n Mitte des
15' Jh., u n t e r d e m ersten M o n t e z u m a , sie h a d spread down the sides of the
table land to the borders of the Gulf of Mexico. Im Beginn des 16* Jh. das
Aztec d o m i n i o n reached across the c o n t i n e n t from A t l a n t i c z u m Pacific; 30
bis in die farthest corners of G u a t e m a l a u n d Nicaragua. U n d sie h a t t e n
berall m i t gleich kriegerischen u n d in der Cultur i h n e n n u r wenig nachge-
b e n d e n S t m m e n zu kmpfen. D i e history der Aztecs erinnert in vielen
P u n k t e n an das alte R o m , n i c h t n u r in i h r e n militairischen successes, son-
dern a u c h in der policy which led to t h e m . ( 1 3 - 1 6 ) (Don M a r i a n o Veytia, 35
Historia Antigua, 1836, Mexico, H a u p t q u e l l e fr die alte G e s c h i c h t e . [17])
404
ch. II. succession to the crown ... Aztec nobility.

Judicial System. Laws und Revenues ... Military Institutions.
D i e Regierungsform verschieden in d e n verschiednen states of Anahuac.

Die der Aztecs u n d T e z c u c a n s m o n a r c h i s c h u n d fast absolut. Diese 2 n a -
5 tions sich d u r c h a u s hnlich. Die Regierung der M e x i c a n s an elective mon-
archy. Vier von d e n principal nobles, die c h o s e n by their own b o d y in d e m
preceding reign, filled the office of electors, wozu added, m i t rein h o n o r -
r e m Rang, die 2 royal allies von T e z c u c o u n d Tlacopan. D e r sovereign se-
lected von d e n brothers des deceased prince oder in default of t h e m , aus
10 seinen Neffen. So die election restricted auf dieselbe family. Der c a n d i d a t e
preferred m u t e sich im Krieg ausgezeichnet h a b e n , obgleich er a m e m b e r
of the priesthood, wie bei d e m lezten M o n t e z u m a ... R e i h e von able princ-
es so g e s i c h e r t . . . G e k r n t der Erwhlte erst bis er d u r c h siegreiche C a m p a -
gne d e n p o m p of h u m a n sacrifice etc sich g e b e n k o n n t e ... D i e A z t e c prin-
15 ces, besonders gen Schlu der Dynastie, lebten in a barbarie p o m p , truly
Oriental. ... a distinct class of nobles m i t large l a n d e d possessions, w h o
held the most i m p o r t a n t offices n e a r t h e person of the prince u n d en-
grossed the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the provinces a n d cities. ... an 30 caciques,
wovon jeder an 100,000 vassals auf seinen estates m u s t e r n k o n n t e ... D a s
20 country occupied von n u m e r o u s powerful chieftains who lived like i n d e -
p e n d e n t princes on their d o m a i n s . M u t e n , w e n n sie nicht in der capital
residirten, hostages d e n kings stellen ... Diese estates held von various ten-
ures u n d verschiednen restrictions unterworfen. Einige held o h n e limita-
tion, n u r n i c h t verkaufbar an e i n e n Plebejer. A n d r e entailed an die Aeltge-
25 b o r n s t e n u n d b e i M a n g e l von solchen, fielen zurck an die crown.
Obligation, die meisten, to military service. A n d r e , statt dieser D i e n s t e , to
provide for the repair der kniglichen buildings u n d to keep t h e royal de-
m e s n e s in order, with an a n n u a l offering, by way of h o m a g e , of fruits u n d
flowers. ... In alledem several features of the feudal system. Die k i n g d o m s
30 of A n a h u a c aber, in their n a t u r e , despotic, attended, indeed, with m a n y
mitigating circumstances u n k n o w n to the despotisms of the East. Die legis-
lative power in M e x i c o u n d T e z c u c o resided ganz um d e n M o n a r c h e n .
Dagegen constitution der judicial tribunals. U n d diese wichtiger b e i e i n e m
r u d e people als die Legislative Gewalt. U e b e r j e d e r der principal cities m i t
35 ihren d e p e n d e n t territories ||36| gestellt a s u p r e m e judge, appointed by t h e
Crown, mit original u n d final jurisdiction in b o t h civil u n d c r i m i n a l cases.
K e i n Appell von seiner Sentenz, selbst n i c h t an den Knig. Sein Office le-
benslnglich; wer u s u r p e d his ensigns m i t T o d bestraft. H i e cihuacoatl.
U n t e r ihm, in j e d e r Provinz, a court, von 3 m e m b e r s . Ausser diesen courts
405
ein body von inferior magistrates distributed t h r o u g h the country, chosen

von d e m Volk selbst in d e n verschiednen districts. Ihre authority limited
zu d e n smaller causes. N o c h another class of s u b o r d i n a t e officers gewhlt
von d e m Volk selbst, die eine certain n u m b e r of families zu b e w a c h e n hat-
t e n u n d report any disorder or b r e a c h of t h e laws to t h e higher authorities. 5
... law erlaubte appeal zur highest j u d i c a t u r e n u r in c r i m i n a l m a t t e r s ...
der p e n a l code ausserordentlich streng ... D i e R i c h t e r der h h e r n Tribu-
n a l e erhielten von d e m produce eines Theils der K r o n l a n d e , reserved for
this purpose. Sie, sowohl wie der s u p r e m e j u d g e , held their offices for life.
... Die laws der Aztecs registered u n d exhibited to the people in their hier- 10
oglyphical paintings. D e r grre Theil davon, wie bei jeder uncivilisirten
N a t i o n , b e z i e h t sich m e h r auf Sicherheit of persons t h a n of property. Alle
grossen crimes gen die society capital. Selbst der M o r d eines Sklaven m i t
T o d bestraft. E h e b r e c h e r gesteinigt. Thieving m i t Sklaverei oder Tod. D o c h
die crime n i c h t sehr gefrchtet, since the entrances to their dwellings 15
n i c h t secured by bolts, or fastenings of any kind. ... I n t e m p e r a n c e bei
J n g r e n m i t Tod, bei older persons m i t loss of r a n k u n d confiscation of
property gestraft ... Die rites of marriage sehr c e r e m o n i s . Eignes Ehege-
richt. O h n e es keine Scheidung mglich ... Sklaverei. Verschiedne A r t e n
u n d Stufen. Kriegsgefangne, reserved fast stets fr das Opfer; criminals, 20
public debtors, persons who, from extreme poverty, voluntarily resigned
their freedom u n d children, who were sold by their own parents. Bei sol-
c h e m freiwilligen Verkauf die services to be exacted limited m i t great pre-
cision. T h e slave was allowed to have his own family, to hold property, a n d
even other slaves. His children were free. No o n e could be b o r n to slavery 25
in Mexico. Oft durch T e s t a m e n t die Sklaven befreit. A u c h m i t i h n e n H e i -
rath. D o c h a refractory u n d vicious slave led into the m a r k e t m i t a collar
r o u n d his neck u n d dort ffentlich verkauft u n d on a second sale, reserved
for sacrifice ... Die Royal Revenues were derived from various sources. D i e ex-
tensive crownlands m a c h t e n ihre returns in kind. D i e Pltze in der N a c h - 30
barschaft der capital gezwungen to supply w o r k m e n u n d materials z u m
B a u der kniglichen Palste u n d keeping t h e m in repair. M u t e n a u c h fur-
n i s h fuel, provisions u n d was nthig fr seine ordinary domestic expendi-
ture. Die principal cities, die viele villages u n d a large territory von sich ab-
hngig h a t t e n , waren vertheilt in districts, with e a c h a share of the lands 35
alloted to it, for its support. Die i n h a b i t a n t s paid a stipulated part of the
p r o d u c e to the crown. Die vassals der great chiefs, also paid a portion of
their earnings into the public treasury - sehr viel A e h n l i c h k e i t m i t d e n reg-
u l a t i o n s (financial) des a l t e n persian empire ... D i e people der provinces
vertheilt in calpulli oder tribes, die die lands der n e i g h b o u r h o o d in com- 40
m o n hielten. Officers of their own a p p o i n t m e n t parcelled o u t these lands
406
KT"
a m o n g the several families of the calpulli; u n d , on the extinction or remov-

al of a family, its lands reverted to the c o m m o n stock, to be again distrib-
u t e d . T h e individual proprietor h a d no power to alienate t h e m . T h e laws
regulating these m a t t e r s were very precise, and h a d existed ever since t h e
5 occupation of the country by t h e Aztecs. ... Ausser dieser t a x on agricultu-
ral produce of the kingdom, there was another on its manufactures. Z . B . cotton
dresses u n d m a n t l e s of featherwork, o r n a m e n t e d armour, vases u n d plates
of gold, gold-dust, b a n d s u n d bracelets, crystal, gilt, u n d varnished jars u n d
goblets; bells, arms u n d utensils of Copper; r e a m s of paper; grain, fruits,
10 copal, amber, cochineal, cocoa, wild a n i m a l s u n d birds, timber, lime, m a t s
etc Salz, Tigerfelle etc. (Sieh A u f z h l u n g des tribute furnished by different
cities 33, not. *) ... Garnisons errichtet in d e n larger cities, wahrscheinlich
den entfernten u n d recently c o n q u e r e d , to keep down revolt u n d to enforce
the p a y m e n t of tribute. Die caziques, die s u b m i t t e d to the allied arms, ge-
15 wohnlich confirmed in their authority u n d die c o n q u e r e d places allowed to
retain their laws u n d usages. Taxgatherers verbreitet d u r c h das K i n g d o m ,
erkennbar an ihren official badges u n d gefrchtet wegen der merciless rig-
our ihrer exactions. Jeder defaulter war liable to be t a k e n a n d sold as a
slave. In der capital waren spacious granaries u n d warehouses fr die re-
20 ception der tributes. A receiver general quartered in the palace ... h a t t e m a p
of t h e whole empire, m i t a m i n u t e specification der imposts assessed on
every part of it. Diese imposts, ursprnglich m o d e r a t e , so d r c k e n d at t h e
close der dynasty u n d n o c h d r c k e n d e r g e m a c h t d u r c h die m a n n e r of col-
lection, bred disaffection t h r o u g h o u t the l a n d u n d prepared d e n way for its
25 conquest by the Spaniards. Communication m i t d e n entferntesten T h e i l e n
des Landes d u r c h couriers. Posthuser in the great roads, an 2 leagues dis-
t a n t from each other. D e r Courier m i t seiner D p c h e , in the form of a
hieroglyphical painting, r a n m i t derselben zur ersten Station, where they
were taken by a n o t h e r messenger u . s . w . Diese couriers, trained from child-
30 hood, travelled m i t incredible swiftness; so da die D e p e c h e n 1 - 2 0 0 miles
a day befrdert. A u f d i e s e m Wege Intelligenz der m o v e m e n t s der royal ar-
mies rasch brought to court ... A e h n l i c h im alten R o m , in Persien. In
C h i n a three miles von einander. A b e r diese posts for the u s e of the govern-
m e n t only. ... In M e x i c o wie in Aejypten der soldier shared m i t d e m priest
35 die highest consideration. D e r Schutzgott der Aztecs war der Kriegsgott. Je-
der Krieg war a crusade zu H e k a t o m b e n fr d e n Kriegsgott. D e r gefallne
Krieger k a m direkt to t h e region of ineffable bliss in t h e bright m a n s i o n s of
the Sun. ... Vor der Erffnung des Kriegs ambassadors were sent, to re-
quire the hostile state to receive the M e x i c a n gods, a n d to pay the c u s t o m -
40 ary tribute. ... quotas were drawn from the c o n q u e r e d provinces, which
were always subjected to military service as well as the p a y m e n t of taxes;
407
a n d the royal army, gewhnlich m i t d e m M o n a r c h an der Spitze b e g a n n

ihren Marsch. A remarkable resemblance dieser military usages m i t d e n e n
der alten R m e r ... various military orders, e a c h having its privileges u n d
peculiar insignia. D a z u a sort of knighthood, of inferior degree; der cheap-
est reward of martial prowess; wer ihn n o c h n i c h t erreicht, excluded from 5
using o r n a m e n t s on his arms or his person u n d obliged to wear a coarse
white stuff, m a d e from the threads of the aloe, called n e q u e n . Selbst die
m e m b e r s der royal family nicht von d i e s e m Gesetz a u s g e n o m m e n ... Der
dress der higher warriors pittoresk u n d oft magnificent. Ihre bodies bedeckt
m i t a close vest of quilted cotton, so thick as to be i m p e n e t r a b l e to the light 10
missiles of I n d i a n warfare. T h e wealthier chiefs s o m e t i m e s wore, statt
diesen cotton mail, a cuirass m a d e of t h i n plates of gold, or silver. Over it
was thrown a surcoat of the gorgeous feather work in which they excelled.
Ihre h e l m s oft von wood, fashioned like the h e a d s of wild a n i m a l s u n d
m a n c h m a l von Silber, on the top of which waved a panache of variegated 15
feathers, sprinkled m i t precious stones u n d o r n a m e n t s of gold. They wore
also collars, bracelets u n d earrings, of the s a m e rich materials. N a t i o n a l -
flagge m i t embroidery von Gold u n d Federwerk. Die c o m p a n i e s u n d great
chiefs a u c h ihre appropriate b a n n e r s u n d devices ... war war bei i h n e n a
trade, aber n o c h keine science. ... the valour of a warrior geschzt n a c h der 20
Z a h l seiner G e f a n g n e n u n d kein r a n s o m large genug to save the devoted
captive. Ihr military code natrlich a u c h drakonisch. Hospitals waren errich-
tet in d e n H a u p t s t d t e n fr die eure der sick u n d das p e r m a n e n t refuge des
disabled soldier u n d surgeons placed over t h e m . So die Aztec u n d Tezcu-
can races advanced in civilisation sehr weit b e r die wandering tribes of 25
N o r t h America. ... T h e a m e r i c a n I n d i a n has s o m e t h i n g peculiarly sensitive
in his n a t u r e . He shrinks instinctively from the r u d e t o u c h of a foreign
h a n d . Even when this foreign influence comes in the form of civilisation,
he seems to sink and p i n e away b e n e a t h it. It has b e e n so with t h e M e x i -
cans. ... the m o r a l characteristics of the n a t i o n , all that constituted its indi- 30
viduality as a race, are effaced for ever. ( 1 9 - 4 2 ) |
|37| ch.III. Mexican Mythologie.The Sacerdotal Order.

The Temples. Human Sacrifices.
D i e m e x i c a n i s c h e Religion war nicht m e h r im ersten S t a d i u m . Sie h a t t e re-

ceived a peculiar complexion from t h e priests, who h a d digested as thor- 35
o u g h u n d b u r d e n s o m e a ceremonial as ever existed in any n a t i o n . Allego-
risch-Asiatisch ihre Deities. Die Aztecs h a t t e n von ihren Vorfahren eine
mildre Religion geerbt, worauf they spter engrafted their own mythologie.
408
Die leztre wurde h e r r s c h e n d u n d gab its dark colouring d e n creeds der er-
oberten nations, which the M e x i c a n s , like the a n c i e n t R o m a n s , s e e m will-
ingly to have incorporated into their own, u n t i l the same funereal supersti-
tion settled over the farthest borders of A n a h u a c . 13 H a u p t g o t t h e i t e n ,
5 200 inferior, j e d e m wovon s o m e special day, oder appropriate festival, was
consecrated. Huitzilopotchli (der M e x i c a n Mars) an der Spitze aller. Dieser
die p a t r o n deity der n a t i o n . Die p h a n t a s t i c forms der m e x i c a n idols im
h c h s t e n G r a d symbolical. Der H u i t z i etc von einer Jungfrau geboren, (wie
B u d h (Indien) F o h i (China) Shaka (Tibet.)) ... his altars reeked with t h e
10 blood of h u m a n h e c a t o m b s in every city of t h e empire. ... Die Sage m i t
d e m emigrirten G o t t Quetzalcoatl b a h n t e d e n Spaniern den Weg ... Diese
M e x i c a n Gtter stiegen hierarchisch h e r a b bis zu den p n a t e s oder h o u s e -
hold gods, whose little images in der h u m b l e s t dwelling sich fanden. In
ihren Begrbni R i t u a l i e n finden wir ein G e m e n g s e i von rmischkafholi-
15 sehen, m u s u l m n i s c h e n , tartarischen, altgriechischen u n d R m i s c h e n Ri-
ten. Taufe (ganz wie d a n n die Christen; a u c h um die S n d e wegzusplen).
Die priests s u c h t e n to dazzle the i m a g i n a t i o n des people by the m o s t for-
m a l a n d p o m p o u s ceremonial. D e r influence der priesthood am grten in
d e m imperfect state of civilisation, where sie engrosses all the scanty
20 science of the t i m e in its own body. D i e besonders der Fall, w e n n diese
science nicht um die real p h e n o m e n a of n a t u r e , sondern die fanciful chi-
meras of h u m a n superstition sich k m m e r t . So die sciences of astrology
u n d divination, worin die A z t e c priests initiated ... they seemed to hold
the keys of the future in their own h a n d s ... D e r sacerdotal order sehr zahl-
25 reich; 5000 priests attached d e m H a u p t t e m p e l in der capital. D i e various
ranks u n d functions dieser b o d y hierarchisch gegliedert. Die musikalisch-
sten leiteten die Chre. A n d r e arrangirten die festivals conform z u m Calen-
dar. A n d r e berwachten die E r z i e h u n g der J u g e n d u n d andre die hiero-
glyphical paintings u n d oral traditions; while the dismal rites of sacrifice
30 were reserved for the chief dignitaries of the order. An der Spitze der g a n z e n
body 2 Hohepriester, gewhlt von king u n d d e n principal n o b l e s ; inferior
n u r d e m sovereign. Die priests e a c h devoted d e m service einer particular
deity, u n d hatten quarters in den spacious precincts ihres t e m p l e ; sonst
i h n e n erlaubt zu h e i r a t h e n . Viele prayers, W a c h e n , Fasten, Geissein, Ka-
35 steien des Fleisches. Parochial Pfaffen in d e n Districts vertheilt. W i e bei
d e n Katholiken confession u n d absolution. Priestly absolution was re-
ceived in place of the legal p u n i s h m e n t of offences u n d authorised an
acquittal in case of arrest. ... F r die e d u c a t i o n certain buildings appropri-
ated in der enclosure des principal t e m p l e . In diesem Convent (Kloster) die
40 Jugend, weibliche u n d m n n l i c h e erzogen ... To each of the principal t e m -
ples lands were a n n e x e d for the m a i n t e n a n c e of the priests. U n t e r d e m
409
lezten M o n t e z u m a they covered every district des e m p i r e . A u s s e r d e m der

religious order enriched durch die first-fruits etc. D a s surplus b e r das fr
d e n support des n a t i o n a l worship Erheischte vertheilt in alms u n t e r die
poor. Sehr zahlreiche T e m p e l . D u r c h die Construction derselben (nmlich
in g e w u n d n e n Treppen um die p y r a m i d h e r u m , o b e n die Altre etc) all re- 5
ligious services were public. T h e long processions of priests, winding r o u n d
their massive sides, as they rose higher a n d higher towards the s u m m i t , and
t h e d i s m a l rites of sacrifice performed there, were all visible from the
remotest corners of the capital ... Die impression davon kept in full force
by their n u m e r o u s festivals. ... Processionen von W e i b e r n u n d K i n d e r n , 10
d a n n aber n u r Thierblut auf den A l t r e n der G t t e r geopfert ... H u m a n
sacrifices von den Aztecs acceptirt frh im 14' J a h r h u n d e r t , 200 J a h r e vor
der Conquest. I m Anfang selten; n a h m e n z u m i t der A u s d e h n u n g des e m -
pire; schlielich jedes festival closed m i t dieser a b o m i n a t i o n . ... Oft bei
diesen Opfern die ausgesuchtesten T o r t u r e n rigorously prescribed in the 15
A z t e c ritual. Z i e m l i c h gut beschrieben im 21 Sang des D a n t e . Die p h a n t a s -
tic creations des Florentine poet nearly realised zur selben Zeit, wo er
schrieb, d u r c h die barbarians of an u n k n o w n world. Bei einigen Gelegen-
heiten a u c h W e i b e r u n d Kinder geopfert. D e r body des geopferten captive
delivered d e m warrior, der i h n gefangen in der Schlacht; d a n n served up in 20
an e n t e r t a i n m e n t to his friends. D i e a b a n q u e t t e e m i n g m i t delicious
beverages u n d delicate viands, prepared m i t art u n d a t t e n d e d by b o t h
sexes. Nirgends die Menschenopfer auf solcher scale wie in A n a h u a c . V o n
2 0 - 5 0 , 0 0 0 jhrlich geopfert. Bei great occasions, wie Knigskrnung oder
Consecration eines Tempels, die Z a h l n o c h m o r e appalling. Customary to 25
preserve the skulls der sacrificed, in buildings appropriated to the purpose.
D i e H u n d e v o n Pfaffen brachten d e n G l a u b e n auf, d a die only diet ihrer
idols was human hearts. Das great object of war bei d e n Aztecs war ebenso
sehr to gather victims for their sacrifices, als to extend their empire. Der in-
fluence dieser practices, die familiarity m i t d e n bloody rites der sacrifices 30
begat a thirst for carnage, (bei den Aztecs) like that excited in the R o m a n s
by the exhibitions of the Circus. Die bestndige recurrence der ceremonies,
worin das Volk Theil n a h m , associated religion m i t i h r e n m o s t i n t i m a t e
concerns, u n d spread the gloom of superstition b e r d e n domestic hearth,
bis der Character der n a t i o n a grave u n d selbst m e l a n c h o l y aspect a n n a h m . 35
D i e Pfaffen wurden i m m e r mchtiger. T h e whole n a t i o n , von d e m peasant
bis z u m Prinzen, bowed their necks der T y r a n n e y des F a n a t i s m u s . Aber
m a n d e n k e an die Inquisition im 16' Jh. D a b e i enoblirte das Opfer, whrend
die Inquisition Infamie in dieser W e l t m i t everlasting perdition in der an-
dern verband ... Die civilisation, die die M e x i c a n s besassen, k a m von d e n 40
Toltecs, R a c e die nie ihre Altre m i t Blut befleckte. All that deserved the
n a m e of science in Mexico c a m e from this source. ( 4 6 - 7 0 )
410
ch. IV Mexican Hieroglyphics. Manuscripts.

Arithmetic. Chronology. Astronomy.
To Describe actions u n d events by delineating visible objects seems to be a

n a t u r a l suggestion, a n d is practised, after a certain fashion, by t h e r u d e s t
5 savage. ... picture-writing h h e r e Stufe, to p a i n t intelligibly a consecutive
series of actions ... Aber geht das Object des Schreibers h i n a u s b e r die
Gegenwart, the literal i m i t a t i o n of objects will n o t answer for this m o r e
complex plan. W r d e z u viel R a u m u n d Zeit e i n n e h m e n . D a n n n t h i g t o
abridge the pictures, to confine the drawing to outlines, or to such p r o m i -
10 n e n t parts der bodies delineated, as m a y readily suggest the whole. D i e
das representative oder figurative writing, die niedrigste stage der H i e r o -
glyphics, K o m m e n aber n i e abstrakte I d e e n h i n e i n , o h n e Type in der m a t e r i a l
(
world. This constitutes Symbolical writing. D i e 3 u n d lezte division ist die
phonetic, wo signs are m a d e to represent s o u n d s , either entire words, oder
15 parts of t h e m . Die die n c h s t e approach der hieroglyphical series ans Al-
phabet, wodurch die Sprache aufgelst in ihre E l e m e n t a r l a u t e u n d an appa-
ratus supplied u m leicht u n d g e n a u die feinsten G e d a n k e n s c h a t t e n auszu-
drcken. Die Aejypter waren geschickt in allen 3 A r t e n von Hieroglyphen.
D i e Aejypter almost wholly relied in i h r e m ordinary intercourse u n d writ-
20 ten records on the p h o n e t i c character. D i e Aztecs, a u c h b e k a n n t m i t d e n
verschiednen varieties der Hieroglyphen, m e h r auf die figurative als die an-
dern. ||38| Um das picture-writing der Aztecs zu wrdigen, m u m a n es be-
t r a c h t e n in V e r b i n d u n g m i t oral tradition, der es als E r g n z u n g galt ... Die
Materials ihrer M a n u s c r i p t e besonders g e m a c h t aus a fine fabric from t h e
25 leaves of the aloe, agave Americana, called by the natives maguey, which
grows luxuriantly over the tablelands of M e x i c o . ... Z u r Zeit der A n k u n f t
der Spanier M a s s e n von diesen M a n u s c r i p t s aufgehuft. Der erste Erzbi-
schof von Mexico ( d e m die soldiers n a t r l i c h nachfolgen) D o n J u a n de Z u -
marraga collected these paintings von allen Ecken, besonders von T e z c u c o ,
30 d e m great depository der n a t i o n a l archives u n d verbrennt sie d a n n in a
m o u n t a i n h e a p " auf d e m Marktplatz von Tlatelolco. E b e n s o h a t t e Erzbi-
schof Ximenes a similar autodaf arabischer M a n u s c r i p t e einige 20 J a h r e
vorher in G r a n a d a g e f e i e r t . . . Ausser d e n hieroglyphischen m a p s die tradi-
tions des country e m b o d i e d in d e n songs u n d h y m n s , carefully taught in
35 den public schools. ... Sie devised a system of n o t a t i o n in their arithmetic,
sufficiently simple. D i e ersten 20 n u m b e r s were expressed by a correspond-
ing n u m b e r of dots. Die ersten 5 h a t t e n spezifische n a m e s ; after which they
were represented by c o m b i n i n g the fifth with one of the 4 preceding: as 5
+ one fr 6, 5 u n d 2 fr 7 etc. 10 u n d 15 h a t t e n jeder e i n e n b e s o n d e r n Na-
411
m e n , which was also c o m b i n e d m i t d e n first 4, to express a higher quantity.

Diese four d a h e r die radical characters ihrer oral a r i t h m e t i c , wie they were
of the written im alten R o m . 20 wurde ausgedrckt d u r c h a separate hiero-
glyphic - a flag. Larger s u m s reckoned by twenties, u n d , in writing, by re-
peating the n u m b e r of flags. Das square of 20, 400, h a t t e a separate sign, 5
das einer plume u n d so die cube of 20, oder 8000, d e n o t e d by a purse, oder
sack. D i e war der whole arithmetic apparatus der M e x i c a n e r . they used to
d e n o t e fractions der larger s u m s by drawing only a part of the object. So %
oder % of a p l u m e , or of a purse, represented t h a t proportion of their re-
spective s u m s etc. Diese M a s c h i n e r i e n i c h t schwerflliger als die der great 10
m a t h e m a t i c i a n s der Antiquity, u n a c q u a i n t e d m i t d e m arabischen oder in-
dischen System which has given a new aspect to m a t h e m a t i c a l science,
d u r c h das d e t e r m i n i n g d e n value, in a great m e a s u r e , by the relative posi-
t i o n of the figures. ... Ihr Civil Year adjusted sie by the solar. T h e i l t e n es in
18 m o n t h s , von 20 Tagen jeder. 5 c o m p l e m e n t a r y days added, to m a k e up 15
die volle Z a h l 365. Der m o n t h getheilt in 4 weeks, von 5 days jede, on the
last of which was the public fair or m a r k e t day. F r die fast 6 S t u n d e n
U e b e r s c h u des solar year b e r 365 Tagen, sorgten sie a u c h durch interca-
te
lation, nicht jedes 4 Jahr wie die Europer, s o n d e r n in lngren intervals,
like some of the Asiatics. Sie warteten bis n a c h Ablauf von 52 vague years, 20
when they interposed 13 days oder vielmehr 12, die Zahl, die sie in Rck-
stand waren. Die Pfaffen h a t t e n fr sich a second sacred calendar, w o n a c h
sie ihre own records hielten, regulated the festivals u n d seasons of sacrifice,
u n d m a d e all their astrological calculations, (dans les pays les plus diff-
rents ... le sacerdoce a d au culte des lmens et des astres un pouvoir 25
d o n t a u j o u r d ' h u i n o u s concevons peine l'ide) the false science of astrol-
ogy is n a t u r a l to a state of society partially civilised ... Das eye des simple
child of n a t u r e watches die Gestirne d u r c h lange N c h t e , sieht sie chang-
ing m i t d e n seasons des Jahr, associates sie n a t r l i c h m i t ihnen, as the pe-
riods over which they hold a mysterious influence. E b e n s o , he connects 30
their appearance m i t any interesting event of the t i m e u n d explores, in
their flaming characters, the destinies of the n e w b o r n infant. ( 7 6 - 1 0 6 )
ch. 5 Aztec Agriculture. Mechanical Arts.

Merchants. Domestic Manners.
Husbandry, to a very limited extent, practisirt by m o s t der r u d e tribes of 35

N o r t h America. Wherever a natural opening in the forest, or a rich strip of
interval m e t their eyes, or a green slope was found along the rivers, they
planted it m i t beans u n d I n d i a n corn. (Mais) In Mexico die Agricultur in-
412
w
terwoven m i t d e n civil u n d religious institutions der n a t i o n . All, except t h e

soldiers u n d great nobles, even t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of the cities, cultivated the
soil. D a s work chiefly d o n e by m e n , die w o m e n scattering t h e seed, husk-
ing the corn u n d taking part only in d e n lighter labours of t h e field. (113)
5 W e n n der Boden erschpft lieen sie i h n brachliegen. Canals, severe pe-
nalties gegen die Destruction of the woods. A m p l e granaries for their har-
vests. (114) U n t e r ihren A g r i c u l t u r p r o d u c t e n die B a n a n a , Cacao, Vanilla.
Das great staple des L a n d s , wie des A m e r i c a n continent, war M a i z e oder
I n d i a n Corn, which grew freely along the valleys, a n d up the steep sides of
10 the Cordilleras to the high level of the table land. Its gigantic stalks, in
these equinoctial regions, afford a saccharine m a t t e r u n d lieferte d e n n a -
tives sugar little inferior to that of t h e cane itself, which was n o t i n t r o d u c e d
a m o n g t h e m till after the Conquest. A b e r das Miracle der N a t u r war die
great Mexican Aloe oder Maguey. Seine Bltter zu Papier b e n u z t , sein Saft
15 fermented in an intoxicating beverage, pulque; a u c h seine leaves zur Bedek-
kung fr die m o r e h u m b l e dwellings; von s e i n e n tough u n d twisted fibres
thread u n d draus coarse stuffs g e m a c h t u n d strong cords; pins u n d needles
g e m a c h t von den thorns at the extremity of its leaves; and the root, when
properly cooked, was converted into a palatable a n d n u t r i t i o u s food. Die
20 agave, in short, war m e a t , drink, clothing u n d writing materials fr d e n Az-
tec. ( 1 1 4 - 1 1 6 ) Sie k a n n t e n u n d p r o d u c i r t e n Silber, lead u n d tin. Gold,
found on the surface or gleaned from the beds of rivers, was cast into bars,
or, in the form of dust, m a d e part of the regular tribute of the s o u t h e r n
provinces of the empire. D e r use von iron, w o m i t der B o d e n impregnated,
25 i h n e n u n k n o w n . Trotz seiner a b u n d a n c e , erheischt es so viele Processe to
prepare it for use, t h a t it has c o m m o n l y b e e n o n e of the last metals pressed
into the service of m a n . (117) |
|39| Substitut fr sie an alloy von tin u n d copper u n d m i t diesen tools
m a d e of this bronze, could cut n o t only metals, sondern m i t Hilfe eines si-
30 liceous dust, the h a r d e s t substances, wie Basalt, Porphyr etc. Sehr kunst-
volle G o l d s c h m i e d e ... T h e y employed a n o t h e r tool, m a d e of itztli, or ob-
sidian, a dark transparent m i n e r a l , excedingly hard, found in a b u n d a n c e in
their hills. They m a d e it into knives, razors u n d ihre serrated swords. ... Sie
wrought d a m i t die various stones u n d alabasters employed in the construc-
35 tion of their public works u n d principal dwellings; ... Sculptured images
waren sehr zahlreich ... m a c h t e n utensils of earthenware fr the ordinary
purposes of domestic life ... F a m o s e F a r b e n , mineralische u n d vegetabili-
sche. V o n i h n e n die cochineal eingefhrt n a c h E u r o p a ... So colorirten sie
brilliant die webs aller Art of fineness v o m cotton raised in a b u n d a n c e
40 t h r o u g h o u t the warmer regions of the country. H a t t e n a u c h die art of inter-
weaving m i t diesen das delicate hair of rabbits etc u n d darauf n o c h oft ge-
413
lb
f
legt a rich embroidery of birds, flowers, or s o m e other fanciful device.

... Die Art, worin sie m o s t delighted, war ihr plumaje oder featherwork. T h e
gorgeous p l u m a g e of the tropical birds, b e s o n d e r s des parrot tribe, afforded
every variety of colour; u n d die fine down of t h e h u m m i n g b i r d ... supplied
t h e m with soft aerial tints t h a t gave an exquisite finish to the picture. T h e 5
feathers, pasted on a fine cotton web, were wrought into dresses for the
wealthy, hangings for apartments u n d o r n a m e n t s for the temples.
( 1 1 8 - 1 2 2 ) K e i n e shops in M e x i c o ; die various m a n u f a c t u r e s u n d agricul-
tural produces were brought together for sale in the great market-places of
the principal cities. Fairs hier gehalten j e d e n 5* Tag u n d grosser Concurs 10
von der Nachbarschaft, to buy or sell; a particular quarter was allotted to
each k i n d of article; die transactions gefhrt u n d e r t h e inspections of mag-
istrates, a p p o i n t e d for the purpose. D e r traffic gefhrt theils d u r c h barter,
theils by a regulated currency of different values. This consisted of trans-
p a r e n t quills of gold dust; of bits of tin, cut in t h e form of a T; u n d of bags 15
of cacao, containing a specified n u m b e r of grains. O felicem m o n e t a m
sagt Peter Martyr (De Orbe novo), q u a e suavem u t i l e m q u e praebet h u m a n o
generi p o t u m , et a tartare peste avaritiae suos i m m u n e s servat possessores,
q u o d suffodi aut diu servari n e q u e a t . " (123) K e i n e K a s t e n in M e x i c o , d o c h
usually folgte der Sohn der Beschftigung des Vaters. D i e different trades 20
were arranged in eine Art von guilds; having e a c h a particular district der
city appropriated to it, with its own chief, its own tutelar deity, its peculiar
festivals u. s. w. trade geschzt von d e n Aztecs. ... A b e r besonders geachtet
war die o c c u p a t i o n des merchant. Er war a sort of itinerant trader, der seine
journeys m a c h t e zu d e n remotest borders of A n a h u a c u n d d e n countries 25
beyond, carrying m i t i h m m e r c h a n d i s e of rich stuffs, jewelry, slaves u n d
a n d r e n valuable c o m m o d i t i e s . Die slaves were obtained auf d e m grossen
M a r k t von Aztcapotzalco, n o t m a n y leagues von der capital, wo regularly
fairs held fr d e n Verkauf derselben ... slavedealing was an h o n o u r a b l e
calling a m o n g the Aztecs. R e i s t e n in bewaffneten Caravanen, visited die 30
different provinces, always bearing some present of value from i h r e m own
sovereign u n d usually receiving others in return, m i t a permission to trade.
... Ihr government i m m e r bereit to e m b a r k in a war, w e n n sie injured, find-
ing it a very convenient pretext for extending the m e x i c a n empire. N o t u n -
gewhnlich to allow the m e r c h a n t s to raise levies themselves, which were 35
placed u n d e r their c o m m a n d . A u c h sehr c o m m o n fr d e n Prinz to employ
t h e m e r c h a n t s as a sort of spies, to furnish h i m information der countries
w o d u r c h sie passed u n d der dispositions der i n h a b i t a n t s gegen ihn. So ihre
Sphren of action sehr a u s g e d e h n t b e r die von h u m b l e traders u n d they
acquired a high consideration in the body politic. They were allowed to as- 40
s u m e insignia and devices of their own. Einige von i h n e n bildeten a coun-
414
cil of finances, wenigstens in T e z c u c o . T h e y were m u c h consulted von d e m

m o n a r c h , der i m m e r einige u m sich h a t t e ; n a n n t e sie uncle" ... h a t t e n
ihre own courts, worin civil u n d c r i m i n a l cases, capital n o t excepted, were
d e t e r m i n e d ; so t h a t they formed an independent community, as it were, of
5 themselves. U n d , da ihr various traffic sie m i t a b u n d a n t stores of wealth ver-
sah, genossen sie viele der m o s t essential advantages of an hereditary aris-
tocracy. ( 1 2 4 - 6 ) Polygamie erlaubt d e n M e x i c a n s , beschrnkt auf die
reichsten Klassen. (128) Die Aztecs r a u c h t e n Pfeifen u n d Cigarren u n d
schnupften. (130) Grosse F e i n s c h m e c k e r . Saucen, confections etc. O n e
10 other dish, of a disgusting n a t u r e , was s o m e t i m e s a d d e d to the feast, espe-
cially w h e n the celebration partook of a religious character. On s u c h occa-
sions a slave was sacrificed, a n d his flesh elaborately dressed, formed o n e
of the chief o r n a m e n t s of the b a n q u e t . C a n n i b a l i s m , in the G u i s e of an E p -
i c u r e a n science, b e c o m e s even the m o r e revolting. (131) T h e m e a t s were
15 kept warm by chafingdishes. T h e table was o r n a m e n t e d m i t vases of silver
u n d s o m e t i m e s gold, of delicate w o r k m a n s h i p . Die drinking-cups u n d
spoons m a d e of t h e same costly materials u n d likewise of tortoise-shell.
T h e favourite beverage war die chocolatl, flavoured with vanilla a n d differ-
ent spices. (131, 2) T h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t (die b a n q u e t s ) was c o n c l u d e d by a
20 liberal distribution of rich dresses u n d o r n a m e n t s a m o n g the guests. (133)
(when they withdrew, after midnight.)
Vol. III.
Die Aztecs did n o t h i n g to ameliorate the c o n d i t i o n or in any way to pro-

m o t e the progress, of their vassals. Their vassals were serfs, u s e d only to
25 minister to their pleasure, held in awe by a r m e d garrisons, ground to the
dust by imposts in peace, by military conscriptions in war. They did not,
like the R o m a n s , e x t e n d the rights of citizenship to the c o n q u e r e d . T h e y
did n o t a m a l g a m a t e t h e m into one great n a t i o n , m i t c o m m o n rights u n d
interests. They held t h e m as aliens ... even those who in t h e Valley were
30 gathered r o u n d the very walls of the capital. T h e Aztec metropolis, the
heart of the m o n a r c h y , h a d n o t a sympathy, n o t a pulsation, in c o m m o n
with the rest of the body politic. (176, 7) ( K a n n t e n nicht den u s e of milk.) |
|40J D i e Aztecs k a n n t e n no domesticated a n i m a l s whatever. (341)
415
Prescott. (W.H.)
History of the Conquest of Peru.
4 e d . 3 vol. L o n d o n . 1850.
V.l.
Book I. 5
ch. I. Physical aspect of the Country.
Sources of Peruvian civilisation. Empire of the Incas.
Royal family. Nobility.
Trotz aller Schwierigkeiten, die dieses schmale K s t e n l a n d m i t seinen Ber-

g e n liefert: By a j u d i c i o u s system of canals u n d subterraneous a q u e d u c t s , 10
t h e waste (Sand) places an der K s t e erfrischt von copious streams, that
clothed t h e m in fertility a n d beauty. Terraces were raised u p o n the steep
sides der Cordillera; and, as the different elevations h a d t h e effect of differ-
e n c e of latitude, they exhibited in regular gradation every variety of veg-
etable form, from the Stimulated Growth of the tropics to the t e m p e r a t e 15
products of a n o r t h e r n clime; while flocks of l l a m a s t h e peruvian sheep
w a n d e r e d m i t ihren shepherds over t h e broad snow covered wastes on t h e
crests of the sierra, which rose beyond the limits of cultivation. An i n d u s -
trious population settled along the lofty regions of t h e p l a t e a u s ; a n d towns
u n d h a m l e t s , clustering amidst orchards u n d widespreading gardens, 20
s e e m e d suspended in the air, far above the ordinary elevation of the clouds.
Intercourse was m a i n t a i n e d between these n u m e r o u s settlements d u r c h
great roads which traversed the m o u n t a i n passes, and o p e n e d an easy com-
m u n i c a t i o n zwischen der capital u n d d e n remotest extremities des e m p i r e .
416
Aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Peru
D i e source dieser Civilisation im T h a l von Cuzko, C e n t r u m von Peru. (6,

7) Inca signified king or lord. (9) Die I n c a s m o n a r c h e n h c h s t e n s 2% Jh. vor
der Eroberung zurck zu datiren. (11) N i c h t vor Mitte des 15 Jh. d a der
famous T o p a Inca Y u p a n q u i , grandfather of t h e m o n a r c h who o c c u p i e d
5 the throne at the coming of the Spaniards, led his armies across the terrible
desert of A t a c a m a u n d , penetrating to the s o u t h e r n region of Chili, fixed
t h e p e r m a n e n t b o u n d a r y of his d o m i n i o n s at the river M a u l e . Sein Sohn,
m a r c h e d along the Cordilleras towards the n o r t h u n d a d d e d the powerful
k i n g d o m of Quito to the e m p i r e of Peru. ([13,] 14) Cuzko war die Holy
10 City" u n d der great temple of the S u n darin die m o s t magnificent struc-
ture in the new world. (15) Die furchtbaren Granitblcke (viele 38 F u lang
auf 18 Breite u n d 6 F u Dicke) zu d e m B a u der T h r m e von C u z k o ver-
wandt. W u n d e r b a r w h e n we consider that these e n o r m o u s masses were
hewn from their native b e d a n d fashioned into shape by a people ignorant
15 of the u s e of iron; that they were brought from quarries, von 4 - 1 5 leagues
distant, o h n e die aid von Lastthieren, were transported across rivers u n d ra-
vines, raised to their elevated position on the sierra, u n d finally adjusted
there m i t der nicest accuracy, o h n e die knowledge of tools u n d m a c h i n e r y
familiar to the E u r o p e a n . 20,000 m e n sollen an dieser grossen structure
20 verwandt worden sein, u n d 50 J a h r e c o n s u m e d h a b e n in its building. How-
ever this m a y be, we see in it t h e workings of a despotism w h i c h h a d t h e
lives a n d the fortunes of its vassals at its absolute disposal, a n d which, how-
ever mild in its general character, e s t e e m e d these vassals, when employed
in its service, as lightly as the brute a n i m a l s for which they served as a sub-
25 stitute. (17, 18)
Die Regierung von Peru war d u r c h a u s despotisch. D e r sovereign stand in
u n e r m e l i c h e r distance b e r d e n subjects. Stand als Reprsentant der Sonne
an der Spitze der Priesterschaft. E r h o b die A r m i e s , k o m m a n d i r t e sie meist,
legte taxes auf, m a c h t e laws u n d provided fr deren E x e c u t i o n d u r c h das
30 a p p o i n t m e n t der Judges die er r e m o v e d at pleasure. (23, 4) D i e I n c a ' s , um
ihre claims as a superior being zu beweisen, n a h m e n e i n e n l c h e r l i c h e n
P o m p a n ; two feathers of a rare a n d curious bird, called the c o r a q u e n q u e ,
zu d e n H a u p t i n s i g n i a of royalty. T h e birds, wovon diese F e d e r n erhalten,
in einer W s t e a m o n g the m o u n t a i n s ; u n d it was d e a t h to destroy or to
35 take t h e m . Jeder succeeding m o n a r c h versehn m i t a new pair dieser F e d e r n
u n d his credulous subjects believed t h a t only two individuals of the species
h a d ever existed to furnish the simple o r n a m e n t for the d i a d e m of the In-
cas. ... Ein H a u p t m i t t e l der I n c a s fr die C o m m u n i c a t i o n m i t ihren p e o -
ples, waren ihre progresses t h r o u g h the empire. Diese c o n d u c t e d , at inter-
40 vais verschiedner J a h r e , m i t great state u n d magnifience. T h e sedan, or
litter, worin sie travelled, war reich e m b l a z o n e d m i t Gold u n d emeralds
417
u n d guarded by a n u m e r o u s escort. D i e m e n who bore it on their shoulders

were provided d u r c h 2 cities, specially a p p o i n t e d fr d e n Zweck. It was a
post to be coveted by n o n e , if, wie versichert, a fall was p u n i s h e d m i t Tod.
N a c h Zarate die nobles die Trger; 1000 of w h o m b e s o n d e r s reservirt fr
die h u m i l i a t i n g h o n o u r . ( 2 4 - 2 6 ) D i e Peruvian m o u n t a i n s t e e m e d m i t 5
G o l d ; die natives verstanden die M i n e n a r b e i t ; n o n e of t h e ore wurde in
coin verwandelt u n d das whole of it passed into the h a n d s des sovereign for
his own exclusive benefit, sei es for purposes of utility or o r n a m e n t . In der
Lieblingsresidenz der I n c a s zu Yukay, wo sie m i t i h r e n C o n c u b i n e n lie-
belten, | | 4 1 | they loved to indulge in the luxury of their baths, replenished 10
by streams of crystal water which were c o n d u c t e d t h r o u g h subterraneous
silver c h a n n e l s into basins of gold. N e b e n ihren G r t e n zugleich Parterres,
die glowing with the various forms of vegetable life skilfully imitated in
gold u n d silver. (29, 30) Starb so ein H u n d v o n I n c a his palaces were
a b a n d o n e d ; all his treasures, except what were employed in his obsequies, 15
his furniture a n d apparel, blieben wie er sie left u n d his m a n s i o n s (save
one) closed up for ever. T h e new sovereign was to provide himself with
every thing new for his royal State. G r u n d der Volksglaube d a die soul
des departed m o n a r c h would return after a t i m e to r e a n i m a t e his body on
earth ... m i t i h m begraben a quantity of his plate a n d jewels u n d a n u m b e r 20
of his a t t e n d a n t s u n d favourite c o n c u b i n e s . (30, 1) Der body v o n d e m de-
ceased I n c a wurde skilfully e m b a l m e d u n d removed to the great t e m p l e of
the S u n at Cuzco. Hier auf der e i n e n Seite die Knige, auf der a n d r e n ihre
Weiber. T h e bodies, clothed in t h e princely attire which they h a d b e e n ac-
c u s t o m e d to wear, were placed on chairs of gold, a n d sat m i t ihren h e a d s 25
inclined downward, ihre h a n d s placidly crossed over their b o s o m s , their
c o u n t e n a n c e s exhibiting their n a t u r a l dusky h u e ... T h e Peruvians were as
successful as the Ejyptians in the miserable attempt to perpetuate the exist-
ence of the b o d y beyond the limits assigned to it by n a t u r e . ... O n e der
houses belonging to a deceased I n c a was kept o p e n u n d occupied by his 30
guard u n d attendants, with all the state appropriate to royalty. On certain
festivals the revered bodies der sovereigns were brought o u t m i t great cer-
e m o n y in d e n public square der capital. Invitations were sent by the cap-
tains of the guard der respective I n c a s to the different nobles u n d officers
of the court; u n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t s were provided in d e n n a m e s ihrer m a s - 35
ters, which displayed all the profuse magnificence ihrer treasures, u n d
sagte Sarmiento, "such a display was there in the great square of Cuzco on
this occasion, of gold a n d silver, plate a n d jewels, as no other city in the
world ever witnessed." (32, 3) Der A d e l von Peru bestand aus 2 orders, erste
und wichtigste! Die Incas, boasting a c o m m o n descent with their sovereign. 40
Sie trugen a peculiar dress, h a t t e n a peculiar dialect u n d h a d t h e choicest
418
portion des public d o m a i n assigned for their support. Sie allein z u l a b a r

zu d e n great offices in der priesthood; waren invested m i t der c o m m a n d
der armies u n d distant garrisons, placed over the provinces u n d filled every
station of high trust u n d e m o l u m e n t . An I n c a noble was incapable of
5 crime. D e r andre Orden des Adels die Curacas, die Caciques der c o n q u e r e d
nations, or ihre d e s c e n d a n t s . W u r d e n m e i s t in ihren Pltzen gelassen,
m u t e n aber m a n c h m a l die capital b e s u c h e n u n d allow their sons t o b e
e d u c a t e d there as the pledges of their loyalty. Ihre A u t o r i t t scheint ge-
whnlich local gewesen zu sein u n d stets subordinirt der Territorialjuris-
10 diction der great provincial governors, who were t a k e n from the Incas. D i e
I n c a nobility constituirte die Realkraft der peruvian m o n a r c h y . After the
lapse of centuries, they still retained their individuality as a peculiar p e o -
ple. ... T h o u g h living chiefly in t h e capital, they were also distributed
t h r o u g h o u t the country in all its high stations u n d strong military posts, so
15 establishing lines of c o m m u n i c a t i o n m i t d e m court, which enabled t h e
sovereign to act simultaneously u n d m i t effect on t h e m o s t distant quarters
of his empire. Sie besassen an intellectual p r e - e m i n e n c e ... T h e crania der
I n c a race show a decided superiority over the other races of the land in in-
tellectual power. ( 3 4 - 3 7 )
20 Ch. II. Orders of the State. Provisions for Justice.

Division of Lands. Revenues and Registers.
Great Roads und Posts. Military Tactics und Policy.
Das G e s a m m t r e i c h u n t e r d e n orders der I n c a s h i e : Tavantinsuyu

(4 quarters of the world.) D a s Knigreich in 4 Theile getheilt, j e d e r m i t
25 b e s o n d e r e m Titel u n d zu each of which ran E i n e r der 4 great roads t h a t di-
verged von Cuzco, der capital des P e r u ' s c h e n Reichs. E b e n s o die city in
4 Theile getheilt; u n d die various races, which gathered there von d e n dis-
t a n t parts des Reiches, lebten z u s a m m e n in d e m quarter nearest to its re-
spective province. F u h r e n fort ihre Originaltracht zu tragen; u n d dieselbe
30 order u n d system of a r r a n g e m e n t prevailed in der motley p o p u l a t i o n der
capital, wie in den great provinces des empire. T h e capital, in fact, was a
m i n i a t u r e image des empire. J e d e der 4 great provinces hatte e i n e n viceroy
oder governor, m i t e i n e m oder m e h r e n councils fr die different dparte-
m e n t s . Diese viceroys residirten, some t i m e m i n d e s t e n s in der capital, wo
35 sie eine Art von Staatsrath fr d e n I n c a bildeten. Die n a t i o n im G a n z e n in
D e c a d e n getheilt oder small bodies of ten u n d j e d e r 10' M a n n oder H a u p t
einer D e c a d e hatte supervision of the rest ... Diese, wenn sie e i n e n Verbre-
cher nicht vor Gericht brachten, u n t e r z o g e n derselben penalty that would
419
have b e e n incurred by t h e guilty party. D a s Volk a u s s e r d e m getheilt in bod-

ies von 50, 100, 500, 1000, m i t each an officer having general supervision
over those b e n e a t h u n d the higher ones possessing, to a certain extent, au-
thority in matters of police. Schlielich das ganze E m p i r e eingetheilt in
sections oder d e p a r t m e n t s von 10,000 Einwohnern, m i t a governor ber 5
j e d e from the I n c a nobility, die Controlle h a t t e n b e r die curacas u n d and-
re territorial officers in d e m Distrikt. Regular tribunals of justice, beste-
h e n d aus magistrates, in jeder der towns oder small c o m m u n i t i e s , m i t juris-
diction b e r petty ||42| offences, da die greater offences gebracht vor
superior judges, meist die governors oder rulers der Distrikts. D i e crown 10
sezte sie ein u n d ab n a c h Willkhr. M u t e n j e d e n suit in 5 Tagen von der
Zeit, wo er vor sie gebracht, e n d e n . K e i n appeal von e i n e m T r i b u n a l an das
andre. A c o m m i t t e e von visitors patrolled das k i n g d o m zu certain times, to
investigate the character u n d c o n d u c t der magistrates; j e d e r neglect oder
violation aufs strengste bestraft. Die inferior courts h a t t e n m o n t h l y returns 15
zu m a c h e n an die h h e r n u n d diese an die viceroys: so t h a t the m o n a r c h ,
seated in the centre of his d o m i n i o n s , could look abroad to their m o s t dis-
t a n t extremities u n d review u n d rectify any abuses in the administration
des law. Gesetze wenig, sehr streng. F a s t n u r fr criminal m a t t e r s . Theft,
adultery, m u r d e r , Blasphemy der S o n n e , u n d M a l e d i c t i o n des Inca, b u r n - 20
ing einer bridge - alles capital. E i n e rebellische Stadt oder Provinz wst
gelegt u n d its i n h a b i t a n t s exterminated. Rebellion gegen das Child of the
S u n " was the greatest of all crimes. ... To violate the law war sacrilege.
D o c h nicht grausam in der Ausfhrung ihrer Strafen. ( 3 8 - 4 4 ) Das ganze
Territorium der Incas war in 3 parts getheilt, Einer fr die S o n n e , Zweiter 25
fr d e n Inca, Dritter fr das Volk. Die Proportions differed wesentlich in
d e n verschiednen Provinzen. Aber die E i n t h e i l u n g fr j e d e n n e u e n Con-
quest gemacht. Das der S o n n e assignirte L a n d gab R e v e n u e fr d e n Unter-
halt der T e m p e l , der C e r e m o n i e n u n d m u l t i t u d i n o u s priesthood. Die fr
d e n Inca reservirten went to support d e n royal state, die n u m e r o u s m e m - 30
bers of his h o u s e h o l d u n d kindred u n d die various exigencies of govern-
m e n t . D e r Rest des Lands getheilt, per capita, in gleichen T h e i l e n u n t e r
das Volk. Gesetzlich b e s t i m m t , da j e d e r Peruvian zu einer b e s t i m m t e n
Zeit h e i r a t h e n m u t e . W e n n die Ereigni statthatte, lieferte i h m die
c o m m u n i t y oder der District worin er lebte a dwelling, which, as it was con- 35
structed of h u m b l e materials, wenig kostete. A lot of land d a n n assigned to
h i m h i n r e i c h e n d fr his own m a i n t e n a n c e u n d die seines Weibs. An addi-
tional portion granted fr jedes child, fr d e n S o h n 2 x so viel als fr eine
Tochter. Die Theilung des Bodens erneut jedes J a h r u n d die possessions
des t e n a n t increased or d i m i n i s h e d n a c h der Z a h l deren in seiner family. 40
Dasselbe arrangement fand fr die curacas statt; n u r d a die i h n e n zuge-
420
IT
theilte D o m a i n e ihrer h h e r n W r d e entsprach. E i n wirksamres u n d conse-

quenteres agrarisches Gesetz n i c h t zu e r s i n n e n . (Bei der F r u c h t b a r k e i t des
Bodens reichte n a t r l i c h sehr kleines lot hin.) D i e nearest a p p r o a c h zu der
Peruvian constitution die von J u d e a , wo on t h e recurrence des grossen j u -
5 bilee, am Schlu j e d e s h a l b e n J h d t s . A u c h w h r e n d des J a h r e s h a t t e der ten-
a n t no power to alienate or to a d d to his possessions. W a h r s c h e i n l i c h e a c h
new partition des soil usually confirmed d e n o c c u p a n t in his possession
u n d der t e n a n t for a year was converted i n t o a proprietor for life. D a s terri-
tory was cultivated wholly by t h e people. Z u e r s t die der S o n n e gehrigen
10 lands. They n e x t tilled die l a n d s , der old, der sick, der widow u n d o r p h a n
u n d der soldiers engaged in a c t u a l service; in short des g a n z e n Theils der
c o m m u n i t y der u n a b l e war t o a t t e n d z u s e i n e m eignen concern. D a n n d e m
Volk allowed, j e d e r fr sich s e i n e n e i g n e n G r u n d zu bearbeiten, aber m i t
der general obligation s e i n e m N a c h b a r to assist, w e n n irgend ein U m s t a n d ,
15 die b u r d e n einer j u n g e n u n d z a h l r e i c h e n family . . m i g h t d e m a n d it.
Schlielich die L a n d s des I n c a cultivirt. D i e geschah m i t grosser C r m o -
nie by the whole p o p u l a t i o n in a body. ... A similar a r r a n g e m e n t prevailed
m i t Bezug auf die different m a n u f a c t u r e s ... D i e flocks der L l a m a s , o d e r
Peruvian sheep, waren ausschlieliches E i g e n t h u m der S o n n e u n d des
20 Inca. Ihre Z a h l i m m e n s . Scattered b e r die v e r s c h i e d n e n Provinces, beson-
ders in d e n colder regions des country, vertraut der care erfahrner shep-
herds, die c o n d u c t e d t h e m to different pastures je n a c h d e m change der
seasons. A large n u m b e r jedes J a h r sent n a c h der capital fr d e n c o n s u m
des Hofes u n d fr religious festivals u n d sacrifices. A b e r n u r die m a l e s . D i e
25 females durften n i c h t be killed. D i e regulations fr die care u n d b r e e d i n g
dieser flocks prescribed m i t der greatest m i n u t e n e s s ... Z u r a p p o i n t e d sea-
son sie alle geschoren u n d die W o l l e d e p o n i r t in d e n public m a g a z i n e s .
D a n n dealt o u t j e d e r family in solchen q u a n t i t i e s as sufficed for its wants
u n d d e m female part des h o u s e h o l d consignirt, die wohl instructed i m b u s -
30 iness of spinning u n d weaving. D i e fr cold climate der m o u n t a i n s . In
d e m lower country, cotton, furnished in like m a n n e r by t h e crown, took t h e
place, to a certain extent, of wool. D a n n n u n das Volk required to l a b o u r
fr d e n Inca. The q u a n t i t y of t h e cloth n e e d e d , as well as t h e peculiar k i n d
a n d quality of the fabric, was first d e t e r m i n e d at C u z c o . T h e work was t h e n
35 apportioned a m o n g the different provinces. Officers appointed for t h e pur-
pose, s u p e r i n t e n d e d t h e distribution of t h e wool, so da die m a n u f a c t u r e
der different articles should be intrusted d e n m o s t c o m p e t e n t h a n d s . (The
m a n u f a c t u r e of cloths fr d e n I n c a schlo ein die fr die z a h l r e i c h e n per-
sons des blood royal, who wore g a r m e n t s of a finer texture als p e r m i t t e d to
40 any other Peruvian.) Sie entered t h e dwellings von Zeit zu Zeit u n d s a h e n ,
d a das work was faithfully executed. Diese domestic inquisition, n i c h t b e -
421
schrnkt auf die Arbeiten fr d e n Inca, schlo ein die fr die verschiednen
families; u n d care was t a k e n da j e d e r H a u s h a l t die gelieferten materials
fr d e n beabsichtigten Zweck verwende, so t h a t no o n e should be u n p r o -
vided m i t necessary apparel. In this domestic Arbeit der ganze female Theil
to join. O c c u p a t i o n gefunden fr alle, fr das K i n d von 5 J a h r e n bis zur 5
aged m a t r o n . Idleness als crime bestraft; industry ffentlich c o m m e n d e d
u n d stimulated b y rewards, n o one should b e u n p r o v i d e d m i t der necessary
apparel. Derselbe course befolgt in Bezug auf die a n d e r n requisitions der
Regierung. Alle M i n e n im k i n g d o m gehrten d e m Inca. Sie were wrought
exclusively fr his benefit, by persons familiar m i t d i e s e m service u n d se- 10
lected von d e n districts wo die m i n e s were situated. F r o m this reservoir, the
proceeds liberally dispensed als presents fr die great lords u n d fr die
Verschn||43|rung der T e m p e l . Every Peruvian of the lower class war a h u s -
b a n d m a n u n d expected m i t A u s n a h m e der schon g e n a n n t e n t o provide for
his own support by the cultivation of his land. A small portion of the com- 15
m u n i t y , however, was instructed in m e c h a n i c a l arts; s o m e of t h e m of the
m o r e elegant kind, subservient to the purposes of luxury u n d o r n a m e n t .
Die d e m a n d hierfr chiefly beschrnkt auf d e n sovereign u n d his court;
b u t the labour of a larger n u m b e r of h a n d s was exacted fr die e x e c u t i o n
der great public works which covered the land. Die n a t u r e u n d a m o u n t der 20
services required alle b e s t i m m t zu C u z c o d u r c h commissioners well in-
structed in d e n resources des country u n d in d e m Charakter der E i n w o h n e r
der verschiednen provinces. Diese information wurde o b t a i n e d d u r c h an
admirable regulation - Register kept aller births u n d deaths, d u r c h das
country, u n d exacte Bevlkerungsreturns der Regierung j e d e s J a h r g e m a c h t 25
vermittelst der quipus. Zu verschiednen intervals a u c h g e m a c h t a general
survey des Landes, exhibiting a complete view des character des soil, its
fertility, t h e n a t u r e of its products, b o t h agricultural u n d mineral, kurz of
all that constituted the physical resources des e m p i r e . M i t diesen statisti-
schen Details ausgestattet leicht fr die Regierung, after d e t e r m i n i n g the 30
a m o u n t of requisitions, to distribute the work u n t e r die respective prov-
inces best qualified to execute it. T h e task of apportioning the l a b o u r was
assigned to the local authorities u n d sehr gesorgt, d a es in solcher Weise
geschah, da, while die m o s t c o m p e t e n t h a n d s were selected, it should n o t
fall unverhltnimssig heavy on any. Die different provinces des country 35
furnished persons besonders suited to different e m p l o y m e n t s , die gewhn-
lich descended v o m Vater auf den Sohn. So, E i n Distrikt supplied die ge-
schicksten Minenarbeiter, ein andrer die m o s t curious workers in metals or
in wood u. s.f. D e r artisan provided von der Regierung m i t den materials;
n i e m a n d required to give m o r e als a stipulated portion seiner Zeit d e m f- 40
fentlichen Dienst. D a n n succeeded by a n o t h e r for t h e like t e r m ; u n d alle,
422
a u c h in der agricultural labour, so lange als engaged im e m p l o y m e n t der

Regierung, for the t i m e m a i n t a i n e d at the public expense. D u r c h diese b e -
stndige Rotation der Arbeit bezweckt, da K e i n e r berlastet u n d Z e i t h a b e
fr die d e m a n d s seines eignen H a u s h a l t s zu sorgen. Diese R e g u l a t i o n s so
5 arranged, da die m o s t wearing u n d u n w h o l e s o m e labours wie die der
M i n e n , occasioned no d e t r i m e n t fr die h e a l t h des labourer, a striking con-
trast to his s u b s e q u e n t c o n d i t i o n u n t e r d e m Spanish law. E i n Theil der
Agricultur u n d M a n u f a c t u r p r o d u c t e transported n a c h Cuzco, fr die i m -
m e d i a t e wants des I n c a u n d seines Hofs. A b e r der bei weitem grre aufge-
10 speichert in m a g a z i n e s scattered b e r die v e r s c h i e d n e n Provinzen. Diese
g e r u m i g e n buildings, construirt aus Stein, getheilt zwischen der S u n u n d
d e m I n c a ; leztrer d e n grren Theil. Gesetz, w o n a c h any deficiency in d e n
contributions des I n c a m i g h t be supplied von d e n granaries der S o n n e .
A b e r gewhnlich a large surplus in d e n royal depositories, which was re-
15 m o v e d zu a third class von M a g a z i n e n , d e r e n Zweck to supply das people
in seasons of scarcity u n d gelegentlich fr U n t e r s t t z u n g verarmter Indivi-
d u e n ... Diese m a g a z i n e s were found von d e n Spaniern, stored m i t all d e n
various products u n d m a n u f a c t u r e s des country, m i t M a i z e , Goca, q u i n u a ,
W o l l e n u n d cotton stuffs der finest quality, m i t V a s e n u n d utensils v o n
20 Gold, Silber u n d Kupfer, kurz m i t j e d e m Luxusartikel d e n Peruvianern b e -
k a n n t . Das G e t r e i d e m a g a z i n besonders would hufig have sufficed fr d e n
c o n s u m der b e n a c h b a r t e n Districts fr E i n Jahr. Ein I n v e n t a r i u m der va-
rious products des L a n d e s u n d der quarters whence they were o b t a i n e d ,
was jedes J a h r t a k e n d u r c h die royal officers u n d recorded d u r c h die quipu-
25 camayus on their registers, m i t surprising regularity u n d precision. Diese
registers transmitted to the capital u n d s u b m i t t e d to the Inca, der so m i t ei-
n e m Blick could e m b r a c e the whole results der N a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e u n d see
how far they corresponded m i t d e n requisitions of government. ... A u f d e m
Peruvian people lastete die whole b u r d e n of m a i n t a i n i n g , n o t only t h e i r
30 own order, b u t every other order im Staat. Die m e m b e r s des royal h o u s e ,
die great nobles, die ffentlichen B e a m t e n , die zahlreichen Priester, alle
e x e m p t from taxation. D e r Peruvian could n o t better his condition. K o n n t e
kein H a a r zu seinen Besitzungen hinzufgen oder advance sich in the so-
cial scale. Even his t i m e he could n o t properly call his own. O h n e m o n e y ,
35 m i t little property of any kind, he paid his taxes in labour. Mssiggang war
a crime against the state, sozusagen a frustration des exchequer. ... A b e r :
I f n o m a n could b e c o m e rich i n Peru, n o m a n could b e c o m e poor. ... T h e
very condition of his being s e e m e d to be at war with change. ( 4 4 - 5 8 ) N o c h
findet m a n in d e n central regions besonders r e m a i n s of temples, palaces,
40 fortresses, terraced m o u n t a i n s , great military roads, a q u e d u c t s . (59) E i n e r
der roads (von Cuzco n a c h Quito!) passed over the grand plateau. It was
423
c o n d u c t e d b e r pathless sierras buried in snow; galleries were cut for

leagues t h r o u g h the living rock; rivers were crossed by m e a n s of bridges
that swung suspended in the air; precipices were scaled by stairways hewn
o u t of the native bed, ravines of h i d e o u s d e p t h were filled up m i t solid m a -
sonry; kurz all the difficulties t h a t beset a wild u n d m o u n t a i n o u s region 5
u n d m i g h t appal the most courageous engineer der m o d e r n times, waren
e n c o u n t e r e d u n d successfully overcome. D i e length des road ... stone pil-
lars, in Weise der europischen milestones, in Z w i s c h e n r u m e n von etwas
m e h r als a league, all along the route. ... U e b e r einige der boldest streams
suspensionbridges, still retained von d e n Spaniards b e r diese streams. G e - 10
m a c h t aus d e n tough fibres der maguey oder der osier des country, sehr te-
n a x u n d stark. Diese osiers gewebt in T a u e n von M a n n s d i c k e . T h e h u g e
ropes, t h e n stretched across the water, ||44| were c o n d u c t e d through rings or
holes cut in i m m e n s e buttresses of stone raised on the opposite banks of
the river, a n d there secured to heavy pieces of timber. Several dieser enor- 15
m o u s cables, b o u n d together, formed a bridge, which, covered m i t planks,
well secured u n d defended by a railing of the s a m e osier materials on the
sides, afforded a safe passage for the traveller. ... D e r andre grosse road der
I n c a s gelegt d u r c h das level country between d e n A n d e s u n d d e m Ocean.
... AU along diesen highways, caravanseries, oder tambos errichtet, je 10 20
oder 12 miles von einander, fr die A c c o m m o d a t i o n des I n c a u n d seiner
suite u n d die fr public business R e i s e n d e n . T h e r e were few other travel-
lers in Peru. Einige dieser G e b u d e sehr extensiv, m i t fortress, barracks
u n d a n d r e n military Works, s u r r o u n d e d by a parapet of stone, u n d covering
a large tract of ground. Die care der great roads c o m m i t t e d d e n districts 25
w o d u r c h sie passed u n d a large n u m b e r of h a n d s bestndig beschftigt u n -
ter d e n Incas to keep t h e m in repair. D i e so leichter in e i n e m L a n d where
the m o d e of travelling was altogether on foot ... G i n g e n caput u n t e r d e n
Spaniern. Yet the broken portions that still survive, here u n d there, like the
fragments der great r o m a n roads scattered over E u r o p e , bear evidence to 30
their primitive G r a n d e u r ... Posts me bei d e n Aztecs. ... All along these
routes small buildings errichtet, von je 5 miles, in j e d e m wovon a n u m b e r
of r u n n e r s oder chasquis stationirt, to carry die D e p e s c h e n der Regierung.
Entweder diese D e p e s c h e n m n d l i c h oder conveyed vermittelst der Quipus
u n d m a n c h m a l begleitet by a thread der crimson fringe worn r o u n d the 35
temples des Inca, regarded m i t derselben implicit deference als der signet
ring eines orientalischen Despoten. Die chasquis dressed in a peculiar liv-
ery, intimating their profession. All trained to the e m p l o y m e n t u n d se-
lected for their speed u n d fidelity. Messages carried zu d e m rate of
150 miles a day. A u s s e r d e m b r a c h t e n die chasquis various articles fr d e n 40
u s e des court; Fisch v o m Ocean, fruits, g a m e u n d different c o m m o d i t i e s
424
von den hot regions der Kste ... So die entferntesten Theile des p e r u a n i -
schen Reichs in i n t i m a t e relations m i t einander. ... E i n Hauptzweck der
great roads die military c o m m u n i c a t i o n . D i e I n c a s bestndig at war. N a c h -
d e m sie e i n m a l das Corpus ihres R e i c h s gebildet, war against the b a r b a r o u s
5 nations on the frontier. Die I n c a s of Peru offered no alternative b u t t h e
worship of the S u n or war. V e r s u c h t e n erst Beispiel, d a n n Negotiation, Pr-
sente, schlielich war. I h r e levies gezogen von allen different provinces; o b -
gleich von einigen, wo der Character des Volkes besonders gehrtet, m e h r
als von andern. Die rotation of military service u n d die regular drills, die
10 statthatten 2 oder 3x in a m o n t h , of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s jedes village, raised
die soldiers Generally b e r d e n R a n g einer raw militia. Am Schlu ihres
Reichs gro. K o n n t e n an 200,000 M a n n ins Feld bringen. ... At regular in-
tervals M a g a z i n e errichtet, filled m i t grain, weapons u n d d e n different m u -
nitions of war, womit die army was supplied on its m a r c h . Besondre Sorge
15 der Regierung d a diese M a g a z i n e , gefllt von d e n stores der Incas, were
always well filled. W e n n die Spanier invaded the country, they supported
their own armies for a long t i m e on the provisions found in t h e m . ... D e r
erste step der Regierung, n a c h der R e d u c t i o n of a country, war die Einfh-
rung der worship of the Sun. T e m p l e s errichtet u n d gestellt unter die zahl-
20 r e i c h e n Pfaffen, die die N e u e r o b e r t e n indoctrinirten u n d dazzled by t h e
display of its rich a n d stately ceremonial. A b e r die Religion der Besiegten,
nicht dishonoured. Die images ihrer gods removed to Cuzco u n d estab-
lished in one of the temples, to hold their rank u n t e r den inferior deities
des Peruvian P a n t h e o n . Hier b l i e b e n sie gewissermaassen als Geissein fr
25 die conquered n a t i o n ... Bei ihren new conquests sorgten die Incas fr a
census der Population u n d cadaster der P r o d u c t e u n d Bodenbeschaffenheit
des L a n d e s . D a n n dieselbe division, die bei i h n e n galt ... D i e extraordi-
nary institutions der I n c a s w u r d e n etablirt mit little opposition in d e n con-
quered territories. ... Kurz n a c h e i n e m frischen conquest die curacas u n d
30 ihre families removed for a t i m e n a c h Cuzco. Hier lernten sie die Sprache
der capital, wurden vertraut m i t d e n m a n n e r s u n d usages des court etc u n d
erfuhren solche G u n s t b e z e u g u n g e n von d e m sovereign u n d d a n n zurck-
geschickt, b u t still leaving their eldest sons in the capital, to r e m a i n there
as a guaranty for their own fidelity as well as to grace the court of the
35 Inca. - A n d r e s Mittel: to revolutionise the language of the country. Substituirt
E i n e universal language das Quichua. D i e Sprache des Hofs, der capital
u n d des Surrounding country - the richest u n d m o s t comprehensive der
s d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n dialects. Teachers were provided in d e n towns u n d vil-
lages d u r c h das Land, who were to give instruction to all, even the h u m -
40 blest classes; u n d zugleich i n t i m a t e d , d a n i e m a n d zu Stellen u n d W r -
den, u n b e k a n n t m i t this t o n g u e . Die curacas u n d andre chiefs lernten sie
425

b e i Hof, g a b e n Beispiel bei ihrer R c k k e h r n a c h H a u s . So, w h r e n d j e d e

Provinz ihre b e s o n d r e Sprache hielt, s c h n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d
zwischen d e n R e i c h s t h e i l e n ... Die G e s c h i c h t e liefert wenige Beispiele so
absoluter A u t o r i t t als such a revolution in der language eines e m p i r e , at
t h e b i d d i n g of a master. ... A n d r e s M i t t e l : W e n n e i n T h e i l der n e u e n Er- 5
o b e r u n g e n hartnckig u n d widersetzlich, e i n T h e i l der Bevlkerung, bis zu
10,000 vielleicht, removirt to a distant quarter des k i n g d o m , o c c u p i e d by
a n c i e n t vassals of u n d o u b t e d fidelity to t h e crown. G l e i c h e Z a h l dieser
Leztern transplanted n a c h d e m territory left v a c a n t von d e n emigrants.
D u r c h diesen exchange, die P o p u l a t i o n c o m p o n i r t aus 2 distinct races, ei- 10
ferschtig gegen e i n a n d e r u n d sich m i t r a u i s c h b e o b a c h t e n d . Schlielich,
da d u r c h die Autoritt u n t e r s t z t , siegte der Einflu des well affected
Theils. J e d e r citizen m u t e wear the c o s t u m e of his native province. A u c h
k o n n t e der colonist, so transplanted, n i c h t r e t u r n to his native country.
D e n n , d u r c h Gesetz, it was forbidden to any o n e to change his residence 15
o h n e license. He ||45| was settled for life. T h e Peruvian g o v e r n m e n t pre-
scribed to every m a n his local h a b i t a t i o n , his sphere of action, n a y t h e very
n a t u r e u n d quality of t h a t action. He ceased to be a free agent; it relieved
h i m of personal responsibility. ... mitimaes h i e s s e n diese emigrants - T r a n -
quillity in t h e heart of t h e m o n a r c h y , a n d war on its borders, was t h e condi- 20
tion of Peru. ( 5 9 - 7 9 )
ch. Ill Peruvian Religion.Deities.Gorgeous Temples.

Festivals.Virgins of the Sun.Marriage.
Das G o v e r n m e n t der I n c a ' s Theocratic (84) D i e images der deities der

c o n q u e r e d n a t i o n s w u r d e n transported n a c h der Capital, where t h e b u r d e n - 25
s o m e charges of their worship were defrayed by their respective provinces.
(90) Gold, in der figrlichen Sprache des people, war the tears wept by t h e
Sun". (92) In d e n Houses of t h e S u n " alle Gertschaften von G o l d oder
Silber: t h e censers for t h e perfumes, t h e ewers w h i c h held t h e water for sac-
rifice, t h e pipes which c o n d u c t e d it t h r o u g h s u b t e r r a n e o u s c h a n n e l s i n t o 30
t h e buildings, t h e reservoir that received it, even t h e agricultural i m p l e -
m e n t s u s e d in t h e gardens of the t e m p l e etc. Diese H o u s e s , n i c h t zu ver-
gessen were t h e c o m m o n reservoir i n t o w h i c h flowed all t h e streams of
public u n d private benefaction t h r o u g h o u t t h e empire. ( 9 3 - 5 ) H e u t z u
Tage the friar c h a n t s his orisons within t h e consecrated precincts o n c e oc- 35
cupied by t h e Children of t h e S u n . (95) U n m a s s e T e m p e l . G a n z e A r m e e
von Pfaffen. An der Spitze der Villac Vmu, der Hohepriester. (97) D o c h
diese sacerdotal order n i c h t u n t e r s c h i e d e n by any peculiar b a d g e n o c h Cos-
t u m e . N o c h waren sie die einzigen Depositare der Wissenschaft, n i c h t m i t
426
der E r z i e h u n g charged etc. Erklrlich daraus, d a die I n c a nobles were in

fact the holy order of the State u n d sie in a m a n n e r engrossed whatever
there was of religious veneration in the people. (97, 8) D i e duties des priest
confined to m i n i s t r a t i o n in the t e m p l e . Seine Wissenschaft K e n n t n i der
5 Feste u n d des R i t u a l . (98) D i e Virgins der S u n waren brides of t h e I n c a
u n d at a marriageable age the m o s t beautiful a m o n g t h e m were selected for
t h e h o n o u r s of his bed u n d transferred to t h e royal seraglio. B e s t a n d e n z u m
Theil aus T a u s e n d e n ... Die great nobles of Peru were allowed a plurality
of wives. T h e people ... limited to o n e . 24 J a h r e heirathsvorgeschriebne A l -
io ter fr die males, u n d 18 oder 20 fr die w o m e n . Bei e i n e m appointed day
des Jahres sie alle z u s a m m e n g e r u f e n in d e n great squares ihrer respective
towns u n d villages im g a n z e n empire. D e r I n c a prsidirte in Person b e r
die assembly of his own kindred, a n d taking t h e h a n d s der different c o u p -
les who were to be u n i t e d , he placed t h e m within each other, declaring t h e
15 parties m a n u n d wife. Dasselbe geschah v o n d e n curacas gegen alle persons
of their own or inferior degree in their several districts. N i e m a n d erlaubt to
select a wife beyond t h e c o m m u n i t y to which he belonged, die generally
c o m p r e h e n d e d all his own kindred; ausser d e m Sovereign durfte N i e m a n d
seine Schwester h e i r a t h e n . E r l a u b n i der Eltern nthig. ( 1 0 6 - 8 ) Die R e -
20 gierung der Incas was t h e mildest, b u t t h e m o s t searching of despotisms.
(109)
ch. IV. Education.Quipus. Astronomy. Agriculture.

Aqueducts.Guano. Important Esculents.
Wissenschaft n u r fr die E d l e n ... Volk regarded n u r als children, who

25 were never to emerge from the state of pupilage, to act or to t h i n k for t h e m -
selves ... a m a u t a s (wise m e n ) ... D e r quipu war a cord ungefhr 2 F u lang,
z u s a m m e n g e s e z t of different coloured threads tightly twisted together,
from which a quantity of smaller threads were s u s p e n d e d in the m a n n e r of
a fringe. Die threads were of different colours u n d were tied into knots; das
30 W o r t quipu signifies a knot. T h e colours d e n o t e d sensible objects, . B.
W e i fr Silber, G e l b fr Gold oder fr abstract ideas, wie W e i fr Frie-
den, R o t h fr Krieg. A b e r h a u p t s c h l i c h die q u i p u s u s e d fr a r i t h m e t i c a l
purposes. Die knots d i e n t e n statt der Ziffern u n d k o n n t e n so c o m b i n i r t
werden to represent n u m b e r s to any a m o u n t they required. So k a m e n sie
35 t h r o u g h their calculations m i t great rapidity ... Officers - q u i p u c a m a y u s -
etablirt in j e d e m der districts die zu furnish the government m i t informa-
tion on various i m p o r t a n t matters. Einer h a d charge b e r die R e v e n u e s , r e -
ported the quantity of raw m a t e r i a l distributed u n d e r the labourers, t h e
quality u n d quantity der fabrics m a d e of t h e m etc. Ein andrer das Register
427
der births u n d deaths, marriages, Z a h l der Waffenfhigen etc. Diese re-

turns j h r l i c h n a c h der capital forwarded; hier s u b m i t t e d der inspection of
officers a c q u a i n t e d m i t der Entzifferungskunst dieser mystic records. ...
D i e skeins of m a n y coloured threads, collected u n d carefully preserved,
constituted die n a t i o n a l archives. ... A n n a l i s t s appointed in j e d e r der 5
principal c o m m u n i t i e s , deren business to record die wichtigsten in t h e m
o c c u r i r n d e n events. A n d r e F u n k t i o n r e von h h e r m Character, gewhnlich
die amautas, were entrusted m i t der history des e m p i r e u n d fr die chroni-
cle der great deeds des h e r r s c h e n d e n I n c a ' s oder seiner ancestors. Das nar-
rative, t h u s concocted, c o m m u n i c a t e d n u r by oral tradition; aber die qui- 10
p u s served d e m chronicler to arrange the incidents m i t m e t h o d u n d to
refresh his m e m o r y . Die G e s c h i c h t e repeated by the a m a u t a to his pupils;
u n d so Geschichtstradition, theils b e i oral tradition, theils by arbitrary
signs ... Das Peruvian system n o c h u n t e r d e m des picture-writing der
Aztecs ... haravecs, [or] poets ... Ihre husbandry r u h t e auf wissenschaftlichen 15
Principien. Sie war die basis ihrer politischen institutions. O h n e foreign
c o m m e r c e . Drres u n d sandig L a n d an der Seekste m i t Wasser versehn
d u r c h Canals u n d subterraneous a q u e d u c t s . Legten ||46| t u n n e l s d u r c h
Berge an. Die m e i s t e n dieser works verfielen u n t e r d e n Spaniern. Die great-
est care t a k e n da every o c c u p a n t des L a n d e s , wodurch diese streams 20
passed, should enjoy the benefit of them. T h e q u a n t i t y of water allotted to
each was prescribed by law; and royal overseers s u p e r i n t e n d e d the distribu-
tion, a n d saw that it was faithfully applied to the irrigation of t h e ground.
... M a n y of the hills t h o u g h covered m i t a strong soil, were too precipitous
to be tilled. These they cut into terraces, faced m i t rough stone, diminish- 25
ing in regular gradation towards the s u m m i t ; so that, while the lower strip
or anden, as it was called von den Spaniern, that belted r o u n d the base of
te
t h e m o u n t a i n , 1 0 0 von acres betrug, die u p p e r m o s t n u r large genug to ac-
c o m m o d a t e a few rows of I n d i a n corn. Einige der e m i n e n c e s presented
such a mass of solid rock, da n a c h d e m terassenfrmig a u s g e h a u n , sie 30
m u s t be covered deep with earth ... O h n e d e n use der tools oder der M a -
schinerie familiar to the European, each individual could have d o n e little;
b u t acting in large masses u n d u n d e r a c o m m o n direction, they were en-
abled by indefatigable perseverance to achieve results etc. E b e n s o , wie sie
r e d e e m e d die rocky sierra from the curse of sterility, they dug below the 35
arid soil of the valleys u n d sought for a s t r a t u m where some n a t u r a l m o i s -
ture might be found. Diese excavations, g e n a n n t von d e n Spaniern hoyas
oder pits" m a d e on a great scale, c o m p r e h e n d i n g oft m e h r als 1 acre, sunk
to the depth of 15 oder 20 F u ... D i e Peruvian farmers waren sehr b e k a n n t
m i t d e n verschiednen kinds of m a n u r e s u n d m a d e large use of t h e m . A u c h 40
v o m Guano, d e m deposit des sea-fowl ... Sie h a t t e n n e i t h e r the iron
428
ploughshare der Old world, n o c h Zugthiere, die, indeed, were n o w h e r e

found in the New. Das I n s t r u m e n t , das sie b r a u c h t e n a strong, sharppointed
stake, traversed by a horizontal piece, 10 oder 12 inches from the point, on
which the p l o u g h m a n m i g h t set his foot a n d force it into the ground. 6 oder
5 8 strong m e n were attached by ropes to the stake, a n d dragged it forcibly
along, pulling together, a n d keeping t i m e as they moved by c h a n t i n g their
n a t i o n a l songs, worin begleitet von i h r e n W e i b e r n , die followed in their
train to break up the sods with their rakes. D e r mellow soil offered slight re-
sistance; u n d der labourer, by long practice, acquired a dexterity which en-
10 abled h i m to turn up the g r o u n d to the requisite depth m i t astonishing fa-
cility. ... E i n Mittel des agricultural Austausche der verschiednen
Provinzen gegeben d u r c h fairs, die 3 x im M o n a t in d e n volksreichsten Plt-
zen stattfanden, u n d wo, da G e l d u n b e k a n n t , a r u d e k i n d of c o m m e r c e was
kept up by the barter of their respective products. These fairs afforded so
15 m a n y holydays fr die relaxation des industrious labourer. ... In d e m lower
level der cassavatree u n d die banana, which die M e n s c h e n v o n d e m F l u c h
des Arbeitens erlst; (Nach H u m b o l d t seine Fruchtbarkeit zu W e i z e n
= 133:1, u n d zu potato = 44:1). Mais. D r a u s ein gegohrnes G e t r n k , d e m
sie sehr zugethan. D i e saccharine m a t t e r c o n t a i n e d in d e m m a i z e stalk is
20 m u c h greater in d e n tropical countries ... D a s t e m p e r a t e climate des Table-
land lieferte i h n e n die maguey (agave a m e r i c a n a ) ... Tobacco (Die Peruvi-
ans b r a u c h t e n es n u r als Snuff for m e d i c i n a l purposes.) Coca oder Cuca.
This is a shrub which grows to the height of a m a n . T h e leaves w h e n gath-
ered are dried in the sun, a n d being m i x e d m i t a little lime, form a prepara-
25 tion for chewing, m u c h like the betel-leaf des East. M i t a small supply
dieses cuca in his p o u c h , u n d a handful of roasted m a i z e , the Peruvian I n -
dian of our t i m e performs his wearisome journeys, day after day, o h n e fa-
tigue etc. Die food the m o s t invigorating sezt er n a c h der loved narcotic.
U n t e r den Incas soll es exclusiv d e n n o b l e orders reservirt gewesen sein.
30 H h e r on the slopes der Cordilleras, b e r d e n G r e n z e n des M a i z e u n d des
q u i n o a (Art Reis) war die Kartoffel zu finden. It formed the great staple der
m o r e elevated plains u n t e r d e n Incas. ( 1 1 0 - 1 3 4 )
ch. V. Peruvian sheep.Great Hunts.Manufactures.

Mechanical SkillArchitecture.Concluding Reflections.
35 Die Peruvians, t h o u g h lining a long extent of sea-coast, h a d no foreign

c o m m e r c e . F r d o m e s t i c m a n u f a c t u r e h a t t e n sie besondre Vortheile in
besonders vorzglichem Material. Sie fanden gutes Substitut fr L e i n e n in
e i n e m Fabrikat, das sie wie die Aztecs webten aus d e m tough t h r e a d der
429
maguey. Cotton wuchs reichlich on the low level der Kste, gab i h n e n a
clothing suitable fr die m i l d e r latitudes des country. A b e r das L l a m a u n d
die kindred species of Peruvian sheep gab i h n e n ein fleece (Vlie) adapted
d e m kltren Clima des tableland. V o n d e n vier varieties des Peruvian sheep
das llama die least valuable on a c c o u n t of its wool. Besonders verwandt als 5
Lastthier. Zieht a load of little m o r e als 100 Pfund u n d k a n n n i c h t travel
b e r 3 oder 4 leagues a day. Lebt von easy s u b s t a n c e von d e m m o s s u n d
stunted herbage das sparsam wchst along the withered sides u n d d e n
steeps der Cordilleras. Die Struktur seines M a g e n s wie des Cameels so, da
es wochenlang, ja fr M o n a t e der Wasserzufuhr e n t b e h r e n k a n n . Its spongy 10
hoof, a r m e d m i t claw or pointed talon to enable it to take secure hold on
the ice, never requires to be shod; u n d die load laid u p o n its back r u h t
sicher in its bed of wool o h n e die aid von G r t e l oder Sattel. D i e llamas
m o v e in troops von 500 oder selbst 1000 u n d so, obgleich j e d e s I n d i v i d u u m
wenig trgt, the aggregate is considerable. D i e Caravane geht ihren regel- 15
massigen Schritt, passing die night in t h e o p e n air, without suffering from
t h e coldest t e m p e r a t u r e u n d m a r c h i n g in perfect order, a n d in o b e d i e n c e to
the voice of the driver. Die A n w e n d u n g von domestic a n i m a l s distin-
guished t h e ||47| Peruvians vor d e n a n d e r n R a c e s der N e w World. D o c h be-
n u z t e n es die Peruvians weniger d a z u als die Spanier. S c h z t e n es beson- 20
ders der Wolle wegen. I m m e n s e herds of these large cattle", wie [sie] sie
n a n n t e n , u n d das smaller cattle" oder alpacas were held by the govern-
m e n t u n d placed u n t e r die direction of shepherds, die c o n d u c t e d t h e m von
e i n e m quarter z u m a n d e r n , j e n a c h d e n changes der season. Diese migra-
tion regulirt m i t all der Prcision der codes der M e s t a fr die W a n d r u n g e n 25
der vast merinofloeks in Spain. D e r reichste store of wool aber erhalten
n i c h t von diesen g e z h m t e n Thieren, sondern von 2 a n d r e n species, d e n
h u a n a c o s u n d d e n vicunas, die r o a m e d in native freedom over the frozen
ranges der Cordilleras. D o r t stiegen sie oft auf die snowcovered peaks, die
n i e m a n d b e w o h n t ausser d e m h u g e bird der A n d e s . Hier finden sie suffi- 30
cient sustenance in d e m ychu, a species of grass, scattered all along the
great ridge der Cordilleras, v o m E q u a t o r to the s o u t h e r n limits of Patago-
nia. D o c h durfte der peruvianische B a u e r sie n i c h t jagen. G e h r t e n der R e -
gierung, die great h u n t s official, I n c a an der Spitze, e i n m a l im J a h r G r o -
sses Treibjagen, woran der ganze District, 5 0 - 6 0 0 0 0 m e n T h e i l n e h m e n . 35
D a s m a l e deer u n d die coarser kind des Peruvian sheep geschlachtet; ihre
skins reserved fr die Manufaktur, ihr Fleisch vertheilt u n t e r das Volk, who
converted it into charqui, das dried m e a t des country, das d a m a l s die ein-
zige, jezt n o c h die H a u p t a n i m a l food der lower classes of Peru. D i e M a s s e
der sheep - an 3 0 - 4 0 000 m e i s t - geschoren u n d d a n n wieder laufen gelas- 40
sen. Die so gesammelte Wolle deponirt in d e n royal m a g a z i n e s , whence, in
430
due t i m e , d e m Volk vertheilt. D i e coarser quality bearbeitet zu g a r m e n t s

fr ihren eignen use, die finer fr d e n I n c a ; n u r der I n c a noble could wear
the fine fabric of t h e vicuna. D i e Peruvians zeigten viel skill in der m a n u -
facture verschiedner Artikel von d i e s e m delicaten Material, fr d e n knig-
5 lichen household. H e i t diese Wolle in E u r o p a vigonia wool. W i r k t e n es in
Shawls, R o b e s u n d a n d r e Artikel of dress fr d e n m o n a r c h u n d in carpets,
coverlets u n d hangings fr die imperial palaces u n d temples. D i e cloth
auf b e i d e n Seiten gleich finished; die Dlicatesse der texture gab i h m d e n
lustre der Seide; brilliancy der dyes. M a c h t e n a u c h e i n e n Artikel von great
10 strength u n d D a u e r daraus d u r c h B e i m i s c h u n g von T h i e r h a a r e n ; A u c h er-
fahren in s c h n e m Federwerk, das sie i n d e n i c h t in so grosser A c h t u n g
hielten wie die Aztecs. Jeder B a u e r in Peru erfahren in d e n handicrafts die
sein H a u s r a t h erforderte. Einige individuals aber carefully trained fr die
Operations which m i n i s t e r to the d e m a n d s der o p u l e n t e m classes of so-
15 ciety. Diese occupations, like every other calling u n d office in Peru, always
descended von Vater auf Sohn. Die division of castes, in this peculiar, so
precis als in Ejypten u n d H i n d u s t a n . D i e A r r a n g e m e n t u n g n s t i g fr Ori-
ginalitt, u n d fr die Entwicklung des peculiar talent des Individual. A b e r
it at least conduces to an easy u n d finished execution, by familiarising the
20 artist m i t der Praxis seiner K u n s t v o n K i n d h e i t . Wenigstens die die opin-
ion der Aejypter, who referred zu ihrer K a s t e n e i n r i c h t u n g ihre peculiar
dexterity i n d e n arts. I n d e n royal m a g a z i n e s u n d d e n h u a c a s oder t o m b s
der Incas hat m a n gefunden V a s e n von G o l d u n d Silber, bracelets, collars
u n d andre S c h m u c k s a c h e n for the person; utensils jeder Art, einige aus fei-
25 n e m T h o n , viel m e h r e aus copper; mirrors of hard, polished stone oder bur-
n i s h e d silver, Dlicatesse u n d m i n u t e n e s s of finish. Sie casted u n d sculp-
tured metallic substances. A b e r schwer zu erklren, da sie schnitten die
hardest substances, wie emeralds u n d a n d r e Edelsteine. Turquoises. U n b e -
k a n n t m i t d e m G e b r a u c h des Eisen. Das Material, womit sie das Schwerste
30 vollbrachten, Kupfer m i t a very small portion of tin. Diese C o m p o s i t i o n
gab d e m Metall eine Hrte, wenig inferior der des Stahls. Ihre large q u a n -
tity von Gold u n d Silber, bearbeitet zu verschiednen Artikeln of elegance
u n d utility, klein gen d e n m i n e r a l i s c h e n R e i c h t h u m des L a n d s u n d was
spter von d e m white m a n erhalten. G o l d wurde gathered von d e n I n c a s
35 from the deposits der streams. Sie extracted das ore a u c h in considerable
quantities v o m T h a l von Curimayo, n o r d e a s t von C a x a m a r c a u n d a n d r e n
Orten; u n d die Silberminen von Porco g a b e n i h n e n reiche returns. S u c h t e n
n i c h t in die bowels der E r d e e i n z u d r i n g e n by sinking a shaft, s o n d e r n sim-
ply excavated a cavern in d e n steep sides des m o u n t a i n oder ffneten h c h -
40 stens a horizontal vein of m o d e r a t e depth. K a n n t e n nicht d e n G e b r a u c h
von Quecksilber zur D e c o m p o s i t i o n des ore. Sie did little m o r e t h a n p e n e -
431
trte below the crust, the outer rind formed over those golden caverns
which lie h i d d e n in d e n dark depths der A n d e s . B r a u c h t e n nicht m e h r , da
sie nicht wie die Aztecs Geld hatten. A b e r vor i h n e n V o r a u s d e n G e b r a u c h
der Gewichte, a thing wholly u n k n o w n d e n Aztecs. G e f u n d e n silverbalanc-
es, adjusted m i t perfect accuracy, in den t o m b s der I n c a s . Architektur zeigt 5
am m e i s t e n d e n Charakter der N a t i o n . Greek, Egyptian, Saracen, Gothic Ar-
chitecture. Die M o n u m e n t s von China, H i n d u s t a n u n d Centralamerica are
all indicative von einer unreifen period, wo i m a g i n a t i o n n i c h t disciplined
by study. Die G e b u d e der Incas alle wie cast in t h e s a m e m o u l d s . Usually
built aus Porphyr oder Granit; nicht selten aus brick. D i e walls von great 10
thickness, b u t low, seldom reaching zu m o r e als 12 oder 14 F u H h e .
Selten to m e e t m i t accounts of a building that rose to a second story. Ihre
a p a r t m e n t s keine c o m m u n i c a t i o n m i t e i n a n d e r , b u t usually o p e n e d i n d e n
court, o h n e Fenster oder Oeffnungen statt derselben, Licht m u d u r c h die
doorways g e k o m m e n sein, some der b e d e u t e n d s t e n Steinbuildings m i t 15
Stroh bedeckt. Sehr einfach die construction der buildings. Incongruity in
der c o m p o s i t i o n der Peruvian buildings. W h i l e they p u t together ihre bulky
masses von Porphyr u n d G r a n i t m i t der nicest art, unfhig of mortising
ihre timbers u n d in ihrer ignorance of iron, w u t e n k e i n e n bessern way to
h o l d t h e b e a m s together als tying t h e m m i t d e n thongs of m a g u e y . E b e n s o 20
das building bedeckt m i t Stroh, u n e r l e u c h t e t von F e n s t e r n u n d glowing
m i t tapestries of gold u n d silver, these sind I n c o n s e q u e n z e s eines r u d e peo-
ple wo die arts n u r partiell entwickelt. A b e r ihre buildings d e m C l i m a ange-
p a t u n d well fitted to resist d e n terrible convulsions ihres vulkanischen
Bodens. Im Gegensatz zur Politik der Incas die m e x i c a n vassals ground 25
d u r c h excessive imposts u n d military conscription, overawed by fortresses
u n d a r m e d garrisons u n d j e d e n Augenblick i h n e n fhlen g e m a c h t , d a sie
Unterjochte ... Die Aztecs erhielten wahrscheinlich ihre A s t r o n o m i e u n d
Hieroglyphik von e i n e m g e b i l d e t e m Tribe, der possibly m a y have sought a
refuge from their ferocious invaders in d e n regions von Central A m e r i c a 30
dessen architectural r e m a i n s n u n supply u s m i t d e n m o s t pleasing m o n u -
m e n t s of I n d i a n civilisation. ... Die Peruvians viel A e h n l i c h k e i t m i t d e n
Chinesen, m i t d e n natives of H i n d u s t a n u n d Ejyptians. D e r I n c a selbst
G o t t u n d u n t e r i h m an order of hereditary nobles von d e m s e l b e n divine
Original ... Die Masse fr ihn brutes. But, from their very helplessness, he 35
regarded t h e m m i t feelings of c o m m i s e r a t i o n ... T h e power of free agency
vernichtet in Peru. ... T h e great square of the capital was filled to a consid-
erable depth m i t m o u l d brought m i t incredible l a b o u r up the steep slopes
of the Cordilleras from the distant shores des Pacific O c e a n . Labour was re-
garded not only as a means, but as an end, by the Peruvian law. G l e i c h allen 40
Sklaven frivol, u n m s s i g ergeben d e m drinking u n d dancing. ( 1 3 7 - 1 6 5 )
432
[ B o o k II. D i s c o v e r y of Peru.]
[Ch. I. Ancient and modern science.

Art of navigation. Maritime discovery. Spirit of the Spaniards.
Possessions in the New World.Rumours concerning Peru.]
5 G e o g r a p h i e - E r d k e n n t n i - could c o m e only from an e x t e n d e d c o m -

m e r c e u n d dieser founded on artificial wants or an enlightened curiosity,
hardly compatible m i t der earlier c o n d i t i o n of society. (177) |
|48| Im Mittelalter die Organisation der Gesellschaft gnstiger fr G e o -
graphie als in der alten Zeit. Statt eines overgrown lethargic empire, op-
10 pressing everything by its colossal weight, E u r o p e aufgebrochen in ver-
schiedne i n d e p e n d e n t c o m m u n i t i e s ... die petty Republics on the
M e d i t e r r a n e a n u n d Baltic sent forth their swarms of s e a m e n in a profitable
c o m m e r c e , that knit together die different countries scattered along t h e
great E u r o p e a n waters. Verbesserungen in der Schiffskunst, accuratre Zeit-
15 messung. E n t d e c k u n g der Polaritt des M a g n e t s ... the n a t i o n s worauf der
spirit of enterprise at this crisis naturally d e s c e n d e d were Spain u n d Portu-
gal, placed as they were on the outposts of the E u r o p e a n continent, c o m -
m a n d i n g the great theatre of future discovery. (179) T h e discovery of an In-
dian passage is the true key to the m a r i t i m e m o v e m e n t des 15' u n d der
20 ersten Hlfte des 16' Jh. W a r die grosse leitende Idee die gab d e n character
of enterprise d e m age. Das g a n z e 15* Jh. d u r c h versuchten es die portugisi-
schen Knige; though, so t i m i d was the navigation, that every fresh h e a d -
land b e c a m e a formidable barrier, bis Diaz passed um das Cap der g u t e n
Hoffnung. Aber eh Vasco da G a m a h a d availed himself of this discovery to
25 spread his sails in the I n d i a n seas, Spain entered etc. A u c h C o l u m b u s
suchte a route to India, b u t by the west instead of the east. He h a d no ex-
pectation of m e e t i n g with a c o n t i n e n t in his way u n d n a c h verschiednen
voyages, he r e m a i n e d in his original error, dying, as is well known, in t h e
conviction that it was the eastern shore of Asia which he h a d reached. It
30 was the same object which directed the n a u t i c a l enterprises of those who
followed in the Admiral's track; a n d the discovery of a strait into the I n -
d i a n Ocean was the b u r d e n of every order from the G o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h e
design of m a n y an expedition to different points of the new continent,
which seemed to stretch its leviathan length along from o n e pole to t h e
35 other. Impulse given to E u r o p e d u r c h die E n t d e c k u n g von A m e r i c a . N i c h t
die gradual acquisition of s o m e border territory, a province, or a k i n g d o m
that h a d b e e n gained, b u t a N e w World t h a t was now thrown o p e n to t h e
E u r o p e a n . T h e races of a n i m a l s , the m i n e r a l treasures, the vegetable forms,
433
u n d die varied aspects of n a t u r e , m a n in t h e different phases of civilisation,

filled d e n m i n d m i t entirely new sets of ideas, that changed the h a b i t u a l
current of thought u n d stimulated it to indefinite conjecture. D i e eagerness
to explore the wonderful secrets der n e w h e m i s p h e r e w u r d e n so activ, da
die H a u p t s t d t e Spaniens wie entvlkert d u r c h E m i g r a t i o n . (180, 1) gold 5
was ever floating before their distempered vision ... t h e life of the Spanish
adventurer was o n e chapter m o r e a n d n o t the least remarkable, in the
chronicles of knight-errantry. (182) 1521, the Portuguese Maghellan, sail-
ing u n d e r the Spanish flag, solved the p r o b l e m of the strait, a n d found a
westerly way to the long-sought Spice-Islands of India, greatly to the aston- 10
i s h m e n t of the Portuguese, who, sailing from t h e opposite direction, there
m e t their rivals, face to face, at the antipodes. (185)
434
Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies
Merivale (Herman)
Lectures on Colonization and Colonies,
delivered before the University of Oxford
in 1839,1840 und 1841.
5 2 vol. L o n d o n 1841 u n d 42.
Vol. 1.
Part I. Historical account of the Progress

of the Colonies of Modern Europe.
a) Spanien in Continental America bis zur Periode

10 seiner Unabhngigkeit.
1519 landete Cortez m i t a few adventurers zu Vera Cruz; 1521 wurde er

m a s t e r von M e x i c o : Peru, Quito, Chili h a d b e e n overrun by the year 1535:
1532, Terra F i r m a was occupied u n d N e w G r a n a d a in 1536. Die folgende
A u s d e h n u n g der spanischen Colonisation n a c h d e m N o r d e n b e r die re-
15 gions adjacent to M e x i c o , spter called die Internal Provinces" u n d n a c h
d e m Sden, ber La Plata u n d Paraguay, was a work of greater t i m e u n d
m o r e difficulty. Arbeit der c o n q u e s t rapid, die of settlement slow u n d inter-
rupted. Wird behauptet, n o c h Mitte des 16* Jh. seien n i c h t m e h r als
18,000 Spanier all over the c o n t i n e n t of A m e r i c a gewesen. Sie k a m e n at
20 first rather to garrison t h a n to colonize; few w o m e n begleiteten die earlier
adventurers; erhielten ihre subsistence u n d wealth n i c h t d u r c h ihre, son-
dern durch die Arbeit der Indier; wars, debaucheries u n d die effects des
Clima caused a rapid mortality u n t e r i h n e n . Das earliest enterprise ganz di-
435
I
rected auf d e n Erwerb der edlen Metalle. D i e erst in H i s p a n i o l a e n t d e c k t e n

supplies bald erschpft; doch nicht bevor die greater p o r t i o n der native in-
h a b i t a n t s u n t e r g e g a n g e n in der labour of working t h e m . ... Die i n h a b i t a n t s
als slaves getheilt u n t e r die conquerors, driven in herds zu d e n m i n e s ,
forced to supply by their n u m b e r s the total want of skill u n d capital ihrer 5
masters u n d ihre lives wasted m i t derselben reckless profusion womit der
Colonist of m o d e r n times wastes die powers u n d wealth of n a t u r e which are
placed at his disposal - the wild a n i m a l s des forest u n d die resources eines
virgin soil. In d e n districts, wo keine M i n e n , die Situation der I n d i e r less
hart u n d die Entvlkerung weniger e n o r m , d o c h ihr t r e a t m e n t ebenso ini- 10
quitous u n d disgraceful. Diese Excesse z u m T h e i l gecheckt d u r c h a series
von legal provisions, beginning so frh wie 1542. D i e I n d i a n s , erst Sklaven,
d a n n subjected d e m System der repartimientos, d.h. divided u n t e r masters,
who h a d a property in their labour, n o t in their persons; u n d lastly distrib-
u t e d in e n c o m i e n d a s " , zahlend d e m e n c o m e n d e r o " oder owner des Dis- 15
trikts e i n e n Tribut oder produce-rent in return fr protection. Auch die
System a b a n d o n e d oder sehr modified, in its t u r n . Spanische Regierung
t h a t m e h r als eine andre fr die ||49| aborigines. D a s great principle des
Spanish law in Bezug auf die I n d i a n s war sie zu erhalten in e i n e m state be-
stndiger Unmndigkeit. Sie wurden unfhig g e m a c h t of legal contracts u n d 20
liabilities, except to a very limited extent. U n t e r protection des king, d e m
sie die capitation tax zahlten; u n d der clergy, d e n e n sie die dues der
c h u r c h zahlten: u n d m i n o r justice i h n e n hufig a d m i n i s t e r e d by officials of
their own complexion. ... Der Stand der Gesellschaft in d e n amerika-
n i s c h e n colonies n a h m frh den Charakter der Oligarchie an. P u r e Spanish 25
families few in n u m b e r . Besassen oft grossen wealth, von agricultural pos-
sessions oder m i n i n g operations. Aber dieser wealth verschafft i h n e n wenig
comforts. Der owner ganzer Provinzen could c o m m a n d only a m o d i c u m of
surplus agricultural produce, wofr er u n t e r d e m prevailing c o m m e r c i a l
system oft keinen mglichen market. D e r m i n e r sichrer seiner exports, die 30
die great mass der regular exports der colonies n a c h d e m M u t t e r l a n d bil-
deten. Aber die Profits sehr precr. F r e i n e n der sich bereicherte, n u m b e r s
ruined. N u r in der ersten Hlfte des 17' Jh. in Peru u n d der lezten Hlfte
des 18' in Mexico vermehrte sich der wealth der c o m m u n i t y schnell in
Folge der vermehrten Production der edlen Metalle; sonst k a u m die funds 35
replaced, u n d n a h m der ganze Z u w a c h s des Capitals der c o m m u n i t y n u r
Statt in der Agricultur. Dieser oligarchische character der society z u s a m -
m e n m i t d e n restrictions, worunter sie lebten, schuf die habit der Spanish
Creoles, besonders in den m i n i n g districts in Stdten z u s a m m e n zu woh-
n e n , entgegen d e m general spirit der m o d e r n colonists. M u t u a l defence 40
gen die Masse der unterworfnen I n d i a n s ihr Objekt in early times. Die Ten-
436
denz increased d u r c h die i n d o l e n t habits of families, fr deren Subsistenz

reichlich gesorgt d u r c h die Arbeit Andrer. D e r bulk dieser stdtischen Be-
vlkerung Mischlinge der Spanier u n d I n d e r u n d spter beider m i t d e n
Negern, eingefhrt, obgleich n i e sehr zahlreich, n a c h Abschaffung der slav-
5 ery der I n d i a n s . D i e I n d i e r selbst, wo zahlreich genug, tilled den soil oder
wrought die m i n e s . E a c h capital city, z u m grten Theil, stood in a rich
u n d well cultivated district, b u t of limited extent u n d getrennt v o m R e s t
der Welt durch deserts of ice u n d snow, ravines, provinces of forest oder
hot u n d u n h e a l t h y plains. So e a c h c o m m u n i t y dwelt apart, divided at o n c e
10 by n a t u r a l u n d artificial barriers. O h n e Z u s a m m e n h a n g u n d u n b e k m m e r t
um e i n a n d e r ... D i e commercial policy der spanischen Regierung gegen its
c o n t i n e n t a l colonies das m o s t perfect m o n u m e n t of systematic tyranny.
Der traffic des M u t t e r l a n d e s w u r d e confined, at first, auf d e n single port of
Sevilla; spter to that of Cadiz; u n t e r der control eines board Casa de Con-
15 tratacion", der subjected d e m direct g o v e r n m e n t der crown. Zwei squad-
rons w u r d e n jhrlich dispatched. D i e galleons" meist 12 in Zahl, zu d e m
port of Carthagena in S d a m e r i k a ; die flota", von about 15, zu V e r a Cruz
in Mexico. Der great a m o u n t of business carried on auf diesen few vessels
u n d die s u d d e n activity c o m m u n i c a t e d to c o m m e r c e w h r e n d der brief
20 transactions which supplied the wants of a whole continent, which dazzled
die eyes der Europaeer u n d i h n e n Falsche Begriffe beibrachte b e r d e n
a m o u n t der a n n u a l exchanges actually m a d e . ... Das m o n o p o l of a few rich
houses zu Seville naturally p r o d u c e d d u r c h diese restrictions. So kauften
die A m e r i c a n s die W a a r e n des M u t t e r l a n d s z u e i n e m M o n o p o l p r e i u n d
25 der Benefit dieses M o n o p o l s fiel einer k l e i n e n u n d privileged class an-
h e i m . Aber, in fact, der trade der flota u n d galleons so i n a d a e q u a t e to sup-
ply the wants der population, da, u n t i l the operations des smuggler began
to redress the evil, it was almost destitute of E u r o p e a n c o m m o d i t i e s . Im
Z u s a m m e n h a n g m i t d e n restrictions on foreign trade, n i c h t n u r die settle-
30 ments, sondern die visits aller foreigners strenger verboten als in J a p a n u n d
China. Spanier selbst m i g h t n o t visit t h e m o h n e royal license u n d die
usually n u r granted fr a limited t i m e . Internal commerce u n t e r d e n Prov-
inces prohibited fast ebenso effectually as foreign trade. ... A b e r wenigstens
b e t r a c h t e t e n die s p a n i s c h e n kings die I n d i e s m e h r als integral parts ihrer
35 m o n a r c h y , als provinces d e p e n d i n g on the Crown of Castile, d e n n als colo-
nies im Sinn des 16* Jh. u n d der c o m m e r c i a l n a t i o n s . D a h e r das people
n i c h t systematisch prohibited, wie in m o s t colonies, from m a n u f a c t u r i n g
for themselves. Das M u t t e r country fhrte i h n e n ausschlielich europ-
ische W a a r e n zu, aber n i c h t compelled sie zu n e h m e n im Vorzug gegen
40 ihre eigne Industrie. So Zuckerraffinerie erlaubt in Spanish A m e r i c a ; u n d
betrchtliche m a n u f a c t u r e s der coarser goods existed zu Quito u n d an-
437
derswo, obgleich m a n c h m a l discouraged by E u r o p e a n governors. A b e r die

Cultur von Saffran, Hanf, Tabak, Oliven u n d vineyards at different times
i h n e n verboten; u n d n o c h 1803 an order was dispatched v o n M a d r i d for the
rooting up of all the vines in d e n n o r t h e r n d e p e n d e n c i e s der Provinz M e -
xico. Das Regierungssystem d u r c h viceroys, captains-generals, a u d i e n c i a s 5
u n d councils, m i t ihren various relations to e a c h other ... a complicated
contrivance to render every part des g o v e r n m e n t a check on every other.
D i e besten governors k o n n t e n keine Reform d u r c h f h r e n u n d die schlech-
testen fanden es leicht sich zu bereichern. Power n u r in d e n h a n d s of Span-
iards u n d m o s t colonial offices were sold in Madrid. ... In Spanish A m e r i c a 10
existirte an aristocracy; for there were very large estates enjoyed by A m e r i -
c a n families, u n t e r a strict system of mayorazgos or entails: m a n y h a d b e e n
raised to nobility; some decorated m i t titles by the crown, aber excluded
from every public trust. S u c h t e n als Sicherheit gegen die discontent der
Creoles die Cultur der jealousy zwischen i h n e n u n d d e n inferior or m i x e d 15
races. T h e place of a m a n in society was m a d e to d e p e n d on his colour,
even to the m i n u t e s t shades. T h e different degrees of departure from the
white standard of purity by intermixture m i t Negro or I n d i a n blood, were
m a r k e d out m i t der u t m o s t m i n u t e n e s s , nicht n u r d u r c h die usages der so-
ciety, sondern d u r c h die laws. D e r Kastenstolz a c o m m o n feature of society 20
in all slave colonies; aber hier geht er n a t r l i c h hervor aus der D e g r a d a t i o n
worin der Sklave gehalten. H i e r Politik Spaniens. Stand der Kirche die worst
feature in der c o n d i t i o n dieser colonies. D u r c h die bulls von A l e x a n d e r VI
u n d Julius II ( 1 5 0 1 - 1 5 0 8 ) die Perception aller Z e h n t e n u n d die collation
zu allen benefices absolut der K r o n e berlassen. D i e clergy, b o t h regular 25
u n d secular, notoriously lazy u n d corrupt to a degree u n k n o w n in d e m
M u t t e r l a n d . Die frontier missionaries, die only active class, k a m chiefly
von Europa. Die Inquisition transferred across the Atlantic. E d u c a t i o n dis-
couraged. Die degeneracy der Creole race u n t e r solchen I n s t i t u t i o n e n u n d
in d e m Clima der Tropics war rapid to an u n p r e c e d e n t e d degree. A u c h die 30
Courage des Castilian disappeared. In 3 oder 4 G e n e r a t i o n s die N a c h k o m -
m e n der Conquerors so feig wie die I n d i a n s . Als die Buccaneers des 17* Jh.
crossed den I s t h m u s von D a r i e n u n d ravaged die coasts der Sdsee fanden
sie die population absolut defenceless, in herds zu d e n K i r c h e n fliehend at
the first m o m e n t of alarm. Dieselben scenes e r n e u e r t e n sich 80 J a h r e sp- 35
ter als die Expedition von A n s o n Chili u n d Peru b e d r o h t e ... D e r Schmugg-
ler erleichterte spter die c o m m e r c i a l restriction (unter d e n Bourbons). Der
C o n t r a b a n d t r a d e zu d e n spanischen Colonies wurde in d e m early part des
18' Jh. the most regular u n d organised system der Art das je h a d b e e n ge-
sehn. Die English led the way in it, i h n e n erleichtert d u r c h ihr Erhalten, 40
b e i m F r i e d e n von Utrecht, des Assiento Contract ... Die D u t c h , F r e n c h u n d
438
andre n a t i o n s seized on their share der spoil. Jamaica u n d St. Domingo wer-
d e n complete entrepts fur smuggled W a a r e n , wovon leicht n a c h d e m Con-
t i n e n t verfhrt; wie die Danish und Swedish islands spter so fr Jamaica it-
self dienten. Buenos Ayres rose von einer u n b e d e u t e n d e n station to a
5 considerable city, n u r weil es das centre des Schmuggelhandels zwischen
E u r o p a u n d Peru war. D i e K s t e n d e c k t e n die Spanier d u r c h expensive
m a r i t i m e force; im I n n r e n m a c h t e n Sie Schmuggeln zu einer offence cogni-
sable by the Inquisition. Alles u m s o n s t . Die flotas u n d galleons sank to insig-
nificance u n d ihre owners were glad ||50| to m a k e these licensed s q u a d r o n s
10 serve for introducing the c o n t r a b a n d c o m m o d i t i e s furnished' by other n a -
tions. D e r Krieg von 1737, worin Sir R. W a l p o l e forced d u r c h das Volk,
nichts als a w a r for the protection of smuggling. 1748 das System der flotas
u n d galleons changed fr das of licensed or register" ships, which sailed sin-
gly from Europe. They o p e n e d the c o m m e r c i a l passage um Cap H o r n ; so a
15 stop z u m grossen Theil gesezt d e m illegal trade b e r B u e n o s Ayres.
Schmugglen wuchs m i t den w a c h s e n d e n Bedrfnissen der n u n rascher i n
R e i c h t h u m vorwrts s c h r e i t e n d e n Bevlkerung. Krieg m a c h t e die Sache
n o c h schlimmer; die spanischen Kreuzer d a n n von der See vertrieben u n d
der trade gefhrt u n t e r n e u t r a l e n Flaggen; so d a n a c h H u m b o l d t der H a n -
20 del von Mexico am b l h e n d s t e n in times of hostilities. 1765 ffnete Spain
d e n trade between d e n islands u n d d e m c o n t i n e n t ; 1774 die obstacles ge-
gen d e n internal c o m m e r c e removed; 1778 a new u n d m o r e liberal scale of
duties adopted; u n d der trade m i t Spain e x t e n d e d to 14 ports des M u t t e r -
landes ... In der Zwischenzeit u n d zugleich m i t diesen changes die i n d u s -
25 try u n d social condition der colonists h a d m a d e a s u d d e n u n d fast u n p a r a l -
leled advance. 1778 ihre Exports n a c h Spain 74,500,000 reals, 1788
= 804,500,000. M e x i c o , von d e m erstaunlichen increase in der Productivi-
tt seiner M i n e n ; G u a t e m a l a , Venezuela, La Plata u n d Chili, from their
agricultural improvement, waren die Provinzen worin dieser Fortschritt am
30 most strikingly sich manifested. ( 1 - 1 5 ) There is no region, says H u m b o l d t ,
in which the circumstances of society are so m u c h regulated by climate
a n d by the disposition of the soil as Spanish A m e r i c a . ... In d e n extreme
northern und southern districts, the internal provinces of Mexico und die Pam-
pas von La Plata, wide dry plains, m i t a t e m p e r a t e climate, b e c a m e t h e
35 abodes einer pastoral population. Die z a h m e n europischen Thiere h i e r
wunderbar vermehrt, w u r d e n der chief wealth ihrer settlers; diese h a u p t -
schlich of pure Spanish descent; die I n d i a n s few u n d warlike; u n d poverty
rendered die i m p o r t a t i o n von slaves u n m g l i c h . U n t e r i h n e n die T e n d e n z
zu insulation h a d a m p l e r o o m to exert itself. Das great object jedes Coloni-
40 sten was to obtain free space u n d constant removal, for his flocks u n d
herds; wie n u n der Fall m i t d e n boors des cape der good h o p e . D a h e r be-
439
stndiger Krieg m i t d e n bordering I n d i a n s , a r m e d u n d m o u n t e d like h i m -

self, m a c h t e n i h n so hart u n d activ, so wild u n d remorseless wie diese: die
few cities scattered b e r die wilderness d i e n t e n n i c h t so sehr zu H a n d e l s -
zwecken als z u m refuge der Spanier w h e n o v e r - m a t c h e d oder surprised by
their vigilant e n e m i e s . In d i e s e m state of things civilization rapidly retro- 5
graded u n d die white settlers h a d almost forgotten t h e arts u n d knowledge
ihrer A h n e n . In d e n warmen und fruchtbaren regions mit easy access zur See,
wie Guatemala u n d Venezuela b e s t a n d der grte wealth der settlers in d e n
staple products der tropical climates; coffee, cotton, sugar u n d cacao. Hier
state of society h n l i c h d e n e n in d e m englischen W e s t i n d i e n . D i e Weissen 10
reich i n d e m a b u n d a n t p r o d u c e ihrer Pflanzungen, sehr gesteigert w h r e n d
der lezten Hlfte des 18' Jh. Arbeit besonders verrichtet von N e g e r n ; von
I n d i e r n , wo diese zahlreich; u n d von d e n m i x e d races die in einigen prov-
inces m e h r als die halbe Bevlkerung bildeten. D i e M i n e n dieser districts
few u n d unwichtig. A b e r die Masse der Bevlkerung u n d des R e i c h t h u m s 15
der Spanish colonies Concentrin on the small table lands und lofty valleys der
great Cordillera. Hier die P e r u a n e r u n d M e x i c a n e r . H i e r der vast m i n e r a l
wealth. H i e r b a u t e n sie Stdte an die Seite der Zerstrten. D i e remarkabel-
sten dieser p l a t e a u x sind die von Mexico, New Granada, Quito u n d Upper
Peru. ... Zu H u m b o l d t s Zeit (1800) Mexico, das sich sehr entwickelte in 20
!
d e n lezten 50 J a h r e n des 1 8 Jh., so advanced beyond the rest, d a n a c h
i h m % der g a n z e n currency of Spanish A m e r i c a used in t h a t province alone.
H. sagt, d a das d o m i n i o n over a colony fr ihre precious m e t a l s n u r desir-
able w h e n it h a s a m o n o p o l y of t h e supply of those m e t a l s by having t h e
richest m i n e s , a n d underselling the rest of t h e world". ... Mexico's M i n e n 25
waren die Productivsten, n i c h t so sehr from a superior fertility, als weil sie
easily accessible u n d die supply of l a b o u r practically u n l i m i t e d ... Die
m i n e s were all the property of adventurers or landlords. Das G a n z e der du-
ties levied on silver vor der Revolution a b o u t 11 %, tax die die von M e -
xico sehr well tragen k o n n t e n ... Die e n o r m o u s m a s s of surplus wealth t h u s 30
created was lodged in a very few h a n d s . Nach H. the return to seed in the culti-
vation of wheat in Mexico = 24:1. In France = 6:1. D e r labourer des temper-
ate country of M e x i c o erhielt wages of 30 sous tglich; der french labourer
an 35; aber da K o r n etwas theurer in F r a n k r e i c h wie in M e x i c o die real wa-
ges gleich. Zu H u m b o l d t s Zeit waren fortunes von 15 oder 20,000 /. St. 35
j h r l i c h in C u b a ; das h c h s t e in V e n e z u e l a 6 oder 7000 /., in L i m a few
a m o u n t e d zu 3 oder 4000 l. A b e r [bei] d e n Mexican grandees sagt selbiger
H u m b o l d t , there are individuals who possess no m i n e s u n d deren jhr-
liches income d o c h a million of firs (40,000 1.). Die family des Grafen von
V a l e n c i a n a . . besizt allein, on t h e ridge der Cordillera, estates v o m 40
W e r t h von m e h r als 25 millions (6 mill. I. St.) without i n c l u d i n g t h e m i n e
440
m
of V a l e n c i a n a bei G u a n a x u a t o , which in c o m m o n years brings a n e t in-

c o m e von 1 millions. (50,000 l.) D e r late C o u n t of V a l e n c i a n a has s o m e -
times received from his single m i n e , 6 millions (240,000 I.) in E i n e m Jahr.
A single vein, possessed by t h e family des M a r q u i s de Fagoaga, in d e m dis-
5 trict von Sombrerete, has p r o d u c e d in 6 m o n t h s , all expenses d e d u c t e d , a
clear i n c o m e von 20,000,000." D e n n o c h war nichts seltner als a c c u m u l a -
tion of wealth by these great proprietors. Theils geschuldet d e m spirit of
speculation in m i n i n g der sie bestndig z u m prey of needy adventurers
m a c h t e ; theils der habit of extravagant u n d illregulated establishments, m i t
10 little of real splendour or comfort; theils der prevalence of gambling. D i e
Spanish u n d Creole i n h a b i t a n t s des table land of Mexico 20 % des whole;
die m i x e d races u n d Negroes (leztre sehr few) 30; die I n d i a n s 50; u n d die-
selben proportions, m i t einiger variation, prevailed in den m o u n t a i n re-
gions of South America. Die I n d i a n s - alles d a s zu H ' s Zeit - subject (in
15 Mexico) to no compulsory service whatever. Ihre labour ganz frei. Arbeite-
ten in den m i n e s fr ihr own a c c o u n t u n d fr sehr h o h e wages. - Die Lage
von Peru war m i n d e r gnstig. Seine m i n e s h a t t e n ihre Schtze m i t wunder-
barer Fruchtbarkeit ausgespuckt w h r e n d der ersten 1% Jh. n a c h der Erob-
rung. Aber ihre richest veins frh erschpft u n d waren besides situated
20 z u m grten Theil h o c h on the ridge der A n d e s , wo wood u n d provisions
fehlten u n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s sehr schwer waren. Diese disadvantages n u r
overcome by the profuse application of I n d i a n labour. Die natives trans-
ported von ihren own valleys to a scene of incessant toil in an air almost
too a t t e n u a t e d for h u m a n life, 1 2 - 1 4 , 0 0 0 feet b e r der Meeresflche. T h e i r
25 n u m b e r s rapidly d i m i n i s h e d u n d die m i n e s wurden unfruchtbar von der in-
creasing cost of working t h e m . K o n n t e n d a h e r n i c h t m i t d e n e n von M e x i c o
concuriren. U n d even in i h r e m decay, they were still wrought by m e a n s of
the mita" or conscription of I n d i a n s , to serve by rotation for a limited p e -
riod. ... Am border der vast S p a n i s h possessions, in California, on the Orin-
30 oco u n d Amazons m i t their b r a n c h e s u n d in Paraguay errichtet die R e d u c -
tions oder missions | | 5 1 | of religious bodies, chiefly t h e Jesuits. ( 1 5 - 2 6 )
b) Spanish Colonies in the West Indies.

Portuguese, Dutch and French Colonies.
Die Hauptrelics die Spain n o c h besizt von s e i n e m colonial e m p i r e sind die

35 Philippine Islands in Asien u n d Cuba u n d Portorico in d e m G u l f v o n M e -
xico. Die Philippinen sind b e w o h n t von einer zahlreichen u n d civilised
Malay Population, governed rather t h a n colonised by a handful of E u r o p e -
ans. Bis gen Schlu des 18' Jh. Cuba von wenig B e d e u t u n g . Jezt die reichste
441
u n d b l h e n d s t e Colonie besessen von irgend einer e u r o p i s c h e n M a c h t .

Ursache: 1) T h e opening of the c o m m e r c e of C u b a in 1809, von w a n n an
der W e n d e p u n k t in its affair datirt. 2) Its n a t u r a l advantages, die i h m m g -
lichst wenig n z t e n u n t e r der long period of c o m m e r c i a l restriction which
it u n d e r w e n t . In d e m present state of Cuba, old p l a n t a t i o n s , n a c h einer 5
considerable n u m b e r of years, z u m grten T h e i l deserted von d e m sugar
producer; die a b a n d o n e d estates devoted to raising I n d i a n corn u n d die
a n d r e n im island c o n s u m i r t e n staple articles. D i e earliest cultivated, n a c h
der city ( H a v a n n a h ) have long b e e n a b a n d o n e d to other purposes. N u r % 00
des soil von C u b a bis jezt u n t e r Cultur gebracht. 3) stimulus die abolition 10
des slave trade in d e n english colonies, 1812. 1830 lieferte C u b a zwischen
% u n d % alles in E u r o p e c o n s u m i r t e n Zuckers. D i e 4 rights des slave, as
they are emphatically t e r m e d in Spanish legislation, uniformly respected in
theory u n d generally in practice, n m l i c h : the right of marriage; the right
to c o m p e l a m a s t e r guilty of illegal severity towards a slave to sell h i m to 15
another; the right to p u r c h a s e his own e m a n c i p a t i o n , a n d to acquire prop-
erty. ... But the progress of wealth u n d des slavetrade have rapidly
changed the m o r a l aspect dieser c o m m u n i t i e s . F r o m being t h e m o s t h u -
m a n e a m o n g all e u r o p e a n slave owners, the Spanish colonists have b e c o m e
the most barbarous u n d utterly demoralised. ... Seit C u b a erffnet d e m 20
W e l t h a n d e l , a very small portion dieses trade r e m a i n s d e m Spanier. Aber
its revenue hilft den dilapidated finances of Spain. - A n d r e b l h e n d e spa-
nische Colonie, Portorico. So lang S p a n i e n sein c o n t i n e n t a l empire besa,
P. wie die a n d r e n insular possessions, neglected. P e n a l settlement, wohin
criminals transportirt, raising no surplus p r o d u c e , u n d u n k n o w n by n a m e 25
in der c o m m e r c i a l world. Aber gut gelegen fr d e n S c h m u g g e l h a n d e l m i t
M e x i c o . Die, z u s a m m e n m i t der F r u c h t b a r k e i t seines soil, s a m m e l t e auf
seiner surface, schon im Beginn des 19. Jh., a considerable population, fast
ganz von weissem Ursprung. 1815 sein trade von der spanischen Regierung
e i n e m new code von d e n liberalsten B e s t i m m u n g e n unterworfen, lands 30
were granted to settlers gratis; ihr extent to bear a proportion to the n u m b e r
of slaves imported. Slaves rendered liable to a fixed u n d low poll-tax. Pro-
d u c e befreit von export duties. Z e h n t e n r e m i t t e d fr 15 J a h r e u n d fixed af-
ter that t i m e at a low c o m m u t a t i o n . Die alcavala, a duty on the sale of com-
m o d i t i e s peculiar to Spain, remitted for a like period. Foreign goods were 35
admitted, subject to an ad valorem duty of 17 %. N u n in 20 J a h r e n die Be-
vlkerung der Insel verdoppelt, j e z t b e r 400,000 on a space of 4000
Q miles. Der best peopled spot of any extent in ganz A m e r i c a . In densel-
b e n 20 J a h r e n der export m e h r als 4 x. D a b e i k a u m any increase in d e m
relative a m o u n t der slave population, stets smaller in its proportion to the 40
free t h a n in any other westindian colony. 1810 h a t t e P. an 165,000 free u n d
442
17,000 Sklaveneinwohner; 1830 an 300,000 freie u n d 34,000 slaves; die

Masse der Freien sind Weisse u n d Spanier. Planter hier n i c h t a b s e n t e e .
Ausser den eigentlichen planters enthielt Portorico a very n u m e r o u s class
von small white proprietors. Fast % der g a n z e n P o p u l a t i o n waren freemen m i t
5 ihren families, cultivating their own small estates u n d besonders white;
diese Xivaros, wie sie hiessen, a frank, robust, hearty race. D u r c h free la-
bour (nach G e n e r a l Flinter Portorico c o n t a i n e d 1830 45,000 free labourers,
die kein L a n d of their own besassen) part des sugar of Portorico u n d fast all
der rest seines exportable wealth erhalten. A b e r jezt schon less practicable
10 to cultivate the soil successfully, ausser in large estates, by t h e aid of m u c h
capital u n d m i t n u m e r o u s gangs of slaves. In der ersten Zeit grosse Skla-
veneinfuhr etc. Also Aufhren der k l e i n e n proprietors. If so, its (Portoricos)
destinies, like those of Cuba, are fixed; a n d n o t h i n g can save t h e m b o t h
eventually from accomplishing the u n f o r t u n a t e career which t h e other
15 great W e s t I n d i a n colonies have e a c h in its t u r n gone through. ... D i e
Spanish Islands, u n m i t t e l b a r vor der E m a n c i p a t i o n enthielten, in r o u n d
n u m b e r s , 700,000 free white i n h a b i t a n t s , die british n u r 80,000; die former
250,000 free coloured, die leztren 60 oder 70,000; die erstren weniger als
450,000 slaves, die british m e h r als 800,000. U n d trotz dieser inferiority in
20 slavelabour die ersten p r o d u c i r t e n an % des Z u c k e r q u a n t u m p r o d u c e d in
d e n latter u n d a m u c h greater proportion of other tropical c o m m o d i t i e s .
W o h e r die R c k b l e i b e n der E n g l n d e r h i n t e r d e n Spaniern, politisch u n d
social? N a c h G e n e r a l Flinter das average p r o d u c e des Zuckers in J a m a i c a
an 10 cwt per acre; in St. Vincent, der fruchtbarsten der caribischen Inseln
25 25, in Portorico 30. Mglich da die Zuckercultur, so lang der B o d e n wenig
D n g e r erheischt u n d sein return b e i n a h sicher, m a y be p u r s u e d on a small
scale by little proprietors possessing little c o m m a n d of labour. A b e r w e n n
die Fruchtbarkeit a b n i m m t u n d crops n u r zu sichern durch grosse Auslage
von Capital u n d Arbeit, the small planter m u s t give way to t h e capitalist;
30 plantations will be considerable u n d die zahlreiche free population, deren
G e n e r a l Flinter sich r h m t , m u s t either cease to exist or a b a n d o n t h a t
b r a n c h of agriculture. ( 3 3 - 4 4 )
Portuguese. There was an age w h e n less als 40,000 a r m e d Portuguese kept
the whole coasts des o c e a n in awe, von M o r o c c o bis C h i n a u n d w h e n
35 1 50 sovereign princes paid tribute to the treasury of Lisbon. But in all their
enterprises they a i m e d at conquest a n d n o t at colonization. D a s g o v e r n m e n t
at h o m e b t e wenig Gewalt aus b e r die arms of its piratical warriors; t h e
m o t h e r country derived no benefit from their achievements. ... A s i a da-
mals fr sie der road of fortune u n d fame. Brasilien n u r gebraucht als Platz
40 fr die transportation der convicts; erste a d o p t i o n dieses Systems d u r c h ein
m o d e r n e s Volk. G e w h n l i c h e n Verbrechern n a c h h e r hinzugefgt die Opfer
443
der Inquisition u n d die Jews, durch t h a t tribunal d a h i n g e s a n d t , fhrten zu-

erst die Zuckercultur ein. free emigrants so attracted im Lauf der Zeit
d u r c h d e n increasing wealth des L a n d e s ; als T h o m a s de Souza als governor
1558 hingeschickt u n d es z u m erstenmal in an orderly u n d peaceful state
brachte, h a t t e es schon betrchtliche Fortschritte g e m a c h t . Die Organisa- 5
t i o n dieser Colonie grew so up by degrees as necessity required. D i e Portu-
giesen b e g a n n e n a u c h m i t R e d u c t i o n der natives to slavery. Aber diese far
less advanced in Civilisation u n d viel weniger zahlreich als die von Peru
u n d M e x i c o ; ihre labour trug daher wenig bei z u m i m p r o v e m e n t der col-
ony. 1570 bewirkte die clergy in Lisbon dcret, da kein I n d i e r Sklave aus- 10
ser d e n Kriegsgefangnen. D i e wholly disregarded von d e n Colonists.
1 6 2 6 - 1 6 4 0 der greater part of Brazil von den D u t c h erobert. N a c h der re-
c o n q u e s t (1640) die Befreiung der I n d i e r vollzogen; 200,000 I n d i a n s , living
im Territoire occupied by the planters, were settled in villages u n d placed
u n t e r der Direction der Jesuit missionaries. D a h e r die power dieser famous 15
society in A m e r i c a ihren Ursprung. Neger statt der I n d i e r eingefhrt. K e i n
L a n d in der Welt so great a b r e a d t h of highly productive soil as Brazil. Hier
daher Sklaverei viel m e h r eingefhrt, wie in d e n spanischen Besitzungen.
D e r brasilische trade m o d e r i r t spanischer. D i e vessels die carried it on
sailed in fleets o n c e a year u n d die Z a h l beschrnkt, aber grsser als in d e m 20
spanisch a m e r i k a n i s c h e n trade u n d visited a larger n u m b e r of ports. Aber
1755 schuf P o m b a l die exclusive c o m p a n i e s von Maranham u n d Pernam-
buco u n d legte in ihre H n d e d e n g a n z e n H a n d e l m i t Nordbrasilien:
E m a n c i p i r t e die I n d i a n s a u c h von der Controlle der Jesuiten. D i e precious
metals - im sdlichen Brazil - erst entdeckt in a late period ihrer coloni- 25
zation, als agriculture u n d c o m m e r c e schon W u r z e l geschlagen. Erst 1700
die first gold m i n e s began to be wrought in d e n arid Serras des Interior.
D i e ersten successful m i n e r s die Paulistas, eine sonderbare ||52| R a c e , of
semirepublican habits, gezeugt von e n t s p r u n g n e n Convicts u n d I n d i a n
w o m e n . Sie etablirten sich in Stadt u n d Distrikt St. P a u l in Sdbrasilien, wo 30
sie m e h r als ein J h d t sich u n a b h n g i g von der portugiesischen K r o n e be-
h a u p t e t e n . Overran das ganze I n n e r e von Brazil, von d e m P a r a n a bis zu
d e n tributaries des A m a z o n s , in b e s t n d i g e m Krieg m i t d e n I n d i e r n , die
sie, wo sie k o n n t e n zu Sklaven m a c h t e n . Erst 1730 i n d u c e d die portugiesi-
sche Regierung a n z u e r k e n n e n . Die G o l d m i n e n n u r t e m p o r r e R e i c h - 35
t h u m s q u e l l e fr Brazil. G a n z freigelassen d e n adventurers by the govern-
m e n t , on p a y m e n t einer Steuer von Die search fr diamonds, erst 1730
in Brazil entdeckt, strengern regulations unterworfen. G a n z in die h a n d s
einer exclusiven Compagnie gelegt, wovon die Regierung selbst der A g e n t
war. Restricted to the e m p l o y m e n t of a limited n u m b e r of slaves. Um den 40
value des article zu e n h a n c e . Urn die c o n t r a b a n d practise zu verhindern,
444

Todesstrafe; als u n z u r e i c h e n d gefunden das whole country a r o u n d , in

e i n e m U m k r e i s von 100 leagues, r e d u c e d to a desert, wo kein H a u s g e b a u t
werden durfte ausser d e m E i n e n fr die M i n e n a r b e i t e r . Eschwege (1823)
schzt den Totalwerth der diamond workings in 80 Jahren at a sum hardly ex-
5 ceeding 18 months' produce of sugar or coffee in Brazil. D e r trade der m i n i n g
l
districts h o b R i o J a n e i r o b e r B a h i a i n d e m latter part des 1 8 J h . u n d 1807
wurde es die R e s i d e n z der k n i g l i c h e n family of Portugal, die von N a -
p o l e o n fortgejagt. Da dieser c h a n g e d u r c h V e r m i t t l u n g der E n g l n d e r statt-
fand, diese, fr i h r e n Vortheil, p r o c u r e d freedom of trade to be established
10 in Brazil. I m m e d i a t e removal aller restrictions, die Theil des alten Colo-
nialsystems gebildet h a t t e n . D i e ports von Brazil erffnet fr foreign goods
in foreign vessels, on p a y m e n t of an ad valorem duty, for purposes of reve-
n u e only; England w u r d e die m e t r o p o l i s of Brazil. Perfect freedom given to
internal industry. ( 4 4 - 5 4 )
15 Dutch. Die prosperity der D u t c h O s t i n d i s c h e n C o m p a g n i e led sie to form
expensive establishments, die sie in debts verwickelten; u n d so b u r d e n e d ,
k o n n t e n sie d e m H a n d e l u n d d e n Waffen der E n g l n d e r n i c h t widerstehn.
Die stets der Vortheil des new c o m e r b e r d e n etablirten possessor in dis-
tant regions: die D u t c h h a t t e n i h n b e r die Portugiesen, die E n g l n d e r
20 b e r die D u t c h , die N o r d a m e r i k a n e r in einigen Handelszweigen j e z t b e r
die Englnder. Die prosperity declined sobald empire substituted for trade.
J e n e C o m p a g n i e b a n k r u t t i r t e kurz vor ihrer Auflsung 1792. E i n e der con-
t i n e n t a l Colonies der D u t c h in A m e r i c a - Berbice - war fr a short t i m e
u n t e r d e m exclusive g o v e r n m e n t of a m e r c a n t i l e h o u s e , des van Peere,
25 w h i c h h a d bought its absolute sovereignty of t h e state. (55, 6)
French, that propensity to little peddling traffic, requiring m o r e of activity
a n d enterprise t h a n industry, die Burke als characteristic der f r e n c h m e n
hervorgehoben, stimulated their adventurers to disperse themselves in t h e
fur trade u n d der chase, over t h e whole interior von N o r d a m e r i c a . K e i n e
30 a n d r e n Europer je dasselbe T a l e n t entwickelt for conciliating savages;
oder for approximating to their usages u n d m o d e s of life. D i e french trad-
ers u n d h u n t e r s intermarried u n d m i x e d m i t d e n I n d i a n s at t h e back of o u r
settlements; e x t e n d e d their scattered posts along t h e whole course der
2 long rivers o f t h a t c o n t i n e n t . (57, 58)
35 c) British Colonisation. Westindies.
Die early settlers, die die Antilles occupied, waren besonders small proprie-
tors, die lebten on t h e p r o d u c e ihrer estates. Als gen 1670 die Z u c k e r c u l t u r
eingefhrt, n a h m die freie weisse Bevlkerung reissend ab u n d c o n t i n u e d
445
to do so for a Century afterwards. D i e W e i s s e n in Barbadoes sollen bis

70,000 gen 1670 gewachsen sein. 1724 n u r 18,000 jezt 16,000. Antigua ent-
hielt 5000 freie Weisse u n t e r Charles II, j e z t n u r 2500. Die history der and-
ren Windward Isles hnlich. Selbst in J a m a i c a die n u m b e r s der whites blieb
stationr von 1670 bis 1720. This declining c o n d i t i o n der weissen Bevlke- 5
rung besonders z u z u s c h r e i b e n d e m monopoly of the land, consequent on the
cultivation of sugar. D e r little proprietor k o n n t e n i c h t concurriren m i t d e m
large o n e in der P r o d u c t i o n dieses staplearticle. Caffee u n d n o c h m e h r
Z u c k e r erheischen die s i m u l t a n e o u s application vieler Arbeit at particular
seasons. "To m a k e 10 hogsheads of sugar" sagt der A u t o r eines report on 10
the present state der french Zuckerinseln, in d e m statistischen J o u r n a l von
Paris "needs nearly the s a m e expenditure in beasts of b u r t h e n , mills, u t e n -
sils etc as to m a k e a h u n d r e d . A property of less t h a n 50 arpens c a n n o t be
used as a sugar plantation." Diese T e n d e n z der D i n g e beschleunigt, wenn,
d u r c h improvidence der early cultivators, besonders in Barbado.es, der soil 15
erschpft u n d greater expence u n d labour nthig wurde to raise the same
a m o u n t of p r o d u c e . H e n c e all accounts of our W e s t i n d i a n colonies, in the
first half of the last century, t e e m m i t complaints of the decay of small pro-
prietors, and t h e consolidation of all the classes of society into two, the
wealthy planters and the slaves. The great stocks u n d das r u n n i n g into a 20
staple which required t h e m " sagt Burke 1758 have by degrees devoured
the island. (Jamaica.) It is the n a t u r e of vast stocks to create a k i n d of m o -
nopoly; a n d it is the n a t u r e of m o n o p o l y to a i m at great profits from a com-
paratively little produce." N u n folgte n o c h schlechtrer state der society; die
reichern Pflanzer selbst b e g a n n e n sich zu entfernen u n d fix their residence 25
at h o m e . D i e islands bald von d e n other classes of whites als factories be-
trachtet, wo fortune mglichst rasch zu m a c h e n u n d es d a n n to leave. D i e -
ser change von residence to absenteeism theils Folge des progress des Reich-
t h u m s , theils des spez. englischen Charakters ... In Barbadoes, wo die
Weissen, obgleich sehr vermindert, n o c h a n u m e r o u s body bilden, die con- 30
dition der lowest class derselben sehr degraded: o h n e property u n d raised
d u r c h ihre colour ber das d e b a s e m e n t of labour, leben sie in a great m e a s -
ure von charity, administered oft by the Negroes themselves. ... W h e n the
slavetrade was abolished, the cost of producing sugar in J a m a i c a was al-
ready, perhaps, twice as great as in Cuba. ... D i e quantity of sugar in Eng- 35
land used by each individual im D u r c h s c h n i t t k a u m m e h r als % war
40 years ago. ... R e m a r k a b l e uniformity, womit die events sich folgen in
der economical history der West Indies in general. At each e p o c h in that his-
tory ... the opening of a fresh soil m i t freedom of trade gives a s u d d e n stim-
u l u s to settlement u n d industry; der soil covered m i t free proprietors u n d a 40
general b u t r u d e prosperity prevails. T h e n follows a period of m o r e care-
446
ful cultivation, during which estates are consolidated, gangs of slaves suc-
ceed to c o m m u n i t i e s of freemen, the r o u g h c o m m o n wealth is formed into
a most productive factory. But fertility d i m i n i s h e s : the cost of p r o d u c t i o n
a u g m e n t s : slave labour, always dear, b e c o m e s dearer by t h e increased diffi-
5 culty of supporting it: new settlements are occupied, new sources of pro-
d u c t i o n opened: the older colonies, u n a b l e to m a i n t a i n a r u i n o u s c o m p e t i -
tion, even m i t der aid of prohibitions, after a period of suffering u n d
difficulty, fall back into a secondary state, worin capital, e c o n o m y u n d in-
creased skill m a k e u p , to a certain extent only, for the invaluable advan-
10 tages which they have lost. So die Windward Islands, ursprnglich m i t zahl-
reicher weisser Bevlkerung, d a n n zahlreiche Sklaven einfhrend u n d
supplirend fast d e n g a n z e n d a m a l i g e n limited c o n s u m von Europe. Ja-
maica h e b t sich on their decay u n d geht d u r c h dieselben E x i s t e n z p h a s e n .
St. Domingo eclipsirt d a n n J a m a i c a u n d selbst cut off by a s u d d e n tempest,
15 never attained to the period of decline. Schlielich C u b a u n d Portorico,
n a c h vielen J a h r h u n d e r t e n of comparative neglect u n d r u d e productive-
ness, start auf e i n m a l in d e n first rank u n t e r exporting countries u n d flour-
ish like the exuberant crops of their own virgin soil, while our islands, still
rich in capital, but for t h e m o s t part exhausted in fertility u n d deficient in
20 labour, were struggling by the aid of their a c c u m u l a t e d wealth against t h e
encroaching principle of decay. ( 7 5 - 8 8 )
North America. Die C o l o n i e n in N o r d a m e r i k a u n t e r 3 h e a d s : 1) royal gov-
ernments, worin a legislative assembly, b e s t e h e n d aus a lower h o u s e of rep-
resentatives u n d an u p p e r h o u s e or council, n o m i n a t e d by the governor.
25 Prevailed in Virginia u n d d e n s o u t h e r n provinces. 2) Proprietary Govern-
ments. Wo der Proprietor oder die C o m p a g n i e of Proprietors das R e c h t of
n o m i n a t i n g a council, a n d s o m e t i m e s the governor also. Pennsylvaenia, De-
laware u n d Maryland blieben long u n t e r dieser species von constitution. 3)
Charter governments, wo der sovereign h a d parted m i t his rights, ganz oder
30 partially, to the colonist; beide H u s e r electiv u n d m a n c h m a l a u c h d e r
governor; in short democracies. ... T h e disposal of lands was never u n d e r
any systematic regulation in our early colonies. D i e first settlers cultivated
the cleared ground a b o u t their villages in c o m m o n . ... Diese c u s t o m pre-
vails bis 1619 in Virginia. W h e n the soil was vested in proprietaries, it was
35 m o r e c o m m o n l y granted at a quitrent t h a n sold; a n d the freehold was
acquired in t i m e by sale, or a b a n d o n m e n t on t h e part of the proprietary.
... Grosse Schwierigkeit of procuring labour gradually obviated in d e n
southern colonies d u r c h die E i n f h r u n g von Sklaven. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n der
convicts n a c h den Colonies never large. D i e favourite resource war die la-
40 b o u r of indented servants. G a b A n l a 1) zu e i n e m odious system of m i s r e p -
resentation u n d selbst of kidnapping, practised by the m a n a g e r s of t h e
447
trade in England. D a n n , wenn ein Pflanzer sich d u r c h viele K o s t e n solche

Kerls verschafft (who were b o u n d in E n g l a n d to masters in the colonies,
w h o m they served for a limited period) his n e i g h b o u r lockte sie weg d u r c h
h h e r n L o h n . W e n i g e daher h a t t e n a c o m m a n d over free labour u n d ausser
in d e n slave colonies, estates were almost uniformly scattered u n d small; 5
u n d towns increased so slowly, da die largest in British A m e r i c a , Boston,
n i c h t m e h r als 25,000 zhlte als der Revolutionskrieg ausbrach, 150 J a h r e
n a c h seiner Stiftung. ( 8 8 - 9 3 ) |
|53| Australia. N a c h d e m die coast von Neusdwales entdeckt von Captain

Cook, m a d e a p e n a l settlement, m i t a view to rid our gaols of the n u m b e r of 10
prisoners who were a c c u m u l a t i n g there after the A m e r i c a n war. 1787 die
Siriusfrigate landete 800 Convicts zu Botany Bay. D i e Kste, die d e m Cook
so t e m p t i n g geschienen, was soon found to afford n o t h i n g b u t swamps u n d
sand. Am 26 Januar, 1788, die little colony r e m o v e d n a c h Sidney. In d e n
50 years, since elapsed, der progress von N e u s d w a l e s u n e r h r t . 1789 the 15
first harvest was reaped; 1790 the first p e r m a n e n t settler (a convict) took
possession of the plot of land allotted to h i m . 1793 the first p u r c h a s e of co-
lonial grain (1200 bushels) was m a d e by government. D i e first newspaper
printed in 1802. In 1803 Mr. M a c a r t h u r exhibited in L o n d o n the first sam-
ple of m e r i n o wool from the sheep of the colony. 1807, 245 lbs dieser Wolle 20
exported von Sydney; 1820, 100,000 lbs; 1830, 3,564,532 lbs; 1840 gen
7 Mill. lbs. Sydney now a fine city etc. It is the relative increase of trade und
surplus wealth in proportion to population which gives to our australian settle-
m e n t s their distinctive character, selbst im Vorzug vor den western states
von America. O u r Exports to New South Wales alone, in d e m J a h r e n d e n d 25
J a n . 1840, value von 1,176,000; so da auf j e d e s I n d i v i d u u m der Popula-
tion (100,000) C o n s u m von 11 /. per head. ... Die n a t r l i c h e n Vortheile
dieses L a n d s fr Schaafzucht h t t e n nicht so exploitirt werden k n n e n ,
o h n e die a b u n d a n t supply of labour which N e w South Wales has hitherto
furnished to i m m i g r a n t capitalists. By transporting thither on the average 30
3000 convicts per a n n u m , the government has in fact presented the settlers
m i t labour to that extent, free of the expense of importing it; just as if it
h a d t a k e n u p o n itself to furnish a p l a n t a t i o n with so m a n y slaves or in-
d e n t e d labourers. ( 1 1 7 - 1 2 1 )
448
Part II. Economical Effects of Colonisation

on the Parent State.
Emigration und Progress der Population in dem Mother Country.
emigration is no r e m e d y for overpopulation u n l e s s it be continually re-

5 peated. (140)
Die largest n u m b e r of emigrants, die je in a single year das U n i t e d King-
d o m verlassen, 100,000, etwas m e h r als % des a n n u a l increase des p e o p l e .
Die grre Z a h l dieser A u s w a n d r e r persons above t h e average in p o i n t of
energy, who are driven abroad less by t h e fear of worse, t h a n t h e desire of
10 better. ... by far the larger p r o p o r t i o n der Spanish emigrants n a c h A m e r i c a
geliefert von seinen bevlkertsten u n d industriellsten u n d least oppressed
provinces, Biscay, Catalonia, Galicia, d e n Canaries. (142, 3) Gesezt, b e i
G e l e g e n h e i t einer Crise, t h e n a t i o n were to rouse itself to t h e effort of get-
ting rid by emigration of s o m e h u n d r e d s of 1000 of superfluous a r m s , w h a t
15 would be t h e c o n s e q u e n c e ? T h a t , at t h e first r e t u r n i n g d e m a n d for labour,
there would be a deficiency. However rapid reproduction may be, it takes at all
events the space of a generation to replace the loss of adult labour. N o w t h e
profits of our m a n u f a c t u r e r s d e p e n d m a i n l y on t h e power of making use of
the prosperous moment when demand is brisk, a n d t h u s c o m p e n s a t i n g t h e m -
20 selves for t h e interval during w h i c h it is slack. This power is secured them
only by the command of m a c h i n e r y a n d of m a n u a l labour. They m u s t have
h a n d s ready by them; they m u s t be able to increase the activity of their opera-
tions when required, a n d to slacken it again according to t h e state of t h e
m a r k e t ; or they c a n n o t possibly m a i n t a i n that p r e - e m i n e n c e in t h e race of
25 c o m p e t i t i o n on which t h e wealth of t h e country is founded. (146) those per-
sons that are desirable as emigrants, are precisely those best able to find
e m p l o y m e n t at h o m e in different times. (152 N o t e ) H e b t m a n . B. in Ir
l a n d d e n L o h n d u r c h gewaltsames Emigriren, so b e i m first rise of wages
strebt das Capital z u disappear u n d seek e m p l o y m e n t elsewhere; u n d die
30 labourers folglich werden driven to u n d e r b i d e a c h other a n d r e t u r n to their
former rate of wages again. (I.e.)
449
Effects of the Exportation of Capital on the Mother Country.
Das e n c o u r a g e m e n t given der productiven I n d u s t r i e eines L a n d e s d u r c h

die e x p e n d i t u r e of an i n c o m e at h o m e , besteht n u r in d e n few instances wo
die difference of cost by reason of carriage i n d u c e s t h e b u y e r to resort to
the h o m e instead of the foreign market. But t h e effect of taxes on goods 5
i m p o r t e d from foreign countries will modify these results to a certain ex-
t e n t and r e n d e r absenteeism a little m o r e injurious. (165) G e g e n die
Colonisation wird angefhrt: So viel Capital wir der Colonie geben, so viel
e n t z i e h n wir d e m M u t t e r l a n d . Die labourers die i m L a n d b l e i b e n erhalten
also dieselben wages wie vorher. Aber, wenn, wie wahrscheinlich, das first 10
e s t a b l i s h m e n t einer n e u e n Colonie Capital verursacht in g r r e m Verhlt-
n i to be withdrawn als labour, in d e m m o t h e r country wages will be di-
m i n i s h e d . Colonisation, while it m u s t , a strictly necessary c o n s e q u e n c e , di-
m i n i s h the aggregate power u n d wealth des p a r e n t state, m a y , as a highly
probable c o n s e q u e n c e , r e d u c e the d e m a n d for l a b o u r in a greater propor- 15
tion t h a n it reduces the supply u n d so deteriorate die Lage der zurckblei-
b e n d e n I n d u s t r i o u s . " D i e a r g u m e n t r u h t ganz auf der V o r a u s s e t z u n g , ' t h a t
there can be no redundancy of capital at any t i m e in any country, a n d no gen-
eral glut of c o m m o d i t i e s . ([167,] 168) Nach Ricardo the increase of capital is,
in itself, sufficient to increase the field of employment, and the demand for la- 20
bour. (169) Zugegeben n a c h Ricardo's Prinzip, da C o n c u r r e n z allein n i c h t
Profits erniedrigen k a n n . B u t the question is, whether u n d e r the actual cir-
c u m s t a n c e s of society, there being always a natural limit, close at hand, to the
employment of capital at that rate of profit which now prevails, c o m p e t i t i o n has
n o t the effect of forcing capital to pass t h a t limit, a n d i n d u c i n g its posses- 25
sor to be c o n t e n t with a continually lower a n d lower rate of profit ... N o w
in every country raising raw produce, the limit in question to the employ-
m e n t of capital at the existing rate of profit ist n a c h R. selbst the extent of
the worst soil at present in cultivation. (170, 1) Suppose the capitalist to
have a c c u m u l a t e d savings, lying idle in his h a n d s ; the existing rate of 30
profit is 10 %, b u t all the soil which will yield s u c h a profit is o c c u p i e d ; it is
practicable to obtain 9 % by the cultivation of fresh soil; It is better for h i m
to employ 2001, at 9 %, t h a n to employ 100 I. at 10 %: as soon as t h e capital-
ist feels it better to employ a larger capital at a smaller return, t h a n a
smaller at a higher rate, he will do so; a n d consequently by the necessary 35
force of competition, will bring down the average rate of profit in the culti-
vation of the soil to that a m o u n t with which he himself chooses to be satis-
fied. This is one m o d e in which c o m p e t i t i o n operates to lower profits. It
does so, because industry is necessarily less u n d less productive, as popula-
450
tion a n d wealth a d v a n c e ; a n d b e c a u s e t h e t e n d e n c y of m e n in a prosperous

state of society, to a c c u m u l a t e a n d to employ their capital, is c o n t i n u a l l y
driving t h e m t o extend their b u s i n e s s , a l t h o u g h n e w u n d e r t a k i n g s m u s t b e
carried on with less profit. (173) D a r a u s folgt d a das W a c h s t h u m des Ca-
5 pitals fr sich selbst n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d to increase his field of e m p l o y m e n t .
(174)|
|54| 1st die society exactly am P u n k t , wo der Capitalist t e m p t e d to e m -
ploy his a c c u m u l a t i o n s at a r e d u c e d rate of profit, rather t h a n allow t h e m
to r e m a i n idle, so, w e n n a n o t h e r field of e m p l o y m e n t of labour sich prsen-
10 tiret, w e n n er in Australia or C a n a d a c a n realize r e m u n e r a t i o n sufficient to
i n d u c e h i m to remove it there - t h e m o t h e r country is benefitted d u r c h
Verzgerung des Falls in d e m rate of profit, der erfolgt wre, h t t e er die
Capital zu H a u s angewandt. A n d who is i g n o r a n t that this is t h e p o i n t to-
wards which english industry is c o n t i n u a l l y gravitating? (174, 5)
15 A b e r sagt m a n , bei freier Korneinfuhr, k a n n c o m p e t i t i o n n i c h t zu infe-
rior soils treiben, also n i c h t lower t h e rate of profits. Supposing t h e propor-
tion of capital and l a b o u r to r e m a i n u n a l t e r e d , this m a y be t h e case. G e s e z t
Capital aufgehuft in e i n e m trade supplying a foreign m a r k e t , so d a , . .
i m c o t t o n t r a d e , unbeschftigtes u n d n a c h i n v e s t m e n t s u c h e n d e s Capital
20 ist. E i n Ballen C o t t o n t a u s c h e n u n aus fr, 11 hogsheads french wine. 10
von diesen h o g s h e a d s m g e n wages z a h l e n , 1 zu d e m Capitalisten g e h n ;
die R a t e des Profits sei 10 %. D e r owner des a c c u m u l a t e d capital m u zu-
frieden sein m i t a less return, w e n n er das a d d i t i o n a l capital in d e m s e l b e n
Geschft a n w e n d e n will; weniger W e i n fr seinen cotton zu erhalten.
25 Diese Concurrenz sei zu s o l c h e m Excess getrieben d a die cotton exported
exchanges only half t h e q u a n t i t y of wine w h i c h it did before; oder in and-
l
r e n words, sein Prei falle auf / its former a m o u n t in d e m french m a r k e t ,
2
u n d der r e t u r n sei n u r 5 % h o g s h e a d s fr d e n Cottonballen. W e n n gleich-

zeitig die Z a h l der Arbeiter in solcher Proportion gewachsen, d a ihre serv-
l
30 ices c a n be c o m m a n d e d fr / die wages wie frher, d a n n der rate of profit
2
will r e m a i n unaltered. D e r capitalist gewinnt j e z t n u r % hogshead, statt a

whole o n e ; die labourers 5 statt 10; aber ihre respective proportions des
whole return are t h e s a m e . K a n n die C o n c u r r e n z der Capitalists solch an
effect in a single b r a n c h of industry hervorbringen, it would p r o d u c e t h e
35 s a m e in all its b r a n c h e s of industry t a k e n collectively. Die G e s a m m t A u s -
fuhr E n g l a n d s m a g less r e t u r n im foreign m a r k e t c o m m a n d i r e n ; aber der
rate of profit wrde n i c h t fallen. If t h e progress of p o p u l a t i o n caused t h e
c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g labourers to be greater t h a n that a m o n g capitalists, it
m i g h t even rise. . . . G e s e z t aber der capitalist, w n s c h e n d seine savings in
40 der cotton m a n u f a c t u r e anzulegen, does n o t find labourers willing to a c -
cept of a lower a m o u n t of wages. Suppose, d a fr j e d e n bale of c o t t o n ex-
451
ported von England, er 10 hogsheads of wine d e n labourers g e b e n m u , be-

cause, in the existing state of the supply of labour, t h e c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g
capitalists keeps wages up to that point. There r e m a i n s no resource to the
capitalists, b u t to be c o n t e n t with a lower rate of profit. (175, 6) D a r a u s
folgt h c h s t wichtige praktische C o n s e q u e n z : for whether the effect of in- 5
creased competition, u n d e r given circumstances, be to lower the price of
exported articles, or to lower the rate of profits, it m u s t , in either case, be
advantageous to relieve that c o m p e t i t i o n by opening new fields of employ-
m e n t for the capital thus in excess. W h e t h e r its abstraction prevents the
value of english products abroad from falling, or the rate of profits from fall- 10
ing, or both, it m u s t be beneficial to industry. (177) Selbiges entwickelt
Colonel Torrens, wie folgt: (Colonization of S o u t h Australia p. 242, 243)
F a c t u m , da in e i n e m industriellen L a n d savings von i n c o m e s g e m a c h t
u n d capital aufgespeichert werden k a n n ; andres fact, da in verschiednen
L n d e r n das Capital in verschiednen ratios a n w a c h s e n k a n n . W e n n , in 15
England, das in der Baumwollfabrikation verwandte Capital fr d e n foreign
m a r k e t rascher wchst als das in d e n fremden L n d e r n zur Hervorbringung
des R o h m a t e r i a l s verwandte Capital, d a n n wird der W e r t h der cottonfab-
rics, in relation to the ordinary cost of production, decline; u n d im cotton
trade, wages, or profits, or both, m u s t c o m e down. E b e n s o k a n n es im silk, 20
woollen trade u n d allen a n d r e n Industriezweigen sein, worin goods aus for-
eign materials g e m a c h t werden. In allen trades, manufacturing capital may in-
crease faster als das foreign capital, which raises the materials of manufacture:
u n d so, in allen Industriezweigen, supplying goods to foreign m a r k e t s ,
there m a y be c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s overtrading, or a c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s , h o m e 25
competition', occasioning a general fall of prices, of profits a n d wages,
want of e m p l o y m e n t a n d distress." So m a n c h m a l a change from saving to
spending, from productive to unproductive employment, may sometimes operate
to relieve national industry from temporary plethora or oppression. ( 1 7 7 - 1 7 9 )
D a s capital spent on colonization by a country exporting m a n u f a c t u r e s , is 30
n o t wasted unproductively, or lost to the resources of the p a r e n t state. It is
spent in founding a fresh m a r k e t for her goods, and in stimulating a new
a n d m o r e intense d e m a n d for t h e m . (181) Dgrando (Bienfais. p u b .
IV. 112) sagt, d a von 1828 bis 1837, 14,365 emigrants from the lower
R h i n e carried with t h e m 8,200,000 fcs of capital, d. h. 630 fcs oder 25 I. per 35
h e a d . Buchanan denkt, d a die emigrants of 1834 n a c h C a n a d a carried out
1 Mill. St. D e r W e r t h der imports in C a n a d a , 1835, 2,300,000 1., der ex-
ports 1,800,000 l. Die Bilanz, sagt Murray, (British N o r t h A m e r i c a v. II,
p. 39) liquidirt durch die funds, brought into the colony by emigrants, by
government expenditure, u n d by the transfer of capital from this country 40
for investment in the colony." A similar calculation m a y be applied to
452
other colonies. D i e imports in N e u s d w a l e s e x c e e d e d die exports von da

fr some years past um 300 oder 400,000 I. D i e Differenz besteht h a u p t -
schlich aus Capital exported von E n g l a n d d u r c h emigrants oder G o v e r n -
m e n t expenditure. (181, 2)
5 Colonial trade und Colonial System.
Die Hauptvortheile der Colonisation fr das M u t t e r l a n d doppelt. 1) D i e

opening n e u e r Quellen der P r o d u c t i o n , woher Articles billiger zu schaffen:
2) Die Erffnung n e u e r M r k t e , profitlicher u n d rascher sich a u s d e h n e n d
als die alten wegen des rapid growth of wealth in new c o m m u n i t i e s . (183)
10 (Sieh p. 57) |
453
|55| Heeren. [Fortsetzung]
Asiatische Vlker. Theil I
Perser.
Innere Verfassung des persischen Reichs.
Perser ursprnglich ein nomadisches Bergvolk. In 10 H o r d e n oder S t m m e 5

getheilt. N u r ein Theil wurde herrschender Theil. Die b r i g e n b l i e b e n Bar-
b a r e n u n d fuhren fort ein N o m a d e n l e b e n zu fhren. D i e persische G e -
schichte n u r die der edleren Stmme; b e s o n d e r s der Pasargaden. Bei d e n
Persern hing ursprnglich alles an Stamm und Stammverfassung. N o c h jezt
dieser hhre u n d geringre Adel der Stmme, wahrscheinlich aus d e m Stolz 10
der kriegerischen H o r d e n entstehend, bei den N o m a d e n v l k e r n des mitt-
l e m u n d sdlichen Asiens, bei Arabern wie M o n g o l e n . U n t e r s c h e i d e n sich
solche S t m m e zugleich durch die Lebensart, so ist die der G r u n d zu der
Kasteneintheilung, eben dehalb bei m e h r e n Vlkern des Orients einhei-
m i s c h . A u s j e n e r S t a m m - entwickelte sich allmhlig eine Staatsverfassung. 15
Cyrus besiegte die s m m t l i c h e n Vlker des d a m a l s b e k a n n t e n A s i e n s ; Z u g
ging von Osten n a c h W e s t e n . Sein H e e r m e i s t e n s R e u t e r e i , die besiegten
Vlker m u t e n es stets vergrssern. So eine Art Vlkerwandrung. Belage-
r u n g e n von Stdten die am m e i s t e n gefrchteten U n t e r n e h m u n g e n . Cyrus
wie Dsingischan lie in d e n besiegten L n d e r n A r m e e n zurck, an deren 20
Spitze Feldherrn, die sie in der Unterwrfigkeit erhalten; i h n e n zur Seite
knigliche Einnehmer, die d e n Tribut e r h e b e n u n d d e m Knig berschik-
ken; endlich die Befehlshaber ber die Besatzungen in den Stdten, deren m a n
sich besonders zu versichern sucht. Die e r z w u n g n e n T r i b u t e hiessen Ge-
schenke. Z u r B e h a u p t u n g der Herrschaft: 1) D i e fortdauernde Unterhaltung 25
454
i
F
Aus Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen ber die Politik (Fortsetzung)
stehender Armeen ; 2) D i e gewaltsamen Verpflanzungen der Vlker. U n t e r d e n

Persern wurde diese Sitte n o c h allgemeiner. 3) Gesetze zur Verbreitung eines
vorgeschriebnen entnervenden Luxus (Lyder). D i e Sieger n a h m e n i n d e viel
an von der Lebensart, Sitten, Religion der Besiegten. N o m a d i s c h e Vlker,
5 weil sie kein b e s t i m m t e s Vaterland h a b e n , am m e i s t e n zu solchen Vern-
d e r u n g e n geneigt. Besonders die Meder, stammverwandt, wirkten auf die
Perser u n d wurden das erste Volk u n t e r i h n e n ... Hofeinrichtung u n d H a -
r e m n a c h d e m M e d i s c h e n geformt. D a m i t v e r b u n d e n die A n n a h m e der
Hof und Staatsreligion dieses Volkes u n d des g a n z e n politisch religisen Cere-
10 moniels, das sie vorschrieb. D i e Magier, u r s p r n g l i c h ein m e d i s c h e r S t a m m ,
ward jezt persische Priesterkaste u n d b e k a m d a d u r c h A n t h e i l a n der Regie-
rung. Cambyses unterwarf sich Aejypten. U n t e r Darius Hystaspes die i n n r e
Organisation. U n t e r i h m , U e b e r g a n g v o m N o m a d e n l e b e n z u festen W o h n -
sitzen, Aufenthalt der persischen Knige m e h r an e i n e n Ort fixirt, Susa.
15 E i n t h e i l u n g des R e i c h s in Satrapieen (war u n t e r i h m m e h r Vlkereinthei-
lung, als geographische.) Veranlassung d a z u die regelmssigre B e s t i m m u n g
der Tribute. Folge eine regelmssige E r n e n n u n g von Statthaltern. U n t e r
D a r i u s fingen bereits die grossen Heereszge nach Europa an. B r a c h t e n Ver-
n d e r u n g in der kriegerischen Organisation hervor. N o c h u n t e r Xerxes die
20 Perser die tapfersten, aber gleich n a c h i h m verloren sie diesen Vorzug.
H a u p t c o r p s der A r m e e n u r aus Miethstruppen z u s a m m e n g e s e z t , wozu m a n
besonders Griechen n a h m . Widerspenstigkeit und Emprungen der Satrapen.
F i n g e n an u n t e r Artaxerxes I; E n k e l des D a r i u s H. Vorderasien u n d Syrien
ihr gewhnlicher Schauplatz. U n t e r s t z t d u r c h G r i e c h e n u n d Aejypter. So
25 wurden diese entfernten Provinzen die H a u p t p r o v i n z e n des persischen
Reichs u n d der H a u p t g e g e n s t a n d der persischen Politik. Sittenverderbni
des Hofs und des Harems. D u r c h diese U r s a c h e n bereitete sich die persische
M o n a r c h i e ihren U n t e r g a n g im 2* J a h r h u n d e r t ihrer Existenz. ( 3 9 6 - 4 2 3 )
Rechte und Gewalt des Knigs. Zoroasters Gesetz.

30 Hofstaat, Harem, Privatleben des Knigs.
Knig = Eigenthmer von Land und Leuten. A u c h die hchste richterliche Ge-
walt in der H a n d des Knigs. Erwuchs sogar daraus (der Despotismus) bei
den M e d e r n n a c h Herodot. D e r richterlichen Willkhr alles berlassen; so
Weg zur Herrschaft b e r P e r s o n e n u n d E i g e n t h u m gebahnt. A u s d e m M i -
35 b r a u c h der richterlichen Gewalt, besonders bei Bestrafung v o n Verbrechen,
die ersten Versuche zu Gesetzgebungen, die sich besonders auf E i n s c h r n -
k u n g e n ersterer bezogen. Alle: Knechte des Knigs. Diese despotische G e -
455
1
wait findet ihre B e s c h r n k u n g e n 1) In der Ausbung n o t h w e n d i g viel be-

schrnkter als in der Theorie. Fllt z u n c h s t auf k l e i n e n Kreis, Paschas u n d
Satrapen. Satrapen ruiniren das n i e d r e Volk. Hrte u n d G r a u s a m k e i t des
D e s p o t e n gegen j e n e d a h e r der M a a s t a b der G t e seiner Regierung, fr
das Volk. 2) Priester die Urheber, Aufbewahrer u n d Ausleger einer Art von 5
Gesetzgebung. G e b e n n u r der Priesterkaste ein andres Verhltni z u m Des-
poten. Versuche, die R o h h e i t der Vlker zu m i l d e r n . Sie e n t h a l t e n also n u r
B e s c h r n k u n g e n der richterlichen Gewalt. Religises Ceremoniel. Religion
besteht weniger hier in L e h r e n als G e b r u c h e n . J e n e Gesetzgebung zu-
nchst religises Hofceremoniel. G a b d e n Priestern A n t h e i l an der Regie- 10
rung, weil es sie zu den ersten Hofbedienten m a c h t e . D a h e r u n t e r i h n e n
selbst mannigfaltige Abstufung u n d Hierarchie. An die Stelle der Reprsen-
tanten des Volks traten die Reprsentanten der Gottheit. Zendavesta. (Haupt-
schriften desselben: V e n d i d a t u n d Izeschne.) D a s R e i c h Ormuzd (das
Licht) war Iran, das A c k e r b a u l a n d u n d Turan, das nrdliche L a n d (die F i n - 15
sterni) das N o m a d e n l a n d . Alles, M e n s c h e n , Thiere, Pflanzen, rein oder
u n r e i n , gehrt zu O r m u z d u n d A h r i m a n ' s Reich. Leztes auszurotten. Dar-
auf grndet Zoroaster seine Gesetze zur Befrderung der physischen Cultur
des Landes, Ackerbau, Viehzucht, Grtnerei. Die i n n r e Organisation b e r u h t
bei i h m auf 4 K a s t e n Priester, Krieger, Ackerleute, Gewerbetreibende. D a s Bild 20
des Reichs des O r m u z d ist das Ideal eines Despotischen Reichs, wie es fr
d e n Orient pat. Die Aufbewahrung seiner G e s e t z g e b u n g e i n e m Priester-
s t a m m oder Priesterkaste, den Magiern anvertraut. Zoroasters R e f o r m e n
sollten z u n c h s t n u r die Magier selbst betreffen, d e n m e d i s c h e n Volks-
s t a m m , d e m die Erhaltung ihrer wissenschaftlichen K e n n t n i s s e u n d A u s - 25
bung der religisen G e b r u c h e aufbewahrt war. D i e A n n a h m e des m e d i -
schen Cultus betraf z u n c h s t n u r d e n Hof. Ritual a u c h fr das ganze
Privatleben. ||56| Bei d e n Persern keine Kasten. Zwar Stmme der Edlen oder
der Krieger u n d Stmme der Ackerbautreibenden. A b e r keine Kaste der G e -
werbetreibenden. A u c h bei j e n e n S t m m e n nicht ausgemacht, d a ihre Be- 30
schftigung nothwendig an den S t a m m g e b u n d e n war. D e r Hof und das Ge-
folge des Knigs bestand nicht n u r aus Hofbedienten, s o n d e r n aus
z a h l r e i c h e m Heer, m e i s t Reuterei, das seine Person u m g a b u n d zu seiner
Begleitung gehrte. Die R e u t e r s c h a a r e n bei 10,000 abgetheilt n a c h d e n
Vlkerschaften, woraus sie g e n o m m e n . Die V o r n e h m s t e n die Perser. M i t 35
d e m L u x u s stieg die Z a h l der Hof bedienten. Z u r j e d e n , a u c h der kleinsten
Verrichtung eigne Leute angestellt. Alle freie Bekstigung. 15,000 speisten
v o m Tisch des Knigs. Schon das M a c h e n des Betts des Knigs erforderte
n a c h X e n o p h o n grosse Schaar von L e u t e n . D e r Hof der persischen Despo-
t e n ursprnglich aus d e m S t a m m der Pasargaden u n d besonders die F a m i - 40
lie der Achaemeniden gebildet. Die Polygamie m a c h t die Verschnittnen z u m
456
F
Bedrfni. Mit d e n R e g i e r u n g e n aus d e m Serail z u s a m m e n h n g t die Unge-

wiheit der Erbfolge. Das ganze brige Privatleben der persischen Knige
ein auf den hchsten Grad des Luxus getriebnes Nomadenleben. H e r u m z i e h n ,
bei d e m W e c h s e l der Jahreszeiten, von der e i n e n H a u p t s t a d t des R e i c h s
5 zur a n d r e n , Susa, Babylon u n d E c b a t a n a . Ihre Zge gleichen grossen H e e -
reszgen, die r m e r e n Provinzen m u t e n d a m i t verschont bleiben, u m sie
nicht der H u n g e r s n o t h auszusetzen. Diese E i n r i c h t u n g e n n o c h bei d e n
Herrschern des n e u e n Asiens. D i e Palste u n d Lustschlsser der K n i g e m i t
grossen Parks u n d Paradisen u m g e b e n , g a n z e Landschaften, um H e e r e zu
10 m u s t e r n u n d Jagden anzustellen. Palast des Knigs h i e schon bei d e n Per-
sern Thor oder Pforte. Ausser d e n J a g d e n in d e n Paradisen, die im F r e i e n .
A u c h bei der Tafel ganz b e s t i m m t e s Ceremoniel. Es durfte n u r das Beste ge-
nossen, Wasser aus d e m Choaspes, auf einer M e n g e von W a g e n in silbernen
Gefssen i h m nachgefhrt; Salz von d e m T e m p e l des Jupiter A m n i o n aus
15 der M i t t e der afrikanischen W s t e , W e i n von C h a l y b o n in Syrien, W e i z e n
zu s e i n e m Brod aus A e o l i e n etc. G a n z e Schaaren im weiten R e i c h be-
stimmt, i h m die kstlichsten Speisen u n d G e t r n k e aufzusuchen.
(423-475)
Verwaltung der Provinzen. Finanzverfassung. Satrapen.
20 Ein rohes eroberndes Volk betrachtet die e i n g e n o m m n e n L n d e r als sein

E i g e n t h u m . Beispiele gejtiug in der Asiatischen G e s c h i c h t e , d a um sie u n -
gestrt zu besitzen, A u s r o t t u n g der E i n g e b o r n e n . Bei sehr a u s g e d e h n t e n
E r o b e r u n g e n m u t e die von selbst wegfallen; gezwungen auf E i n r i c h t u n -
gen zu denken, um die Herrschaft zu b e h a u p t e n . Die Geldtribute der L n -
25 der bildeten blos die Privatkasse des Knigs, woraus er seinen eignen Auf-
wand bestritt oder h c h s t e n s G e s c h e n k e m a c h t e . Bei d e n Persern keine
Besoldungen von Staatsbedienten, F i n a n z z w e c k auf Kosten der Besiegten zu
leben. Das ganze persische Reich, n a c h H e r o d o t , u n a b h n g i g von d e n Tri-
b u t e n , fr d e n U n t e r h a l t des Knigs oder seines Hoflagers u n d Heers ein-
30 getheilt; u n d jeder Distrikt m u fr eine gewisse Zeit das Seine liefern.
Folge davon, d a die A b g a b e n der Provinzen bei weitem d e m grten
Theil n a c h in Frchten und Naturalien geliefert. D a s Beste j e d e r Provinz ge-
hrt d e m Knig. So flssen aus allen T h e i l e n des R e i c h s die V o r r t h e j e d e r
Art bei d e m Hoflager z u s a m m e n . D a h e r L u x u s u n d Ueberflu, Schwelge-
35 rei u n d Ueppigkeit. J e d e Provinz h a t t e ferner die Satrapen zu erhalten. Ihr
Hof n a c h d e m des Knigs geformt. Zogen ihre Bedrfnisse aus allen T h e i -
len ihrer Provinz. 4 grosse Flecken in Babylon h a t t e n fr die F t t e r u n g der
J a g d h u n d e von Masistius, d e m Satrapen von Babylon zu sorgen. E n d l i c h
457
der Unterhalt der kniglichen Truppen, allenthalben in die Provinzen verlegt.

A u c h diese von den besezten L n d e r n bestritten. N e b e n diesen N a t u r a l i e n
fr die Privatkasse des Knigs die Tribute in ungemnztem Gold oder Silber.
E i n g e s c h m o l z e n , in Barren aufbewahrt, wovon der Knig n a c h d e n Bedrf-
nissen etwas abschlagen lie. D u r c h die H e e r z g e , b e s o n d e r s u n t e r Xerxes, 5
E r h h u n g der Tribute. D a s H a l t e n der M i e t h t r u p p e n verursachte V e r m e h -
r u n g dieser Auflagen. A u s s e r d e m b e z o g e n die Satrapen Summen aus den
Provinzen. D i e T r i b u t e sind n u r die Summen, die die Satrapen an den knigli-
chen Schatz abliefern muten. Persis von diesen A b g a b e n a u s g e n o m m e n .
A u s s e r d e m : Einknfte von der Bewsserung. ( D u r c h Schleusenwerke h a t t e n 10
die persischen Knige das Wasser in ihrer Gewalt) Fischerei in d e m Canal,
der d e n See Mris m i t d e m N i l verbindet, ein Regal. Eingezogne Gter bei
H i n r i c h t u n g e n der Satrapen u n d Grossen. M e h r als alles die die freiwilli-
gen Geschenke, die m a n d e m Knig m a c h t e . N a c h der Sitte des Orients
k a n n N i e m a n d vor d e m H h e r n , vielweniger vor d e m K n i g o h n e G e - 15
schenk erscheinen. A n d e m Geburtstage des Knigs fliessen i h m Kostbar-
keiten u n d Seltenheiten aus d e m g a n z e n R e i c h zu. Ausgaben des Knigs.
G e s c h e n k e . Die n i e d r e n Hofbedienten (Trabanten, Leibwchter etc.) erhal-
t e n ihren U n t e r h a l t in Naturalien. (Ebenso bei allen persischen Grossen
u n d d e n Befehlshabern der Stdte u n d Provinzen.) E b e n d a z u die grossen 20
a u s den verschiednen Provinzen g e s a n d t e n Vorrthe verwandt. D i e vor-
n e h m r e n Hofbedienten erhalten Anweisungen auf Oerter und Stdte. A u c h
A n w e i s u n g e n - besonders m i t Hofstellen v e r b u n d e n - auf Huser und Ln-
derein in d e n Provinzen. Diese A n w e i s u n g e n auf Lebenszeit. Fielen n a c h
d e m T o d e d e m Knige a n h e i m . Da aber die Hofstellen am S t a m m hingen, 25
also in der Regel erblich, werden a u c h diese Besitzungen erblich. Zu X e n o -
p h o n s Zeit hatte bereits die Satrapenregierung ihre vllige Organisation er-
halten. Sorgfltige Trennung der Civil und Militairgewa.lt. D e r G r u n d zu die-
ser E i n r i c h t u n g gleich gelegt durch die den F e l d h e r r n zur Seite gesezten
kniglichen Einnehmer. In d e n sptren P e r i o d e n d e n Satrapen, besonders 30
w e n n aus kniglicher F a m i l i e , zugleich die Befehlshaberschaft der T r u p -
p e n bertragen, besonders in d e n G r e n z p r o v i n z e n , wo das Bedrfni oft
solche Vereinigung nthig m a c h t e . D i e b r i g e n brgerlichen B e d i e n t e n
blieben a u c h spter von den Befehlshabern der T r u p p e n gnzlich getrennt
u n d diese durften sich in keine Civilgeschfte m i s c h e n . U n t e r d e n Satra- 35
p e n die I n t e n d a n t e n . Besonders k m m e r t e n sich u m A n b a u des L a n d e s
etc. Die religisen Vorschriften m a c h t e n die zur Pflicht. D i e Satrapen
h a t t e n von d e n kniglichen T r u p p e n verschiedne Haustruppen, b e s t a n d e n
ganz oder z u m Theil aus Persern. W e n n der Satrap von d e n E i n k n f t e n sei-
n e n eignen Aufwand, d e n U n t e r h a l t der kniglichen T r u p p e n u n d der bri- 40
gen Civilbedienten bestritten, ging das andre an d e n kniglichen Hof. Um
458
r
das Interesse des Knigs zu besorgen, im Gefolge der Satrapen stets knig-
liche Schreiber, d e n e n die Befehle des Knigs eingehndigt werden, u n d die
sie d e n Satrapen erffnen. - Eilboten, auf Stationen vertheilt, d u r c h das
ganze Reich. (Spter n o c h m e h r i n d e n m o n g o l i s c h e n Reichen) J h r l i c h
5 schickte der ||[57]| Knig e i n e n Bevollmchtigten an der Spitze eines H e e -
res, der die Satrapen u n t e r s t z t e oder a u c h zchtigte ... In d e n Sptren
Z e i t e n mehre Satrapien Einem [ber]tragen. D o c h wuchs ihr U e b e r m u t h .
Kriege der Satrapen u n t e r e i n a n d e r . M e h r e r e von i h n e n , d e n e n die Herr-
schaft von P o n t u s , C a p p a d o c i e n etc bertragen, w u r d e n die Stifter u n a b -
10 hngiger R e i c h e . D i e Satrapen m a c h t e n sich n a c h u n d n a c h u n a b h n g i g
u n d b e t r a c h t e t e n die P r o v i n z e n als D o m n e n , d e r e n Einknfte sie zogen.
(477-500)
Persisches Kriegswesen.
D i e Kriegszge der n o m a d i s c h e n Vlker ursprnglich Wanderungen, z u r

15 E i n n a h m e berer u n d fruchtbarer Lnder. D a h e r die im Orient allgemeine
Sitte, da Weiber, Kinder und alle bewegliche Habe von i h n e n mitgeschleppt
wird. Ihr H e e r ganz oder grossentheils Reuterei. Erstres der Fall bei d e n
M o n g o l e n , leztres b e i d e n Persern. Erleichtert sehr ihre Zge. Die m o n g o l i -
sche Geschichte giebt Beispiele, d a solche R e u t e r h e e r e m i t einer u n b e -
20 greiflichen Schnelligkeit entfernte Zge u n t e r n a h m e n , woran ein europ-
isches H e e r nicht wrde d e n k e n k n n e n . D i e Kriegsverfassung erlitt i n d e
grosse A e n d e r u n g e n . Schon gleich bei der E r o b e r u n g Asiens blieben Corps
s t e h n in d e n Provinzen, b e s o n d e r s in d e n G r e n z p r o v i n z e n , wie Vorder-
l e i
asien, Aejypten etc. In j e d e r Provinz 2 A r t von Truppen. Theils auf d e m
25 platten Land zerstreut. Theils als Besatzungen in den Stdten. Beide ihre
eignen Befehlshaber. Jhrliche Musterungen der Truppen d u r c h das ganze
R e i c h in der N h e der H a u p t s t a d t v o m Knig selbst gehalten. E i n t h e i l u n g
des Reichs in militairische Cantons n a c h d e n V e r s a m m l u n g s oder Muster-
pltzen der T r u p p e n ... Bei d e n Persern m u t e jeder, der L n d e r e i e n besa
30 zu Pferd aufsitzen. D a h e r i n n r e Organisation des ganzen Volks fr d e n
Kriegsdienst nothwendig. Decimalabtheilung geht d u r c h die ganze N a t i o n ,
u n d b e s t i m m t zugleich d e n R a n g der Befehlshaber. Das g e m e i n e Volk i m
Huflein von 10 m i t i h r e m Vorsteher, d a n n die Befehlshaber v o n 100,
d a n n von 1000, d a n n von 10,000. D i e h h r e n Officiere gehren n i c h t m e h r
35 fr einzelne Corps, sondern b i l d e n die Generalitt. So bei d e n M o n g o l e n ,
so bei den Persern. Sold an b a a r e m Geld b e k a m e n n u r die griechischen
Miethtruppen. Die alles b e z i e h t sich auf die T r u p p e n , die die Perser regel-
mssig zur Vertheidigung u n d B e h a u p t u n g ihrer Provinzen u n t e r h i e l t e n .
459

B e s t a n d e n m e h r aus M i e t h s t r u p p e n , als d a sie die B e w o h n e r der Provinz

d a z u gebraucht. Die unterjochten N a t i o n e n n u r b e i a u s s e r o r d e n t l i c h e n G e -
legenheiten, wie bei d e n grossen H e e r z g e n , die z u r Erweiterung des
R e i c h s u n t e r n o m m e n , d a z u gebraucht. In solchen F l l e n allgemeine Aufge-
bote durch das ganze unermeliche Reich. D i e N a t i o n e n des Ostens u n d W e - 5
stens w u r d e n gleich H e r d e n z u s a m m e n g e t r i e b e n . S c h o n die vorlufigen
A n s t a l t e n d a z u u n e r m e l i c h . Die Bewegungen d a z u vor d e m Z u g e des Xer-
xes d a u e r t e n 4 J a h r e . E r s c h i e n e n u n t e r d e n V o r s t e h e r n ihrer eignen N a t i o -
n e n . Im Krieg selbst die Offizire aber n u r aus d e n Persern g e n o m m e n .
D i e Vorrecht des h e r r s c h e n d e n Volks, wie b e i d e n M o n g o l e n u n d Tarta- 10
ren. ( 5 0 0 - 5 1 5 )
460
r
Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies (Fortsetzung)
Merivale. (Fortsetzung von p. 5 4 )

Das alte System dachte n u r an die Vortheile der Exportation, die d o c h n u r
Mittel fr die Importation sein soll. F e r n e r plan of monopolizing the produc-
tions of colonies, or the imports from them. Ausgefhrt bios d u r c h Spanier u n d
5 Portugiesen fr die edlen Metalle u n d die D u t c h fr die spices. Zucker,
caffe, cotton, T a b a k u n d die a n d r e n staple products of colonial industry n i e
praktisch monopolisirt d u r c h irgend eine europische M a c h t . Dagegen bis
zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d mglich die Colonien, by fiscal regulation, to con-
fine zu dem use der products des Mutterlands. Die daher Hauptpunkt des Sy-
10 stems; Russia m a y colonize large tracts of desert country by drafts from the
s u p e r a b u n d a n t p o p u l a t i o n ihrer central provinces; aber kein Vortheil
davon fr d e n russian producer, weil [er] n u r d a h i n articles of raw p r o d u c e
s e n d e n kann, die die Colonists m e h r h a b e n als sie b r a u c h e n . U n d e r freier
Concurrenz der Vortheil der Colonieen n i c h t fr das M u t t e r l a n d , s o n d e r n
15 fr das L a n d das i h n e n on the cheapest terms goods in A u s t a u s c h geben
k a n n . Allerdings a u c h u n t e r free c o m p e t i t i o n das M u t t e r c o u n t r y fr ge-
r a u m e Zeit advantage von d e n Colonieen von der durability of n a t i o n a l
tastes u n d habits. ... Als C o m p e n s a t i o n gab m a n den Colonists, at the ex-
pense der consumers. Zwang des M u t t e r l a n d s n u r die Colonialartikel pro-
20 d u c e d by her colonists zu kaufen. D e r n a t r l i c h e G a n g der Colonialpolitik
war daher berall: 1) D e m M u t t e r l a n d zu sichern das M o n o p o l einiger pre-
cious commodities p r o d u c e d in the colony. 2) D i e colonies d a n n unterwor-
fen der necessity of c o n s u m i n g articles of her own p r o d u c t i o n . 3) D e n co-
lonists granted the exclusive right of producing particular articles for h e r
25 own c o n s u m p t i o n . D i e last is t h e only substantial fragment of the old co-
lonial system which now r e m a i n s . ... 5 verschiedne Classen of restrictions
contribute to m a k e up the entire c o m m e r c i a l system: 1) Restrictions auf
den Export der Colonie anderswohin als n a c h d e m M u t t e r l a n d . 2) Restric-
tions auf d e n I m p o r t von goods in die Colonie von fremden L n d e r n . 3)
461
Restrictions auf d e n I m p o r t von C o l o n i a l p r o d u c t e n in das M u t t e r l a n d from

foreign countries or colonies. 4) Restrictions auf das carriage von goods
von u n d n a c h d e n Colonies i n a n d r e n Schiffen als d e n e n des M u t t e r l a n d s .
5) restrictions auf die M a n u f a c t u r ihres eignen R o h p r o d u c t s d u r c h die Co-
lonists. ( 1 8 3 - 1 8 8 ) ad. 1. Die H o l l n d e r b e s t e h n n o c h auf i h r e m spicere- 5
striction. Die spices o b t a i n e d d u r c h das enslaving einer P o p u l a t i o n von
46,000 oder m i t der Arbeit von 11,500 persons, so r o b b e d u n d kept in bar-
b a r i s m u n d slavery to ensure a c o n t e m p t i b l e object. ([188,] 189) ad 2.
A. S m i t h glaubt da so die R a t e des Profits b e r h a u p t im M u t t e r l a n d ge-
steigert wrde. N a c h Ricardo, weicht die m o n o p o l i s i r e n d e C o m p a g n i e , 10
wrde die Concurrenz die Profite auf i h r e n gewhnlichen level zurckbrin-
gen. D a s M u t t e r l a n d wrde grre Masse von W a a r e n erhalten, wie die
n i c h t begnstigten Lnder, aber die R a t e des Profits unalterirt bleiben.
N a c h der Theorie von der superabundance des Capital aber und weil die produc-
tiveness of industry vermehrt wurde aber Steigen des Profits hervorgebracht. A b e r 15
da Colonies langsamer wachsen als das M a n u f a c t u r c a p i t a l im M u t t e r l a n d ,
wrde die C o m p e t i t i o n der native m a n u f a c t u r e r s die Preisse ihrer goods
down b r i n g e n so gut im foreign als im inland c o m m e r c e . Der Prei von
Holz in C a n a d a is trifling; in England vermehrt d u r c h h i g h charges, 5 x die
original cost; so da eine fluctuation von 2 0 % in d e m price in d i e s e m 20
L a n d e = a total loss oder a profit von 100 %. H e n c e , a trifling decline in
o u r m a r k e t is completely r u i n o u s to the colonial shipper." ( 1 8 9 - 1 9 5 ) Prak-
tisch aber die interests der colonies u n d die devices des smuggler too m u c h
fr c u s t o m h o u s e regulation. (197) ||[58]| ad 3. D e r colonialtrade [je]zt rests
on prohibitions [wovo]n die b u r d e n has fallen fast ganz auf das M u t t e r l a n d 25
allein. (199) Die lezten Reformen im Z u c k e r t r a d e n t h i g geworden d u r c h
die sehr verminderte P r o d u c t i o n u n d e r h h t e n Prei, also A b n a h m e der
Productivitt in d e n englischen Colonieen i n n e r h a l b der lezten 6 Jahre.
(201)
ad 4. Petty schzte u n t e r Charles II das whole m e r c a n t i l e shipping von 30

E u r o p a auf 2 Mill. Tons, wovon 800,000 d e n U n i t e d Provinces (Dutch) ge-
h r t e n . (207) In parting with a portion of our capital for the f o u n d a t i o n of
colonies we are, in effect, placing it out at interest. Applied to a new a n d
fertile soil etc. (228) T h e colonial system, like every other system of the
kind, was constructed with a view to the present gain of particular classes. 35
(229) N a c h Say kostet j e d e r french soldier 2 x soviel in d e n colonies als in
F r a n k r e i c h . In England das Verhltni n o c h grsser. (232) Monopoly Profits
or Rent. (232)
462
Part III. Progress of Wealth and Society in Colonies.

Scarcity of Labour in New Colonies.
Fast u n m g l i c h da any first essay in Colonization should succeed. D i e

ersten settlers by their own service d i e n t e n m e i s t n u r to p r o m o t e the suc-
5 cess of some new b a n d s of colonists. (243) L a n d u n n t z o h n e Capital. D i e
first settlers in N o r d a m e r i c a fanden sehr fruchtbaren B o d e n in the state of
forest. A b e r it costs von 3 bis 4 I. to clear a single acre of it, principally ex-
p e n d e d in labour. Die ersten settlers rieben sich auf in insulated efforts;
perished miserably; 10 oder 2 0 0 0 0 l a n d e t e n in Virginia u n t e r Elisabeth.
10 U n t e r J a m e s I Virginia m u t e n e u colonisirt w e r d e n ... L a n d u n d Capital
beide nutzlos unless labour c a n be c o m m a n d e d . ... If a j u d i c i o u s system of
cooperation were p u t in practice, so that no labour or capital were wasted, a
m u c h smaller a m o u n t of b o t h would be requisite to produce the desired re-
sults; u n d plenty of good l a n d " would be fast das only thing needful. A b e r
15 der Emigrant, der in die wilderness geht, will sich i n d e p e n d e n t m a c h e n ...
Zwei principles sind i m m e r at work: t h e desire of obtaining land, which is
hostile to all c o m b i n a t i o n of labour; t h e n a t u r a l d i m i n u t i o n in t h e fertility
of occupied land, which continually urges its possessors to change it for
fresh. W h e r e these prevail, there m u s t be great obstacles in the way of accu-
20 m u l a t i o n of capital, a n d of the raising of surplus produce, a n d a constant
t e n d e n c y of the p o p u l a t i o n towards b a r b a r i s m by their dispersion; e a c h set-
tler, as he advances in the wilderness, leaving b e h i n d h i m whole tracts
which he considers as unprofitable, or which he has r e n d e r e d so by ex-
hausting t h e m . ... Die 2 H a u p t p r o p o s i t i o n e n des neuen Colonisation-
25 systems, die die richtige Proportion der E l e m e n t e des R e i c h t h u m s in einer
Colonie g r n d e n wollen, sind: 1) D a es desirable ist to provide colonists
m i t a greater supply of labourers, to work on their account, t h a n their capi-
tal would naturally attract. 2) D a es desirable ist to prevent the p o p u l a t i o n
of new colonies from spreading over so large a n d scattered surface of l a n d
30 as it would be t e m p t e d to occupy, were every facility given for the acquisi-
tion of land. ... N u n zu u n t e r s c h e i d e n zwischen zwei Arten von Colonien.
D i e Erstem etablirt in Countries, possessing no peculiar advantages fr die
Production, by agricultural or mining labour, of articles of value in the foreign
market. Solche Colonien die englisch n o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n fr die ersten
35 1 Jh. ihrer Stiftung. F a s t die ganze N a t i o n war agricultural. A b e r ihr chief
exportable wealth b e s t a n d in d e m p r o d u c e der secondary b r a n c h e s of in-
dustry, the t i m b e r of their forests a n d the fish of their seas; diese allein
t a u s c h t e n sie m i t E u r o p a aus u n d n u r a small surplus of their corn u n d cat-
463
tie gegen die peculiar staples andrer Colonies. D i e n o c h der Charakter der
englischen n o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n possessions u n d der originalcharacter der
australischen Besitzungen bis zur very recent discovery ihrer capabilities
,e
fr Wollproduction. Die 2 Classe of colonies begreift alle wo die Industrie
der settlers hauptschlich gerichtet auf das raising of staple articles of produce fr 5
den european market oder towards mining operations. So die meist ltesten
spanischen u n d portugiesischen Colonies in S d a m e r i k a , die Sdprovin-
z e n der Vereinigten Staaten u n d die establishments aller e u r o p i s c h e n na-
tions in W e s t i n d i e n . Klar d a die obigen b e i d e n E l e m e n t a r p r o p o s i t i o n s der
theory of systematic colonization" n i c h t gleich passend auf beide Sorten von 10
Colonieen ... In der ersten Sorte von Colonieen angewandt, n a t r l i c h das
product vermehrt. A b e r kein Artikel producirt wofr a constant u n d urgent
d e m a n d , distance from any available m a r k e t weit u n d such e x t e n d e d pro-
d u c t i o n wahrscheinlich sehr unprofitable speculation. C o n c e n t r a t i o n of in-
h a b i t a n t s n u r mglich wenn some of the settlers r e l i n q u i s h the advantage 15
of appropriating the m o s t fertile land within their reach, in order to secure
the real or supposed advantages of congregation. Fertile soil ist die M a -
schine des settler. Prvenirt m a n i h n d e n fruchtbarsten B o d e n in s e i n e m
Bereich zu erwerben, d u r c h raising seines Preisses oder andres Conventio-
nelles Mittel, so zwingt m a n i h n to resort to the use of a less productive 20
m a c h i n e . D e n n durch das Regeln m a c h t m a n i h n unfit z u e i n e m Pioneer
of civilization. J e d e d e d u c t i o n from the liberty eines m a n as a free agent
ist, k o n o m i s c h gesprochen, a d i m i n u t i o n of his power. D i e besonders
wahr in new countries. D e r spirit of restless enterprise n t h i g fr colonies.
Die R e s t a u r a t i o n des most exhausted land leichter als das removal of a 25
dense forest. U n d wie sehr Colonists zur Dispersion geneigt, there is a limit
das der boldest b a c k w o o d s m a n does n o t pass u n d diese fixed by the situa-
tion of the nearest market. As the m a r k e t s extend, ther[e]fore, t h e settlers
will spread; b u t no faster. U n t e r d e a certain quantity of capital accumulirt
d u r c h die Pchter; advanciren vom Nothdrftigen z u m comfort, subsidiary 30
b r a n c h e s of industry, wie fisheries u n d coarse m a n u f a c t u r e s , arise; people
aggregirt um die hierzu am geeignetsten spots; l a n d steigt in value from
their vicinity; soil, n a c h der Cultur wieder aufgegeben, gewinnt wieder
n e u e n W e r t h ; Stdte gebaut etc etc. U n d diese graduell a u f b l h n d e n
c o m m u n i t i e s viel sichrer u n d solider als die r a s c h e n R e i c h t h u m erwerben 35
von n a t u r a l advantages in der P r o d u c t i o n von exportable c o m m o d i t i e s .
Diese fortunes k n n e n ebenso rasch overthrown werden [by the] Concur-
renz of newer soils, oder d u r c h a m e r e change in der d e m a n d fr particular
articles of c o n s u m p t i o n . M. verglichen n u r ||59| die b e i d e n Theile der Ver-
einigten Staaten; wenn m a n eine Linie zieht von d e m A t l a n t i c bis z u m 40
Mississipi, nearly along the course des Delaware u n d des O h i o , die ziem-
464
lieh t r e n n t die 2 Sorten von Colonies; S d l i c h davon die Colonies wo die

great staples of a m e r i c a n export have b e e n raised, Reis, T a b a c k u n d spter
cotton; nrdlich die das corn u n d cattle p r o d u c e u n d wovon nichts oder
wenig n a c h E u r o p a exportirt ausser timber. Leztre Colonieen strafen W a k e -
5 field etc Theorie Lgen. ... Kommen wir jezt auf die andre Art von Colonieen.
Hier grosse Zufuhr von Arbeit viel dringender n t h i g u n d alles, was gesagt
von der Nothwendigkeit of c o m b i n e d l a b o u r to t h e productive e m p l o y m e n t
of capital is of pointed application. Diese necessity schuf das e n s l a v e m e n t
der original i n h a b i t a n t s von S d a m e r i k a , die Negersklaverei u n d d e n Skla-
10 v e n h a n d e l , die profitliche A n w e n d u n g der Arbeit der convicts u n d die
o h n e solche odious resources zu befriedigen n u n das grte praktische Pro-
b l e m der Colonisation. I n d e Settlements dieser Art oft fr eine Zeitlang
geblht trotz aller Schwierigkeit arising von der dispersion der settlers u n d
d e m want of compulsory labour. In d e m early progress der colonies u n d so
15 lang das L a n d u n m i t t e l b a r adjoining to ports u n d navigable rivers oder
sonst versehen m i t facilities fr transport, n o c h unerschpft ist, raw prod-
u c e can often be raised fr d e n foreign m a r k e t in considerable quantities
d u r c h die r u d e labour of small l a n d owners. So in d e n West I n d i a n Islands.
Portorico. D i e ursprnglich a u c h der Fall in d e n annals der older N o r t h
20 A m e r i c a n provinces, s o u t h of the P o t o m a c . Virginia, 1671, wo es schon bl-
h e n d e n H a n d e l in Taback, b e s t a n d aus 40,000 Einwohnern, wovon n u r
2000 black slaves, 6000 Christian servants for a short time. Yearly, sagt Sir
W. Berkeley in seiner Beschreibung dieser Colonie, c o m e in ungefhr 1500
servants (english, scotch, irish) u n d n i c h t b e r 2 or 3 ships of negroes in
25 7 years. D i e das picture eines country, worin der state of transition von
der occupancy of small landowners, to t h a t of proprietors of large estates
cultivated by slaves, is only j u s t beginning; w h e n o n c e b e g u n it is certain to
proceed with continually increasing rapidity, u n t i l the new c o n d i t i o n of so-
ciety is developed. ... D e r u s u a l course of events daher: it is n o t u n t i l t h e
30 m o r e fertile u n d best situated l a n d s have b e e n occupied, a n d to a certain
extent exhausted, that the superior productiveness of capital in masses, a n d
labour in c o m b i n a t i o n , begins to be practically felt. D e r stimulus afforded
by an increasing m a r k e t acts strongly in accelerating this inevitable
change. ... A b e r n o c h falscher bei leztren Colonieen, d a an a m p l e supply
35 of labour tends to c o n c e n t r a t i o n of people. D i e a b u n d a n c e of new u n d pro-
ductive soil ist die very first c o n d i t i o n der prosperity solcher settlements,
d u r c h nichts zu ersetzen. M a n g e l d a r a n die cause des decline der Barba-
does, Jamaicas, der smaller Antilles. Demerara producirt in diesen lezten
l
J a h r e n m e h r als / so viel als J a m a i c a , m i t less als % seiner E i n w o h n e r z a h l ,
2
40 nicht weil P o p u l a t i o n concentrirt oder Capital a c c u m u l i r t ist, sondern weil

es besizt an extensive surface of alluvial soil, over which cultivation is con-
465
stantly spreading, u n d wovon wahrscheinlich n i c h t 7(00 u n d e r it gebracht

ist. J e n e writers wollen an artificial limit m a c h e n in all colonies for t h a t lim-
it w h i c h n a t u r e has assigned in our islands, - to m a k e an island of a settle-
m e n t in a wide continent. Die growers von Tabak, Reis, cotton, Zucker fr
d e n M a r k t erheischten a far greater extent of soil for their cultivation als 5
die m e r e ordinary agriculturists of the n o r t h e r n settlements, (in d e n Ver-
einigten Staaten) So far from an a m p l e supply of labour t e n d i n g to con-
centrate population, it has, in N o r t h A m e r i c a , invariably g o n e along m i t
der greatest possible dispersion. D i e early settlers in Virginia wollten con-
struct den Plan der Systematler, an old society in a new country. F r eine Zeit- 10
lang die realisirt. Drfer, rural aristocracy, c h u r c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t etc. A b e r
j e d e s J a h r wurde der B o d e n u n p r o d u c t i v e r d u r c h den T a b a c k s b a u , den
most exhausting crop. A b e r an a m p l e supply of labour befhigte sie zu re-
m o v e . Sie u n d ihre slaves migrated in quest of new soil; they spread from
t h e eastern to the western limits of the province, from the A t l a n t i c coast to 15
the M o u n t a i n s , a n d t h e n c e to the vallies of t h e O h i o a n d t h e Mississippi;
u n d in diesen days der traveller finds u n t e r d e n deserted old fields"
von Virginia u n d Maryland die traces der m a n s i o n s der versuchten rural
aristocracy etc. W h r e n d N e u e n g l a n d ganz u n s u p p l i e d m i t d e p e n d e n t
labourers from the beginning has attained Bevlkerungsdichtigkeit 20
= 1 0 0 : Q m i l e , Virginia, m e h r amply m i t Sklaven versehn als irgend ein
a n d r e r Staat der U n i o n , n u r 3 0 : Q m e . ... D i e m o d e s , worin die 3 ele-
m e n t s of land, capital u n d labour c o m b i n e themselves in n e u e n colonies
sehr controllirt u n d modificirt d u r c h extrinsic circumstances. D i e T e n d e n z
der settler sich zu isoliren k a n n counteracted werden d u r c h d e n limited ex- 25
t e n t des L a n d e s selbst, wie in Inseln oder T h l e r n u m g e b e n m i t u n b e r -
steiglichen m o u n t a i n s , wie in d e n u p p e r A n d e s ; d u r c h die Dichtigkeit der
native forests, m a k i n g clearing m o r e difficult; d u r c h die Z a h l u n d warlike
character der native population, wie in parts der Cape colony, wo die boors
gezwungen to congregate together for selfprotection u n d wie in Algier. So 30
in Spanish America, wo die p o p u l a t i o n collected in m o u n t a i n plains u n d
b e s o n d e r s wo m i n i n g operations, large cities frh gegrndet, wie Q u i t o ,
L i m a , Mejico etc a large government e x p e n d i t u r e in a colony producirt
h n l i c h e n Effect, wie in Neusdwales u n d V a n D i e m e n s l a n d . Anderseits
die U r s a c h e n , die increase z u m M a x i m u m die n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y zu disper- 35
sion sind: a wide extent of fertile soil, gesundes Clima, A b w e s e n h e i t of
dense forests u n d andrer n a t u r a l obstacles u n d der want of navigable rivers,
an deren banks ||60| m e n geneigt sich in c o m m u n i t i e s zu etabliren. Da
berwiegt alles die ease u n d i n d e p e n d e n c e of pastoral, semi-savage life,
wie in d e n P a m p a s von B u e n o s Ayres u n d d e n plains von N e w Mexico u n d 40
California. ( 2 4 5 - 2 6 7 )
466
Employment of Labour of Native Races.
D i e die erste der different methods by which the requisite supply of labour has
been procured in European colonies. (269)
V o n alien points, wo im s p a n i s c h e n u n d portugiesischen A m e r i c a , the
5 peopled provinces t o u c h e d on t h e u n s u b d u e d forests or deserts of t h e inte-
rior, missionaries der M n c h s o r d e n , b e s o n d e r s die Jesuiten, bestndig is-
suing in die b e n a c h b a r t e wilderness, establishing a c h a i n of settlements an
d e n G r n z e n . Heissen Missions or R e d u c t i o n s . E x t e n d e d b e s o n d e r s along
t h e great water c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , die A m a z o n s , Orinoco, tributaries des
10 Plata, in d e n forests at the eastern foot der A n d e s u n d z u m e x t r e m s t e n
N o r d e n der Spanish possessions in Californien. E a c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t served
t h e double purpose of a receptacle for t h e converted or r e d u c e d I n d i a n s of
the vicinity, and of a factory or place of trade a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n with
those as yet u n s u b d u e d . ... Die great Jesuit republic oder vielmehr r e p u b -
15 lies b e s t a n d e n aus 3 sets of r e d u c t i o n s , c o m p r e h e n d e d within t h e s a m e
Spanish G o v e r n m e n t , n m l i c h die lieutenancy of B u e n o s Ayres, aber at a
considerable distance from e a c h other, those of t h e Guaranis, the Chiquitos
u n d der Moxos. Die G u a r a n i s sehr n u m e r o u s people, das die Jesuits z u m
C h r i s t e n t h u m bekehrt w h r e n d des 1 7 ' J h . Sie obtained, by degrees, von
20 der crown, das privilege of governing these I n d i a n s u n d e r laws of their own
contrivance, arming t h e m for their own defence, a n d excluding from the lim-
its of their territory all strangers, sojourners, a n d even all visitors whatever,
unless admitted for their own purposes. D i e G u a r a n i R e d u c t i o n s con-
tained, at one time, 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 souls. G e t h e i l t in Missions, wovon j e d e
25 contained m e h r e T a u s e n d e . Das Volk jeder mission collected in a large vil-
lage oder town. In e a c h residirten zwei ecclesiastics des Ordens, E i n e r m i t
d e m Titel Curate; der andre a subdirector, or assistant, d e m die Details des
temporal m a n a g e m e n t der mission were entrusted. Die I n d i a n s of e a c h
elected their own m u n i c i p a l officers, n a c h d e m G e b r a u c h aller s p a n i s c h e n
30 towns, aber ihre E r n e n n u n g der approval des curate unterworfen u n d in
W a h r h e i t ihre Autoritt n u r titular; j e d e function of power, von der h c h -
sten bis zur niedrigsten, was lodged in t h e h a n d s des spiritual governor.
Alle natives were a r m e d u n d officered by I n d i a n s of their own n a t i o n ; b e -
ing gelegentlich p u t u n d e r temporary training by Spaniards, u n d e r the es-
35 pecial s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e der priests. D i e h o u s e s j e d e r Stadt oder village ex-
act gleich, keine Distinction a d m i t t e d in dress, oder d e m G e n u der
domestic comforts. Das einzige s u m p t u o u s building die church; its adorn-
m e n t , u n d der p o m p of divine worship, fast die only m o d e worin der sur-
plus wealth der c o m m u n i t y could be e x p e n d e d . Das l a n d des village ge-
467
theilt in das field der c o m m u n i t y u n d in das field of G o d . D a s leztre

cultivirt d u r c h die Arbeit aller, um articles to raise die die Jesuits aus-
t a u s c h t e n fr W a a r e n , die nthig fr d e n splendor ihres ritual, zur Erhal-
tung von establishments fr sick u n d orphans etc. Das a n d r e Feld culti-
vated fr die s u s t e n a n c e der c o m m u n i t y u n d um d u r c h A u s t a u s c h die 5
n i c h t selbst fabricirten M a n u f a c t u r w a a r e n zu erhalten. W i e weit j e d e r In-
d i a n e r E i g e n t h u m nicht sehr klar. N a c h Ulloa i n d e n G u a r a n i R e d u c t i o n s
all the surplus p r o d u c e des soil sold fr the c o m m u n i t y by t h e Jesuits. Sie
allotted a u c h j e d e m M a n n bei Beginn des day die tools w o m i t er was to la-
b o u r u n d die seed he was to u s e ; sie s u p e r i n t e n d e d die ffentlichen 10
Schlachthuser u n d delivered j e d e r family das necessary m e a t . ( 2 7 7 - 2 8 0 )
"An I n d i a n of the R e d u c t i o n s " , sagt Southey "never knew, during his
whole progress from the cradle to the grave, what it was to take t h o u g h t for
the morrow; all his duties were comprised in o b e d i e n c e . " (281) D i e J e -
suiten, wie die slavehunter, um ihre stets a b n e h m e n d e Bevlkerung auf- 15
recht zu erhalten, jagten wilde Indier, besonders Kinder, als recruits zu die-
n e n fr die christian population. U n d sehr g r a u s a m dabei. (290)
Zu bemerken: Bei den Wilden, wie bei den Affen, k e i n Erfindungs, dafr
Nachahmungstalent. D i e Jesuiten bildeten die Indier nicht, sondern 20
zhmten sie. happy family. Ihre Bevlkerung reichte nie aus sich zu er-
halten.
Jezt Goldland Californien und Australien. Wo rasch der M e n s c h e n s t r o m

hingelenkt werden soll, m u wirklich oder angeblich die precious metals 25
und stones sich finden.
Slave Labour.
Die rasche V e r m i n d r u n g der Z a h l der natives trieb d e n Spanier king % Jh.

n a c h der Erobrung zur I m p o r t a t i o n von N e g e r n . R o h e Z a h l der Negerskla- 30
ven u n d die der coloured classes in ganz A m e r i c a u n d d e n Inseln zwischen
6 u n d 7 millions. D a v o n 3,500,000 in d e n U n i t e d States, 1,800,000 in Bra-
zil, 500,000 in d e n Spanish colonies; 300,000, in d e n french; 200,000 in de-
n e n der a n d r e n n a t i o n s . Vielleicht 3 - 4 Mill, freie Negroes u n d coloured
m e n , d a r u n t e r die Haytians u n d 800,000 von E n g l a n d E m a n c i p i r t e . Fast 35
all | | 6 1 | u n s e r Zucker, cotton, Tabak, Caffee etc raised by negroe labour,
468
9 l
wovon / Sklavenarbeit. / u n s r e s Export, trade n a c h slave countries ...
w 3
slavery without t h e slavetrade, wie in E n g l a n d n a c h Abschaffung des Skla-

v e n h a n d e l s 1812 u n d vor E m a n c i p a t i o n der Neger, was eher loss als gain.
Die slaves h t t e n d o c h befreit werden m s s e n d u r c h ihre masters from t h e
5 increasing cost of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e m , slave l a b o u r is far dearer than free
wherever abundance of free labour can be procured. D e n n der b o n d s m a n h a t
nichts to gain by his industry u n d der free labourer bietet sich z u m M i n i -
m u m an. t h e limit, a l s o , of t h e profitable d u r a t i o n of slavery is a t t a i n e d
whenever t h e p o p u l a t i o n has b e c o m e so d e n s e t h a t it is cheaper to employ
10 the free labourer for hire. J e d e c o m m u n i t y n h e r t sich dieser limit. So
long, aber in Colonien, as there is new soil to break u p , so long the c o n t i n u -
ance of slavery is secured; b e c a u s e w o r k m e n m u s t be h a d at all h a z a r d s ,
and it is m o r e profitable to cultivate a fresh soil by the dear labour of slaves,
t h a n an e x h a u s t e d o n e by t h e c h e a p l a b o u r of freemen. D i e Sklaverei wird
15 a b u r d e n fr d e n planter, t h e profit of his cultivation falling off along with
the gradual d i m i n u t i o n of fertility, while t h e expense of m a i n t a i n i n g his
slaves r e m a i n s t h e s a m e or increases. In d e n englischen Colonies, bei der
N e g e r e m a n c i p a t i o n fand sich sehr verschiedner Prei derselben in d e n
verschiednen Colonieen. D e r Prei eines fieldlabourer, von d e n s.g. praedial
20 attached, d . h . der great majority der negroe peasantry in D e m e r a r a 169 /
(ist a c o n t i n e n t a l colony m i t sehr fruchtbarem B o d e n u n d M a n g e l an P o p u -
lation dazu), in T r i n i d a d zu 110 /., in Barbadoes 75 /., in D o m i n i c a 70 /., in
J a m a i c a 67 /. ... Je n a c h d e n V e r h l t n i e n der Colonie die Abschaffung
der Negersclaverei ihr schdlich oder n i c h t . In Barbadoes und Antigua . B.
25 n i c h t . D i e Neger h a t t e n in dieser dichtbevlkerten Colonie d a h e r k e i n e n
a n d r e n Subsistenzzwang ausser L o h n a r b e i t . (Spter allerdings A u s w a n d -
rung derselben n a c h h h e r salarirenden Inseln.) In Jamaica schdlich.
Zwar % des Bodens u n t e r Cultur. U n d der beste s c h o n seit 100 J a h r e n b e -
baut. But there is a great b r e a d t h of land, b o t h cleared u n d u n c l e a r e d ,
30 available fr das raising of provisions u n d o t h e r articles, sufficient to s u p -
ply t h e necessary wants of t h e negro labourer. Estates, die 1825 p r o d u c e d
2900 hogsheads, j e z t 1840 n u r 280. Dritte Classe von Colonies, wo n o c h
a b u n d a n c e of fertile u n d u n o c c u p i e d land, wie in Mauritius, Trinidad, u n d
in n o c h h h r e m G r a d , in Guiana, leztres eins der productivsten L n d e r der
35 Welt. H i e r grosse sufferings d u r c h Abschaffung des negro trade u n d n o c h
m e h r der negro slavery ... T h e enfranchised negro in slave c o m m u n i t i e s
feels his own superiority to his c o m r a d e chiefly in his freedom from com-
pulsory labour. T h u s enfranchised negroes in slave c o m m u n i t i e s prove, in
general, an idle a n d a dissolute part of t h e p o p u l a t i o n . ( 2 9 2 - 3 2 1 )
40 Prei der Sklaven, genannt Praedial attached" von den Returns made for the
purpose of assessing Compensation under the Emancipation Act.
469

Honduras 191 l. (etwas weniger.) Guiana 169 1. 10 sh. Trinidad. 110 /. 2 sh.
Grenada. 100 /. &. Vincent. 97 /. 6 s. Antigua. 94 /. 8 sh. Mauritius. 93 /. 15 sh.
Montserrat. 90 /. L a d a 80 /. Barbadoes. 75 /. Dominica 70 /. Jamaica 67 /.
. . O f s 59 /. 15 s. Nevis 57 /. Toiago 55 l. Virgin Islands 55 /. Bermuda 51 /.
18 Bahamas. 35 /. 10. 5
Production in British Guiana

vor und seit der vollstndigen Emancipation.
Zucker. Rum. Cotton. Caffe.
lbs gals lbs lbs
1835. 107,586,405. 3,740,867. 867,942. 3,066,742. 10
1838. 77,052,737. 2,239,256. 470,460. 1,590,539.
1839. 47,522,000. 1,440,000. 303,900. 747,450. [328, 329]
Vol. II.
Convict Labour.
Portugiesen zuerst employed transportation u n d p e n a l l a b o u r in d e n Colo- 15

nies. England im 17' Jh. fr die N o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n Plantations n a h m das
System an. Cromwell sold his political captives as slaves to the West-
i n d i a n s . Aber die Z a h l zu klein u n d die der free labourers zu gro als das
von B e d e u t u n g . U n s r e Zeit zuerst das P h a e n o m e n von c o m m u n i t i e s , wo
die bulk des working people felons serving out the t i m e of their p u n i s h - 20
ment. |
|62| Penal Colonies u n t e r der britischen Regierung 4, New South Wales,
Van Diemensland, Bermuda u n d Norfolk Island. In Bermuda n u r 900 convicts
working in gangs u n d n u r employed in the governments dock-yards. Nor-
folk Island ist a place of temporary p u n i s h m e n t . 1836 convicts in N e w 25
S o u t h W a l e s : 2 7 , 8 3 1 ; V a n D i e m e n s L a n d : 16,968. W o v o n ungefhr 26,000
assigned d. h. m a d e over to settlers as servants to perform compulsory la-
bour. V o n 1 7 8 7 - 1 8 3 6 75,200 transported n a c h N e w Sd Wales u n d 27,757
n a c h V a n d i e m e n s l a n d . D e r average der lezten J a h r e 3500 n a c h d e m erstren
u n d 2000 n a c h d e m leztren. D a s ursprnglich rasche W a c h s e n dieser Colo- 30
n i e n ganz knstlich, einerseits grosse government expenditure, anderseits a m -
ple supply of labour. D a s government first supplied the settlers with slaves
( - labour) u n d t h e n b o u g h t the produce o f that labour. ( 1 - 5 )
470
Methods of obtaining Labour in Colonies without Slaves or Convicts.
In der infancy of our W e s t i n d i a Colonies u n d der tobacco u n d ricegrowing

settlements in N o r t h a m e r i c a c o m m o n fr die colonists to procure indented
labourers from E n g l a n d . (28) D i e m e m b e r s der Colonization Society
5 (Wakefield et Co.) schlugen vor s c h o n 1830 o d e r 3 1 , of fixing a c o m p a r a -
tively high price on g o v e r n m e n t lands, in order at o n c e to furnish a fund
that m i g h t be exclusively appropriated to t h e purpose of emigration, a n d to
prevent the poorer emigrants from a c q u i r i n g a d o m i n i o n in t h e soil on too
easy terms, a n d b e c o m i n g o c c u p a n t s in lieu of labourers. T h e first fruit
10 ihres Projects war die f o u n d a t i o n der colony of S o u t h Australia; seit der
Zeit dasselbe Princip, m e h r o d e r m i n d e r strikt, in all our australian colo-
nies angewandt. (32, 3) F r die lezten 20 J a h r e P o p u l a t i o n u n d E x p o r t t r a d e
von N e u b r a u n s c h w e i g , j e d e , verdoppelt. V o n Neusdwales in d e r s e l b e n Z e i t
P o p u l a t i o n etwas m e h r als verdreifacht, seine exports verl5facht. D e r E m i -
15 grant n a c h N e u s d w a l e s wird viel eher a p r o d u c e r of value als der n a c h
British A m e r i c a . A b e r das leztre besser fr das s e t t l e m e n t der E m i g r a n t e n
selbst. (34) W e n n der settler sein L a n d fr N i c h t s erhlt, wie in d e m alten
free-grant system, he h a s so m u c h m o r e to s p e n d in labour a n d in contri-
b u t i n g to matters of p u b l i c c o n v e n i e n c e . If he h a s an a m p l e supply of la-
20 b o u r offered h i m at a cheap rate (wie frher in Neusdwales) he will have
m o r e to lay out on land. If t h e state chooses to take on itself t h e e x p e n s e of
r o a d - m a k i n g and surveying, his funds, freed from those b u r d e n s , will be
m o r e available for t h e p u r c h a s e b o t h of l a n d a n d labour. A fund fr E i n e
dieser 3 A r t e n von operations besizt der Staat in its wild lands, or t h e m o n -
25 ey for which they m a y sell. ... In w h i c h of these m e t h o d s is it m o s t conven-
ient for the settler t h a t t h e fund should be applied? A system of freegrant,
or s o m e t h i n g approaching to it, s e e m s t h e only u n d e r which a p o p u l a t i o n
of small y e o m e n c a n p l a n t itself successfully over an extensive surface, wie
C a n a d a . B. Sie b r a u c h e n k e i n e a b u n d a n t supply of labour. H a b e n aber
30 a u c h k e i n e Aussicht auf rasches, dagegen auf sttiges W a c h s t h u m des
wealth. Ist das L a n d aber im Besitz von b e s o n d r e n facilities fr die P r o d u c -
tion von exportable articles of value, by an e x p e n d i t u r e of capital, wie L a n d
fruchtbar in Z u c k e r etc oder fr fine wool wie Australia, so w r d e die E n t -
wicklung des capitals etc u n d A c c u m u l a t i o n aufgehalten, wo es u n m g l i c h
35 die h i n r e i c h e n d e Zufuhr von l a b o u r zu verschaffen u n d wo alle labourers
m i g h t i m m e d i a t e l y b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t landowners. Der 2 ' M a n g e l b e i
d e m disposal of l a n d d u r c h free grant ist t h e difficulty, w h i c h h a s b e e n
found in obliging t h e owners to cultivate t h e soil. ( 3 6 - 4 0 )
471
T h e real pressure which is felt by capitalists in new countries raising ex-

portable p r o d u c e arises n o t so m u c h from the h i g h price of l a b o u r t h a t is to
be h a d as from the difficulty of procuring any. O h n e assistenz der Sklaverei
oder einiger Ersatzmittel derselben h a t m a n es fast u n m g l i c h gefunden,
sie zu erhalten at all; absolutely impossible to o b t a i n it in s u c h proportions 5
as to r e n d e r capital most productive by a proper division of e m p l o y m e n t .
(50) D e r value of wild land in a colony ist nothing. D e r Price of all land m u
daher at first arbitrary sein, sei es da die R e g i e r u n g es versteigert oder d e n
acre gleich t h e u e r verkauft. In b e i d e n Fllen die imposition m e h r a tax im-
posed u p o n t h e purchaser, als die exaction of purchase m o n e y in the ordi- 10
nary sense. (52, 3) the price of 100 acres is to be spent in the i m p o r t a t i o n of
labour necessary for 100 acres. (56) A b e r n a c h u n d n a c h sollen d o c h die la-
bourers landowners werden, a u c h n a c h W a k e f i e l d . A l s o C o n c u r r e n z
zwischen d e n new comers who require labour u n d d e n old settlers who
have j u s t lost theirs, for every working m a n who is brought from the m o t h - 15
ercountry ||63| by the expenditure of the capital of the former. Wages, da-
her, will rise. Das imaginary e q u i l i b r i u m between land a n d labour will be
disturbed. (56, 7) Vieles G e k o h l b e r d a s J a g e n n a c h d e m discovering a
sufficient price for waste land. (59) U e b e r das Verkaufen des waste land,
z u m fixen Prei den acre, sagt Sir George Gipps, (Governor von N e u s d - 20
wales): " L a n d t h r o u g h o u t the wide extent of N e w S o u t h W a l e s is to be
found of s u c h varied quality and value, t h a t I feel p e r s u a d e d a complete
scramble would ensue if any price whatsoever were fixed at which the first
c l a i m a n t m i g h t be entitled to take such portion of it as he chose. Every
acre of good land would be i m m e d i a t e l y bought up by our great capitalists, 25
at whose mercy all newly arrived emigrants would infallibly be placed."
(75) A u c h in D e m e r a r a the cultivated land n o t m o r e extensive t h a n the
a b a n d o n e d . (83) In Sdaustralien selbst, der model colony" keine Con-
centration hervorgebracht. M r z 1840, w h e n the p o p u l a t i o n could n o t
h a v e exceeded 12,000 souls, die purchases had far exceeded its agricultural 30
u n d pastoral r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e lands already surveyed would well bear von
50,000 bis 40,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , while the districts actually sold would sup-
port in comfort double those n u m b e r s . (83) D e r squatter ist der n a t u r a l cor-
rector of land monopolies, wie der smuggler of commercial. (84) Das
W a k e f i e l d s c h e E x p e r i m e n t succeeded, in respect of the quantity of land 35
sold a n d the n u m b e r of emigrants conveyed, b e r alles Erwarten in Sd-
australien. Jezt ber 1,700,000 I. realisirt of late years in a l i e n australian
colonies by the sale of land. (86, 7)
472
Disposal of Land in British America und United States.
Der ltesten M e i n u n g n a c h hielt m a n es fr das Beste, das L a n d gratis weg-

zugeben. W r e der Fall gewesen, w e n n die die received die grants b o n a
fide settlers, m i t h i n r e i c h e n d e m Capital versehn to r e n d e r t h e grants avail-
5 able fr die P r o d u c t i o n . D a n n bald obvious, d a wenn der owner neglected
to cultivate his grant, the c o m m u n i t y was injured by t h e interposition of
vacant spaces between the o c c u p i e d lands. M a n fand, d a B e d i n g u n g e n
auferlegen u n d confisciren w e n n n i c h t erfllt; o d e r eine quit rent entweder
fr uncultivated land allein oder alles, die das L a n d d e m werthlos m a c h e ,
10 der es n i c h t b e b a u e n wolle, oder p a y m e n t of fines for noncultivation, o d e r
general taxes unpraktisch, u n p o p u l a r u n d leicht z u u m g e h e n . A b e r das
System der grants aggravated d u r c h gross abuses. D i e Colonialregierung
betrachtete das L a n d rein als Present der N a t u r , um es n a c h W i l l k h r zu
vertheilen. Da n u r a certain n u m b e r of acres could be granted to a single
15 person u n t e r d e n existing regulations, a n u m b e r applied for grants at t h e
s a m e time, a n d t h e n t h e associates m a d e over their shares to t h e leader. So
in Lower Canada 1,425,000 acres m a d e over zu a b o u t 60 individuals, u n t e r
der Regierung von Sir A. M i l n e ; a territory in e x t e n t fast gleich der c o u n t y
of Devon. In Upper Canada an 17 Mill, of acres surveyed 1825, Oberflche
20 so gro als die von Irland; all die granted away ausser 2 Mill, acres u n d
doch die P o p u l a t i o n r e a c h e d k a u m 150,000. 3 Mill, weggegeben als G e -
schenk to American Loyalists"; 600,000 to militia m e n ; % m i l l i o n to dis-
charged soldiers u n d sailors, wovon sehr few t u r n e d cultivators, so d a ihre
grants nichts als small u n d variable gratuities in m o n e y , je n a c h d e m Prei
25 d e n sie got for their lots. In Nova Scotia von 6 millions acres of useful l a n d
5,750,000 lavished in free grants. Schlielich G a n z e Prince Edward's Island
an e i n e m Tag, 1767, an 60 grantees verschenkt, subject to quit-rents u n d
conditions, die sie n i e erfllt. In Lower C a n a d a die clergy reserves errichtet
1791, die crownreserves ebenfalls. U r s p r n g l i c h / von j e d e m lot granted was
30 reserved fr die clergy u n d e b e n s o viel fr die crown. N a c h 1821 diese scat-
tered fragments consolidated in blocks, weniger i n c o n v e n i e n t aber i m m e r
n o c h interposing desert tracts between the cultivated, ausser in F l l e n wo
takers gefunden fr long leases. Die crownreserves spter aufgegeben. V o n
d e n clergy reserves % sold 1831, a n o t h e r p o r t i o n 1836 u n d der r e m a i n d e r
35 disposable g e m a c h t d u r c h A k t of p a r l i a m e n t von 1840. Die G e s c h i c h t e d i e -
ser Reserves in Upper Canada fast dieselbe. In U p p e r C a n a d a , seit 1825,
hatte die Regierung k a u m n o c h lands to part with, d. h. solche die attractiv
fr settlers. Hier wie in d e m Prince Edward's Island h a t t e n die ||64| settlers
von d e n grantees zu kaufen. D i e Bevlkerung in U p p e r C a n a d a gestiegen
473
von 150,000 auf 400,000 seit 1825. In der Prinz Edwards Insel seit 1820
fast verdoppelt, n m l i c h auf 40,000. D i e Besitzer hier der farms, die land-
lords, stock the farm m i t horses, h o r n e d cattle, sheep u n d hogs, die Hlfte
der necessary seed u n d d a n n give possession to a practical farmer, who will
cultivate it a n d find labour. N a c h h e r gleiche T h e i l u n g , M t a y e r System ... 5
In j e d e r township der U n i t e d States a section of 640 acres oder l f j m i l e is
appropriated to the purpose of education, forming % der whole township. 6
D i e L a n d in den h a n d s von trustees, die aber nicht can dispose of it.

... Die e c o n o m i c a l disadvantages der reserves verschwinden, sobald adja-
cent land b e c o m e s valuable by the progress of settlement, d a n n it b e c o m e s 10
worth the settler's while to r e n t the reserved land. ... T h e uniform system of
sale fr such a price as the land would fetch in C a n a d a eingefhrt 1826,
aber previous p a y m e n t of purchase m o n e y erst erheischt 1837. In Nova
Scotia u n d N e u b r a u n s c h w e i g sale by a u c t i o n etablirt 1827, in N e u s d w a l e s
1831, wenn der upset" price, originally 5 s. raised to 12 s. 1839; in Swan- 15
river 1832. In allen diesen cases sale by a u c t i o n ; der u p s e t price, generally,
5 s. Das system der U n i t e d States war das great m o d e l followed in these
proceedings ... In den United States die lands sind surveyed on an accurate
plan, according to a general system; offered for sale, by p r o c l a m a t i o n of the
president, u n d by law, m u s t be sold by public auction, der m i n i m u m price 20
being 1% dollar per acre, ready m o n e y . Bietet n i e m a n d fr das L a n d zu die-
s e m Prei, oder upwards, it is subject to private entry at any time, auf baare
Z a h l u n g . D e n n Credit wird n i c h t gegeben. L a n d wird n i c h t verkauft u n t e r
40 acres von der Regierung ... D i e 3 m a i n features des a m e r i k a n i s c h e n
Systems sind: 1) Das Territorium gehrt d e m Volk, in trust der Regierung, 25
to be sold individually. 2) All lands sold zu e i n e m u n i f o r m upset price. 3)
Alle proprietors subject to local taxation. ... lands sold by the general gov-
e r n m e n t n i c h t subject to taxation u n t e r 5 years after purchase. ... Die
squatters", w e n n das Land, worauf sie sich etablirt, sold, m a n c h m a l per
law berall d u r c h den usage entitled to a right of preemption ... Public l a n d 30
in d e n U n i t e d Staten sehr cheap verkauft; der ordinary price selten b e r
6 s . 3 d . an acre. Das System gives great e n c o u r a g e m e n t to speculators;
land generally passes in erster I n s t a n z in die h a n d s von Kufer deren einzi-
ger Zweck es zu resell at a profit: aber bleibt nicht lang unoccupied, in conse-
quence of being subject, whether occupied or not, to local taxation. 35
(94-106)
474
Australien. (Disposal of Land.)
In Sdaustralien die Colonie gegrndet 1836. D i e ordinary executive u n d

legislative powers vested in a governor u n d council, n a c h der c o m m o n
m e t h o d ; aber in addition a board of c o m m i s s i o n e r s appointed, wovon
5 Einer zu residiren h a t in der Provinz, u n d d e m berwiesen das disposal of
the land u n d das m a n a g e m e n t der emigration. Die g a n z e n funds raised
d u r c h das disposal of l a n d s to be devoted z u m conveying von labouring
families to the colony. L a n d Prei hier erst 12 s., spter auf 11, gesettled.
E n d e 1838 ungefhr 50,000 /. raised d u r c h d e n sale of land a n d applied to
10 emigration; aber fast das G a n z e der sales bis zu d e m Z e i t r a u m effected in
E n g l a n d u n d daher z u m grossen Theil of a very speculative character. 1839
J a h r der grten Prosperity fr die Colonie, d u r c h massenhaftes Einstr-
m e n von Capital u n d I m m i g r a t i o n . D a r a u f begann, m i t u m die Colonie z u
h e b e n , the most extraordinary system of public expenditure. 1840 die Co-
15 lonie bankerutt. D i e E m i g r a t i o n u n d l a n d sales ceased in August, 1840;
a n d a s u d d e n u n d complete stop p u t der s.g. prosperity. Result war, d a
P a r l a m e n t einschreiten m u t e u n d empower t h e g o v e r n m e n t to advance a
very considerable s u m to m e e t the present emergencies auf solche security
als zu erhalten o h n e overburdening the resources of the Colony. So ends
20 der selfsupporting" part of the s c h e m e ; a n d S o u t h Australia, like other set-
tlements, m u s t be content to d e p e n d for a while on the m o t h e r country for
assistance. ... n a t u r a l advantages are in the long r u n of far m o r e impor-
t a n c e t h a n sound e c o n o m i c a l doctrines, to the progress a n d the wellbeing
of a colony. ... D a s settlement in Western Australia or Swan River h a t t e so
25 great distress at o n e period, d a die settlers relieved d u r c h subscription in
den N a c h b a r c o l o n i e s ; die settlement, das n u n only 4000 people c o n t a i n s ,
has cost this country 150,000 I. D i e m o s t u n f o r t u n a t e feature hier, wie in
Vandiemensland, war s u c h profusion in e n o r m o u s grants to parties, who
found it impossible to t u r n t h e m to account, d a fund von d e m Verkauf
30 von L n d e r e i e n n u r schwer zu raise. Sale by a u c t i o n etablirt 1832 ... |
|65| In Neusdwales b e g a n n das System der sales by auction, z u m upset-
price von 5 s. per acre. 1831. In d e m s e l b e n J a h r die sales of l a n d r e a c h e d
126,000 I. Die average s u m realised von 7 to 8 sh. per acre, including town
allotments. 1839 der u p s e t price raised to 12 sh. V o n 1 8 3 8 - 1 8 4 0 (3 Jahre)
35 von 8 0 0 0 - 1 0 , 0 0 0 emigrants j h r l i c h expedirt n a c h Sydney by the e x p e n d i -
ture des landfund. 1841 soll die Zahl 23,000 oder m e h r gewesen sein u n d
z u m erstenmal effect p r o d u c e d on the rate of wages by this vast influx of
people. ... In a new country das Agriculturproduct nicht i m m e r am grten
in d e n H n d e n der Capitalisten; weil die m o r e fertile patches of soil being
475
often (speziell in A u s t r a l i e n ) scattered a m o n g t h e m o r e indifferent, the

capitalist m u s t either content himself with the inferior soil instead of the
better, or disperse his labourers over an extensive tract, a n d thus lose the
advantage of his power of c o m b i n i n g labour. In so b e u m s t a n d e t e n c o u n -
tries Agricultur profitable carried on for a t i m e by small farmers. ... Port 5
Philipp entwickelt sich am besten. Its land sold at the great average price of
30 s. per acre. Aber; it was not an insulated settlement, b u t a district of
N e w S o u t h W a l e s ; a n d its existence nicht der Speculation s o n d e r n d e n ac-
t u a l wants der b e n a c h b a r t e n Colonies; das increasing Capital von V a n Die-
m e n s L a n d found a new field in this adjacent region etc m o s t favoured by 10
n a t u r e etc. 1841 producirte es an 800,000 lbs Wolle fr d e n english Market,
exceeding das p r o d u c e des Caps der g u t e n Hoffnung. ( 1 1 0 - 1 2 7 )
Preparatory Expenses. Land Companies.
Wichtig bei der first foundation einer Colonie, aus welchem fund ihre er-
sten Kosten bestritten werden sollen. Der einzige sichre fund der v o m Ver- 15
kauf der Lndereien, wovon ein Theil for procuring labour, ein andres fr
die sonst n t h i g e n A u s g a b e n der Colonie ... Die necessary preparation fr
d e n Empfang der Emigrants, die preliminary G e n e r a l surveys, das laying
out of town sites, die r u d i m e n t s of internal c o m m u n i c a t i o n , alles R e q u i s i t e
fr success der Colonie, n i c h t zu erhalten o h n e betrchtliche expenses u n d 20
fr diese legitimate purposes k a n n es n i c h t sehr wrong sein to pledge, by
anticipation, that portion of the land revenue which belongs to t h e m . ... af-
ter a t i m e , the land sales would obviously furnish an insufficient fund, and
taxation (aber i n s c h o n entwickelter P e r i o d e d e r Colonie) i n s o m e shape
m u s t be resorted to. ... Plain, that the colony would gain s o m e t h i n g if it 25
were, at the earliest period possible, to s u b m i t to local taxation for the pur-
pose of road m a k i n g , a n d set free a portion of the land fund for the purpose
of purchasing m o r e labour. ... several great land c o m p a n i e s sind n u n eta-
blirt in N o r d a m e r i c a , Australia u n d N e u s e e l a n d . ... "Their policy" sagt
Mr. M a n n (Six Years in den Australian Provinces, 1839) "is to leave land 30
in a state of nature, until, by the gradual i m p r o v e m e n t of n e i g h b o u r i n g
lands, their territorial acquisitions are increased in value by the general im-
p r o v e m e n t u n d advance of the colony; when they can dispose of their best
lands to advantage, without incurring any expense in the i m p r o v e m e n t der
i m m e n s e tracts they have taken possession of u n d e r the plea of public util- 35
ity, but which have a direct contrary t e n d e n c y a n d effect." ... D e r Capita-
list zahlt Prei fr that portion of the productive powers of the soil, which,
in the course of improvement, yields monopoly profit, or rent. ( 1 3 4 - 1 4 8 )
476
Policy of Colonial Governments towards Native Tribes,

as regards their Protection und their Civilization.
perverse wickedness of those outcasts of society w h o m the first waves of

our colonization are sure to bring along with t h e m . ... t h e history der euro-
5 p e a n settlements in A m e r i c a , Africa, u n d Australia, presents every where
the same general featuresa wide a n d sweeping destruction of native races
by the uncontrolled violence of individuals a n d colonial authorities, fol-
lowed by tardy attempts on the parts of governments to repair the acknowl-
edged crime. (153) whilst those tribes t h a t are in c o m m u n i c a t i o n with E u -
10 ropeans are allowed to execute their b a r b a r o u s laws u n d customs u p o n o n e
another, so long will they r e m a i n hopelessly i m m u r e d in their present state.
(Aus Captains Grey's suggestions with reference to the practicability of i m -
proving the m o r a l u n d social c o n d i t i o n der aboriginal i n h a b i t a n t s von Sd-
australien 1840). [167] ... In A m e r i c a , C a n a d a etc Provisions g e m a c h t fr
15 L n d e r e i e n fr die aborigines. Diese lebten so insulated in der M i t t e von
sich rasch entwickelnden districts. [172, 173] Klar da diese reserves of
land, appropriated to the natives n u r p o s t p o n e the evil day. For, whether
or n o t the natives, residing on these reserves, attain in their insulated con-
dition to a certain degree of civilization, the same result will inevitably fol-
20 low. After a time, t h e colonists will cast an eye of cupidity on the native
lands; they will ||66| complain, a n d with perfect truth, of t h e economical
disadvantages which attend the interposition of large tracts between popu-
lous districts; of their own sufferings by t h e proximity of the natives; of the
political mischiefs p r o d u c e d by these little inert republics, stagnant in the
25 very centre of a rapidly-moving society. A n d government will find itself, as
it always has been, u n a b l e to resist these importunities, and cajoled by the
t h o u s a n d plausibilities advanced in favour of removing these unfortunates
a further stage into the wilderness; it will comply with the exigencies of the
times, a n d the natives will be transported to some other region, to be fol-
30 lowed there again with sure a n d rapid steps by the encroaching tide of E u r o -
p e a n population. (175,6) Disputes a n d animosities are engendered; these are
stimulated by the landjobbing class of the c o m m u n i t y ; until, at last, the go-
v e r n m e n t is half driven by the influence of a rapacious party, half i n d u c e d
by the h o p e of protecting the u n f o r t u n a t e natives from insult a n d out-
35 rage, to remove t h e m o n c e m o r e into some distant territory. In other cases
this b e c o m e s a m a t t e r of necessity. T h e g a m e in the I n d i a n reserves is de-
stroyed by the progress of cultivation a r o u n d t h e m ; and, where they have
m a d e no advance at all in agriculture, they m u s t be removed to save t h e m
from starvation. (174) D i e removal also 1) n u r temporr. 2) N i c h t s de-
477
structiver fr civilization. Capital verloren fr die emigrants. A u s der Agri-

cultur wieder in die Jagd geworfen. D e r Prei der Artikel, an deren Con-
s u m sie sich gewhnt, steigt im Verhltni sie farther removed von der
civilized frontier, so d a sie gezwungen zu inferior substitutes. It is precisely
as if a savage had been nurtured in European habits und costume until his own 5
were forgotten, and then turned naked into the wilderness, and told to thrive as
he did before. D a n n das Gefhl der insecurity, die despair of p e r m a n e n c e ,
die conviction of approaching a n n i h i l a t i o n . (176, 7) Es giebt n u r 3 W e g e :
E x t e r m i n a t i o n der native races; ihre civilization, complete or partial, by re-
taining t h e m as insulated bodies carefully von d e n E u r o p e r n entfernt; 10
their amalgamation mit den Colonists. (179) Leztres ist der keystone, das
leading principle of all s o u n d theory on the subject. (180) U n d e r a m a l g a m -
ation zu verstehn die u n i o n of natives m i t d e n settlers in d e n s e l b e n com-
m u n i t i e s , als master u n d servant, fellow labourers, fellow citizens u n d if
possible, as c o n n e c t e d by intermarriage. (180) In N e w Z e a l a n d Y von jeder 15
10
township fr die aborigines reserved. (182)
children of most native races are fully or m o r e t h a n a m a t c h for those of Eu-

ropeans in aptitude for intellectual a c q u i r e m e n t . I n d e e d it appears to be a
singular law of n a t u r e , that there is less precocity in the e u r o p e a n race t h a n
almost any other. In those races in which we s e e m to have reason for be- 20
lieving t h a t the intellectual organization is lower, perception is quicker,
a n d maturity earlier. (197) T h e missionary training is based on the insula-
tion of the natives from the rest of the c o m m u n i t y . As soon as this is inter-
rupted, the influence des missionary m u s t d i m i n i s h , a n d his efforts m u s t
be carried on at an increasing disadvantage. D a r u m erfolgreiche mission- 25
ary experiments generally n u r Stattfindend in u n c o l o n i z e d regions, wie
d e n islands des Pacific, oder in frontier districts of thinly peopled colonies,
wie in S d a m e r i k a ... the natives m u s t eventually either m i x with the co-
lonists, or remove, and remove is relapse into barbarism. If they r e m a i n ,
t h e c o m m i x t u r e will take place. If the natives be n o t elevated into the rank 30
of the s o u n d a n d healthy part of the population, they will inevitably fall
victims to the contact of the m o r e degraded. ... m o r e is to be h o p e d from
the y o u n g t h a n the adult. ... in m a n y Canadian u n d northwestern tribes a
very large proportion der present generation n i m m t Theil an e u r o p e a n
blood. N a c h Dr H i n d s after some years no p u r e N e w Z e a l a n d e r will r e m a i n 35
in N e w Z e a l a n d ... there is strong t e s t i m o n y to the superior energy and
h i g h organization of m a n y of these half blood races. ... N o r is it t h e white
m a n , sagt Mr. Darwin, alone that thus acts the destroyer. T h e Polynesian of
Malay extraction has, in parts of the East I n d i a n Archipelago, t h u s driven
before h i m the darkcoloured native. T h e varieties of m a n s e e m to act u p o n 40
478
e a c h other in the s a m e way as different species of a n i m a l s ; the stronger al-

ways extirpating t h e weaker. ... In M e x i c o u n d Peru die indische Bevlke-
r u n g sich bestndig vermehrte. D i e H o t t e n t o t s bestndig gewachsen von |
|67| 1 8 0 7 - 1 8 2 3 . U n d M. fhrt selbst Beispiele aus Nordamerica an, wo
5 nicht die b e s o n d e r n G r n d e ihrer D e p o p u l a t i o n w t h e t e n . A l s o die aborig-
inal races m s s e n nicht nothwendig untergehn ... the probable theory
seems to be, that t h e h u n t i n g tribes which first b e c a m e k n o w n to E u r o -
p e a n s were the m e r e fragment of a great family of the h u m a n species, los-
ing, in every successive generation, s o m e t h i n g of the qualities which h a d
10 distinguished their predecessors, d i m i n i s h i n g in n u m b e r s a n d resources,
a n d on their way towards extinction; m a n c h e h a b e n diese o p i n i o n fr alle
races c o m m o n l y called savage. ... K e i n I n d i a n tribe reclaimed from t h e
h u n t i n g state hat je so grosse Fortschritte g e m a c h t als die Cherokees, prior
to their last and u n h a p p y removal. (In d e n U n i t e d States) "1824, sagt
15 Mr. Stuart (3 years in N o r t h A m e r i c a v. II, p. 1 4 2 - 1 4 3 ) when the popula-
tion of the Cherokees was 15,560 individuals, it i n c l u d e d 1277 negroes
(slaves); they h a d 18 schools, 36 grist-mills, 13 saw-mills, 762 looms,
2480 spinning wheels, 172 waggons, 2923 ploughs, 7683 horses, 22,531
black cattle, 46,732 swine, 2546 sheep, 430 goats, 62 blacksmith's shops
20 m i t several public roads, ferries u n d turnpikes. A u c h newspaper in their
own language." ... In T a h i t i u n d d e n Sandwichinseln h a b e n die savages
wundervolle Fortschritte gemacht. ( 1 9 8 - 2 2 2 )
Progress of Wealth in Colonies. Rate of Wages.

Rate of Profits. Taxation.
25 D i e m o n e y wages of bricklayers, m a s o n s u n d carpenters, in Vandiemens-

land, a m o u n t e d in 1824 to 12 s. a day; 1830 gefallen auf 10, 1838 auf 6 s.
6 d. Yet, between 1830 u n d 1838 die exports der colony verdreifacht u n d
die P o p u l a t i o n did n o t nearly d o u b l e . (229) Der e n o r m o u s rate of m o n e y -
wages in Neusdwales aus 4 G r n d e n : Silber cheap, weil N e u s d w a l e s be-
30 sondere facilities fr die P r o d u c t i o n der Wolle besizt, in Folge wovon a
day's labour in Australia raises a greater value in exportable p r o d u c e t h a n a
day's labour in most other countries; Silber ferner cheap, weil grosse Q u a n -
tity von Silber oder its equivalent, jhrlich in die Colonie gebracht o h n e re-
t u r n by emigrants. D r i t t e n s : D e r reale Tauschwerth der von d e m labourer
35 c o n s u m i r t e n W a a r e n erhht by the length of the transit. Schlielich real
wages hoch, weil Nachfrage n a c h Arbeit gro im Verhltni zur Z u f u h r in
e i n e m L a n d wo labourers are few, a n d land cheap a n d a b u n d a n t . D e r effect
479
of real wages being high is this, that the capitalist c a n n o t profitably apply
his capital to inferior soils, or in less valuable situations; and, conse-
quently, the productiveness of labour c o n t i n u e s at its m a x i m u m . (230, 1)
So long as cultivation c o n t i n u e s to extend itself over land of the first quality,
the rate of profits is more likely to fall than rise, unless large supplies of 5
labour be introduced, larger t h a n the ordinary course of emigration m a y be
expected to bring. ... capital h a t hier a t e n d e n c y to increase faster t h a n
m a n k i n d u n d d a d u r c h steigt der Prei der Arbeit. A u c h sind die Colonists
m e i s t m e h r sparsamer u n d a c c u m u l i r e n d e r als i n d e n M u t t e r l n d e r n ...
Result dieser rapid a c c u m u l a t i o n ist an increasing d e m a n d for labour u n d 10
a powerful t e n d e n c y towards a rise of wages, a n d a lowering of profits; a n d
h e n c e the u r g e n t desire for cheaper u n d m o r e subservient labourers, for a
class to w h o m the capitalist m i g h t dictate terms, instead of being dictated
to by t h e m ... Kritischer P u n k t in der G e s c h i c h t e der Colonien, w h e n capi-
tal begins to a c c u m u l a t e ... Bisher no instance in der G e s c h i c h t e einer 15
Colony possessing a b u n d a n t fertile land, which h a s c o n t i n u e d to raise ex-
portable p r o d u c e in large quantities without the aid of compulsory labour.
( 2 3 5 - 7 ) W h a t is called rent, in old countries, is partly profits: profits on
capital e x p e n d e d on such i m p r o v e m e n t s . B u t in countries where only the
m o s t fertile soil is cultivated, the e x p e n d i t u r e of capital in p e r m a n e n t im- 20
provements is as yet comparatively small. (243) In diesen m o d e r n e n colo-
nies the lightest of all recognised ties are those which b i n d the cultivator to
t h e land which he occupies. (244) In new colonies rent is comparatively in-
considerable. D e n n o c h it arises frh, not in the land generally used for agricul-
tural purposes, but in that which possesses certain monopolized advantages of sit- 25
uation, wie suburban tracts of ground, spots commanding falls of water, die
immediate vicinity of harbours und navigable waters. (I.e.) |
|68| A u s e i n e m parliamentary paper von 1835 folgt, da die a n n u a l n e t t ex-

p e n d i t u r e incurred by G r e a t Britain, on a c c o u n t of h e r foreign possessions
is a b o u t 2,350,000 l. D a v o n 700,000 l. fr m a i n t e n a n c e of military u n d m a r - 30
i t i m e stations. 250,000 fr die m a i n t e n a n c e der convict establishments in
Australia. Bleiben 1,400,000 l. fr die civil u n d military a d m i n i s t r a t i o n der
plantations u n d settlements". (247, 8) G e n t l e m e n (english) sind an artifi-
cial class, the j o i n t p r o d u c e of feudalism a n d wealth. (278) N a c h Humboldt
der Weizenretum in Preussen = 4 oder 5:1; in France = 5 oder 6:1, in den best 35
soils 1 3 : 1 ; La Plata 12:1; Nordmexico 17:1, Peru 18:1, e q u i n o x i a l Mexico
24:1, b u t if the comparison were m a d e between the a m o u n t of exchange-
able value which m a y be produced by an e u r o p e a n labourer raising wheat
on a soil of average fertility, and a negro on a sugar estate in C u b a or D e -
merara, the difference would probably appear still more remarkable. (224, 5) 40
480
In densely peopled colonies the labourer, although free, is naturally de-

p e n d e n t on the capitalist; in thinly peopled ones, the want of this n a t u r a l
d e p e n d e n c e m u s t be supplied by artificial restrictions. (314)
481
Felix Wakefield. Colonial Surveying,

with a view to the Disposal of waste Land;
in a report to the New Zealand Company.
L o n d o n . 1849.
In order t h a t intending settlers m a y enjoy a free a n d e q u a l choice, the land 5

m u s t be so m e a s u r e d , m a p p e d u n d described, as to furnish a complete pic-
ture of it. This is the survey. (7, 8) the only proper course is to p u t a fixed
a n d u n i f o r m price per acre u p o n all the waste land in a settlement. If there
were l a n d in the settlement for which this price was d e e m e d excessive,
s u c h land would n o t be sold at first: b u t if the u n i f o r m price were n o t 10
d e e m e d excessive for the m o r e fertile a n d better situated sections, these
would be sold; and the progress of settlement a n d the increase of popula-
tion would gradually confer u p o n sections of inferior fertility a n d position,
a value e q u a l to the u n i f o r m price; a n d this price would t h e n be o b t a i n e d
for t h e m . This happens every day in new colonies. Land which at first nobody 15
would take at any price, becomes desirable, and is then sold for the price which at
first was cheerfully paid for only the most fertile and best situated spots. (23, 4)
T h e price of waste land, according to the System adopted by the N e w Zea-
l a n d C o m p a n y , is not really paid for the land, b u t is a c o n t r i b u t i o n by all
t h e buyers towards objects of the u t m o s t advantage to themselves. (24) the 20
G o v e r n m e n t of U n i t e d States is the greatest a n d m o s t successful of colo-
n i z i n g authorities. (26) In such countries wie d e n A u s t r a l i a n colonies u n d
N e u s e e l a n d , the pastoral capitalist is the best pioneer of settlement. He dis-
covers the most fertile districts, ascertains the different qualities of the soil etc.
(32) W. will d a die C o m p a g n i e keine G r e n z e b e s t i m m t fr das Maximum 25
des Lnderverkaufs an Einen, wohl aber ein Minimum, n h m l i c h 100 acres
fr die Agricultur u n d 500 fr die V i e h z u c h t . Als Rente n i m m t er 1 /. St.
482
Exzerpte aus Felix Wakefield:
Colonial surveying; with a view to the disposal of waste land.
Heft XIV. Seite 68
Aus Felix Wakefield: Colonial surveying
fr 100 acres V i e h z u c h t . (The peculiar m o d e s of Surveying, Selecting, a n d

giving Possession of L a n d are those adopted by the Canterbury Association
in its Settlement on the S o u t h e r n Plains of N e w Z e a l a n d . D i e englische
Regierung hat die N e u s e e l a n d C o m p a n i e zu i h r e m A g e n t e n daselbst ge-
5 m a c h t , u n d u n t e r dieser h a b e n sich wieder Associations von k l e i n e n L a n d -
agenten gebildet, wie die angegebne.) ( 3 5 - 3 7 )
485
Wakefield. (Edward Gibbon.) A View

of the Art of Colonization, with present
Reference to the British Empire.
L o n d o n 1849. |
|69| Of colonization, the principal elements are emigration a n d t h e p e r m a - 5

n e n t settlement of the emigrants on u n o c c u p i e d land. D e r Proze w o d u r c h
die colony peopled u n d settled heit Colonization. (16) In Ireland there is
a want of r o o m for the poor, but plenty of r o o m for capitalists if they could
be got to go or to grow there: in F r a n c e there is a r e m a r k a b l e want of r o o m
for the literary class, t h o u g h n o t for capitalists ... in Russia, where trade is 10
despised by t h e nobility, there is a great want of r o o m for cadets of that
class; whilst if capital were m o r e a b u n d a n t , there would be plenty of r o o m
for m o r e people of the labouring class, or else waste land would not
a b o u n d , a n d slavery would n o t c o n t i n u e : b u t in G r e a t Britain all classes
suffer from the want of room. (65) there are too m a n y competitors in pro- 15
portion to the fund, u n d die bildet d e n want of room. (66) G r e a t Britain
is less capable t h a n any other in the world is, or ever was, of u n d e r g o i n g
great political disturbance without m o r t a l injury. Weil der Credit nirgend
so grosse Rolle. Overturn, or only shake the belief, that t h e promises will be
kept, a n d you thoroughly destroy the value of this credit m o n e y . N o w the 20
belief, t h a t the promises to pay, which constitute t h e great bulk of our m o n -
ey, will be kept, depends altogether on the preservation of political order.
Aber in Frankreich etc eine Zeit lang the townpeople m i g h t be fed by the
government, because it bears so small a proportion to t h e rural population.
A b e r in Great Britain das Verhltni der rural p o p u l a t i o n zu small zur 25
stdtischen, in Great Britain so large a majority of the people live in towns,
a n d are totally d e p e n d e n t on credit for their daily bread,-that political dis-
486
Aus Edward Gibbon Wakefield: A view of the art of colonization
orders which should destroy credit, would inevitably occasion famine in

our towns. U n d sind sie would increase political disturbance. (69, 70) In
E n g l a n d necessity von Zeit zu Zeit of an occasional destruction of capital
on the grandest scale. ... T h e practice with us seems to be to hoard up capi-
5 tal till we know n o t what to do with it, a n d t h e n to throw it away as rapidly
as possible till the quantity for u s e is brought to a level with the field of in-
vestment. T h u s o n e observes for a t i m e a general care a n d p r u d e n c e in
m a k i n g the investments: m e r e speculation is almost u n k n o w n : everybody
that saves, saves now. Presently, a decreasing rate of interest on good secu-
10 rities shows that a want of r o o m for capital is growing; a n d the least pru-
d e n t t u r n an eye to unsafe securities which yield a higher r e t u r n : but t h e
h o a r d i n g goes on. At length, interest on good securities is so low, or so
nearly r e d u c e d to n o t h i n g , t h a t t h e a n n o y a n c e of risking to lose b e c o m e s
less t h a n that of t h e certainty of not gaining: a n d all the world, everybody
15 being afraid lest his n e i g h b o u r s h o u l d get before h i m , rushes h e a d l o n g i n t o
speculation. Capital without e n d is thrown into operation from which large
returns are expected, b u t which t u r n o u t m o r e or less r u i n o u s : a great
a m o u n t of capital has disappeared. T h e r u i n a n d misery thus brought u p o n
individuals frighten t h e whole body of capitalists: a n d now a n o t h e r set of
20 people are r u i n e d by the difficulty or impossibility of obtaining capital for
safe undertakings. By degree t h e p a n i c subsides; steady h o a r d i n g goes on
again; a n d after a while t h e s a m e process is repeated. T h e alternations of
hoarding, wasting, a n d p a n i c , are full of evil of various kinds. ... D u r i n g
the t i m e of speculation indeed, s o m e gain; those who are fortunate or sharp
25 e n o u g h to "get o u t " of b a d speculation before their b a d n e s s is generally
known. These gain suddenly a n d largely; they are, for the m o s t part, g a m -
blers for life. Their success is an e x a m p l e which induces others to b e c o m e
gamblers when the speculation-time c o m e s r o u n d again. During the t i m e
of speculation m o s t people are gamblers. ... Ever since capital b e g a n to be
30 s u p e r a b u n d a n t in England, t h e spirit of the g a m b l e r has b e e n growing
amongst our c o m m e r c i a l a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g classes. ... generally, o u r m e n
of business of all ranks a n d kinds are, in c o m p a r i s o n with their predeces-
sors of the last century, unsteady, in h a s t e to be rich, fearless of risk, sharp
or ready to take advantage of all opportunities, rather t h a n signally h o n e s t
35 and true. ( 7 6 - 7 8 ) T h e peculiar characteristic of colonies is plenty of r o o m
for all classes. (79) ||70| In colonies, the field of p r o d u c t i o n is u n l i m i t e d ;
a n d the u s e of it m a y be enlarged faster t h a n capital a n d p o p u l a t i o n c a n
possibly increase. ... Allerdings k a n n da sein temporary excess of capital
u n d people, sei es da pltzliche I m p o r t a t i o n von Capital exceeds the ac-
40 tuai supply of labor oder u m g e k e h r t . ... A b e r an excessive capital h i e r soon
wasted; an excess of labour is soon r e m e d i e d by fresh importations of capi-
487
tal, or by the rapid increase of capital in t h e colony. ( 7 9 - 8 1 ) Colonies sind

von N a t u r exporting c o m m u n i t i e s . U n d ihr Product besonders suited for
exchange with old countries. In leztren m a n u f a c t u r e d goods die n a t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n for export. Dagegen: In c o n s e q u e n c e of the c h e a p n e s s of land
in colonies, t h e great majority of the people are owners or occupiers of 5
l a n d ; a n d their industry is necessarily in a great m e a s u r e confined to the
producing of what c o m e s immediately from t h e soil: viz. food, a n d the raw
materials of m a n u f a c t u r e . T h e old country a n d t h e colony, therefore, are,
naturally e a c h other's best customers. (83) M e r e labour, without the enter-
prise a n d energy required for rendering a wilderness productive, will not 10
raise a large surplus p r o d u c e from even the most fertile soils. (84) D i e Ver-
b e r u n g e n in der Agricultur sehr langsam. Avanciren n u r im Verhltni
z u m W a c h s t h u m der Bevlkerung, c o m p e t i t i o n is unaffected by an in-
crease of p r o d u c e arising from agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t s . A l o n g with the
i m p r o v e m e n t , there are m o r e people of all classes to c o n s u m e the greater 15
p r o d u c e ; a n d the c o m p e t i t i o n is unaltered. As a r e m e d y for competition,
therefore, it is m o r e l a n d that we want. ([88,] 89) Every fresh i m p o r t a t i o n of
food by m e a n s of exporting m o r e m a n u f a c t u r e d goods, is an enlargement
of the field of p r o d u c t i o n ; is like an acreable increase of our l a n d ; a n d has
a t e n d e n c y to abolish a n d prevent injurious competition. (89) Die 20
s c h l i m m e c o m p e t i t i o n also reducirbar auf an excess of capital u n d people
in proportion to land. ... N e i t h e r by i m p r o v e m e n t s of agriculture, n o r by
the i m p o r t a t i o n of food, if these fall short of the power of the people to in-
crease, is the competition of excessive n u m b e r s in all classes d i m i n i s h e d in
t h e least. By whatever m e a n s the field of e m p l o y m e n t for all classes is en- 25
larged, unless it can be enlarged faster t h a n capital a n d people can in-
crease, no alteration will take place in profits or wages, or in any sort of
r e m u n e r a t i o n for exertion: there is a larger fund, b u t a corresponding or
greater increase of capital and people, so that c o m p e t i t i o n r e m a i n s the
same, or [may] even go on b e c o m i n g m o r e severe. (91) D i e M o d e r n e n , sagt 30
Dr H i n d s m a c h e n ihre colonies of a single class of persons, a n d t h a t t h e
m o s t helpless, and the m o s t unfit to perpetuate o u r n a t i o n a l character ...
T h e ancients, on the contrary, sent out a representation of the p a r e n t
state ... colonists from all ranks. (109) C r i m e is rare in N o v a Scotia a n d
N e w Brunswick; so it is in South Africa a n d West Australia. T h e colonial 35
soil is u n s u i t a b l e for crime, which grows there slowly a n d with difficulty. In
the convict colonies a n d their i m m e d i a t e neighbours, it is the imperial gov-
e r n m e n t which forces crime to grow a b u n d a n t l y in a soil naturally
unfavourable to i t . . . . Dagegen colonial smartness". For the growth of h o n -
our, the colonies are n o t a very congenial soil. (151) a colony that is n o t 40
attractive to w o m e n , is an unattractive colony: in order to m a k e it attrac-
488
w
tive to b o t h sexes, you do e n o u g h if you take care to m a k e it attractive to

w o m e n . (156) There is a n o t h e r principle of l a b o u r which n o t h i n g points
out to t h e e c o n o m i c a l i n q u i r e r in old countries, b u t of w h i c h every colonial
capitalist h a s b e e n m a d e conscious in his own person. By far t h e greater
5 part of t h e operations of industry, a n d especially those of w h i c h t h e pro-
d u c e is great in proportion to t h e capital a n d labour employed, r e q u i r e a
considerable t i m e for their c o m p l e t i o n . As to m o s t of t h e m , it is n o t worth
while to m a k e a c o m m e n c e m e n t w i t h o u t t h e certainty of being able to
carry t h e m on for several years. A large p o r t i o n of the capital employed in
10 t h e m is fixed, inconvertible, d u r a b l e . If a n y t h i n g h a p p e n s to stop t h e opera-
tion, all this capital is lost. If t h e harvest c a n n o t be gathered, t h e whole out-
lay in m a k i n g it grow h a s b e e n thrown away. | | 7 1 | ... D i e zeigt d a con-
stancy is a no less i m p o r t a n t principle als c o m b i n a t i o n of labour. T h e
i m p o r t a n c e of t h e principle of constancy is not seen h e r e , b e c a u s e rarely
15 indeed does it h a p p e n , that t h e l a b o u r w h i c h carries on a business, is
stopped against t h e will of t h e capitalist ... A b e r in d e n colonies grade
u m g e k e h r t . H i e r capitalists are so m u c h afraid of it, that they avoid its oc-
currence as m u c h as they can, by avoiding, as m u c h as possible operations
which require m u c h t i m e for their c o m p l e t i o n . (169[, 170]) T h e r e are n u -
20 m e r o u s operations of so simple a kind as n o t to a d m i t a division i n t o parts,
which c a n n o t be performed w i t h o u t t h e co-operation of m a n y pairs of
h a n d s . . B. t h e lifting of a large tree on to a wain, keeping down weeds in a
large field of growing crop, shearing a large flock of sheep at t h e s a m e t i m e ,
gathering a harvest of corn at t h e t i m e w h e n it is ripe e n o u g h a n d n o t too
25 ripe, moving any great weight; everything in short, w h i c h c a n n o t be d o n e
unless a good m a n y pairs of h a n d s h e l p e a c h o t h e r in t h e s a m e u n d i v i d e d
e m p l o y m e n t , and at t h e s a m e t i m e . (168) C o m b i n a t i o n u n d c o n s t a n c y of
labour are provided for in old countries, without an effort or t h o u g h t on the
part of the capitalist, merely by t h e a b u n d a n c e of labourers for hire. T h e
30 scarcity of labourers for h i r e is t h e universal c o m p l a i n t of colonies. It is t h e
o n e cause, both of the high wages w h i c h p u t t h e colonial l a b o u r e r at his
ease, a n d of t h e exorbitant wages which s o m e t i m e s harass t h e capitalist.
(170) Colonial d e m o c r a c y u n d demagogism. (p. 187 sq.) T h e privileged
class (in d e n englischen colonies) is t h e official class. ( B e a m t e n ) (194) In
35 o u r colonies, as in F r a n c e now, office is t h e only distinction. (I.e.) Zu d e n
H i n d e r n i s s e n at c o l o n i s a t i o n gehrt n o c h t h e colonial Effects of Convict
Transportation, which occur n u r i n der Colonie von N e u s d w a l e s u n d
Nachbarschaft u n d die p r e s e n c e of aboriginal natives m i t d e m revolting
process w o d u r c h ihre e x t e r m i n a t i o n is b r o u g h t about. T h e latter set of colo-
40 niai evils belong chiefly to the colonies of S o u t h Africa, Ceylon u n d N e w
Z e a l a n d . ([221,] 222) N u r das cheapest land in a colony, is that whose price
489
affects t h e labour market. T h e price of this land, as of all bare land, and of
everything else which it costs nothing to produce, d e p e n d s of course on t h e rela-
tion between the demand and the supply. (332) Official favouritism a n d j o b -
b i n g in t h e disposal of l a n d by grant, constitute o n e of t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t
a n d ugliest features of colonial history. (336) In Order t h a t t h e price of waste 5
land should accomplish its objects (nmlich die Arbeiter nicht zu Land-
eigenthmern zu m a c h e n ) it m u s t be sufficient for t h e purpose. H i t h e r t o
t h e price h a s b e e n everywhere insufficient. (338) D i e s e r sufficient price
wird beschrieben wie folgt: In founding a colony, t h e price m i g h t be so
low as to r e n d e r the q u a n t i t y of land appropriated by settlers practically unlim- 1
ited: it m i g h t be h i g h e n o u g h to occasion a p r o p o r t i o n b e t w e e n l a n d a n d
people similar to t h a t of old countries, in w h i c h case, if this very h i g h price
did n o t prevent emigration, t h e cheapest l a n d i n t h e colony m i g h t b e a s
dear, a n d t h e s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of labourers as deplorable as in E n g l a n d : or
it m i g h t be a j u s t m e d i u m between t h e two, occasioning n e i t h e r super- 15
a b u n d a n c e of people n o r s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of land, b u t so limiting t h e
q u a n t i t y of land, as to give t h e cheapest l a n d a m a r k e t value t h a t would
have t h e effect of compelling labourers to work some considerable time for
wages before they could b e c o m e landowners. (339) T h e s u b s t i t u t i o n by
t h e U n i t e d States of selling for granting h a s n o t in t h e least d i m i n i s h e d t h e 20
value of negroslaves, or t h e necessity in t h e free states of relying for t h e
c o n d u c t o f works requiring m u c h c o n s t a n c y a n d c o m b i n a t i o n o f labour, o n
a vast i m m i g r a t i o n of s u c h n a t u r a l slaves as t h e poorest Irish. (340) |
|72| In t h e founding of West Australia, t h e r e was no choice. In disposing
25
of the waste land, t h e g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n by granting 500,000 acres (fast %
as m u c h as t h e great c o u n t y of Norfolk) to o n e person. T h e n c a m e t h e
governor a n d a few o t h e r persons, with grants of i m m e n s e extent. T h e first
grantee t o ok his principality at t h e l a n d i n g place, a n d t h e second, of
course, could only choose his, outside of this vast property. T h e n t h e prop
erty of t h e second grantee compelled t h e t h i r d to go further off for l a n d ; 30
a n d t h e fourth, again, was driven still further i n t o t h e wilderness. At length,
t h o u g h by a very brief process, an i m m e n s e territory was appropriated by a
few settlers, who were so effectually dispersed, that, as there were no r o a d s
or m a p s , scarcely o n e of t h e m knew where he was. ... In t h e founding of
S o u t h Africa by t h e D u t c h , t h e dispersion of t h e first settlers, t h o u g h super- 35
ficially or acreably less, was as mischievous as at Swan River. ... D i e Ur
sache der dispersion appears at first sight to have b e e n t h e u n l i m i t e d lib
erty of t h e settlers' choice in t h e selection of their land. W h e n t h e dog was
in the m a n g e r , t h e cow h a d to go w i t h o u t hay, or pick up what r u b b i s h she
could elsewhere. Only t h e first grantee at Swan River h a d a real liberty of 40
choice as to locality: t h e second h a d less liberty, t h e t h i r d still less, a n d so
490
on. At last, when a d o z e n people h a d appropriated e n o u g h land for t h e sup-

port of millions, n o b o d y else h a d any liberty at all: the whole of t h e l a n d
suitable for settlers at the t i m e was gone, a n d h e l d by a handful of people,
veritable dogs in the m a n g e r , who could n o t u s e their property, a n d yet
5 would not part with it, because, c o m i n g from an old country where land has
b o t h a scarcity a n d position value, they d e e m e d it worth m o r e t h a n any-
body would think of paying for it u n d e r the c i r c u m s t a n c e of the vast extent
of private land in proportion to p o p u l a t i o n . ( 4 3 3 - 5 ) T h e placing of i m -
m e n s e quantities of waste l a n d in s u c h a state of private property as pre-
10 vents it from being u s e d a s keeps it always waste l a n d , h a s b e e n t h e u n i -
versal vice of colonial governments acting u n d e r instructions from
Downingstreet. T h e result occurs, whether t h e l a n d is granted in q u a n t i t i e s
exceeding the grantees' m e a n s of using the land, or is sold at a price so low
as to encourage absentee ownership. (435, 6)
15
491
Th. Hodgkin. An Enquiry into the merits

of the american Colonization Society etc.
L o n d o n 1833.
1787 Granville Sharp, Philanthrop, was the m e a n s of colonizing an 400 N e -

groes zu Sierra L e o n e . Diese colony seit der Zeit repeatedly recruited by 5
F r e e Blacks, d a h i n gesandt von verschiednen quarters, d u r c h Grobritan-
n i e n . 1787 schlug Dr. Thornton vor, die Schwarzen an der K s t e von Africa
zu kolonisiren, d e m Volk of Boston u n d v o n Providence. (Rhodeisland.)
1789, Samuel Hopkins, Minister of Newport in R h o d e i s l a n d , proposed to
Granville Sharp the colonization of e d u c a t e d a n d industrious Blacks from 10
N e w England, in his new settlement. 1790 Ferdinando Fairfax, of Rich-
m o n d , U n i t e d States proposed t h e colonization of the free people of Color.
Jefferson in V e r b i n d u n g m i t some other Virginians, d a c h t e d a r a n 1801.
... Robert Finley, von N e w Jersey, hat das merit of reducing this s c h e m e to
a practical form, by the successful institution of t h e Colonization Society. 15
This he effected am 1 Jan. 1817. (p. 4, 5)
492
Aus Thomas Hodgkin: On the British African Colonization Society
Th. Hodgkin. On the British

African Colonization Society.
L o n d . 1834.
B l d s i n n . S c h w r m e r e i fr Liberia. |
493
|73| Th. F. Buxton.

The African Slave Trade.
1839.
My first proposition is, that b e r 150,000 h u m a n beings are annually con-

veyed from Africa, across the Atlantic u n d sold as slaves. (1) V o m 1 Juli 5
1827 bis 30 J u n e 1830 (3 Jahre) n a c h officiellen D o c u m e n t e n gebracht al-
lein in d e n Hafen von R i o de J a n e i r o 148,940 negroes oder annually im
D u r c h s c h n i t t 49,643, 1838 aber 60,000. (3) 78,331 were landed, at 5 ports
in Brazil, im Lauf der 12 m o n t h s , e n d e n d am 30 J u n e 1830 (5); to which
m i g h t be a d d e d the indefinite but considerable n u m b e r smuggled into 10
other places in Brazil. (12) H a u p t s k l a v e n l n d e r : Brasilien; C u b a ; Porto-
rico; Einiger Sklavenhandel a u c h getrieben n a c h B u e n o s Ayres, R i o de la
Plata, den U n i t e d Provinces von Uruguay, d e n U n i t e d States u n d Texas.
( 1 2 - 2 6 ) Sklavenhandel u n t e r amerikanischer Flagge. (24) (In Newyork
eigens Schiffe gebaut fr den Sklavenhandel, n a c h H a v a n n a h g e h e n d u n d 15
von dort absegelnd u n t e r amerikanischer Flagge. [21-23]) D i e m e r c h a n -
dise, chiefly if n o t exclusively, given in exchange for slaves, consisted of
cowries, Brazilian tobacco in rolls, spirits u n d M a n c h e s t e r piece goods.
% cowries (im Durchschnitt) % tobacco u n d spirits u n d % M a n c h e s t e r cot-
t o n goods. (Alle diese D a t a von captain M'Lean.) Die average s u m paid fr 20
j e d e n Sklaven, die goods at costprice g e n o m m e n 4 I. Fast alle cotton goods
gekauft fr d e n slave trade in Lancashire g e m a c h t u n d diese Art goods n u r
suitable fr diesen traffic. Die entire quantity of cotton goods m a n u f a c -
tured in Lancashire fr d e n African trade (legitimate u n d slave trade zu-
s a m m e n ) war im J a h r e 1836 wie folgt: 25
494
Aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The African slave trade
Value of M a n c h e s t e r goods m a n u f a c t u r e d
n u r fr den legitimate African trade 150,000
Value of goods m a n u f a c t u r e d in Lancashire u n d
shipped n a c h Brazil, Cuba, U n i t e d States u n d
5 elsewhere n u r fr d e n slave trade 250,000.
So ein U e b e r s c h u , 1836, von % des g a n z e n Betrags des slave b e r d e n
legitimate trade. R e c h n e n d n a c h diesen D a t i s die Z a h l der slaves to the
purchase of which der a m o u n t der 1836 fabricirten G o o d s a d a e q u a t , would
a m o u n t zu 187,500. K m m t aber h i n z u : goods only suited fr d e n slave
10 trade a u c h in Glasgow g e m a c h t ; specie to very considerable extent finds its
way t h r o u g h C u b a u n d Brazil to Africa, u n d hier fr d e n slaveankauf ver-
wandt; A m m u n i t i o n u n d firearms to a large a m o u n t , and, like the goods of
a quality only fit for t h e Slavetrade, are sent from G r e a t Britain to Africa.
Der jhrliche a m o u n t dieser exports stated in d e n Official tables, 1836, zu
15 137,698 I; die a m e r i c a n s also furnish C u b a u n d Brazil m i t arms, a m m u n i -
tion u n d goods; east I n d i a n goods a u c h employed i m Slave trade. ( 3 3 - 3 5 )
Im G a n z e n , m i t d e n e n die perish, wenigstens 250,000 jhrlich ausgefhrt.
(36) ( E r n i m m t a b e r die g e r i n g r e Z a h l an.)
Mohammedan Slave Trade.
20 I m m e n s e trade carried on fr die supply der m o h a m m e d a n m a r k e t s of

Morocco, T u n i s ; Tripoli, Ejypt, Turkey, Persia, A r a b i a u n d der borders von
Asien. Dieser c o m m e r c e comprises 2 distinct divisions, 1) der m a r i t i m e ,
dessen victims shipped von der N o r d o s t k s t e in arabvessels u n d 2) der D e -
sert, carried on d u r c h caravans n a c h der Berberei, Aejypten etc. Der M a r i -
25 t i m e trade besonders carried on d u r c h die subjects des Imaum von Muscat.
(37) D u r c h diesen Zweig wenigstens 30,000 jhrlich ausgefhrt. (40)
Schzt diese n o r t h e r n or Desert Portion des M o h a m m e d a n Slave t r a d e auf
20,000 jhrlich. (45) Schzt also auf 50,000 d e n G e s a m m t M o h a m m e d a n
Slave trade. (46) N i c h t g e r e c h n e t die zahlreichen Negersklaven required
30 for the h o m e slavery der M o h a m m e d a n provinces u n d k i n g d o m s in Central
Africa. ([46,] 47) Also total: 200,000. (48)
F r every ten who r e a c h C u b a or Brazil u n d b e c o m e available as slaves 14,

at least, are destroyed. Diese mortality arises von folgenden causes: 1) T h e
original seizure der slaves. 2) T h e m a r c h to the coast, a n d d e t e n t i o n there.
35 3) T h e m i d d l e passage. 4) T h e sufferings after capture u n d after landing. 5)
Die initiation into slavery, or the seasoning" as it is t e r m e d by the plant-
ers. (49)
495
1) Seizure.
D i e principal u n d fast einzige Ursache des Kriegs im I n n e r n von Africa, to
procure slaves fr den traffick, u n d j e d e Art von violence, von der Invasion
einer A r m e e bis z u r robbery by a single individual, is h a d recourse to zur
E r r e i c h u n g dieses Zwecks. (50) (Lord Muncaster: Historical Sketches of the 5
Slave trade. L o n d o n 1792) |
|74| T h e whole, or the greater part o f t h a t i m m e n s e c o n t i n e n t (Africa), is
a field of warfare a n d desolation; a wilderness, in which the i n h a b i t a n t s are
wolves to e a c h other. (Speech of Bryan Edwards. Dieser selbst a dealer in
slaves.) [50, 52] (Chasse aux Ngres, L e o n de L a b o r d e , Paris, 1838. [46]) 10
t h e only difference betwixt the former times u n d d e m present day is this -
t h a t the mortality c o n s e q u e n t on the cruelties of the system has increased
in proportion to the increase of the traffic, der d o u b l e d in a m o u n t vergli-
c h e n m i t der period vor 1790. (72)
2) March. 15
N a c h M e n d e z sterben rein o n the j o u r n e y (Ermattung, ble B e h a n d l u n g ,

5
A u s h u n g e r u n g etc) from the interior to t h e coast an / des G a n z e n . ([86,]
n
87)
3) Detention
n m l i c h an der coast, bevor sie sind e m b a r k e d u n d die occurs meist, 20

w h e n the vessel wofr sie destined, has n o t arrived, or is n o t ready to sail,
or m a y be in dread of capture after sailing. (87)
4) Middle Passage.
Die first feature dieser deadly passage ist die evident insufficiency, in point
of tonnage, of the vessels employed, for the cargoes of h u m a n beings which 25
they are m a d e to contain. Die allowance in british transports von Sklaven
war gesetzlich: 5 m e n fr 3 t o n s ; u n d die gesetzliche B e s t i m m u n g by Spain,
Portugal u n d Brazil 5 m e n : 3 tons. For british soldiers the regulation is
3 m e n :2 tons. ([96,] 97) D e r extent of a c c o m m o d a t i o n , limited as it was,
has b e e n greatly curtailed. (97) Laird sagt: "Instead of the large a n d c o m m o - 30
496
Aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The African slave trade
dious vessels which it would be t h e interest of t h e slavetrader to employ, we

have by our interference forced h i m to use a class of vesselsAmerican
Clippersof the very worst description, t h a t could have b e e n imagined for
t h e purpose, every quality b e i n g sacrificed for speed. In the holds of these
5 vessels the u n h a p p y victims of E u r o p e a n cupidity are stowed literally in
bulk." (132) % given, for the average loss on the passage, by the slavedealers
themselves on the a m e r i c a n side of t h e atlantic. (146)
5) Loss after Capture.
In 1830, the C o m m i t t e e of the H o u s e of C o m m o n s c a m e to the following

10 resolution: that captured vessels are, "on an average, upwards of five weeks
on their passage from t h e place of capture to Sierra Leone, occasioning a
loss of the captured slaves a m o u n t i n g to from % to % of the whole n u m b e r ,
while the survivors are generally l a n d e d in a m i s e r a b l e state of weakness
a n d debility." (154)
15 6) Loss after Landing and in the Seasoning.
the slaves are now subjected to greater hardships in their being l a n d e d a n d

concealed as smuggled goods, t h a n they were in former times, when a
slavevessel entered the ports of R i o J a n e i r o u n d H a v a n a as a fair trader,
and openly disposed of h e r cargo. (154, 5)
20 Twice as m a n y h u m a n beings are now the victims des slave trade as w h e n

Wilberforce u n d Clarkson entered u p o n their n o b l e task; a n d each individ-
u a l of this increased n u m b e r , in addition to the horrors which were en-
dured in former times, has to suffer from being cribbed up in a narrower
space, and on board of a vessel, where a c c o m m o d a t i o n is sacrificed to
25 speed. ... Hitherto we have effected no other change t h a n a c h a n g e in t h e
er
flag u n d e r which the trade is carried on. (173) Bis in die 2 0 J a h r e die
french flag covered the villains of all nations, d a n n die Spanish, j e z t die
Portuguese (Portugal sells her flag, a n d the greater part of t h e trade is car-
ried on u n d e r it. H e r governors openly sell, at a fixed price, the use of Por-
30 tuguese papers and flag [I.e.] - E n d l i c h die N o r d a m e r i k a n e r , die d e n Eng-
l n d e r n nie das droit de visite gestattet. 177) It is an a x i o m at t h e
C u s t o m h o u s e , that no illicit trade can be suppressed, where the profits ex-
ceed 30%. Of the e n o r m o u s profits des Slave trade", sagt der C o m m i s -
sioner Macleay the m o s t correct idea will be formed by taking an e x a m -
497
pie. T h e last vessel c o n d e m n e d by the M i x e d C o m m i s s i o n was t h e F i r m . "

He gives the cost of H e r cargo28,000 Dollars, Provisions, a m m u n i t i o n ,
wear u n d tear etc 10,600, Wages 13,400. Total Expense 52,000 Dollars. To-
tal P r o d u c t 145,000 dollars j|75| there was a clear profit on t h e h u m a n cargo
of this vessel of 18,6401. oder just 180 %. ([187,] 188) Mr M a c L e a n (Gover- 5
n o r at Cape Coast Castle) in e i n e m Brief an B u x t o n M a y 1838 sagt: A
p r i m e slave on that part of the coast with which I have m o s t knowledge,
costs a b o u t 50 dollars in goods, oder a b o u t von 2 5 - 3 0 dollars in m o n e y , in-
cluding p r i m e cost a n d charges; the s a m e slave will sell in C u b a for
350 dollars readily, b u t from this large profit m u s t be d e d u c t e d freight, in- 10
surance, c o m m i s s i o n , cost of feeding during the m i d d l e passage, a n d inci-
d e n t a l charges, which will r e d u c e t h e n e t profit auf 200 dollars on each
p r i m e slave; davon weiter a b z u z i e h n , to m a k e up for casualties, to, perhaps
150 dollars per h e a d . " It is remarkable t h a t this calculation by Mr M a c l e a n
almost exactly corresponds with that stated by t h e Sierra L e o n e C o m m i s - 15
sioners, giving for the outlay of 100 dollars a r e t u r n of 280 dollars. (189,
90)
498
Aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The remedy; being a sequel to the African slave trade
Buxton. (Th. F.) The Remedy;

being a Sequel to the African Slave trade.
L o n d o n . 1840.
Africa can never be delivered, till we have called forth the rich productive-
5 ness of her soil. She derives some p e c u n i a r y advantage from t h e Slave
t r a d e : happily, however, it is t h e smallest possible a m o u n t of revenue, at
the largest possible a m o u n t of cost. (XIII) G e s e z t die chieftains verkauften
jedes J a h r 250,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , u n d da - was meist der Fall -41. per
Stck in ihre h a n d s honestly gezahlt wird. Also 1 Mill. St. A b z g e fr die
10 E r h a l t u n g der armies i n t e n d e d for the slave trade; the reprisals u p o n t h e m -
selves u n d das c o n s e q u e n t ravage ihrer l a n d s u n d Destruction ihres Eigen-
t h u m s . Die material items of arms, a m m u n i t i o n u n d ardent spirits, % der
in Centralafrica importirten goods u n d deren greater part c o n s u m e d in
their horrid slavehunts etc, bleibt clear profit vielleicht 300,000; and is
15 300,000 all that c a n be reaped from so extensive a portion of the globe,
inferior to n o n e other in wealth? (XIV, XV) An African chief t h u s con-
cisely stated his mercantile views: "We want three things, viz. powder, ball,
a n d brandy; and we have three things to sell, viz. m e n , w o m e n u n d chil-
dren." (XIV note.) M i t d e n Negerchiefs an d e n coasts ist nichts anzufangen.
20 Sie sind a rabble of petty chiefs, the m o s t ignorant and rude, a n d the
greatest vagabonds on earth. T h e y h a v e b e e n rendered h a b i t u a l d r u n k a r d s
by the spirits which slave ships supply: As slave factors, they have b e e n
steeled against all c o m p a s s i o n etc. T h e y obtain a twofold advantage from
the slave trade. T h e goods they o b t a i n from E u r o p e a n s give a considerable
25 profit when sold to the natives, while the slaves, received by t h e m in return
for those goods, yield a profit still m o r e considerable, when sold to the
slave captain. ([7,] 8) Bere disposition on the part der Sultans u n d Sover-
eigns des Interior, to receive, to treat, and to trade with us. (8) Prelimina-
499
tory m e a s u r e m u sein: a c h a i n of treaties m i t native powers in the interior

(von Africa), pledging t h e m to act in concert m i t u s ; to suppress the Slave
trade in their own territory; to prevent slaves from being carried t h r o u g h
their d o m i n i o n s , and, at the same t i m e to afford all needfull facility a n d
protection for the transport of legitimate m e r c h a n d i s e . (17) 5'
Eggs n u r in L o n d o n , Liverpool u n d Glasgow

allein von Frankreich [und Irland] 275,000.
Feathers von Irland n a c h Liverpool 500,000
Pigs von Irland n a c h Liverpool 1,488,555.
D a g e g e n : Total imports, p r o d u c t i o n s 10
of t h e Soil of Central Africa ... 456,014.
(22)
Legitimate c o m m e r c e would put down t h e Slave Trade by d e m o n s t r a t i n g

t h e superior value of m a n as a labourer, to m a n as an object of m e r c h a n -
dise. (24) I 15
|76| D e r whole a m o u n t of goods exported direct from G r e a t Britain to all
Africa is considerably within 1 Mill. St. 1835 t h e declared value of British
a n d Irish P r o d u c e a n d M a n u f a c t u r e s exported to the whole of Africa was
917,726. Centralafrica sehr fruchtbaren Boden, famose Flsse, P o p u l a t i o n
von 50 Millions. Es takes from us n u r fr 3 1 2 , 9 3 8 , 101,104 davon are 20
m a d e up of the value of arms a n d a m m u n i t i o n , a n d lead a n d shot. (25) D e r
estimated W e r t h der Imports von Africa in 1834 war 4 5 6 , 0 1 4 (exclusive
of gold dust, a b o u t 2 6 0 , 0 0 0 ) ; they consisted chiefly of palmoil, teak tim-
ber, g u m l a c , ivory, bees wax etc, all extremely valuable, a n d in great de-
m a n d , b u t o b t a i n e d at comparatively little l a b o u r a n d cost. (26[, 27]) 25
Uebersicht der natural Productions of Africa:
Animals. Oxen, sheep, goats, pigs etc G u i n e a fowls, c o m m o n poultry,
ducks etc. Grain. Rice, I n d i a n Corn, G u i n e a corn, or millet, wheat, D o u r a h
etc. Fruits. Oranges, lemons, guavas, pines, citrons, limes, papaws, plan-
tains, b a n a n a s , dates etc etc. Roots. M a n i o c , i g n a m e , batalee, y a m s , arrow- 30
root, ginger, sweet potato etc etc. Timber Teak, ebony, l i g n u m vitae u n d 40
oder 50 andre species von Holz fr alle m g l i c h e n purposes. Nuts. Palm-
n u t , shea-nut, cocoa-nut, cola nut, g r o u n d - n u t , castor-nut, n e t t a - n u t etc.
Dyes. Carmine, yellow various shades, blue, orange various shades, red,
crimson, brown etc. Dyewoods. Cam-wood, bar-wood etc. Gums Copal, 35
Senegal, mastic, Sudan etc. Drugs Aloes, cassia, senna, frankincense etc.
Minerals. Gold, iron, copper, emery, s a l - a m m o n i a c , nitre etc. Sugar-cane,
coffee, cotton, indigo, tobacco, I n d i a n rubber, beeswax, ostrich feathers
a n d skins, ivory etc. Fish of an i m m e n s e variety, a n d in great a b u n d a n c e .
(28[, 29] Note) Burke sagt: "To deal a n d traffic - not in the labour of m e n , 40
500
Aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The remedy; being a sequel to the African slave trade
b u t in m e n themselves - is to devour the root, instead of enjoying the fruit

of h u m a n diligence." (61) C a p t a i n Beaver sagt: Der H a u p t g r u n d der Afri-
cans in m a k i n g slaves ist to p r o c u r e E u r o p e a n goods; slaves are t h e m o n e y ,
the circulating m e d i u m , with which African c o m m e r c e is carried o n : they
5 have no other. If, therefore, we could substitute another, a n d at t h e s a m e
t i m e that other be m o r e certain and m o r e a b u n d a n t , the great object in
trading in slaves will be d o n e away. This m a y be d o n e by the p r o d u c e of
the earth." (168) t h e Arabic is, to a considerable extent, the c o m m o n lan-
guage of Central Africa. (219)
10
501
Heeren. (A. H. L.)

Handbuch der Geschichte
des Europischen Staatensystems
und seiner Colonieen.
Dritte Auflage. G t t i n g e n . 1819. 5
G e s c h i c h t e des europischen Staatssystems nicht die G e s c h i c h t e der ein-

z e l n e n Staaten, sondern die Geschichte ihrer Verhltnisse gegen einan-
der. (6) G r e n z s c h e i d e zwischen der m i t t l e m u n d n e u e r n Zeit: 1) Die
E r o b r u n g von Constantinopel u n d G r n d u n g des t r k i s c h e n R e i c h s i n
E u r o p a 1453. 2) E n t d e c k u n g von A m e r i c a d u r c h C o l u m b u s , 1492. 3) Ent- io
deckung der Schiffahrt n a c h O s t i n d i e n durch Vasco de G a m a , 1497 u n d
d u r c h beide vernderter G a n g des W e l t h a n d e l s . 4) D i e d u r c h d e n G e -
b r a u c h des Schiepulvers vernderte Kriegskunst. ([6,] 7) In d i e s e m Zeit-
r a u m e n t h a l t e n Africa u n d A m e r i c a k e i n e n einzigen e i n h e i m i s c h e n Staat
von allgemeiner Wichtigkeit; u n d von den 3 grossen R e i c h e n Asiens, d e m 15
Persischen u n t e r den Sofis, d e m Indischen u n t e r d e n Moguls u n d d e m Chi-
nesischen erhielt sich n u r das leztre. D a s Persische Reich der Sofis gegrndet
d u r c h Ismael Sofi, seit 1500. W a r d am m c h t i g s t e n u n t e r S c h a c h Abbas,
1 5 8 5 - 1 6 2 8 , gestrzt durch die Afgahnen 1722, u n d yerfiel seit der Ermor-
d u n g des darauffolgenden Tyrannen, Kuli Chan oder Nadir Schach, 1747, 20
in A n a r c h i e . Das Mogulische R e i c h in I n d i e n gestiftet d u r c h Sultan Babur,
e i n e n N a c h k o m m e n Tiburs, seit 1526. Umfate allmhlig die L n d e r am
I n d u s u n d G a n g e s u n d die diesseitige Halbinsel; am m c h t i g s t e n seit der
Regierung von Acbar d e m G r o e n 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 0 5 , bis auf d e n T o d von Aureng
Zeb 1 1 7 0 7 , w o n a c h es bald in sich selbst zerfiel, d u r c h die E r o b r u n g von 25
N a d i r Schach 1739 u n d die Politik der E u r o p e r ||77| meist aufgelst. Die
Revolution in China, d u r c h die Erobrung der Mantschu Tartaren, geschah
502
Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Handbuch der Geschichte ...
1644. (7, 8) Engere Verhltnisse der e u r o p i s c h e n Staaten u n t e r e i n a n d e r

k a m e n d u r c h gemeinschaftliche Interessen: a) Streitigkeiten b e r Italien,
b) Religionshndel seit der Reformation. 3) Bedrfni der Vertheidigung
gen die Trken. 4) in d e m wichtiger w e r d e n d e n H a n d e l m i t d e n C o l o n i e e n
5 u n d d e m daraus h e r v o r g e h e n d e n m e r k a n t i l i s c h e n Interesse b e r h a u p t .
E n d l i c h erleichterte C o m m u n i c a t i o n d u r c h B u c h d r u c k e r e i u n d Posten. (9)
Das deutsche R e i c h der Centralstaat, allen wichtig, aber N i e m a n d gefhr-
lich. (11) E i n e H a u p t s t t z e fand das europische Staatensystem in der E n t -
s t e h u n g von Seemchten, die besonders zur Aufrechterhaltung des politi-
10 sehen Gleichgewichts am m e i s t e n beigetragen h a b e n . (14) G e s c h i c h t e des
n e u e r n Europas zerfllt in 3 P e r i o d e n : V o n Ende des 15. Jh. bis zum Anfang
der Selbstregierung Ludwig XIV, 1 4 9 2 - 1 6 6 1 . Zweite von da bis z u m T o d e
von Friedrich II, 1 6 6 1 - 1 7 8 6 . D i e leztre von da bis dato. Erstre politisch reli-
gis, zweite merkantilisch militairisch, lezte revolutionr. (17, 18)
15 Erste Periode. Von 1492 bis 1661.
Erster Theil. Geschichte des sdlichen

Europischen Staatensystems.
Eigenthmlicher Character dieser Periode die Reformation. (19) H a u p t g l i e -

der des sdlichen Staatensystems: F r a n c e , Spanien, England, Oestreich,
20 das deutsche Reich, der Pabst u n d die Pforte. [20]
Erster Zeitraum.
I.) G e s c h i c h t e der H n d e l u n d Streitigkeiten

b e r Italien. 1 4 9 4 - 1 5 1 5 .
G e n E n d e des 75 Jh. ward Italien der Z i e l p u n k t der E r o b e r u n g e n u n d da-

25 d u r c h M i t t e l p u n k t der e u r o p i s c h e n Politik. A u f b l h n von K u n s t u n d W i s -
senschaft. H a u p t s t a a t e n i n I t a l i e n H e r z o g t h u m M a i l a n d u n d R e p u b l i k V e -
nedig im N o r d e n ; R e p u b l i k Florenz u n d der Kirchenstaat in der M i t t e ; das
Knigreich N e a p e l im S d e n . D a s H e r z o g t h u m Mailand, wozu d a m a l s
a u c h P a r m a , Piacenza u n d G e n u a gehrten, deutsches Reichslehn; aber seit
30 Aussterben des H a u s e s Visconti seit 1450 im Besitz des H a u s e s Sforza.
Stifter, Franz Sforza 1 1 4 6 6 , sein Sohn Galeazzo Maria, ermordet 1476, des-
sen Sohn, Johann Galeazzo u n t e r der Aufsicht seines O h e i m s Ludwig Morus,
der ihn 1494 verdrngte. Venedigs erbliche Eroberungsplne gerichtet gen
503
R o m a g n a (das es meist i n n e hatte) u n d M a i l a n d . In R o m Pabst Alexan-

der VI ( 1 4 9 2 - 1 5 0 3 ) . In Florenz seit e i n e m J a h r h u n d e r t Principat des H a u -
ses M e d i c i . Seit 1407 Pisa unterjocht, aber rebellisch. D a s Knigreich Nea-
pel (von Sicilien, das zu Aragon gehrte, getrennt) stand u n t e r einer
N e b e n l i n i e dieses H a u s e s . Friedrich verlor 1501 sein R e i c h an F e r d i n a n d 5
Catholicus. 1494 Eroberungszug von Carl VIII von F r a n k r e i c h gen Neapel,
u m die A n s p r c h e des Jngern H a u s e s Anjou geltend z u m a c h e n . Leichte
u n d u n b l u t i g e E i n n a h m e Italiens u n d N e a p e l s 1494 Sept. bis M a i 1495.
G e g e n i n t r i g e n von Venedig, R o m , Ludwig M o r u s , M a x i m i l i a n , F e r d i n a n d
von S p a n i e n u n d U n t e r h a n d l u n g e n m i t der Trkei. A b z u g von Carl VIII 10
m i t der h a l b e n A r m e e aus N e a p e l 20 M a i 1495. Treffen u n d Sieg bei For-
n u a b e r die V e n e z i a n e r u n d ihre V e r b n d e t e n 6 Juli. K a m p f zwischen
Pisa u n d Florenz h a l t e n die italische Aufregung wach. V e n e d i g u n d M a i -
land hofften dabei zu gewinnen. 7 April 1498 Carl V I I I pltzlich f. Lud-
wig XII m a c h t a u c h auf M a i l a n d A n s p r c h e , von seiner G r o m u t t e r Valen- 15
tina, aus d e m H a u s Visconti her. Verspricht Venedig u n d R o m e i n e n Theil
der Beute. M a i l a n d e i n g e n o m m e n Aug. 1499. Ludwig M o r u s gefangen
10 April 1500. Venedig erhlt C r e m o n a u n d G h i r a r d ' A d d a . G e h e i m e r
Theilungstractat zwischen F e r d i n a n d Catholicus u n d Ludwig XII, 11 Nov.
1500. Neapels Knig Friedrich leicht berwltigt, stirbt gefangen in F r a n c e , 20
E i n n a h m e des R e i c h s Juli 1501. Z a n k u n d d a n n Krieg b e r die T h e i l u n g .
Niederlage der F r a n z o s e n bei S e m i n a r a a m 2 1 April u n d a m Garigliano
am 27 D e c . 1503. A u f den Waffenstillstand, 31 M r z 1504, Beilegung des
Streits d u r c h die H e i r a t h F e r d i n a n d s m i t G e r m a i n e de Foix, N i c h t e Lud-
wig XII, der er gegen eine Million D u c a t e n seine A n s p r c h e auf N e a p e l als 25
Mitgift giebt 12 Oct. 1505. So Frankreich in M a i l a n d u n d Spanien in N e a -
pel. 1503 Julius II Pabst. Sein erstes Project d e n Staat des Cesar Borgia -
R o m a g n a , Bologna u n d Ferrara - an d e n r m i s c h e n Stuhl zu bringen. Die
daraus e n t s t a n d n e n Kriege fhren z u m Project, die F r e m d e n besonders die
F r a n z o s e n aus Italien zu vertreiben. 1508 Ligue zu Cambrai gegen Venedig 30
zwischen Louis XII, M a x i m i l i a n , F e r d i n a n d Catholicus u n d d e m Pabst.
( A m 10 D e c . geschlossen) Niederlage der V e n e t i a n e r bei Agnadello
15 April 1509 u n d Verlust des festen L a n d s , da a u c h der Pabst die R o m a -
gna w e g n i m m t u n d sie m i t d e m B a n n belegt. Anfang des Zwistes zwischen
Ludwig u n d M a x i m i l i a n , n a c h Einnahme Paduas V e r h a n d l u n g e n u n d A u s - 35
s h n u n g des Pabstes m i t Venedig. I h m bleiben die Stdte in der R o m a g n a ,
F e r d i n a n d die Hfen in A p u l i e n 25 F e b . 1510. 1511 V e r b i n d u n g gen
Frankreich u n t e r Leitung von Julius II. Heilige Ligue. Geschlossen am
5 Oct., zwischen Julius II, F e r d i n a n d Catholicus u n d Venedig; d e m Kaiser
u n d Heinrich VIII von England der Beitritt freigestellt. Schweizer d u r c h 40
den Pabst gewonnen seit 1510. |
504
|78| Uebergewicht F r a n k r e i c h s u n t e r Gaston de Foix bis auf seinen T o d

in der Schlacht bei R a v e n n a , N o v . 1 5 1 1 - A p r i l 1512. Einfall der Schweizer
in M a i l a n d , May 1512, von i h n e n zurckgegeben an M a x i m i l i a n Sforza, l-
teren Sohn von Ludwig M o r u s . N e u e r V e r s u c h L. XII z u r W i e d e r e r o b r u n g
5 vereitelt d u r c h die Schlacht b e i Novara 6 J u n . 1513. Folge dieser Vertrei-
b u n g der F r a n z o s e n aus Italien R c k k e h r der 1495 vertriebnen M e d i c e e r
n a c h Florenz durch Hilfe der Ligue u n d einer Insurrektion, 31 A u g u s t
1512. Gleichzeitig Erobrung des s p a n i s c h e n Navarra, als v e r b n d e t e n Staat
von Frankreich d u r c h F e r d i n a n d Catholicus. Einfall H e i n r i c h V I I I in Ar-
10 tois u n d der Schweizer in Burgund, Aug. 1513. J u l i u s II, 21 F e b . 1513 f.
Folgt i h m Leo X. Auflsung der Ligue, da L. X sich m i t F r a n k r e i c h aus-
shnt, sobald n u r L . X I I das C o n c i l i u m zu Pisa verwarf. 1515 Ludwig XII f.
(1 Januar). W h r e n d dieser Periode gutes Fuvolk n u r bei d e n Schweizern
zu miethen oder m a n half sich m i t d e u t s c h e n Lanzknechten. ( 2 4 - 3 6 )
15 II.) G e s c h i c h t e der E n t s t e h u n g des Colonialwesens.

1492-1515.
Colonien n e n n t m a n alle Besitzungen u n d N i e d e r l a s s u n g e n der E u r o p e r in

fremden Welttheilen. Sie zerfallen: 1) Ackerbaucolonieen. D i e Colonisten
erwachsen zu einer N a t i o n . 2) Pflanzungscolonieen. Zweck E r z e u g u n g b e -
20 s t i m m t e r N a t u r p r o d u c t e in P l a n t a g e n fr Europa. Die Colonisten w e n n
gleich Landbesitzer, werden weniger h e i m i s c h . Ihre Z a h l bleibt gering. In
i h n e n vorzugsweise Sklaverei zu H a u s e . 3) Bergbau Colonieen. 4) Handelsco-
lonieen. Ihr Zweck H a n d e l m i t den N a t u r p r o d u c t e n des L a n d e s oder des
Meers (Fischerein) u n d d e n K u n s t p r o d u c t e n der einheimischen Vlker. A n -
25 fangs n u r Niederlassungen zu Stapelpltzen des H a n d e l s , erweitern sich
aber d u r c h List oder Gewalt zu E r o b r u n g e n ... Die westlichen Vlker E u r o -
pas werden n u n statt derer am M i t t e l m e e r e die Sitze des W e l t h a n d e l s ...
Anfang der Portugiesischen Schifffahrten (erzeugt d u r c h die Kriege m i t
d e n M a u e r n in Africa u n d geleitet d u r c h Prinz H e i n r i c h Navigator f 1463)
30 seit 1410. E n t d e c k u n g von M a d e i r a 1419. Umschiffung von Cap Bojador
1439 u n d des Cap Verde 1446. E n t d e c k u n g der A z o r e n 1448, der Inseln
des Cap Verde 1449, von St T h o m a s u n d A n n o b o n 1471, von Congo 1484;
wovon die Entdeckungsreise b e r L a n d n a c h I n d i e n u n d A e t h i o p i e n v o n
Covillam eine Folge war. 1486 Erreichung des Vorgebirgs der g u t e n Hoff-
35 n u n g d u r c h Diaz 1486 u n d endliche Umschiffung u n d G e l a n g u n g n a c h I n -
dien ber M o z a m b i q u e d u r c h Vasco d e G a m a 1498, u n t e r E m a n u e l d e m
G r o e n , L a n d u n g in Calicut, u n d erste Festsetzung in Cochin. M i t t e l p u n k t
der Herrschaft der Portugiesen Goa, seit 1510 Sitz des Viceknigs. ... D e r
505
portugiesisch ostindische H a n d e l begriff 1) d e n Z w i s c h e n h a n d e l in I n d i e n .

2) H a n d e l zwischen E u r o p a u n d I n d i e n . D i e F r e m d e n m u t e n sich in Lis-
sabon die W a a r e n holen, die Portugiesen verfhrten sie n i c h t n a c h E u r o p a
auf eignen Schiffen. ( 3 7 - 4 4 )
Zweiter Zeitraum. Von 1515-1556. 5
Carl V. F r a n z I. S o l i m a n der Prchtige. Rivalitt zwischen F r a n k r e i c h u n d

Spanien. Reformationshndel.
I.) Rivalitt zwischen F r a n k r e i c h u n d S p a n i e n .
K a m p f in Italien. D e u t s c h e Kaiserkrone. V e r n d e r u n g des trkischen

Erobrungssystems u n t e r Soliman II, seit 1519, das u n t e r s e i n e m Vorgnger 10
Selim I gegen Persien u n d Aejypten gerichtet gewesen. E r o b r u n g von Bel-
grad 1521 etc, H a u p t s t u r m auf U n g a r n , Belagrung von W i e n 1529; A n -
knpfung der V e r b i n d u n g m i t Frankreich. Besonders aber die Seemacht der
Pforte d r o h e n d . M i t Erobrung des R h o d u s wird ihr die Herrschaft des Mit-
telmeers zu Theil. U n t e r d e m Schutz der Pforte sich j e z t an der Afrikani- 15
sehen Kste b i l d e n d e n R a u b s t a a t e n . D e r Pforte fast die g a n z e K s t e von
Nordafrika unterworfen. Die V e r b i n d u n g F r a n k r e i c h s m i t der Pforte, d u r c h
Laforest 1535 zuerst u n t e r der F o r m eines H a n d e l s t r a c t a t s (Febr.) zur
Reife gebracht. H e i n r i c h V I I I 28 J a n . u n d F r a n z I 21 M r z 1547. ( 4 5 - 6 0 )
II.) G e s c h i c h t e der R e f o r m a t i o n von 1 5 1 7 - 1 5 5 5 . 20

(Religionsfrieden.)
D u r c h die Religion k a m e n die Vlker m i t auf die B h n e . Bauernkrieg. Se-

kularisirung von Preussen. ( H o c h m e i s t e r Albrecht von B r a n d e n b u r g m a c h t
sich z u m erblichen Herzog von Preussen, als Vasall von Polen, 1525) Kra-
kehl zwischen d e n t e u t s c h e n F r s t e n u n d Karl V. Jesuitenorden gestiftet z u - 25
erst als Privatverbindung 1534; vom Pabst P a u l besttigt 1540; sehr erwei-
tert 1543 u n d 1549. U n t e r F r a n z I u n d . V E r r i c h t u n g eines regelmssigen
Fuvolks. ( 6 2 - 8 7 )
506
Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Handbuch der Geschichte
III.) G e s c h i c h t e des Colonialwesens 1 5 1 5 - 1 5 5 6 .
Spanier u n d Portugiesen b l e i b e n a u c h i n d i e s e m Z e i t r a u m die einzigen,

die jenseits des O c e a n s herrschen. Um die zahllosen Vlker, die als Jger
i n d e n u n g e h e u r e n W l d e r n u n d E b n e n u m h e r i r r t e n , z u beherrschen,
5 m u t e m a n sie civilisiren, i.e. bekehren. So selbst in d e m I n n e r n j e n e r L n -
der Spaniens Obergewalt an die Missionen geknpft. Streit der Spanier u n d
Portugiesen ber die Molucken: fhrte z u r ersten Umschiffung der E r d e .
Reise des Portugiesen F e r d i n a n d M a g e l h a e n s , der, beleidigt, in spanische
Dienste trat, 1 5 1 9 - 1 5 2 2 . E n t d e c k u n g ||79| der n a c h i h m g e n a n n t e n D u r c h -
10 fahrt ins Sdmeer. E n t d e c k t die Philippinen, wo er selbst erschlagen 1521.
Beilegung des Streits b e r die M o l u c k e n 1529. Carl V verkaufte seine A n -
sprche an Portugal fr 350,000 D u c a t e n . ( 8 8 - 1 0 1 )
Dritter Zeitraum. Von 1556-1618.
Elisabeth, Philipp II, W i l h e l m von Oranien, H e n r i IV. D i e m a l der H a u p t -

15 k m p f nicht zwischen S p a n i e n u n d Frankreich, sondern zwischen S p a n i e n
u n d England. Insurrektion i n d e n N i e d e r l a n d e n .
I.) Geschichte der E n t s t e h u n g der Vereinigten N i e d e r l a n d e .

V o n i h r e m Anfang bis z u m 12jhrigen Waffenstillstand 1609.
Alter R e i c h t h u m der belgischen Stdte. F r i e d e zwischen F r a n k r e i c h u n d

20 Spanien zu C h a t e a u Cambresis, 3 April 1559. U n t e r z e i c h n u n g des C o m -
promisses in Brssel Nov. 1565. D i e G e u s e n . A u g u s t 1567 langt A l b a an in
den N i e d e r l a n d e n . Alba's Schreckensregierung 1 5 6 7 - 1 5 7 3 . Die Einfh-
ten
rung des 1 0 Pfennigs 1569 wirkte m e h r als die des Blutgerichts. E r o b r u n g
von Briel, 1 April 1572 u n d A u s b r u c h der Insurrection in den m e i s t e n
25 Stdten von H o l l a n d ; Seeland. 24 A u g u s t 1572 B a r t h o l o m u s n a c h t . 1587
offne F e h d e zwischen Elisabeth u n d Spanien. Abschliessung der U t r e c h t e r
U n i o n , 23 J a n u a r 1579, zwischen Holland, Z e e l a n d etc. Zug der u n b e r -
windlichen Flotte u n d ihr Schicksal. (Juli bis Oct. 1588) E n t s t e h u n g der
G e n e r a l s t a a t e n seit 1592. Solchen Handelsstaat, solche S e e m a c h t wie die
30 Republik Holland h a t t e E u r o p a n o c h n i c h t gesehn. ( 1 0 2 - 1 2 3 )
507
II.) Gleichzeitige V e r n d e r u n g e n in d e n b r i g e n H a u p t s t a a t e n
des westlichen Europas.
Frankreich. 1 5 6 2 - 1 5 9 4 , b e r 30 Jahre, Religions u n d Brgerkriege.

13 April 1598 Edict von N a n t e s . Franzsische auswrtige Politik erhob
sich stets b e r die Religionsverhltnisse. Die D e m t h i g u n g der Habsburger 5
n c h s t e r Zweck von H e n r i IV, e r m o r d e t 1610. Erst m i t 1624 (Richelieu)
F r a n k r e i c h n a c h d e m T o d e von H. IV wieder Einflu auf die europische
Politik.
Spanien. E i n n a h m e Portugals u n d seiner Colonieen n a c h d e m Ausster-
b e n des dortigen M a n n e s s t a m m e s 1580. 1610 Vertreibung der M a u r i s k e n . 10
England. D e r K a m p f m i t Spanien trieb die N a t i o n aufs Meer.
Deutschland. T o d Solimans II w h r e n d seines Feldzugs in U n g a r n 4 Sept.
1566. Waffenstillstand auf 8 Jahre, wieder verlngert bis 1593. D e n T r k e n
blieb n o c h ein grosser Theil von S d u n g a r n . Grosse Niederlage ihrer
Flotte, n a c h der Erobrung von Cyprus, d u r c h die V e n e t i a n e r u n d Spanier 15
bei L e p a n t o 7 Oct. 1572 r a u b t i h n e n das Uebergewicht zur See. E r n e u r u n g
des u n g a r i s c h e n Kriegs 1 5 9 3 - 1 6 0 6 ; die m e i s t e n festen Pltze g e h n an
Oestreich ber. T r k e n b e h a l t e n deren n o c h in d e m 20jhrigen Waffen-
stillstand 1606.
In Holland das System der indirekten Abgaben zuerst ausgebildet. D i e Be- 20
drfnisse des langen Kriegs grossentheils d u r c h die Accise bestritten. Diese
A b g a b e n werden fr das n e u e r e E u r o p a um so wichtiger, da ihr Ertrag in
gleichem G r a d m i t d e m e r h h t e n L u x u s stieg. System der s t e h e n d e n T r u p -
p e n in F r a n k r e i c h u n d Holland weiter ausgebildet. Belagrungskunst ver-
v o l l k o m m n e t . Seemacht von E n g l a n d u n d H o l l a n d ganz n e u e E r s c h e i n u n g . 25
In der H o l l n d i s c h e n S e e m a c h t wurde bald n e b e n der der Staaten a u c h
[die] der grossen Handelsgesellschaften furchtbar. ( 1 2 5 - 1 4 1 )
III.) G e s c h i c h t e des Colonialwesens von 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 1 8 .
Ostindische G e b u d e der Portugiesen fllt z u s a m m e n . H o l l n d e r g r n d e n

das ihrige u n d reissen d e n W e l t h a n d e l an sich. D i e E n g l n d e r fangen an 30
m i t i h n e n zu wetteifern. D u r c h die Errichtung der grossen privilegirten Han-
delsgesellschaften wird d e m H a n d e l u n d der Colonialpolitik eine a n d r e
F o r m gegeben. Hollndischostindische C o m p a g n i e 29 M r z 1602. A l l m h -
lig m e h r e der wichtigsten Handelszweige der R e p u b l i k privilegirten Gesell-
schaften bergeben. M i t Auflebung des fernen auswrtigen H a n d e l s lebte 35
a u c h in England der Geist der M o n o p o l e auf. D i e wichtigsten Zweige des
508
auswrtigen H a n d e l s privilegirten C o m p a g n i e e n b e r g e b e n . Russische,

Afrikanische, Trkische C o m p a g n i e (1554), die der Adventurers fr das fe-
ste L a n d (1581). Ostindische C o m p a g n i e privilegirt 31 D e c . 1600. L o n d o n
u n d P l y m o u t h c o m p a g n i e privilegirt j e n e fr Virginien, diese fr das nrdli-
5 che N e u e n g l a n d . A n l a g e von J a m e s t o w n , der ersten Stadt, an der Chesa-
peake Bay 1607. N o c h waren die h o l l n d i s c h e n u n d englischen C o l o n i e e n
n u r P r i v a t u n t e r n e h m u n g e n . D a u e r t e n o c h g e r a u m e Zeit, bis F r e i b e u t e -
reien u n d Feindseligkeiten i n d e n Colonies a u c h Kriege zwischen d e n
M u t t e r s t a a t e n zu Folge. Bei d e n N i e d e r l a s s u n g e n der Franzosen im nrdli-
10 c h e n A m e r i c a (Canada u n d A c a d i e n - 1608 die Anlage von Quebec) n i c h t
sowohl A n b a u des L a n d e s als P e l z h a n d e l u n d Fischerei der eigentliche
Zweck. ( 1 4 1 - 1 5 4 )
Vierter Zeitraum. Von 1618 bis 1660.
In d e n langen Kriegen Verflechten des Interesses der europischen Staa-

15 ten. Die U r s a c h e n dieser engern Verschlingung lagen: a) in der seit Ferdi-
nands II Thronbesteigung wiederhergestellten V e r b i n d u n g der spanischen
u n d streichischen Linie. J e s u i t e n an b e i d e n Hfen, b) Richelieu's Politik
gegen das Habsburgische H a u s . Sein Einflu in Europa, c) In der d a d u r c h
befrderten H e r e i n z i e h u n g der n r d l i c h e n M c h t e , besonders Schwedens
20 in die H n d e l des sdlichen Europa. E n g l a n d isolirt sich g e r a u m e Zeit
whrend dieser Periode. I
j801 I) G e s c h i c h t e des dreissigjhrigen Kriegs

bis z u m W e s t p h l i s c h e n u n d Pyrenischen Frieden. 1 6 1 8 - 4 8 .
D e r 30jhrige Krieg m a c h t e Deutschland z u m M i t t e l p u n k t der Politik E u r o -

25 pas. U n t e r den U r s a c h e n zur grossen D a u e r u n d Verbreitung dieses Kriegs:
a) die T h e i l n a h m e der d e u t s c h e n Ligue, b) H e r e i n z i e h n der n r d l i c h e n
M c h t e , besonders Schweden seit 1630. c) E r n e u r u n g des gleichzeitigen
Kriegs zwischen H o l l a n d u n d Spanien, seit 1621, der sich zulezt m i t d e m
D e u t s c h e n verflocht, d) T h e i l n a h m e von F r a n k r e i c h seit 1635. W a l l e n s t e i n
30 ermordet zu Eger 25 Febr. 1634. R i c h e l i e u f 1642. Der d e u t s c h e (deut-
sche) Staatskrper erhielt seine festen F o r m e n , 1663 d u r c h d e n zu R e g e n s -
burg fixirten bestndigen Reichstag n o c h m e h r b e s t i m m t . D e r Franzsisch-
spanische Krieg n i c h t b e e n d e t d u r c h den Westphlischen F r i e d e n .
Pyrenischer F r i e d e n 7 Nov. 1659.
509
II) Gleichzeitige V e r n d e r u n g e n in d e n b r i g e n H a u p t s t a a t e n
des westlichen Europa.
1668 U n a b h n g i g k e i t Portugals von S p a n i e n a n e r k a n n t . In E n g l a n d Pe-

riode der grossen i n n e r n S t r m e . Es war erst die T h e i l n a h m e an d e n sie-
b e n b r g i s c h e n H n d e l n seit 1657, die die T r k e n wieder in d e m folgenden 5
Zeitraum i h r e n westlichen N a c h b a r n gefhrlich m a c h t e . N e u e Kriegstaktik
u n t e r G u s t a v Adolph. ( 1 5 4 - 1 9 2 )
III. Geschichte des europischen Colonialwesens

von 1 6 1 8 - 1 6 6 0 .
1653 H o l l n d i s c h e Niederlassung auf d e m Vorgebirg der g u t e n Hoffnung. 10

D i e Streitigkeiten der Hollnder m i t E n g l a n d b e r den Heringsfang an der
schottischen Kste trugen sowohl zu d e n politischen H n d e l n bei als zu
d e n A n s p r c h e n Englands auf die Meerherrschaft. Erste N i e d e r l a s s u n g e n
der F r a n z o s e n auf St Christoph zugleich m i t d e n E n g l n d e r n 1625. V o n da
aus auf G u a d a l o u p e u n d M a r t i n i q u e 1635, das schon gen E n d e dieses Zeit- 15
r a u m s Z u c k e r producirte. ( 1 9 2 - 2 0 2 )
Erste Periode. 1492-1661.
Zweiter Theil. Geschichte des nrdlichen

Staatensystems. (1523-1660)
5 H a u p t s t a a t e n : Schweden, D n e m a r k , Polen, R u l a n d u n d Preussen. W i e - 20

deraufrichtung des schwedischen T h r o n s d u r c h die Auflsung der Calmari-
schen Union; Reformation. Vereinigung D n e m a r k s m i t Norwegen zu
E i n e m R e i c h 1532. Wiederaufrichtung des T h r o n s von Schweden 1523
d u r c h G u s t a v Wasa. U n t e r Iwan Basilewitz I I I 1 4 6 2 - 1 5 0 5 Ruland d u r c h
die Befreiung von der Mongolenherrschaft u n d die Erobrung Nowgorods 25
wieder E i n selbstndiges Reich.
510
I.) Hndel und Kriege ber Liefland bis auf den Anfang
des Schwedisch-polnischen Successionskriegs. 1553-1600.
Liefland wurde fr d e n N o r d e n von E u r o p a ungefhr, was M a i l a n d fr d e n

S d e n . 1525 b e n u z t e Walter von Plettenberg die Reformation, sich d u r c h
5 Unterwerfung der Stadt u n d des E r z b i s t h u m s Riga z u m H e r r n des g a n z e n
L a n d e s zu m a c h e n . (Liefland, C u r l a n d u n d Semgallen.) Bisher die Heer-
meister n u r die H e r r n der westlichen Hlfte des L a n d e s , da die Erzbischfe
von Riga die Herrschaft b e r ihr E r z b i s t h u m besassen. Diese T h e i l u n g die
Quelle von Streitigkeiten u n d Kriegen, die d e n g a n z e n N o r d e n u m f a t e n .
10 1613 erhielt in R u l a n d das H a u s R o m a n o w d e n T h r o n . Seit d e m Ausster-
b e n der Jagellonen in Polen, 1572, die ein frmliches Wahlreich.
II.) Geschichte des Schwedisch Polnischen Successionskriegs

bis zum Frieden von Oliva und Copenhagen. 1600-1660. (204-221)
Zweite Periode. Von 1661-1786.
15 Vorherrschend Verflechtung des Geldinteresse m i t der Politik. I m m e r

grre B e d e u t u n g der F i n a n z e n . Merkantilisches Isolirungssystem. H a n -
delsvertrge. Handelskriege. Capereien. A u s d e h n u n g des Kriegs n a c h d e n
Colonieen. B e s c h r n k u n g e n u n d B e d r c k u n g e n des n e u t r a l e n H a n d e l s .
S t e h e n d e Heere.
20 Erster Zeitraum. Von 1661 bis 1700.
Ludwig XIV sicle.
I. Staatshndel in E u r o p a von 1661 bis 1700.
Tripleallianz zwischen England, Holland und Schweden 23 J a n . 1668 gegen

Frankreich. 2 M a i 1668 F r i e d e n zu A a c h e n . 1677 Erffnung des Congres-
25 ses zu Nymwegen. 20jhriger Stillstand 15 A u g . 1684. Congress zu Ryswik,
1697. W h r e n d derselben Periode Trkengefahr sehr gro fr D e u t s c h l a n d ;
die Streitigkeiten ber Siebenbrgen, die streichische Tyranney in U n -
garn, Hessen es hier den T r k e n an A n h n g e r n n i c h t fehlen etc. F r i e d e zu
Carlowitz 26 Jan. 1699.
511
II. Gleichzeitige H a u p t v e r n d e r u n g e n in d e n H a u p t s t a a t e n
des westlichen Europa.
Statt der 14,000 M a n n von Heinrich IV, hielt Ludwig X I V seit d e m N y m -

weger F r i e d e n 140,000 M a n n . Mit der L a n d m a c h t wuchs die M a r i n e in
Folge des Mercantilsystems. Die franzsische M a r i n e sich n i e wieder zur 5
d a m a l i g e n H h e erhoben. |
| 8 1 | III. Geschichte des Colonialwesens

von 1661 bis 1700.
N u r Pflanzungscolonieen u n t e r d e n F r a n z o s e n gediehn. Privilegirte C o m -

pagnieen. Wesentliche V e r n d r u n g des ostindischen H a n d e l s d u r c h d e n 10
grossen Eingang, d e n seit 1670 die I n d i s c h e n M u s s e l i n e u n d Seidenzeuge
in E n g l a n d finden. D n e m a r k in die R e i h e der Colonialstaaten getreten.
Schon in d i e s e m Z e i t r a u m erstreckten sich die Kriege der E u r o p e r n a c h
ihren Colonieen; aber erst spter erregten die Streitigkeiten in d e n Colo-
n i e e n Kriege in Europa. ( 2 2 2 - 2 9 0 ) 15
Erster Zeitraum. 1661-1700.
Zweiter Theil. Nrdliches Staatensystem.
Seit Polen Wahlreich u n d selbst Einstimmigkeit auf den Reichstagen erfor-

dert - 1652 - Polnische Knigswahl Thronversteigerung. Schweden n o c h
die erste M a c h t des N o r d e n s . Schweden verkauft seine Politik d e m Meist- 20
b i e t e n d e n , bald an Spanien, bald an Frankreich. 1683 entsezt Sobiesky
Wien.
Zweiter Zeitraum. 1700-1740.
Erster Theil. Sdlicheuropisches Staatensystem.
Papiergeld. Credit. Schuldenwesen. 25
512
I.) S t a a t s h n d e l in E u r o p a .
Spanische Succession b e i d e m b e v o r s t e h e n d e n A u s s t e r b e n der spanisch-

habsburgischen Linie m i t Karl II die grosse Cabinetsfrage seit d e m Ryswi-
ker Frieden. Grosse Allianz im H a a g 7 Sept. 1701. Spanischer Erbfolgekrieg.
5 1 7 0 1 - 2 9 Jan. 1712 Erffnung des Congresses zu Uetrecht. 7 Sept. 1714
a u c h F r i e d e m i t Kaiser u n d R e i c h . D i e spanischen N i e d e r l a n d e k a m e n a n
Oestreich. N u n die Leitung der e u r o p i s c h e n A n g e l e g e n h e i t e n lange Z e i t
i n d e n H n d e n Englands. D i e wichtigsten Handelsbewilligungen w u r d e n
Bedingungen des Friedens fr die S e e m c h t e . Zwei N e u e Knigshuser.
10 Savoy en u n d Preussen.
II. V e r n d e r u n g e n in d e n e i n z e l n e n Staaten.
1707 E n g l a n d m i t Schottland vereint. 4 d e u t s c h e Frsten, B r a n d e n b u r g ,

Hannover, Sachsen, Hessenkassel erhielten in d i e s e m Z e i t r a u m fremde
Knigskronen.
15 I I I . Colonialwesen. V o n 1700 bis 1740.
Grosses W a c h s e n des C o n s u m s u n d P r o d u c t i o n von Colonialproducten.

F r a n z o s e n besitzen n o c h C a n a d a u n d L o u i s i a n a i n N o r d a m e r i c a . Besetzen
1690 Isle de F r a n c e u n d 1720 Isle de B o u r b o n . Die Bewilligung des Assien-
totractats an E n g l a n d (im Utrechter F r i e d e n von Seiten Spaniens) wovon
20 grosser Schleichhandel m i t den spanischen Colonieen die Folge, fhrten
zu A n s t a l t e n gegen dieses u n d die H n d e l m i t d e n Garda-Costas 1739 zu
e i n e m Krieg. Dieser Krieg verschmolz sich n a c h h e r m i t d e m streichi-
schen Successionskrieg. ( 2 9 1 - 3 6 4 )
Zweiter Theil. Nrdlicheuropisches Staatensystem. 1700-1740.
25 Dieser Z e i t r a u m e n t s c h e i d e n d wichtig fr die n r d l i c h e n Staaten. Peter der

Grosse u n d Karl XII. Seit 1689 Peter I in R u l a n d . Carl XII in Schweden
seit 1697. Polen seit 1696 u n t e r der Herrschaft von August II, Churfrst
von Sachsen. D n e m a r k von 1 7 0 0 - 1 7 3 0 u n t e r Friedrich IV. N o r d i s c h e r
Krieg von 1 7 0 0 - 1 7 2 0 . R u l a n d wird die erste n o r d i s c h e M a c h t . N o r d i s c h e
30 Krieg gab d e n L a u s p r e u s s e n G e l e g e n h e i t z u r Vergrrung in P o m m e r n .
(365-395.)
513
Dritter Zeitraum. Von 1740-1786.
Erster Theil. Sdliches Europisches Staatensystem.
Friedrich II, die Preuische Litteratur. W e s t e n u n d N o r d e n v o n E u r o p a i n

dieser Periode tiefer verschlungen als frher.
I. Staatshndel von 1 7 4 0 - 1 7 8 6 . 5
Schlesischer Krieg 1 7 4 0 - 4 2 . Sonstfige] Kriegswirren d a u e r n von 1740 bis

15 April 1748 Congress zu A a c h e n . V e r b i n d u n g Oestreichs u n d Frank-
reichs bis z u d e n F r i e d e n z u Paris u n d H u b e r t u s b u r g 1 7 5 6 - 1 7 6 3 .
II.) V e r n d e r u n g e n in den einzelnen H a u p t s t a a t e n

des westlichen Europas. 1 7 4 0 - 1 7 8 6 . 10
Portugal, 1 7 5 0 - 1 7 7 7 , P o m b a i . 1747 in H o l l a n d die Erbstatthalterwrde

hergestellt zu G u n s t e n von W i l h e l m IV.
III. Colonialwesen von 1 7 4 0 - 1 7 8 6 .
G r o b r i t a n n i e n wird die H a u p t m a c h t u n t e r d e n Colonialstaaten. D u r c h

d e n Pariser F r i e d e n ganz C a n a d a u n d Florida an E n g l a n d abgetreten. A b - 15
fall der N o r d a m e r i k a n e r 1776, 4 Jul. Erklrung der U n a b h n g i g k e i t der
Vereinigten Staaten bis 1782. Im Z e i t r a u m des 7jhrigen Kriegs grndet
die Ostindische C o m p a g n i e ihr ausgedehntes R e i c h . Stiftung der Colonie
zu Sidney Cove in . Sd Wales J a n . 1788.
Zweiter Theil. Nrdliches Staatensystem. 1740-1786. 20
1762 Catharina an der Regierung in R u l a n d . 5 August 1772 Erster T h e i -

lungsvergleich Polens zwischen R u l a n d , Oestreich, Preussen. ( 3 9 5 - 5 6 7 )
514
Dritte Periode. Von 1786 bis 1815.
II.) Colonialwesen von 1786 bis 1804.
Tippo Saib, Sultan von Mysore, er u n d sein R e i c h fllt vor d e n Britten

4 M a i 1799, Belagerung u n d E r s t r m u n g von Seringapatam. [ 6 2 9 - 6 3 1 ]
5 A u s d e m beschrnkten e u r o p i s c h e n Colonialsystem wird ein Weltstaaten-

system hervorgehn. (822)
515
|82| William Howitt. Colonization

and Christianity. A popular History
of the Treatment of the Natives
by the Europeans in all their Colonies.
L o n d o n . 1838.
T h e barbarities u n d desperate outrages of the socalled Christian race,

t h r o u g h o u t every region of the world, a n d u p o n every people t h a t they have
b e e n able to s u b d u e , are n o t to be paralleled by those of any other race,
however fierce, however u n t a u g h t , a n d however reckless of mercy a n d of
s h a m e , in any age of the earth. (9) H e i n r i c h von Portugal erhielt schon
e i n e n Schenkungsakt von Pabst E u g e n IV auf all the countries which the
Portuguese should discover from Cape N o n to India. [19] A l e x a n d e r VI ap-
p o i n t e d that a line, supposed to be drawn from pole to pole, a 100 leagues
to the westward of the Azores, should serve a limit zwischen der portugie-
sischen u n d spanischen K r o n e ; and, in t h e p l e n i t u d e of his power, be-
stowed all to the east of this imaginary line u p o n the Portuguese, a n d all to
the west of it, u p o n the Spaniards. (20)
Spaniards in Hispaniola.
C o l u m b u s wandte hier schon in seiner Unterjochung der naked u n d t i m i d

I n d i a n s large dogs an ... J e d e Person, die in d e n golddistricts lebte,
obliged to pay quarterly as m u c h golddust as filled a hawk's bell; from
those in other parts of the country, 25 p o u n d s of cotton were d e m a n d e d .
(36, 7) Die natives were driven to despair by the labours u n d exactions i m -
516
Aus William Howitt: Colonization and Christianity
posed u p o n t h e m . F o r m e d a s c h e m e ihre oppressors d u r c h famine zu ver-

treiben. F l c h t e t e n in die Gebirge, aber hier ging ihrer selbst % caput.
Fresh succours arrived von Spain u n d bald Spain, at the suggestions of Co-
l u m b u s too, emptied all her gaols, a n d vomited all h e r malefactors auf die
5 K s t e n der Insel. Die Folgen dieses Systems bald conspicuous in den dis-
tractions, contentions u n d disorders der colony u n d u m sie n i e d e r z u s c h l a -
gen, vertheilte C o l u m b u s die l a n d s u n t e r his m u t i n o u s followers u n d gab
away the i n h a b i t a n t s - the real possessors - along with t h e m as slaves. So
war er der originator der Repartimentos oder D i s t r i b u t i o n der I n d i a n s t h a t
10 b e c a m e t h e source of s u c h universal calamities to t h e m , a n d of t h e extinc-
tion of m o r e t h a n 50 millions of their race. (39, 40) Bovadillo der Nachfol-
ger von C o l u m b u s , only bestowed a l l o t m e n t of I n d i a n s with a m o r e liberal
h a n d . G e t r i e b e n to labour so mercilessly in t h e m i n e s that they m e l t e d as
rapidly as snow in the sun. E r h e b u n g der I n d i a n s . It was only to perish by
15 the sword instead of t h e m i n e . (43) G e s c h i c h t e von A n a c o a n a , female ca-
zique u n d Ovando. (46) In 15 J a h r e n sank die Bevlkerung von 1 M i l l i o n
auf 60,000. Als Isabella starb Loos der I n d i e r n o c h schlechter. F e r d i n a n d
conferred grants of I n d i a n s on his courtiers, as the least expensive m o d e of
getting rid of their importunities. O v a n d o , der governor, gab seinen eignen
20 friends u n d creatures similar gifts of living m e n . N o b l e s at h o m e , farmed
out these I n d i a n s given by F e r d i n a n d to those who were going o u t to take
part in the nefarious deeds. Die small u n d almost n o m i n a l s u m frher d e n
natives fr ihre Arbeit gestattet n u n d e n i e d t h e m ; wurden m a d e absolute
u n d u n c o n d i t i o n a l slaves. E n o r m e s Q u a n t u m wealth i h n e n ausgepret. O b -
25 gleich Ovando die royal portion auf % reducirt hatte, betrug es d o c h
100,000 l. St. jhrlich. Zu alle d e m n o c h das sugar-cane introduced. Planta-
tions u n d sugarworks were established a n d b e c a m e general. ([47,] 48) Bei
dieser raschen Zerstrung of h u m a n life H e r r O v a n d o stattet eine Flotte for
the benighted Lucayos'mseln aus u n d d e n i n h a b i t a n t s weigemacht von d e n
30 Spaniards, that they c a m e from t h e h e a v e n of their ancestors etc u n d d a
diese ihr arrival erwarteten. 40,000 decoyed by this hellish artifice u n d
a d d e d to the r e m a i n i n g n u m b e r s der H i s p a n i o l a n wretches in t h e m i n e s
u n d plantations. ([49,] 50) C o l u m b u s h a t t e die Perlfischerei von Cubagua
entdeckt. Als sein Sohn D o n Diego h e r b e r k a m als Viceroy der n e u e n
35 Welt, brachte er e i n e n n e u e n Schwrm v o n Hidalgos m i t sich. Vertheilte
u n t e r sie, was n o c h von I n d i a n s existirte u n d etablirte auf der S a n d b a n k
von C u b a g u a a colony of perlfishers, wo die I n d i a n s u n d besonders die v o n
den Lucayos were compelled to find in diving the last extremity of their
sufferings. (51) In less als 50 J a h r e n n a c h d e m arrival der Spanier k e i n e
40 200 I n d i a n s m e h r zu finden in Hispaniola u n d als Francis Drake t o u c h e d
there in 1585 not o n e was r e m a i n i n g . (53) Urn die Colonie m i t I n d i e r n zu
517
supply k i d n a p p i n g cruizes der Spanier along every shore of t h e new world.

So der bulk des people von C u m a n a carried off as slaves to H i s p a n i o l a ...
D o n Diego eroberte Cuba. ([53,] 54) |
1831 Spaniards in Jamaica

and other West Indian Islands. 5
T h e story of o n e W e s t i n d i a Island, is t h e story of all. W h e t h e r Spaniards,

F r e n c h or English took possession, the slaughter a n d oppression of the na-
tives followed. (56) Zu der Zahl von 60,000 auf J a m a i c a . (Indians) K e i n e r
von either sex lebte n o c h w h e n t h e English took t h e island in 1655. (58)
D e r I n d i a n der W e s t i n d i s c h e n Inseln, zu Las Casas Z e i t e n n o c h 6 Mil- 10
lions, ganz reduced to nothing. (59)
Spaniards in Mexico.
Cortez erzhlt d e m E i n e n m e x i c a n officer that the Spaniards h a d a dis-

ease of t h e h e a r t which could only be cured by gold". (74)
Spaniards in Peru. 15
K a m p f der spanischen A b e n t h e u r e r u n t e r sich, n a c h d e m sie Peru unter-

jocht. R o b e r t s o n sagt: "It is only where m e n are far r e m o v e d from the seat
of government, where the restraints of law a n d order are little felt; where
the prospect of gain is u n b o u n d e d , a n d where i m m e n s e wealth m a y cover
the crimes by which it is acquired, t h a t we c a n find any parallel to the 20
cruelty, the rapaciousness, the perfidy a n d corruption prevalent amongst
t h e Spaniards in Peru." ( 1 1 6 - 1 8 )
Spaniards in Paraguay.
1534, the powerful a r m a m e n t of D o n Pedro de M e n d o z a , consisting of

11 ships a n d 800 m e n entered the Plata, a n d laid the f o u n d a t i o n of B u e n o s 25
Ayres. A b e r er so wenig wie J u a n Diaz de Solis (1515), Cabot u n d Diego
G a r c i a w u r d e n fertig m i t diesen kriegerischen u n d k a n n i b a l i s c h e n Einwoh-
n e r n . M u t e unverrichteter Sache h e i m k e h r e n . (123, 4) Er lie Ayolas zu-
rck in c o m m a n d . Dieser advanced n a c h Paraguay u n d n a h m die town of
518
A s s u m p c i o n . (124) D i e J e s u i t e n eingeladen v o n Peru u n d Brazil n a c h Para-

guay 1586. (126) Krieg besonders der Paulistas gegen die R e d u c t i o n s der
J e s u i t e n um I n d i e r zu fangen u n d als Sklaven abzufhren. (135 sqq.) T h e
Jesuits were compelled to retreat southward from o n e place to a n o t h e r with
5 their wretched n e o p h y t e s . T h e magistrates a n d governors gave t h e m no
aid ... u n d they were, even in the central g r o u n d between the P a r a n a a n d
Uruguay, compelled to train their people to arms, a n d defend themselves.
(139) D i e Spanier: In all their colonies, the natives, whether of I n d i a n
blood, or the Creoles d e s c e n d e d of their own, were carefully excluded from
10 the direction of their own affairs, a n d t h e e m o l u m e n t s of office. Spaniards
from the m o t h e r country were sent over in rapacious swarms, to fatten on
the vitals of these vast states, a n d r e t u r n w h e n they h a d sucked t h e i r fill.
(143)
Portuguese in Brazil.
15 Die features des settlement of Paraguay d u r c h die Spanier u n d of Brazil

durch die Portugiesen ganz similar. T h e natives were of like character, bold
and warlike, and were treated in like fashion. They were destroyed, en-
slaved, given away in E n c o m i e n d o s etc. (145) E i n e r der first acts der Portu-
giesen to ship thither as colonists t h e refuse of her prisons. (146) M a r i a
20 G r a h a m sagt: (1824) In Brazil the natives entweder e x t e r m i n a t e d or
wholly s u b d u e d . T h e slavehunting, systematisch on the first o c c u p a t i o n of
the land u n d besonders n a c h der discovery der m i n e s , h a t t e die I n d i a n s so
vermindert, d a Negereinfhrung n t h i g : they (die N e g e r ) n o w people t h e
Brazilian fields; a n d if here a n d there an I n d i a n aldea is to be found, the
25 people are wretched, with less t h a n negro comforts, a n d m u c h less t h a n n e -
gro spirit or industry: the I n d i a n s are n o t h i n g in Brazil." Sie erzhlt (Voy-
age to Brazil, p. 9) "In the Captaincy of Porto Seguro, within these 20 years,
an I n d i a n tribe h a d b e e n so t r o u b l e s o m e t h a t the C a p i t a m M r resolved to
get rid of it. It was attacked, b u t defended itself so bravely, t h a t t h e Portu-
30 guese resolved to desist from o p e n warfare; b u t with u n n a t u r a l ingenuity
exposed ribbons a n d toys, infested with smallpox matter, in t h e places
where the poor savages were likely to find t h e m . T h e plan succeeded. T h e
I n d i a n s were so t h i n n e d t h a t they were easily overcome." D a s rsultat des
bloodshed ||84| u n d crime beschreibt Sir F. B. H e a d in den R o u g h N o t e s
35 on the Pampas", 1826. Splendid countries overrun with a m o s t l u x u r i a n t
vegetation u n d m i t countless troops of wild horses and herds of wild cattle,
b u t thinly peopled, partly m i t I n d i a n s u n d partly m i t d e n G a u c h o s , or de-
scendants der Spaniards, existing in a state of t h e m o s t h i d e o u s hostility
519
and h a t r e d o n e towards another. (166, 7) In d e n R e p u b l i c s von S d a m e r i k a

in d e n towns we find the people indolent, ignorant, superstitious, u n d m o s t
f i l t h y ; u n d i n d e m country n a k e d I n d i a n s o n horseback, scouring the wilds,
a n d m a k i n g use of the very animals by which the Spaniards subjugated
t h e m , to scourge u n d e x t e r m i n a t e their d e s c e n d a n t s . Leztre n u r a n o t h e r 5
k i n d of savages. (170)
Portuguese in India.
Die Portugiesen l a n d e t e n in Calicut u n t e r G a m a 1498 ... ihre conquests

u n d cruelties in I n d i e n nothwendig confined chiefly to the coasts u n d
Gewrzinseln. (174, 5) W i t h less t h a n 40,000 troops the Portuguese struck 10
terror into the empire of Morocco, the barbarous n a t i o n s of Africa, the
M a m e l u c s , the Arabians, and all the eastern countries from the island of
O r m u z to China. (177) T h e r e prevailed berall in d e n m a n n e r s der Portu-
giesen a m i x t u r e of avarice, debauchery, cruelty u n d devotion. (181)
The Dutch in India. 15
W i r k o m m e n jezt zu e i n e m Protestant people. (185) T h e dutch, d e n i e d

I n d i a n goods in Portugal, d e t e r m i n e d to seek t h e m in I n d i a itself. 1594 gab
Philipp die order that they should n o t be p e r m i t t e d to receive goods from
Portuguese ports u n d u m 1602, u n d e r their admirals, H o u t m a n u n d V a n
N e c k , they h a d visited Madagascar, t h e Maldives, a n d t h e isles of S u n d a ; 20
etablirt Factories i n verschiednen der M o l u k k e n u n d b r o u g h t h o m e a b u n -
d a n c e of pepper, spices u.d.g. N u m e r o u s trading c o m p a n i e s organisirt, alle
vereinigt, durch die Politic der G e n e r a l s t a a t e n , in die E i n e der East I n d i a
C o m p a n y . (190) Die D u t c h kmpften glcklich gegen die Portugiesen.
Sonst aber they sought to win their way by duplicity, rather t h a n by deci- 25
sive daring. So rotteten sie ihre rivals n a c h u n d n a c h aus of their m o s t i m -
portant stations in Java, d e n M o l u c c e n , Ceylon, an d e n C o r o m a n d e l u n d
M a l a b a r Coasts. Ihre lucrativsten Posten waren zu Java, B a n t a m u n d d e n
M o l u c c a s . A b e r so bald sie berlegen fearful m e t a m o r p h o s i s . Ihre rapacity,
perfidy u n d infamous cruelty k a n n t e n keine G r n z e n . B e r h m t e s Massacre 30
der English in Amboyna, wo sie 5 factories h a t t e n d u r c h die D u t c h . W a n d -
ten die gemeinsten Torturen an; n u r um zu h e r r s c h e n als sole kings b e r
die islands of cloves u n d c i n n a m o n , n u t m e g s u n d m a c e , c a m p h o r u n d cof-
fee, areca u n d betel, gold, pearls u n d precious metals. ( 1 9 1 - 1 9 3 ) There are
few things in history m o r e darkly horrible als ihr k i d n a p p i n g system of the 35
520
Celebes, um Sklaven fr Java etc zu h a b e n . (194, 5) D i e m a n s t e a l e r s were

trained to the purpose. D e r thief, der interpreter, der seller die H a u p t a g e n -
ten in d i e s e m H a n d e l . Die magistrates u n d princes die chiefdealers in it.
D a z u die secret Prisons in Celebes wo versteckt bis reif to be sent to t h e
5 slave ships. (195, 6) E i n officieller R e p o r t sagt: Z. B. diese eine town of
Maksar, filled m i t prisons, t h e o n e m o r e d i s m a l t h a n the other, w h i c h are
stuffed mit h u n d r e d s of wretches, the victims of avarice u n d tyranny, who,
chained in fetters, a n d t a k e n away from their wives etc" ... S u c h was t h e
terror universally existing in these islands w h e n t h e English c o n q u e r e d
10 t h e m , that the i n h a b i t a n t s did n o t dare to walk the streets, work in t h e
fields, or go on a journey, except in c o m p a n i e s of 5 or 6 together, a n d well
armed. (197) Desirous of b e c o m i n g masters of Malacca, sie b e s t a c h e n d e n
portugiesischen Governor. Er fhrte d e n e n e m y in die city 1641. T h e y hast-
ened to his h o u s e u n d massacred h i m to save t h e bribe of 500,000 livres
15 = 21,875 /. St. (198) Sir Stamford Raffles h a t die G e s c h i c h t e der H o l l n d e r
in Java gegeben. Es ist one of the m o s t extraordinary relations of treachery,
bribery, massacre u n d m e a n n e s s . (199, 200) |
|85| So ihre B e h a n d l u n g der natives, d a die Population Einer Provinz,
Banyuawngi, 1750 an 80,000, in 1811 reducirt auf 8000. U e b e r a u u n t e r
20 i h n e n Depopulation. (200)
The English in India.
Erst von 1708, als die different chartered c o m p a n i e s , in die E i n e ostin-

dische verwandelt, the english affairs in the east a s s u m e d an imposing
aspect. (206) The first step in the english friendship with the native princes,
25 has generally b e e n to assist t h e m against their n e i g h b o u r s with troops, or to
locate troops with t h e m to protect t h e m from aggression. For these services
such e n o r m o u s r e c o m p e n s e was stipulated for, that the unwary princes, en-
trapped by their fear of their native foes rather t h a n of their p r e t e n d e d
friends, soon found they were utterly u n a b l e to discharge t h e m . Dreadful
30 exactions were m a d e on their subjects, b u t in vain. W h o l e provinces, or the
revenues of them, were soon obliged to be m a d e over to their grasping
friends; b u t they did n o t suffice for their d e m a n d s . In order to pay t h e m
their debts or their interest, the princes were obliged to borrow large s u m s
at an extravagant rate. T h e s e s u m s were eagerly advanced by t h e English in
35 their private and individual capacities u n d securities again t a k e n on lands
or revenues. At every step the u n h a p p y princes b e c a m e m o r e a n d m o r e e m -
barrassed, a n d as the e m b a r r a s s m e n t increased, the claims of the C o m p a n y
b e c a m e proportionably pressing. In the technical phraseology of m o n e y l e n d -
521
ers the screw was t h e n t u r n e d " ... K e i n e andre Ausflucht als sich ganz der
mercy der inexorable creditors zu berlassen or to break o u t into a r m e d
resistance. W e n n Erstres, so jedes vestige ihrer power i h n e n abgestrippt,
ihre revenues u n d die Verwaltung ihrer territories diesen creditors berge-
ben, schlielich sie gezwungen, to cede their territories u n d b e c o m e pen- 5
sioners on t h e i r usurpers. Im a n d r e n Fall d u r c h Gewalt der Waffen de-
stroyed or deposed als traitors etc. S u c h t e n sie Hlfe bei e i n e m a n d e r n
state, that b e c a m e a fortunate plea to attack t h a t state too ... It did n o t suf-
fice that a province merely refused an alliance, if the proper t i m e was
d e e m e d to be arrived for its s e i z u r e s o m e plea of danger or suspicion was 10
set up against it. ... Die Prinzen, die e i n m a l subjected der british power or
friendship, bald set u p , bald pulled down wie es i h n e n gefiel. If necessary,
t h e m o s t o d i o u s stigmas were fixed on t h e m to get rid of t h e m t h e y were
declared weak, illegitimate dissolute. If a prince or princess was Suspected
of having wealth, some villanous s c h e m e was h a t c h e d to p l u n d e r h i m or 15
h e r of it. F r m e h r als ein J h d t d a u e r n dieses shocking system, every day
growing m o r e daring in its action, a n d m o r e wide in its extent. ... every
british subject nicht belonging zur C o m p a n i e u n d d a h e r an i h r e n opera-
tions interessirt, was rigidly excluded from the country. ( 2 1 3 - 1 5 ) Sie
m a c h t e n stets conquests on the plea of aiding their allies. In the end the al- 20
lies were themselves swallowed u p , with all the a d d i t i o n a l territories thus
gained. (243) (It was a system of fattening allies as we fatten oxen, till they
were m o r e worthy of being devoured. I.e.) T h e East I n d i a C o m p a n y , after
fighting a n d c o n q u e r i n g in I n d i a for 2 centuries, have found themselves, at
t h e dissolution of their charter, nearly 50 millions in debt; while their trade 25
with China, wo sie keinen foot of l a n d besitzen, h a d b e c o m e t h e richest
c o m m e r c e in the world. (251) D e r private trade was a great source of reve-
n u e . T h e public trade d. h. der transit of goods to a n d from Europe, was the
peculiar m o n o p o l y of the C o m p a n y ; b u t all coasting trade, trade to a n d be-
tween the isless, ||86| and in the interior of India, b e c a m e a m o n o p o l y of 30
the higher servants of the Company, who were at o n c e engaged in the C o m -
p a n y ' s concerns a n d their own. T h e m o n o p o l y of salt, o p i u m , betel u n d
a n d r e n W a a r e n b e c a m e a m i n e of wealth. T h e C o m p a n y ' s servants could
fix the price at whatever rate they pleased, a n d t h u s e n h a n c e it to the u n -
fortunate people so as to occasion t h e m the most intense distress. F o r t u n e s 35
were m a d e in a day by this m o n o p o l y u n d o h n e advance of a single shil-
ling. T h e very Governor-general himself engaged in this private trade; u n d
contracts d e n favourites given on s u c h terms, t h a t 2 or 3 fortunes were
m a d e o u t of t h e m before they reached the m e r c h a n t . In e i n e m case, der
o u t k a m bei d e m trial von W a r r e n Hastings, a contract for o p i u m h a d b e e n 40
given to Mr. Sullivan, t h o u g h he was going into q u i t e a different part of In-
522
dia, a n d on public business; this, of course, he sold again, to Mr. B e n n for

40,000 1.; u n d dieser verkaufte es again fr 60,000 1., clearing 20,000 I. by
the m e r e passing des contract von einer H a n d in die a n d r e ; u n d der pur-
chaser t h e n declared t h a t he m a d e a large s u m by it. (255, 6) T h e C o m p a n y
5 could, indeed, with a very bad grace, c o n d e m n bribery in its officers, d e n n
sie selbst b t e sie stets at h o m e aus in order to obtain its exclusive privi-
leges from g o v e r n m e n t ; u n d so early as 1693 it appeared from p a r l i a m e n -
tary inquiry, that its a n n u a l e x p e n d i t u r e u n d e r t h e h e a d of gifts to m e n in
power vor der Revolution selten b e r 1,200 1., aber von dieser priode bis
10 1693 erreichte sie fast 90,000 /. jhrlich. D e r D u k e of Leeds was i m p e a c h e d
for a bribe of 5,000 l. u n d 10,000 l. d e m king selbst. A u s s e r d e m , so oft e i n e
n e u e rival c o m p a n y im Feld erschien, g o v e r n m e n t was t e m p t e d m i t d e n
loans of e n o r m o u s s u m s , at t h e lowest interest. D i e s e m entsprechen d a n n
wieder die u n g e h e u r e n presents die sich die C o m p a g n i e selbst u n d j e d e r
15 ihrer B e a m t e n in I n d i e n m a c h e n lie. Wo n a c h aus d e m P a r l a m e n t vorge-
legten Liste von d e n P r i n z e n u n d a n d r e n N a t i v e n von Bengal allein, von
1 7 5 7 - 1 7 6 6 , g e m a c h t e n G e s c h e n k e n etc an 6 Mill. /. St. ( 2 5 7 - 6 0 ) extortion,
n a c h Clives A u s d r u c k selbst, wo simple corruption could n o t keep pace m i t
der rapacity der B e a m t e n der C o m p a g n i e . (262) H u n g e r s n o t h 1769, 70 m i t
20 d u r c h die Englnder, buying up all the rice u n d refusing to sell any of it ex-
cept at the most exorbitant price. (268) T h e I n d i a n government had, in
fact, instead of discouraging s u c h practices in t h e natives (wie d e n Dienst
des Juggernaut u n d die Prostitution i n n e r h a l b seines Tempels) t a k e n up
the trade of public m u r d e r e r s , a n d keepers of h o u s e s of ill fame, u n t e r d e m
25 Vorwand religiser Toleranz, in W a h r h e i t aber, weil es Steuern zog on all
pilgrims going to the temples in Orissa u n d Bengal u n d h a d appointed brit-
ish officers, british g e n t l e m e n to s u p e r i n t e n d the m a n a g e m e n t of this h i d e -
ous worship and the receipt of its proceeds. (295) Erst jezt n e u l i c h the In-
dian government has b e e n s h a m e d o u t of trading in m u r d e r a n d
30 prostitution in the temples of Juggernaut. (296) I n d o s t a n is the Ireland of
the East. (300) Die ryots bilden % des Volks. (308)
The French in their Colonies.
No E u r o p e a n n a t i o n h a s b e e n so u n f o r t u n a t e in t h e loss of colonies. (313)

Sieh Colden. History of the five nations. It is to the eternal disgrace of
35 b o t h F r e n c h a n d english that they instigated and bribed the I n d i a n s to
massacre a n d scalp their e n e m i e s b u t it seems to be the peculiar infamy
of the F r e n c h to have i m i t a t e d the I n d i a n s in their m o s t b a r b a r o u s cus-
t o m s , a n d have even prided themselves on displaying a higher r e f i n e m e n t
523
in cruelty t h a n the savages themselves. T h e N e w Englanders, indeed, are

distinctly stated by Douglass, to have h a n d e d over their I n d i a n prisoners to
be t o r m e n t e d by their N a r a g a n s e t allies, b u t with the french this savage
practice seems to have b e e n frequent. N a m e n t l i c h berchtigt the old gover-
n o r F r o n t e n a c . V o n 1 6 9 1 - 5 nothing was m o r e c o m m o n t h a n for his i n d i a n 5
prisoners to be given up to his i n d i a n allies to be t o r m e n t e d . (324) |
1871 The English in America.
F r a b o u t a century nichts als wretchedness, failure, famine massacres by

t h e I n d i a n s , were the news from the a m e r i c a n Colonies. D i e m e h r n r d -
lichen, wie N o v a Scotia, C a n a d a u n d Newyork, we took from the F r e n c h 10
u n d the D u t c h ; the m o r e southern, wie Florida u n d Louisiana, were o b -
tained spter von d e n Spaniards. E c h t englische settlements die central
eastern states, besonders Virginia, N e w E n g l a n d u n d Pennsylvania. (336)
D i e P u r i t a n e r l a n d e t e n 11 N o v e m b e r 1620 an der coast of M a s s a c h u s e t s , at
a spot, d e n sie N e w P l y m o u t h n a n n t e n . (343) (Douglass's S u m m a r y of t h e 15
first Planting of N o r t h America.) D i e M a s s a c h u s e t s assembly, 1703, voted
40 I. p r e m i u m for e a c h I n d i a n scalp or captive. In t h e former war the p r e m i -
um was 12 I. (348) 1722 das p r e m i u m for scalps was 1 0 0 / . ; 1744 war es
risen auf 400 1.; fr die years 1745, 6 u n d 7 stand es zu 1000 I. per h e a d to
volunteers, scalp or captive, u n d 400 I. per h e a d to impressed m e n , wages 20
a n d subsistence m o n e y to be deducted. (I.e.) In 1744 the Cape-Sables u n d
St. J o h n ' s I n d i a n s being at war with the colonies, Massachusets Bay de-
clared t h e m rebels ... u n d offered for their scalps - males 12 years old, a n d
upwards, 100 1. new tenor; for such as captives, 105 1., for women und chil-
dren 50 I. scalps! 55 I. captives. T h e assembly soon after, hearing t h a t t h e 25
Penobscot a n d Noridgwoag I n d i a n s h a d j o i n e d the F r e n c h , e x t e n d e d p r e m i -
u m s for scalps a n d captives to all places west of N o v a Scotia, a n d advanced
t h e m to 250 I. new tenor, to volunteers; a n d 100 I. new t e n o r to troops
in pay. (348) Dieser Krieg hie Governor D u m m e r ' s war; d o c h der b e r h m -
teste der von Philip von Pokanoket, brach aus 1675 u n d d a u e r t e ganzes 30
Jahr. (350) (Adair: History of the A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s . [368]) In d e m Krieg
m i t d e n F r a n z o s e n u m C a n a d a d u r c h alle Mittel die I n d i e r gegen sie gehezt
u n d auf Seite der Englnder gebracht. A b e r k a u m C a n a d a reduced, a n d
the services of the I n d i a n s no longer n e e d e d , als sie ebensosehr e n c r o a c h e d
u p o n u n d insulted as ever. Einige ihrer blutigsten Kriege gegen die Set- 35
t l e m e n t s fanden Statt between der Conquest von C a n a d a u n d d e m a m e -
rikanischen Unabhngigkeitskrieg. It was the long course of injuries a n d
insults which the I n d i a n s h a d suffered from the settlers that m a d e t h e m so
524
ready to take up the t o m a h a w k a n d scalping-knife at the call, a n d i n d u c e d

by the bloodmoney, of the m o t h e r c o u n t r y against h e r a m e r i c a n children.
E m p l o y m e n t u n d instigation der I n d i a n s to t o m a h a w k the settlers ... s u c h
enormities called im brittischen P a r l a m e n t m e a n s which god a n d n a t u r e
5 have p u t into our h a n d s " u n d Lord Cornwallis, o u r general t h e n employed
gegen die A m e r i c a n s , sagte, 1780 his satisfaction t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d
p u r s u e d a n d scalped m a n y of the e n e m y " . (378, 9) In Newfoundland h a b e n
die Englnder die I n d i a n s ausgerottet vllig. (380)
Behandlung der Indier in den United States.
10 T h e fire waters, gin, r u m , a n d brandy, have b e e n introduced to intoxicate,

a n d in intoxication to swindle t h e I n d i a n s o u t of their furs a n d lands.
N u m b e r s of claims to lands have b e e n g r o u n d e d on d r u n k e n bargains,
which in their soberness the I n d i a n s would n o t recognize; a n d t h e conse-
quences have b e e n bloodshed a n d forcible expulsion. (394) T h e m o s t sin-
15 gular feature of the t r e a t m e n t der I n d i a n s by the A m e r i c a n s is, t h a t while
they assign their irreclaimable n a t u r e as t h e necessary cause of their expel-
ling or desiring to expel t h e m from all t h e states east of t h e Mississippi,
their m o s t strenuous u n d m o s t recent efforts have b e e n directed against
those n u m e r o u s tribes, that were n o t only extensive b u t rapidly advancing
20 in civilization, the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, u n d Cherokees, were fast
conforming b o t h to the religion a n d the habits of the A m e r i c a n s etc. (405)
The English in South Africa.
(Pringles African Sketches.) "There is scarcely an instance of cruelty said

to have b e e n c o m m i t t e d against t h e slaves in t h e W e s t i n d i a n islands, t h a t
25 could n o t find a parallel from t h e D u t c h farmers towards the H o t t e n t o t s in
their service." ([422,] 423) Dr Philip: Researches in South Africa" publi-
cirt 1828, publicirte zuerst die Sauerein, die gedauert seit (1797) die E n g -
lnder Besitzer des Caps der g u t e n Hoffnung statt der Hollnder. (424) D a -
d u r c h bewirkt da die H o t t e n t o t e n emancipirt von England. (I.e.) (1828
30 u n d 29) [429] |
|88| Im Cap gegen die b u s h m e n u n d caffern die commandoes, a sort of
military b a t t u (Treibjagd) set on foot gegen sie. T h e i n h a b i t a n t s of a dis-
trict assemble at the c o m m a n d of an officer, civil or military, to clear the
country ... they take in a vast circle, beating up the b u s h e s and thickets,
35 while they gradually contract the circle, till the whole m u l t i t u d e find t h e m -
525
selves inclosing a small area filled with the whole savage p o p u l a t i o n of the
n e i g h b o u r h o o d , on which they m a k e a s i m u l t a n e o u s attack, a n d slaughter
t h e m in o n e p r o m i s c u o u s mass. Diese c o m m a n d o e s u s e d from t h e first day
of discovery. They were c o m m o n in the Spanish a n d Portugueses colonies
u n d u n d e r the s a m e n a m e . (434) 5
Cafferland. ... T h e e n c r o a c h m e n t s der colonists u p o n t h e Caffres, w h e n

they c a m e in contact with t h e m on t h e banks of t h e G a m t o o s river; their
expulsion from the Rumfield, now Albany, in 1 8 1 1 ; the c o m m a n d o e s of
Colonel Brereton, in 1818; our c o n d u c t to Gaika, o u r ally, in 1819, in de-
priving h i m of the country between the F i s h a n d K e i s k a m m a Rivers; the 10
injury inflicted u p o n M a c o m o u n d Gaika, by the ejectment of M a c o m o
a n d his people, with m a n y of the people of Gaika, from the Katriver, in
1829; the m a n n e r in which the Caffres were expelled from the westbank of
t h e C h u m i e a n d K e i s k a m m a , in 1833, and, subsequently, again (after hav-
ing b e e n allowed to return) in 1834; a n d the working of t h e c o m m a n d o s y s - 15
t e m , down to D e c e m b e r 1834were sufficient in themselves to a c c o u n t for
t h e Caffrewar (1837 o d e r 38!) if the Caffres are allowed to be h u m a n be-
ings, a n d to possess passions like ourselves. (462)
The English in New Holland

and the Islands of the Pacific. 20
We have totally cleared V a n D i e m a n ' s L a n d u n d die natives of N e w Hol-

l a n d r e d u c e d to misery. (475) Till lately the tattooed h e a d s of N e w Zea-
landers were sold at Sidney as objects of curiosity; a n d Mr Y a t e says he has
known people give property to a chief for the purpose of getting t h e m to kill
their slaves, that they m i g h t have some heads to take to N e w S o u t h Wales. 25
This degrading traffic prohibited by G e n e r a l Darling. (490) Mr Yate o n c e
took from the h a n d of a N e w Zealand chief a packet of corrosive sublimate,
which a captain h a d given to the savage in order to enable h i m to poison
his e n e m i e s . (491)
526
Aus Juan Sempere y Guarinos: Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur
Sempr (ancien magistrat espagnol)

Considrations sur les causes de la grandeur
et de la dcadence
de la Monarchie Espagnole.
5 2 t o m . Paris 1826.
t.I.
Der pre C h a r e n t o n , Uebersetzer der s p a n i s c h e n G e s c h i c h t e des M a r i a n a ,

zhlt 179 rvolutions survenues dans les tats chrtiens de la Pninsule. (4)
le G o u v e r n e m e n t des G o t h s n ' t a i t q u ' u n e m o n a r c h i e t h o c r a t i q u e . (7) Ca-
10 siri publia les capitulations convenues entre le gnral m a h o m t a n A b d a l a -
ziz et le prince G o t h T h o d o m i r . 712 (14) les M a u r e s d o m i n r e n t la P n i n -
sule plus de 700 ans ; et s'ils ne s'taient point dsunis et diviss en petits
tats e n n e m i s les u n s des autres, p e u t tre q u e leurs bannires y flotte-
raient encore. (21) Im 10' u n d 1 1 ' Jh. die c o u r o n n e (die m o n a r c h i e chr-
15 t i e n n e de la Pninsule), d'lective qu'elle tait, devint hrditaire, et m m e
p a t r i m o n i a l e ; et les rois qui, sous le rgime de la m o n a r c h i e des G o t h s ,
n ' a u r a i e n t pu aliner a u c u n e partie de leurs d o m a i n e s , j o u i r e n t sous le
g o u v e r n e m e n t fodal du droit de les partager d a n s leurs familles, et m m e
de les d o n n e r aux trangers. Im 11* Jh. F e r d i n a n d I theilte seine r o y a u m e s
l
20 u n t e r ses 3 fils u n d 2 filles. (28, 29) Im 12 Jh. als Abwehr gegen die A n a r -
chie, die h o h e Geistlichkeit u n d die F e u d a l e n tous les paysans, les labou-
reurs et autres proltaires se r u n i r e n t et conspirrent contre leurs sei-
gneurs, um i h n e n die services zu refsiren. Ils n o m m r e n t ces
congrgations confrries, et ils publiaient d a n s les m a r c h s u n d d e n bourgs
25 u n d ||89| villages : sachez que d a n s un tel lieu et tel j o u r i n d i q u , la confr-
527
rie doit se runir, et q u e les maisons de ceux qui ne v o u d r o n t pas, seront

dmolies. Ils se soulevrent etc. Die confrries v e r m e h r t e n sich so, d a
sie schlielich u n e partie de la constitution politique de ces t e m p s bilde-
ten. Schlich sich in sie der G e b r a u c h ein, de n o m m e r des alcades ou juges
particuliers p o u r les affaires des confrres; der heilige F e r d i n a n d verbot 5
alle deren direkter u n d einziger Zweck nicht q u e l q u e s exercises de pits.
D o c h b i l d e t e n sich andre in h n l i c h e n Fllen, besonders w h r e n d der m i -
norits des rois. ( 4 4 - 4 7 ) Auffindung der Pandecten Waffe gegen die Pbste.
Da sie a b o n d e n t in lois favorables au despotisme, les souverains en prot-
grent la propagation, fondrent des coles p o u r leur e n s e i g n e m e n t , et ac- 10
cordrent des grands h o n n e u r s a u x jurisconsultes. ([50,] 51) (whlten sie
fr ihre conseils, G e s a n d t e u n d wichtigsten affaires.) K a m p f daher zwi-
schen d e n lgistes u n d canonistes. (52) Le droit de cuissage, d . h . celui
qu'avaient quelques seigneurs in F r a n k r e i c h de dflorer les filles avant
leurs maris, la premire n u i t de leurs noces, fut en usage en Catalogne, bis 15
F e r d i n a n d le catholique es abschaffte 1486. (97) D i e Vereinigung der bei-
den K r o n e n von Castilien u n d Aragon - u n t e r F e r d i n a n d u n d Isabella -
Heilige H e r m a n d a d geschaffen; Zerstrung des grten Theils der ch-
t e a u x u n d forteresses vieler seigneurs u n d chevalier, nicht m e h r nthig
p o u r la dfense du r o y a u m e ; ils a n n u l r e n t viele alinations de bourgs, al- 20
cavalas u n d andrer biens de c o u r o n n e , faites p o u r des services supposs ou
exagrs. Ils r u n i r e n t aussi la c o u r o n n e les matrises des ordres mili-
taires, qui a n t r i e u r e m e n t taient a u t a n t de principauts. Ils dpouillrent
les grands du droit d o n t ils avaient j o u i jusqu'alors d'tre conseillers ns
des rois, et de souscrire les privilges; ils d o n n r e n t u n e nouvelle forme 25
l'ancien Conseil, en le c o m p o s a n t en grande partie de Jurisconsultes etc.
Begnstigten die savans u n d die instruction littraire de la noblesse. Errich-
teten die Inquisition. ( 1 0 1 - 3 ) Besonders gerichtet gegen die J u d e n , im A n -
fang n u r gegen die Getauften, die n o u v e a u x chrtiens. Zugleich H a u p t m i t -
tel d e n Schatz zu fllen. Bis 1507 b e r 11,000 c o n d a m n s . (124) Die In- 30
quisition lieferte d e n K n i g e n die Kriegskosten gegen die F e u d a l e n .
A u s s e r d e m vermieden sie d a d u r c h die guerres de religion. (126, 7) Zu die-
ser Epoche u n d selbst m e h r e J a h r e n a c h h e r , die Castillans considraient
c o m m e trangers les Espagnols ns d a n s les tats de la c o u r o n n e d'Aragon.
Die A r a g o n e s e n werden von Isabella ausgeschlossen von d e m c o m m e r c e 35
u n d profits tirs des I n d e s . D e n Castiliens wurde das M o n o p o l gegeben.
Aber grade die aragonesischen Provinzen, besonders die Catalans u n d Va-
lenciens waren n o c h les plus industrieux de t o u t e la Pninsule. Barcelone
le disputait encore Venise et G n e s . (152, 3) Cette distribution et ce
service des I n d i e n s s'appela c o m m a n d e r i e , et leurs matres e n c o m e n d e r o s . 40
(160) 1503 F e r d i n a n d u n d Isabella publicirten un dcret, par lequel on per-
528
m e t t a i t tous ceux qui voudraient faire de nouvelles dcouvertes, de les ef-

fectuer, en d o n n a n t c a u t i o n et sous de certaines conditions. (163) A v a n t
les dcouvertes de C o l o m b , le trafic des ngres tait dj b i e n c o n n u et trs
usit en Espagne. Les Portugais faisaient ce c o m m e r c e en a c h e t a n t les n -
5 gres en Afrique, se servant d'eux, et r e v e n d a n t d'autres n a t i o n s c e u x d o n t
ils n ' a v a i e n t pas besoin. (173, 4) D a s bl, le vin, le sucre, les oranges et
autres fruits dlicieux, les chevaux, les bufs, les m o u t o n s et b e a u c o u p
d'autres a n i m a u x trs utiles p o u r l'agriculture etc von den S p a n i e r n einge-
fhrt. (192) 1520 Krieg der C o m m u n e r o s . H t t e n sich die nobles i h n e n
10 runi, so die rforme ou nouvelle constitution m o n a r c h i q u e projete par
les confdrs, se ft peuttre ralise. (199, 200) Im 16' Jh. n o c h 3 insur-
rections, die der C o m m u n e r o s von Castilien, die der M a u r e s q u e s zu G r e -
n a d a u n d die der Aragonesen, m a i s elles furent touffes bientt. (211) Da
die Spanier nicht die J u d e n zurckriefen, wie d'autres souverains, sie
15 M a n g e l an C a p i t a l i s t e n u n d t o u t leur c o m m e r c e passa entre les m a i n s
d'trangers, n o n m o i n s usuriers, et b e a u c o u p plus nuisibles q u e les juifs.
(216) Grosses Vorherrschen, u n t e r Karl V, der flandrischen M a n u f a c t u r e n
in Spanien. Carl V o r d o n n a par u n e p r a g m a t i q u e de 1552, q u e les trangers
qui exporteraient des laines de la P n i n s u l e , s'obligeraient d'y i m p o r t e r
20 pour c h a q u e d o u z e balles qu'ils en retireraient, d e u x pices de drap et u n e
balle de toile ... (223) |
[90| Malgr la p r p o n d r a n c e du c o m m e r c e tranger, les m a n u f a c t u r e s
espagnoles ayant dans les A m r i q u e s un d b o u c h assur et avantageux,
leurs fabriques ne laissrent pas de prosprer un tel point, qu'il y avait
25 des ngocians q u i a c h e t a i e n t leurs produits 2 ou 3 a n n e s l'avance, ainsi
que le dirent les Corts de 1552 dans leur ptition. ([224,] 225) D i e d u m -
m e n Corts von 1552, voyant l'accroissement des prix des comestibles, des
draps, des soies, des m a r o q u i n s et de toutes les autres m a r c h a n d i s e s du
c o m m e r c e avec les A m r i q u e s , d e m a n d r e n t la prohibition de leur expor-
30 tation de la Pninsule pour ce continent. (226) So wollten sie Ueberflu
von Gold u n d Silber einerseits, strzten dewegen n a c h A m e r i c a etc; a n -
derseits on dclamait contre l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n d e r Preisse der W a a r e n . D i e
Cortez von 1532 avaient r e m a r q u q u e 3000 maravdis von 1480 valaient
um
a u t a n t als 15,000 d'alors, also argent baiss i n % J - 5fache seines
35 Werthes. (226, 7) So verloren die in den alten Criminalgesetzen festgesez-
ten Strafen - z u m grossen Theil a m e n d e s de sous, ou maravdis - diese
peines pcuniaires ihre rigueur en proportion de l'norme diffrence q u i
existait entre les m o n n a i e s en circulation au t e m p s de leur promulgation,
et les m o n n a i e s postrieures la dcouverte des A m r i q u e s . (227, 8) In
40 d e m F u e r o royal, publi par A l o n z o X, 1254, on prohibait les appels des
justices ordinaires d a n s les procs q u i ne passaient pas 10 m a r a v d i s ; a b e r
529
die galten d a m a l s so viel wie 1000 r a u x jezt. In einer O r d o n a n z desselben

Knigs, wo die Preisse aller comestibles b e s t i m m t , der beste b u f 5 m a r a -
vdis u n d ein b o n t a u r e a u nicht b e r 4 ; jezt n i c h t u n t e r 1000 r a u x z u kau-
fen. In d e n premiers rglemens du Conseil royal verordnet keine appels
von d e n sentences des t r i b u n a u x zuzulassen, m o i n s q u e les appelans ne 5
consignassent 1500 doubles, qu'ils p e r d a i e n t si leurs sentences taient
confirmes par le Conseil. H t t e m s s e n verzehnfacht werden. Da die
nicht geschah die appels so hufig qu'il fallut crer au Conseil u n e c h a m -
bre particulire pour en connatre. H e i t n o c h C h a m b r e des 1500. (228, 9)
Les glises p o u v a n t acqurir des bienfonds, et leur alination t a n t prohi- 10
be, le clerg d u t n a t u r e l l e m e n t a c c u m u l e r d ' i m m e n s e s trsors. A b e r die
substitutions ecclsiastiques, heissen h e u t e a m o r t i s s e m e n t , n i c h t so gefhr-
lich fr d e n tat civil in d e n premiers sicles, wo diese G t e r n i c h t e x e m p -
tes des contributions u n d wo die Pfaffen m i t k m p f e n u n d m i t z a h l e n m u -
ten, als in d e n sptren J a h r h u n d e r t e n , wo sie v o n all d i e s e m eximirt. 15
Vergeblicher K a m p f von G e s e t z e n gegen diese A c c u m u l a t i o n in d e n H n -
d e n der Pfaffen. ( 2 2 9 - 2 3 1 ) Alle quipages u n d armes e m b a r q u s von Cor-
tez 508 soldats, 110 pilotes u n d mariniers, 16 chevaux et j u m e n s , 32 arba-
ltriers, 13 fusiliers, 10 pices d'artillerie de bronze, quatre f a u c o n n e a u x
avec les provisions de p o u d r e , balles et vivres ncessaires p o u r q u e l q u e 20
t e m p s . Un seul der h e u t i g e n navires de h a u t - b o r d est d ' u n e plus grande ca-
pacit et renferme plus de forces que t o u t e cette escadre, avec laquelle les
Castillans c o n q u i r e n t un territoire 6 x plus t e n d u que t o u t e la P n i n s u l e ,
ein R e i c h von 100 cits, 3000 seigneurs d'autres peuplades, rsidant dans
u n e capitale de plus de 60 000 maisons et palais etc. D i e c o m p a g n o n s wo- 25
m i t Pizarro (Franois) die Erobrung von Peru u n t e r n a h m n i c h t b e r 250.
(167, 8). Bis z u m 13' J h d t keine Spur der Majorate in der Halbinsel. D e r l-
gislateur du code appel Partidas fhrte sie zuerst ein, in Castilien. Diese
Gesetze erlaubten zwar d e n E i g e n t h m e r n ihren E r b e n d e n Verkauf ihrer
G t e r zu verbieten, aber n o c h w h r e n d der 2 sicles suivants, | | 9 1 | bedurfte 30
es zur Stiftung von Majoraten eines b e s o n d e r e n Privilge du roi bis durch
die lois de Toro, publies en 1505, allen propritaires gestattet de substi-
tuer leurs biens, wenn o h n e Kinder, u n d wenn solche, d'instituer un majo-
rat sur l'un d'eux, du tiers des biens, avec la prohibition de l'alination.
Unsglicher S c h a d e n fr d e n fisc, die Agricultur u n d die m o r a l e p u b l i q u e . 35
(235) M a n verdankt in Spanien den Majoraten [da sie] verhinderten, was
die Cortez von Valladolid befrchteten en 1523, l'absorption de la plus
g r a n d e partie des biens du r o y a u m e par les glises et les couvens. (238)
Karl V courb sous les poids de ses i n n o m b r a b l e s dpenses, consulta son
conseil d'tat en 1555, sur les m o y e n s d'acqurir les fonds ncessaires p o u r 40
soutenir la dignit de la c o u r o n n e . D e r b e r h m t e d u c von A l b a m a c h t e
530
darauf folgende A u s e i n a n d e r s e t z u n g : C o n s i d r o n s d o n c de grce, et fai-

sons m r e m e n t rflexion q u e les sujets de S. M. sont de d e u x ordres, eccl-
siastiques et sculiers ; ceuxci sont v r i t a b l e m e n t puiss, tant les nobles q u e
les roturiers. T o u t au contraire les ecclsiastiques vivent t r a n q u i l l e m e n t et
5 leur aise, ou dans les monastres, ou d a n s leurs m a i s o n s , ou d a n s les d-
p e n d a n c e s de leurs glises, et possdent des revenus i m m e n s e s q u i absor-
b e n t presque tout le p a t r i m o i n e royal. Il faut venir, Sir, au tronc et la ra-
cine de l'arbre. Q u e V. M. considre, t a n t p o u r ses intrts propres q u e
p o u r ceux des peuples etc, q u e d a n s ses seuls r o y a u m e s d'Espagne, les ec-
10 clsiastiques possdent p o u r plus de d e u x millions de ducats en fonds de
terres, soit comts etc p e n d a n t q u ' p e i n e il reste V . M . impriale un
p o u c e de terre p o u r gratifier le grand n o m b r e de ses fidles capitaines q u i
emploient sans cesse leurs biens, leurs sueurs, et leur sang m m e , p o u r son
service et pour sa gloire. M a i s que sert a u x ecclsiastiques d'avoir des su-
15 jets, et d'tre de si grands seigneurs? les r e n d r e fiers et superbes, qualits
incompatibles avec l'tat sacr o ils sont engags, tat qui ne doit respirer
que m o d e s t i e et h u m i l i t , et q u i doit tre e x e m p t des troubles de la vanit,
et du faste du sicle, q u i sont insparables de ceux qui gouvernent les p e u -
ples. Q u ' o n te d'entre les m a i n s des prtres et des m o i n e s , t a n t de b a r o n -
20 nies, t a n t de fiefs, et q u ' o n les runisse au d o m a i n e de V. M. afin de p o u -
voir, par cette a u g m e n t a t i o n si considrable et des richesses si i m m e n s e s ,
n o n s e u l e m e n t c o m b a t t r e , m a i s aussi abattre les e n n e m i e s de l'glise.
( 2 4 6 - 4 8 citirt aus Leti, Vie de Ch. V. part V, 1.1) Alles, v o m Bauer u n d
Handwerker an, suchte also par l'ducation porter leurs enfans vers l'tat
25 ecclsiastique rgulier ou sculier, als das eintrglichste H a n d w e r k u n d das
die weitesten A u s s i c h t e n fr alle erffnete. ([250,] 251) V a i n c u e , et son roi
prisonnier Madrid, la F r a n c e d a n s le trait p o u r son rachat, avait seule-
m e n t consenti l'entre des draps catalans sur son territoire, m a i s p o u r
passer en d'autres lieux, et n o n p o u r y tre v e n d u s . (251) Selbst im 16* Jh.,
30 E p o c h e seiner grten M a c h t , h a t t e S p a n i e n n i c h t b e r 1 0 M i l l i o n e n
Einwohner. (266) Die j h r l i c h e n R e v e n u e n von Philipp II 25 millions de
ducats, o h n e e i n z u r e c h n e n die richesses des I n d e s , wovon er zog in d e n
45 J a h r e n seiner Regierung 300 millions de ducats ... Die produits u n d
m a n u f a c t u r e s pninsulaires transports d a n s les A m r i q u e s g a b e n gewhn-
35 lieh den ngocians espagnols die bnfices exorbitans von m e h r als
4 - 5 0 0 %. On lit d a n s u n e relation crite an 1549, par Diego de Ordas, c o m -
p a g n o n von Cortez, da die fangue de bl die in Spanien kostete k a u m
1 piastre (5 fcs) sich 70 verkaufte in der Nouvelle Espagne. L'arrobe d'huile
u n d celle de vin zu 50 piastres, die des eau-de-vie ||92| 112, ein Pferd 315
40 etc. Diese Profits w u c h s e n n o c h im M a a als die E u r o p e r G e s c h m a c k fan-
d e n an d e n Colonialproducten, wie cacao, Tabak, Caffe, Indigo, Coche-
531
nille, les plantes mdicinales, weil im Anfang die retours sich n u r in Gold
u n d Silber m a c h t e n , spter der grre Theil derselben in B o d e n p r o d u c t e n ,
achets vil prix, et v e n d u s en E u r o p e p o u r d'autres plus chers. Die m a n u -
factures de laine et de soie v e r m e h r t e n sich w u n d e r b a r in der Halbinsel.
M a n zhlte zu Toledo, zu Segovia, zu der M a n c h a 127,823 fabricans de 5
draps, de toiles, de b o n n e t s , de r u b a n s et autres articles de ce genre. M a n
fabricirte j h r l i c h zu Segovia 25,500 pices de d r a p ; Sevilla renfermait
3000 m t i e r s soie, d a n s lesquelles s'alimentaient 30,000 p e r s o n n e s . On
rcoltait G r e n a d e un million de livres de soie. N a c h Louis de M a r m o l die
droits q u e recevait le d o m a i n e royal sur les premires ventes de cet article, 10
vor der R e b e l l i o n des M a u r e s , afferms 181,500 ducats d'or. ... Pre Mer-
cado schreibt 1568 v o m c o m m e r c e espagnol: L e c o m m e r c e , tel qu'il se
fait aujourdhui, particulirement d a n s cette province, (celle de Seville) ex-
cite m o n t o n n e m e n t , s e n t i m e n t q u e j e n ' a i pas c o u t u m e d'prouver pour
les choses vulgaires et c o m m u n e s . Il est si grand et si universel, qu'il faut 15
la fois un grand j u g e m e n t et u n e grande intelligence p o u r l'exercer, et
m m e p o u r l'examiner : Du temps de nos aeux, les h o m m e s du c o m m u n
avaient seuls cette connaissance, m a i s a u j o u r d ' h u i le c o m m e r c e est m o n t
un tel degr, qu'il ne faut tre rien m o i n s q u e grossier et stupide p o u r
s'en occuper. Les ngocians ont aujourdhui le c o m m e r c e le plus t e n d u 20
d a n s toutes les parties de la chrtient, et m m e en Barbarie. Ils portent
des laines et des huiles en Flandre, et en exportent toute espce de m e r c e -
rie, de tapisserie et de librairie. Ils envoient F l o r e n c e de la cochenille et
des cuirs, ils en retirent de l'or fil, des brocards, des perles et u n e q u a n t i t
considrable de tissus. Ils font au Cap-Vert le c o m m e r c e des ngres, trafic 25
de grand profit et d ' u n grand intrt. Ils envoient dans toutes les I n d e s de
n o m b r e u s e s cargaisons de toutes sortes d'toffes, et en rapportent de l'or,
de l'argent, des perles, des grains et des cuirs, en i n n o m b r a b l e s quantits.
En outre, et pour assurer leurs chargements (qui o n t des millions de valeur)
ils sont obligs de p r e n d r e des assurances L i s b o n n e , Burgos, en F r a n c e 30
et en F l a n d r e , car leurs cargaisons sont si n o m b r e u s e s q u e les assureurs de
Seville et de 20 villes c o m m e elle, ne suffiraient pas p o u r les assurer. Les
ngocians de Burgos ont Seville leurs facteurs, q u i chargent en leur n o m ,
assurent les chargeurs, et reoivent et v e n d e n t ce q u ' o n leur porte de F l a n -
dre. Les ngocians d'Italie ont galement besoin des ntres p o u r le m m e 35
effet; en sorte que nos p r i n c i p a u x ngocians c o m m e r c e n t a u j o u r d h u i dans
toutes les parties du m o n d e , et ont partout des correspondants qui accor-
d e n t crdit et foi leurs lettres et les paient, parce qu'ils o n t besoin d'ar-
gent partout ; en Cap Vert pour les noirs, en Flandres p o u r la mercerie,
Florence pour les toffes c o m m u n e s , Tolde et Sgovie p o u r les draps, 40
L i s b o n n e p o u r les articles de Calicut. T o u s d p e n d e n t les u n s des autres, et
532
tous retirent et t i e n n e n t en respect a u j o u r d h u i les I n d e s , St. D o m i n g u e ,

St M a r t h e , la Terre-Ferme, et le M e x i q u e , c o m m e des lieux o va la plus
forte partie de nos m a r c h a n d i s e s , et d ' o vient t o u t e la richesse du
m o n d e . ( 2 6 7 - 7 1 ) Der Krieg gegen die H o l l n d e r kostete Philipp allein
5 150 millions de ducats. (272) D i e Cortez 1593 m a c h t e n P h . I I folgende
Vorstellung: Les Cortz de Valladolid de l'an 48, supplirent V. M. de ne
plus p e r m e t t r e l'entre dans le r o y a u m e , des bougies, verres, bijouteries,
c o u t e a u x et autres choses semblables q u i y v e n a i e n t du dehors, p o u r
changer ces articles si inutiles la vie h u m a i n e , contre de l'or comme si les
10 Espagnols taient des Indiens. ||93| M a i s si cette s u p p l i q u e se basait alors sur
des objets de cette qualit et de si p e u de valeur, c o m b i e n sa r e p r o d u c t i o n
n'a-t-elle pas plus de force a u j o u r d ' h u i q u e ces r o y a u m e s p e r d e n t de si
grandes s o m m e s d'or et d'argent par l ' i n t r o d u c t i o n des produits d'alchimie,
de faux or de F r a n c e faonn en chanes, filigranes, chapelets, pierres
15 fausses, verres teints et autres articles qu'ils v e n d e n t d'abord chers de-
niers cause de l'invention et de la n o u v e a u t , et d o n t ils n o u s p r o u v e n t
ensuite le p e u de valeur par les bas prix a u x q u e l s ils les d o n n e n t etc. (275,
6) Philipp II verbot effectiv die entre dieser W a a r e n in die Halbinsel, aber
erfolglos. D i e Franais fhrten hier n a c h wie vor ihre quincaillerie ein.
20 (277) Ce qu'il y a de certain, c'est q u e la m o n a r c h i e espagnole, ayant c o m -
m e
m e n c le 1 6 sicle avec t o u t e la prosprit et la splendeur d ' u n sicle
d'or, vit, en 1575, Philippe II crire, son trsorier Garnica, u n e lettre tra-
ce en entier de sa m a i n , d a n s laquelle il lui disait qu'il ne voyait pas la
veille c o m m e n t il vivrait le l e n d e m a i n . On vit ce prince, accabl de dettes,
25 faire b a n q u e r o u t e . (314) 1595 un conseiller des finances prsenta au roi di-
vers projets pour faire des ressources. Philippe II les fit s o u m e t t r e l'exa-
m e n d ' u n e c o m m i s s i o n etc. Il rsulta de cet e x a m e n q u e tous les produits
des c o m m a n d e r i e s des ordres militaires, taient consigns p o u r 10 ans la
c o m p a g n i e des riches n g o c i a n s a l l e m a n d s : q u e dans les dix m o i s a n t -
30 rieurs on avait v e n d u 200,000 ducats de droits de rentes viagres: q u e t o u t
l'or venu par les dernires flottes des I n d e s et celui venir par les 3 autres
q u ' o n attendait, tait dj c o n s o m m , et qu'enfin, on avait aussi d p e n s
toutes les rentes de cette a n n e , celle de la suivante, et partie de celles de
l ' a n n e 1597. (316.)
35 Tome IL
Philippe III Zu keiner a n d r e n E p o c h e so viele fondations de couvens, de

chapellenies et autres u v r e s de pit q u e sous ce rgne. (2) N i e die
Scham- u n d Sittenlosigkeit grsser. (3) lois somptuaires. (5) Z u r selben
533
Z e i t (1609) wo die spanische Regierung sich m i t d e n H o l l n d e r n ausshnt,

400,000 M a u r e n von G r e n a d a u n d Valencia, alle artizans ou laboureurs,
verbannt. (6) N a c h Navarete die Totalzahl der M a u r e s u n d Juifs chasss de
9
la P n i n s u l e 5 millions. (9) % des c o m m e r c e de l'Espagne u n d / du c o m -10
m e r c e m a r i t i m e furent faits par les trangers en sorte, disait M o n c a d e 5

Ph. I l l , q u e les I n d e s sont pour e u x et q u e V. M. n ' a q u e le titre de posses-
seur". (12) Les Espagnols vaniteux, enorgueillis de leurs sources et de leurs
i m m e n s e s territoires, ne rougissaient pas de n ' t r e q u e des simples com-
missionnaires, et de prter leurs signatures ceux qu'ils m p r i s a i e n t d'ail-
leurs, p o u r les aider e m b a r q u e r et d b a r q u e r leurs m a r c h a n d i s e s fraudu- 10
l e u s e m e n t . Ces services si prjudiciables la n a t i o n , et si h u m i l i a n s taient
o r d i n a i r e m e n t pays de 9% de la valeur des m a r c h a n d i s e s . (I.e.) Ph. III
h a t t e n u r n o c h jhrliche R e v e n u von 14 mill, de ducats, d a z u n o c h grev
d ' u n e dette n a t i o n a l e de plus de 100 millions. (13) M o n c a d e sagt: la troi-
sime cause de la dpopulation du pays provient de ce la q u a t r i m e ou 15
troisime partie est compose d'ecclsiastiques et de religieux, d o n t le
n o m b r e ne fait q u ' a u g m e n t e r c h a q u e j o u r progressivement. (14) W h r e n d
die Pfaffen u n t e r Carl V jhrliche revenu von 2, j e z t von 8 M i l l i o n e n D u c a -
ten R e v e n u . (16) In e i n e m Avis des Conseils von Ph. III (1619, ein J a h r vor
s e i n e m T o d e ) heit es, da M a s s e n eingehn in Klster u n d religisen 20
Stand plus pour fuir la misre, et avec le got de la tranquillit et de la pa-
resse, q u e par la dvotion". ( 1 6 - 1 8 ) |
|94| Philippe IV. (beginnt zu herrschen g de 16 J a h r e , 1621) [20, 21]
Bestndige V e r m i n d e r u n g der Bevlkerung. Verfall des H a n d e l s u n d der
Agricultur. D i e Cortez von M a d r i d von 1626 klagen wieder: que les ordres 25
religieux taient en grand n o m b r e , les m e n d i a n s hors de t o u t e m e s u r e , et le
clerg en g r a n d e m u l t i t u d e . In Spanien gbe es 9088 m o n a s t r e s , die der
religieuses nicht eingeschlossen, lesquels s'emparaient i n s e n s i b l e m e n t de
t o u t le r o y a u m e par des donations, des confrries, des chapellenies, ou par
des achats." Die Pfaffen tant e x e m p t de tailles, c o n t r i b u t i o n s et gabelles, 30
logemens et autres charges majeures de guerre, il tait invitable q u e fai-
sant t o u t supporter die Laien, il s u c c o m b t etc. Q u ' e n m m e t e m p s q u e la
b a l a n c e des biens ecclsiastiques haussait, celle des biens sculiers devait
n c e s s a i r e m e n t baisser. ( 2 7 - 2 9 ) 1662 die K r o n r e n t e n e r h o b e n sich auf
m e h r als 36 millions de ducats! W o h e r diese V e r m e h r u n g ? 1621 le do- 35
m a i n e royal gagna 13,152,000 ducats par l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n de valeur, d o n n e
la m o n n a i e de billon. A b e r die F r e m d e n b e r s c h w e m m e n n u n die H a l b -
insel m i t m o n n a i e de cuivre ihrer Fabrik, qu'avilit la m o n n a i e d'Espagne,
de sorte qu'elle finit par perdre plus de 40 % de change p o u r de l'argent, et
q u e pour lui r e d o n n e r son a n c i e n n e valeur, il fut ncessaire de c o m p e n s e r 40
la perte de sa baisse au m o y e n de n o u v e a u x impts. Im selben J a h r die
534
Z i n s e n der N a t i o n a l s c h u l d reducirt von 7 auf 5 % u n d so die Staatsglubi-

ger fraudirt um fast % ihrer rentes. Selbst n a c h dieser R e d u c t i o n zahlte die
Regierung whrend quelques a n n e s ihre G l u b i g e r nicht. Le g o v e r n e m e n t
profitait f r q u e m m e n t de l'argent q u i venait des I n d e s , en faveur de quel-
5 ques personnes, en les subrogeant p a r des nouvelles crances contre le tr-
sor public. Z u r selben Zeit die droits de c o n s o m m a t i o n auf einige articles
imposs d a n s les rgnes antrieurs ausserordentlich a u g m e n t s . D i e droits
auf la viande, frher 1 m a r a v d i auf das Pfund, stiegen auf 7. Die droits sur
le vin auf 64 maravdis par arroba, die des vinaigre auf 32, die des Oels auf
10 50. On inventa le papier timbr, on m i t en ferme le tabac, et on a u g m e n t a
les prix des autres articles q u i taient dj afferms. Le prix de la soie en
r a m e vermehrt um % de sa valeur c o m m u n e . On vendit b e a u c o u p de titres
de noblesse, de droits seigneuriaux, et plus de 60 mille charges de rgidors,
notaires, receveurs etc. N u r die Pfaffen, obgleich etwas gezwickt d u r c h m e -
15 sures fiscales u n t e r d e m n o m de subsides, w u c h s e n tglich m e h r an
R e i c h t h u m ... et plus le clerg tait riche, plus le s t i m u l a n t tait fort p o u r
engager les laques s'y introduire. ( 3 2 - 3 5 ) D a b e i von Carl V an die spa-
n i s c h e n Knige stets chicanirt von d e n Pbsten. [ 3 5 - 3 8 ] tous les efforts
des m o n a r q u e s espagnols pour la dfense de leurs droits les plus lgitimes
20 furent vains! Ils avaient eux m m e s forg les chanes q u i les assujtissaient
le plus la cour de R o m e . Sie selbst avaient fond et protgeaient l'inquisi-
tion compose de thologiens, de dcrtalistes, de qualificateurs et de fa-
miliers tout i m b u s d'opinions u l t r a m o n t a i n e s . (38, 9) Toledo, wo
435,000 Pf. Seide manufakturirt, h a t t e schon p e r d u son travail, die frher
25 erhielt 38,484 personnes. Seine P o p u l a t i o n v e r m i n d e r t um % u n d 25 m a i -
sons de ses familles les plus illustres passes d a n s le d o m a i n e de divers
couvens. Die Verluste von Toledo z u s a m m e n m i t d e n e n der Seiden u n d
Wollenfabriken zu Sgovie u n d in der M a n c h a h a t t e n 127,823 familles der
Arbeit beraubt u n d 4 x so viel p e r s o n n e s occupes jadis prparer ces m a -
30 tires pour les tissus, deren W e r t h an 5,621,736 D u c a t s . Burgos von 6000
auf 600 familles reducirt, m e i s t pauvres u n d misrables. M e d i n a - d e l - |
|95|Campo, wo, in seinen foires fameux, se ngociaient plusieurs m i l l i o n s
de ducats u n d das n o c h eine Bevlkerung von m e h r als 5000 r e i c h e n fa-
milles hatte, reducirt auf 500 pauvres h a b i t a n t s . M e h r als 400 villages du
35 r o y a u m e de G r e n a d a reducirt auf 260 u n d die Million Pfund Seide q u ' o n y
rcoltait n u r n o c h 100,000 livres. E b e n s o R u i n des o p u l e n t e n Sevilla.
Seine 3000 mtiers (de soie) reducirt auf 60, % seiner Bevlkerung ver-
19
s c h w u n d e n et elle avait perdu / o des vignes et des oliviers qu'elle cultivait
2
sur son territoire, lorsque son c o m m e r c e tait florissant. Leztre 2 faits, p u i -

40 ses in e i n e m Bericht fait au roi par les Cortez de 1662, publi d u r c h A l o n s o
N u n e z d e Castro. ( 5 0 - 5 2 )
535
Charles II Fortlaufende V e r a r m u n g u n d R u i n . Z u m Verlust H o l l a n d s ge-

sellt sich der Portugals, du Roussillon u n d vieler Pltze, soit d a n s l'int-
rieur, soit hors de la P n i n s u l e et d a n s les I n d e s . (54) D i e R e v e n u s dieses
r o y a u m e , in d e n ersten J a h r e n von Ph. II grsser als die von allen europ-
l
ischen F r s t e n z u s a m m e n , jezt k a u m / der revenus de la F r a n c e ; n u r
u 5
n o c h 7 - 8 millions de fcs, whrend die von Louis X I V b e r 117 mill. (56)
U n t e r Ch. II on revient sur l'utilit de rendre navigables les d e u x rivires du
Tage et du Manzanares. E i n e Commission niedergesezt zur n e u e n Prfung
dieses Plans. Sie objecta: Q u e si d i e u avait voulu q u e ces d e u x rivires
fussent navigables, il n ' a u r a i t pas t ncessaire q u e les h o m m e s entrepris- 10
sent ce travail, parce q u ' a u m o y e n d ' u n seul fiat qui serait sorti de sa
b o u c h e , cette u v r e et t m i s e fin. D i e u ne l'ayant p o i n t p r o n o n c , il
n ' a pas j u g l'uvre convenable; ainsi ce serait attenter a u x droits de la
Providence, q u e de vouloir amliorer ce qu'il a voulu laisser imparfait, par
des motifs que sa sagesse s'est rservs. (62, 3) 15
Philippe V (von Anjou) Die Pfaffen in ihren z a h l r e i c h e n K i r c h e n etc b o -
ten berall i m m u n i t locale um couvert zu setzen les voleurs de grands
c h e m i n s et les assassins sur les routes etc. (87) In S p a n i e n war multiplica-
tion i m m e n s e dieser asiles, vermehrt durch glises rurales, Ermitages etc.
(90) D a z u frquentes discordes entre les jurisdictions ecclsiastique et ci- 20
vile, sur la j o u i s s a n c e des asiles, et la remise des criminels rfugis dans les
glises a u x juges sculiers. (90, 1) Ph. V se c o n t e n t a de supplier d e n Pabst
q u ' a u m o i n s les biens acquis par les glises depuis le c o m m e n c e m e n t de
son rgne, continuassent payer les m m e s contributions dont ils taient
grevs avant d'entrer dans le d o m a i n e desdites glises. (93) U n t e r Ph. V 25
schrieb Ustariz sein Buch. Thorie etc. (99)
Ferdinand VI Der M a r q u i s E n s e n a d a war sein Colbert. (100) (F. VI k a m
1747 z u m T h r o n . 1737 h a t t e Philipp V m i t C l e m e n s X I I das Concordat ab-
geschlossen) Concordat m i t Benedict X I V (1752) worin R o m eine Masse
seiner R e c h t e etc gegen baares G e l d abtritt. [110] 30
Charles III Les abus q u e c o m m e t t a i e n t les juges ecclsiastiques en
c o n n a i s s a n t de causes p u r e m e n t profanes et hors de la c o m p t e n c e de leur
jurisdiction, taient trs frquens. (127) 1767 die J e s u i t e n vertrieben. (140)
U n e des m a x i m e s de la politique espagnole avait t celle de m a i n t e n i r
u n e guerre perptuelle contre les m a h o m t a n s , m m e aprs la c o n q u t e de 35
G r e n a d e . (159, 60) W a c h s e n der Industrie, aber a u c h von 1768 bis 1788
V e r m i n d e r u n g des clerg sculier u n d rgulier um 28,335 p e r s o n n e s . (162,
3) Philipp V fand n u r 7 % millions de sujets in der Halbinsel, am E n d e des
18' Jh. an 11 Mill. Die Kronrevenus im Anfang du rgne von F e r d i n a n d VI
26,707,349 ecus, u n t e r Ch. III 60 mill, oder 600 mill, raux, die der I n d e s 40
von 4 - 5 millions gestiegen auf m e h r als 12 oder 15 u n t e r Ch. III. V o n
536
1 7 7 8 - 1 7 8 8 die Coloriialproduits von 75 m i l l i o n s de livres en m a r c h a n -

dises ||96| auf 210 u n d in n u m r a i r e von 110 auf 170 millions. E b e n s o 1751
die spanische M a r i n e b e s t a n d aus n u r 18 vaisseaux de ligne u n d 15 a n d r e n .
U n t e r Ch. III 74 Linienschiffe, m e h r als 200 frgates briks u n d andre
5 kleine Kriegsschiffe. Die L a n d a r m e e b e r 148,000 M a n n . (163, 4) (Unter
Ch. III Aufklrung, V e r k o m m e n der I n q u i s i t i o n . [122-126])
Charles IV. Franzsische Revolution. D o n M a n u e l Godoy. [166] M u t e
im Basler F r i e d e n d e n F r a n z o s e n i h r e n A n t h e i l cediren an D o m i n g o . 1796
s c h m h l i c h e r trait von St. I l d e p h o n s e . Offensiv u n d Defensivallianz m i t
10 d e n F r a n z o s e n . Krieg daher m i t den E n g l n d e r n . 1799 die revenus ordi-
naires der K r o n e n i c h t b e r 493,884,418 raux, dpenses 1,823,544,368.
Vermehrung der Staatsschuld. Diese hinterlie Ph. V. von
1,260,521,565 raux. Ch. III, puis par les guerres m a r i t i m e s u n d d u r c h
ffentliche Arbeiten wie arsenaux, constructions navales, c h e m i n s etc ver-
15 m e h r t e sie um ein Capital von 804,441,325 raux. G o d o y fgte 5 millions
de r a u x h i n z u . [ 1 6 6 - 1 6 9 ] Spanische M a r i n e vernichtet im Krieg gegen
die Englnder. [170]
Ferdinand VII P r o c l a m a t i o n einer n e u e n Constitution zu Cadix 1812.
[174]
20 Du caractre espagnol.
Das gothische, vor allem kriegerische G e n i e , wurzelte ein d u r c h die langen

Kriege gegen die M a u r e n . W h r e n d derselben die Profession des armes
b e i n a h e das einzige Mittel sich zu bereichern. A u s s e r d e m diese Profession
in Spanien eintrglicher als anderswo. D i e Spanier fhrten den Krieg,
25 nicht als salaris d ' u n souverain, pour lui en cder tous les profits, sondern
sie kriegten de concert et leurs propres d p e n s u n d h a t t e n folglich das
R e c h t die Profits u n t e r sich zu theilen, im Verhltni zu d e n dpenses et
des services de c h a c u n . Beim Schlu einer militairischen Expedition erste
Sorge de rparer les d o m m a g e s prouvs par les soldats, soit d a n s leur per-
30 sonne, soit d a n s leur q u i p e m e n t . B e s t i m m t e r c o m p e n s e fr die W u n d e n
n a c h ihrer gravit, strkre S u m m e fr den T o d eines fantassin oder cava-
lier, gezahlt an seine Erben. Bei Vertheilung der Beute % fr den Knig,
der Rest vertheilt u n t e r fantassins u n d cavaliers, nicht n a c h d e m Willen
der chefs, sondern n a c h d e n dclarations des experts et des juges etc. Am
35 E n d e des 15 Jh. n e u e r R u h m d u r c h E r o b e r u n g G r e n a d a s , Triumpfe in Ita-
lien, Eroberungen in A m e r i c a , P r p o n d e r a n z in Europa. 16* Jh. R u h m ihrer
Litteratur. Ihre E r o b r u n g e n in A m e r i c a vermehrten die Sphre der
m e n s c h l i c h e n K e n n t n i s s e durch eine Masse n e u e r objets u n d sehr n t z l i -
537
eher fr d e n Fortschritt der Geographie, Botanik, andrer Naturwissenschaf-

ten, u n d d u r c h le plus grand e n c o u r a g e m e n t des arts. Ihre Sprache wurde
die h e r r s c h e n d e . D i e alles erklrt ihren Stolz u n d R u h e n auf d e n Lorbee-
ren. ( 1 9 2 - 6 ) Ausser d e m leichten U n t e r k o m m e n i m Pfaffenstande d'autres
fondations i n n o m b r a b l e s d'uvres pieuses pour le secours des pauvres. 5
D e n n o c h w i m m e l t e Spanien von vagabons u n d m e n d i a n s . Charles V avait
o r d o n n j e d e r Stadt de rgler la police des pauvres de son district en secou-
rant les vrais ncessiteux, et en p r o h i b a n t la m e n d i c i t a u x vagabons. Da-
gegen viele Theologen. Pater Soto lie ein B u c h d r u c k e n betittelt: Delibera-
tio in causa pauperum, de non inhibendo, secundum misericordiae praeeeptum, 10
publico mendicabulo. Die o p i n i o n der dfenseurs de la m e n d i c i t prvalut.
U n e n d l i c h e V e r m e h r u n g daher der Bettler u n d m i t i h n e n die aversion pour
le travail etc. D a h e r Hessen sie die F r e m d e n s'emparer des professions les
plus lucratives. M a n zhlte 120,000 F r e m d e die in S p a n i e n exercrent die
professions d'aubergistes, cabaretiers, ptissiers, charcutiers, c h a u d r o n n i e r s 15
u n d andre, u n d m e h r als 7 Mill. D u c a t e n die sie jhrlich exportirten o h n e
die viel grren Profite zu r e c h n e n die diese F r e m d e n rtiraient ||97| des
objets m a n u f a c t u r s dans leur pays par leurs compatriotes. ( 2 0 1 - 4 ) Die
u n e n d l i c h e Z a h l der Festtage vermehrte n o c h die spanische Trgheit. Der
c h a n o i n e Navarrte sagt von Castilien: La multitude des ftes a produit en- 20
core la hausse des prix excessifs, de tout ce qu'on vend; car la grande d i m i n u -
tion du travail force l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n du prix des j o u r n e s , et c'est ainsi
q u ' o n a ouvert la voie aux prfrences accorde a u x produits des r o y a u m e s
trangers, qui ayant plus d'artisans et m o i n s de ftes, p e u v e n t d o n n e r
plus bas prix les fruits de leurs travaux, et enlvent ainsi l'Espagne les 25
produits d ' u n e foule de m a r c h a n d i s e s ncessaires ou superflues, anantis-
sent son industrie manufacturire, et absorbent tout l'or et l'argent qui sont
les p r i n c i p a u x produits de l'Espagne. (Conservation des M o n a r c h i e s )
(205, 6). D a n n die vielen Stiergefechte an Werkeltagen. (206) G e g e n diese
helfen alle Blitze der Pbste u n d Concilien nicht. In G r e n a d a il y a selbst 30
u n e n i c h e avec l'image de N o t r e - D a m e et quatre lanternes, q u ' o n a l l u m e
p e n d a n t la dure de ces divertissemens, et devant laquelle les gladiateurs,
ou toreros, vont faire leurs prires avant de c o m m e n c e r leurs tours
d'adresse. (208)
Notes. 35
16 rois assassins ou dposs d a n s le court espace de trois sicles q u e dura

la m o n a r c h i e gothique. (216)
538
Geschichte der Cortes d'Espagne.

Vor der-Eroberung der spanischen H a l b i n s e l d u r c h die R m e r , l'excep-
tion des ctes frquents par les P h n i c i e n s , les Grecs et les Carthaginois,
fast ganz peupl von plusieurs tribus barbares et i n d p e n d a n t e s . ... Im
5 M a a s s e wie die R m e r ihre Herrschaft a u s d e h n t e n , ils fondaient des colo-
nies et des m u n i c i p e s , en partageant les terres conquises, les d o n n a n t , sei
es als freies E i g e n t h u m , sei es m i t cens, b a u t e n Wege, producirten u n d ci-
vilisirten die Barbaren d u r c h das Beispiel. ... Im 5' Jhdt errichteten die Bar-
baren die m o n a r c h i e Visigothe, m i x t e des lois et des m u r s g e r m a n i q u e s
10 et r o m a i n e s . ... N a c h einiger Zeit, sagt der archevque Rodrigo, c o m m e
ces barbares voyaient, q u e les p r o d u c t i o n s et les m o y e n s de subsister ve-
n a i e n t m a n q u e r , par la d i m i n u t i o n des laboureurs du pays, et q u e la di-
sette tait nuisible pour eux m m e s , ils c o m m e n c r e n t plaindre, n o n la
misre des habitants, m a i s celle qu'ils prouvaient. Ainsi, les ayant convo-
is qus, ils partagrent avec eux les provinces et les terres, sous la c o n d i t i o n
(
de leur payer quelques revenus". ... Die Knige im 5 u n d 6' Jh. (6 u n d 7)
nicht m e h r gewhlt von der g a n z e n (jezt schon m i t d e n Spaniern vermisch-
t e n visigothischen) N a t i o n , s o n d e r n n u r von d e n grands u n d vques.
... Das Volk n ' m e t t a i t plus ses suffrages a u x conciles, sondern n u r die Pr-
20 lats u n d einige p e r s o n n e s attaches la cour, q u ' o n appelait alors l'office
palatin. ... Adel verfiel in seinen R e c h t e n , n u r die der Pfaffen erhalten u n d
vermehrt. Die Bischffe nicht n u r grosse Autoritt in d e n conciles, s o n d e r n
die conseillers ns des rois u n d die s u r i n t e n d a n s de tous les t r i b u n a u x .
... N a c h d e m Tod von D. Rodrigo, die kleine Z a h l der Spanier, die sich
25 nicht d e m muhamedanischen J o c h unterwerfen wollte, flchtete in die Astu-
rischen Gebirge u n d die Pyrenen, lebten hier u n t e r ihren G e n e r a l e n , o h n e
Knige. Sobald sie aber wieder d e n M a h o m e t a n s einige territoires a b -
erobert, bildeten sie n e u e Staaten m i t einer n e u e n Constitution, der feuda-
len. Bei d e m bestndigen Krieg m i t d e n M a h o m e t a n s die grands oder neos
30 hombres wurden so mchtig, q u ' o n les distinguait k a u m de leurs rois m -
m e s . Ausser d e n esclaves u n d colons, worber sie autorit illimite, des vas-
saux ... K o n n t e n T r u p p e n a u s h e b e n u n d sie fhren wohin sie wollten, avec
leurs d r a p e a u x et leurs m a r m i t e s ... Besassen d e n grten Theil der terri-
toires u n d villes, sei es en proprit, en l i e u t e n a n c e , ||98| ou en fief. N u r
35 z u m Militairdienst verpflichtet, sonst a u s g e n o m m e n von allen contribu-
tions ... Sehr grosse Prrogative u n d Privilegien der rico-hombria. ... E i n
H a u p t r e c h t war celui d'entre et de voix d a n s les assembles n a t i o n a l e s a p -
peles conciles, curies ou Corts. D i e Corts der 4 ersten J h d t e der restau-
ration Spaniens hiessen conciles, wie u n t e r der gothischen M o n a r c h i e . A u x
40 conciles de L o n en 1120, de Coyanca, en 1050, de Palencia en 1129, de
539
S a l a m a n c a en 1178, assistrent tous les grands, les vques et les abbs.

A b e r u n t e r d e n Visigothes, les grands assistirten d e n Pfaffen n u r als t-
m o i n s , in d e n feudalen ils votaient et approuvaient les actes et les d-
crets. ... C e u x die in der m o n a r c h i e visigothe hiessen m a g n a t e s , optimates,
proceres u n d h e u t e G r a n d e n , hiessen d a m a l s ricos-hombres u n d die nobles 5
hidalgos, d. h. des h o m m e s riches. La richesse so u n e n t b e h r l i c h fr gentils-
h o m m e s d a von Brdern von d e m s e l b e n Vater u n d M u t t e r die E i n e n n o -
bles, die a n d r e n plbiens, n u r weil der E i n e reich u n d die a n d e r n arm. ...
Les M a u r e s , en dtruisant les villes qui leur rsistrent, die Spanier die ih-
n e n w i d e r s t a n d e n gezwungen de vivre disperss l'abri de q u e l q u e s ch- 10
t e a u x ou de quelques forteresses. Die Christen selbst zerstrten die weni-
gen Stdte die die m a h o m t a n s geschont h a t t e n , d a m i t ihre F e i n d e n i c h t
versucht sie w i e d e r z u h a b e n u n d zu befestigen. D. A l o n s o I dpeuplait u n d
dvasta die s.g. Gothischen campagnes bis an d e n D u e r o . D a m a l s H a u p t -
m i t t e l de dfense dtruire et ravager les c a m p a g n e s et les villes limi- 15
trophes, p o u r d i m i n u e r les vivres l ' e n n e m i . D i e i m m e n s i t des m o n -
tagnes u n d des c h a m p s incultes u n d die dangers continuels d e n e n m a n
h i e r ausgesezt m a c h t e n ihre Wiederbevlkerung sehr schwer. U m d a z u z u
e r m u n t e r n die fors, wodurch den h a b i t a n s vieler Stdte u n d villages cer-
taines franchises u n d privilges gegeben. Das b e d e u t e n d s t e d a r u n t e r R e c h t 20
der h a b i t a n s des villes sich zu versammeln, conseils de ville zu bilden,
Wlder, terres, revenus fr die dpenses publiques zu besitzen. ... U n t e r
Alonso VI etc grosse A n a r c h i e . D i e nobles m m e s firent certaines ordon-
n a n c e s p o u r ne pas se tuer perfidement, sans un duel et d'autres formalits
propres rprimer les premiers m o u v e m e n t s de la colre et de la ven- 25
geance. Z u m selben Zweck bildeten sie confrries oder ligues, par le m o y e n
desquelles b e a u c o u p d ' h o m m e s runis pouvaient contenir les m c h a n s .
D i e Stdte m a c h t e n i h n e n das n a c h , von den K n i g e n d a b e i begnstigt.
Die force u n d die considration des tiers tat vermehrt de plus en plus
d u r c h d e n effet des fors et des confrries, lui facilitrent l'entre d a n s les 30
Corts. Assistirten zuerst zu Leon, 1188. Ihre admission also ans E n d e des
12' Jh. zu setzen. Grosser Lokalgeist durch die fors, confrries u n d a d m i s -
sion des tiers tat. N u n , bei d e m Z a n k u n t e r d e n Mitgliedern des knigli-
c h e n H a u s e s , die Cortes zahlreicher als im 13* u n d Theil des 14' Jh. Conf-
drations der Stdte unter sich. Der tiers tat ne fut j a m a i s si considr q u ' a u 35
X I V sicle. Das rgne von H e n r i III sah die Agogen des tiers tat, b e g a n n
aber a u c h seine d c a d e n c e zu sehn im Anfang des 15' Jh. So lange der tiers
tat viel considration in der castilinischen Constitution h a t t e n die Stdte
ihre D e p u t i r t e n selbst gezahlt. Sobald ihr Einflu v e r m i n d e r t u n d ihre pti-
tions u n d r e m o n s t r a n c e s verachtet, wollten m e h r e Stdte n i c h t m e h r diese 40
A u s g a b e n m a c h e n . D i e Corts von O c a n a von 1422 r e m o n t r r e n t
540
D. J e a n II die d o m m a g e s der Stdte v o m Z a h l e n der Kosten der D e p u t i r t e n

u n d der Knig verordnete da sie aus den fonds du trsor gezahlt. N u n u n -
ter d e m Vorwand de d i m i n u e r les charges de l'tat verminderte m a n die
Z a h l der censeurs du g o u v e r n e m e n t q u i les payait. Die Cortes 1425 gehal-
5 ten, urn Henry IV als prince hritier die K r o n e a n z u e r k e n n e n , n u r n o c h zu-
s a m m e n g e s e z t aus d e n D e p u t i r t e n der 12 Stdte Burgos, Toledo, Leon, Se-
villa, ||99| Cordova, Murcia, J a e n , Z a m o r a , Segovia, Avila, S a l a m a n c a u n d
C u e n c a ; d e n a n d e r n Stdten o r d o n n d'envoyer leur p r o c u r a t i o n un des
dputs q u i s'y t r o u v a i e n t ; et c'est la m a r c h e q u ' o n suivait par la suite, les
10 rois s'tant rserv le droit d'accorder als grce particulire das privilge de
vote a u x Corts, das n u r d u r c h grosse Opfer e r h a l t e n wurde. Bis z u m 16' Jh.
n u r 6 Stdte, Toro, Valladolid, Soria, M a d r i d , Guadalajara u n d G r e n a d a
erhielten ce privilge. Einige Z e i t n a c h h e r q u e l q u e s villes d e m a n d r e n t
rentrer in den G e n u ihres droit de vote a u x Corts, fanden d e n H a u p t w i -
15 derstand von d e n dputs m m e s des villes qui l'avaient conserv, die ht-
ten sein sollen die protecteurs du tiers tat, aber i h m gegenber ihre beson-
d e r e n stdtischen Privilges b e h a u p t e t e n . ... So die Z a h l der v o c a u x a u x
Corts vermindert, leichter sie zu b e s t i m m e n u n d zu bestechen, wie a u c h
d'obliger les lecteurs des dputs, par des voies directes ou indirectes, de
20 choisir les personnes les plus a d o n n e s au parti et aux prtentions du gou-
v e r n e m e n t . U n t e r d e n rois catholiques die Corts selten z u s a m m e n b e r u f e n
u n d i m m e r e n p r e n a n t d'avance b e a u c o u p d e m e s u r e s , e t d e prcautions.
N a c h 1538 weder Ch. V n o c h seine Nachfolger ne convoqurent ni la n o -
blesse ni le clerg ces assembles n a t i o n a l e s . Sondern n u r die d p u t s der
25 18 oder 20 privilegirten Stdte. ... G r a d e die dputs des villes, q u i de-
vaient tre les plus zls dfenseurs de leurs droits, conspirrent ouverte-
m e n t contre le tiers-tat. ... D i e Corts von Cordova, 1570, verlangen da
die chevins u n d autres m e m b r e s des conseils m u n i c i p a u x adlig seien;
d a n n sagen sie: P a r ce m o y e n , les peuples obiront, sans se dshonorer,
30 des personnes q u i n ' a u r o n t p o i n t de parens fermiers ou n g o c i a n s favori-
ser et protger. Diese B e s t i m m u n g wrde d e n Einflu des tiers tat ganz
vernichtet h a b e n . La m o i t i des places o c c u p e s d a n s la p l u p a r t des
conseils m u n i c i p a u x par les plbiens, avait jusqu'alors b a l a n c en quel-
q u e m a n i r e la p r p o n d r a n c e de la noblesse. ... G e n E n d e des 1 7 ' J h . les
35 Corts se c o m p o s a i e n t des d p u t s von 20 Stdten. Ni les provinces vas-
congades, ni celles des Asturies n ' a v a i e n t des dputs a u x Corts : et l'Ara-
gon, Valence, Catalogne et Navarre avaient c h a c u n e ses Corts s p a r m e n t
de celle de Castille, bis Philippe V, ayant aboli leurs fueros, y convoqua
quelques villes de ces provinces, hors celles de la Navarre qui conserve en-
40 core son droit de les clbrer elle m m e P a m p e l u n e . ( 2 4 3 - 2 7 8 )
1
541
Brougham. (Henry) An Enquiry into the

Colonial Policy of the European Powers.
2 vol. E d i n b u r g h 1803.
Vol. I.
Book I. Of the Relations that subsist 5

between a State and its Colonies.
Bis das J a h r U . C . 620, no colony b u t o n e , which never flourished, h a d b e e n
planted b e y o n d the confines of Italy. D i e military colonies, eingefhrt von
Sylla u n d sehr begnstigt von A u g u s t u s z e i c h n e n sich n u r aus d u r c h m e h r
strikt militairische Regierungsform. (17) T h e objects der R o m a n s , in plant- 10
ing their colonies, were conquest and plunder. T h u s , d e t a c h m e n t s of e m i -
grants incorporated with, a n d governed, the old possessors of the soil. (18)
Die carthagischen Colonies waren trading correspondents to the m o t h e r
country. (20) W a h r s c h e i n l i c h d a Carthago received das Surplus der R o h -
products von Sicilien, Sardinien u n d Spanien u n d M a n u f a c t u r w a a r e n da- 15
h i n lieferten. Anderseits begnstigt d u r c h ihre Ueberlegenheit in der
Schiffahrt, ihre alten ||100| connexions m i t der Levante, speziell m i t Tyrus
u n d Smyrna etc ihre centrale Lage, lieferten d e n colonies oder provinces
die asiatischen W a a r e n , wovon Carthago das n a t u r a l entrepot fr den W e -
sten des m i t t e l l n d i s c h e n Meers. A u c h die C o m m u n i c a t i o n zwischen die- 20
sen Settlements carried on by the m o t h e r country. D e r Colonial or provin-
cial m a r k e t sehr wichtig fr die c o m m e r c i a l o c c u p a t i o n ersterer. D a h e r
Mercantilsystem. Die 2 treaties of c o m m e r c e , zu finden im Polybius, m i t
d e n R m e r n , conceived in d e m true spirit des m o d e r n colonial system. Im
Anfang erheischte das distant settlement keine restraint, s o n d e r n alle Pro- 25
542
Aus Henry Brougham: An inquiry into the colonial policy
tection des M u t t e r l a n d s . In dieser Periode die Colonie sich selbst berlas-

sen. Carthago b e s c h z t e sie vor fremder Invasion, b u t neglected its c o m -
m e r c e . W u r d e so rasch wichtig. D i e C a r t h a g i n i a n m e r c h a n t s begnstigten
colonial speculations by furnishing a ready d e m a n d for the r u d e p r o d u c e .
5 In d i e s e m stage of progress, we find the colony trade left free ... In i h r e m
origin u n d political relations die greek colonies verschieden von den r-
m i s c h e n u n d Carthaginiensischen. D i e Territorien von A t h e n , Sparta, Co-
r i n t h u n d Argos of sehr limited extent; der increase der Population m a c h t e
d a h e r Emigration nthig. U n t e r n o m m e n d u r c h Privatindividuen, generally
10 gerichtet n a c h distant u n d t r a n s m a r i n e settlements, w h r e n d die a t t e n t i o n
der parent states vollstndig beschftigt m i t d e n boisterous politics of
G r e e c e ; da das Exil d e m die emigrants sich u n t e r z o g e n , die Folge von want
u n d discontent at h o m e : leicht zu begreifen wie slight stets die c o n n e x i o n
der colonies m i t ihren original countries. Leztre keine substantial author-
15 ity; n u r N o m i n a l r e s p e c t u n d s u b m i s s i o n yielded von den colonists. Sie
r e m e m b e r e d das land ihrer Vter m i t filial respect u n d affection; ehrten its
gods, by offerings of first fruits to their t e m p l e s ; sie retained a predilection
fr its customs and laws wie fr its religion a n d language; yielded seinen
citizens d e n place of distinction at public games, u n d seinen priests t h e
20 holy h o n o u r of taking the first look der entrails der sacrifices. Im war folg-
ten sie generally d e n fortunes der metropolis als allies, u p o n equal t e r m s :
aber da sie perfectly i n d e p e n d e n t , keine Protection von ihr empfingen u n d
oft ihr gleich in resources, they always refused to c o m e forward as auxilia-
ries, w h e n unfair terms were proposed. ... M a n c h m a l , w e n n das M u t t e r l a n d
25 sonst unbeschftigt u n d sich stark genug d a z u fhlte, versuchte es zu exact
von d e n colonies, as m a t t e r of right, the u s u a l m a r k s of filial a t t a c h m e n t .
So Corinth suchte d u r c h force die u s u a l tokens of r e m e m b r a n c e von seiner
Colonie Corcyra zu erhalten. Die Colonists appealed an A t h e n , das ihre
Parthei ergriff u n d sie als n t z l i c h e allies behielt, besonders w h r e n d des
30 peloponnesischen Kriegs. N a c h d e n Siegen von Plateae u n d Mycale, die
griechisch asiatischen colonies - as they despaired of being able to retain
ihre i n d e p e n d e n c e von d e n Persern allein - entered into a strict alliance
m i t A t h e n s ; a n d she took the opportunity of the general alarm, to propose
an universal contribution from all h e r colonies a n d allies, for the great pur-
35 pose of resisting the persian power. Zuerst die s u m levied n u r 460 talents.
(103,500 /. St.) Die A t h e n i a n s entrusted m i t d e m m a n a g e m e n t of it u n d
b o u n d to deposit it im T e m p e l von Delos. V o n hier, u n t e r verschiednen
pretexts der treasure removed n a c h der Acropolis von A t h e n : Die s u m of
a n n u a l contribution erst raised to 600 (135,000 1.), d a n n 1200 (270,000 I.)
40 u n d 1300 talents. (292,500 I.) Die allies originally i n d u c e d d e n citizens von
A t h e n das c o m m a n d der u n i t e d forces zu berlassen; der Piraeus w u r d e
543
rasch befestigt, die athenische fleet vermehrt, u n d das C h e f c o m m a n d o

wurde Theil des a t h e n i a n prerogative. Sie levied supplies in m o n e y or in
kind or c o m m u t e d t h e m for recruits to the military or naval force of t h e re-
public. By intriguing with o n e allied state, they r e n d e r e d the others tribu-
tary a n d s u b o r d i n a t e . W e n n das J o c h fest etablirt, they concluded, by ex- 5
t e n d i n g it to those allies who h a d assisted in imposing it. D i e supplies n u n
exacted als Tribut; a ||101| refusal p u n i s h e d as disobedience or treason. M i t
A u s n a h m e der Samier, die rebellirten, alle colonies blieben faithful or en-
slaved von der Invasion des Xerxes bis z u m 5' J a h r des peloponnesischen
Kriegs. D a m a l s revoltirten die Lesbier. G e n E n d e des Kriegs die a t h e n i a n 10
colonies s u b m i t t e d to the u n n a t u r a l u n i o n of Persia a n d Sparta; they were
finally yielded up to the d o m i n i o n of the former by the p e a c e of Antalci-
das. ( 2 0 - 3 1 ) Das l a n d e d interest existirt n i c h t in W e s t i n d i e n . An seiner
Stelle theils proprietors loaded with debt, who are little m o r e als c o m m i s -
sioners fr die e u r o p e a n creditors, theils factors, properly so called, acting 15
for the n o n r e s i d e n t proprietors. (47) Das object der emigrants n a c h West-
i n d i e n n o t to live, b u t to gain, n o t to enjoy b u t to save, n o t to subsist in the
colonies, b u t to prepare for shining in the m o t h e r country. (48) D i e W e i b e r
sehr wenig zahlreich, fast n u r von den n i e d r e n Klassen. Marriage held in
no repute. Also diese Colonien n i c h t d u r c h sich selbst ihre Bevlkerung er- 20
h a l t e n d ; j e d e r sucht mglichst rasch von dort f o r t z u k o m m e n ; d a h e r con-
stant interchange of i n h a b i t a n t s is thus carried on, the n u m b e r s wachsen
m i t d e m progress der c o m m u n i t y , from the overflowings a n d offscourings
of which they are derived, constant intercourse zwischen d e m M u t t e r l a n d
u n d d e n distant provinces, m o r e powerful u n i t e d to her in this m a n n e r , als 25
d u r c h die effects of political institutions, or even of m e r c a n t i l e c o n n e x i o n s .
(49, 50) B. s a g t m i t Bezug auf die n o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n Colonieen: In a
country where bodily labour bore a m o n o p o l y price, the labour of the m i n d
(coupled with idleness of body) could not be afforded. (63) D i e northern
states von d e n U n i t e d States besonders ausgezeichnet d u r c h religious bigot- 30
ry. Die m i t t l e m states modificirt d u r c h die greater m i x t u r e of different n a -
tions. In i h n e n der mercantile spirit am m e i s t e n Platz gewonnen. D i e Ver-
schiedenheit der R a c e m a c h t e n Patriotisme u n d Freiheitsliebe less ardent,
whrend die variety der religions d e n fanaticism prvenirten. In d e n south-
ern states gibt der contrast der servitude Art von aristocratical spirit u n d 35
das Clima, by promoting the growth of an article belonging to the class of
luxuries, has given rise to a species of agriculture bordering u p o n the great
gains a n d u n c e r t a i n prospects of c o m m e r c i a l speculation. (66, 7) In West-
i n d i e n w a n d e r t e n Personen aus, m i t d e m spirit of adventure, which has for
its object, either the rapid increase of stock, with proportionate risk (Risico 40
an Capital u n d G e s u n d h e i t ) or the acquisition of s o m e fortune, without the
544
ordinary m e a n s of toil a n d h a r d s h i p . Dieser Geist in t h e class w h i c h pos-

sesses capital ist allied to the love of deep play; in t h e class which has
nothing to lose, it gives birth to m e a n n e s s u n d dishonesty. (68) T h e D u t c h
who grovel after every kind of profit, whose spirit for gain is t e m p e r e d by
5 no dignity of character, and, p r o m p t e d by t h e c o m p e t i t i o n of large capitals,
are, of all the n a t i o n s in the Westindies, t h e m o s t i n h u m a n masters, a n d
the most pliable in worming themselves into the various habits of gainful
speculation. (75, 6) D e r Portuguese character, in E u r o p e , m u c h less re-
spectable t h a n the Spanish. T h e m i x t u r e of Jewish blood is general, t h r o u g h
10 the whole population of that country; however m u c h it m a y be held in a b -
horrence. D e r old D u k e of Sidonia - als J o h n IV befahl da alle m i t die-
s e m Blut befleckte P e r s o n e n should wear a slouched hat, as a m a r k of dis-
t i n c t i o n - presented that impolitic prince with o n e hat, a n d p u t a n o t h e r on
his own head, in the royal presence. (85) In der n e u e n Welt diese m i x t u r e
15 n o c h strker, da die Verfolgungen viele ||102| Jews n a c h Brazil trieben. (85)
the same circumstances (modified by various accidental peculiarities a n d
events) which have p r o m o t e d the circulation of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s between the
old a n d new world, a n d enabled the m a n n e r s of e a c h part to affect those of
the other, have also given those colonies the worst m o r a l and political char-
20 acter: whie, unfortunately, the tribes, deren m a n n e r s simpler u n d lives
purer have, by the n a t u r e of that situation to which they owed those advan-
tages, always r e m a i n e d , in a great degree, insulated from the country of
their ancestors; a n d are now, by the farther operation of the same causes,
entirely separated from their filial c o n n e x i o n . (89) Die n a t u r a l ties
25 zwischen d e m M u t t e r l a n d u n d d e n colonies sind: 1) die circulation of capi-
tal; 2) der intercourse of c o m m e r c e ; 3) the weakness of the r e m o t e r parts;
4) die relations of a c o m m o n origin, similarity of customs, a n d identity of
language. (92) Selbst wenn die colonies der U n t e r s t t z u n g v o m M u t t e r l a n d
aus bedrfen, doch ihr Besitz so wichtig als der andrer Theile des empire
30 die amply repay it: 1) T h e provinces of a state t h a t lye contiguous, do by no
m e a n s furnish supplies, either of m e n or m o n e y , in proportion to the b e n e -
fits of defence and security which they receive from t h e government. Ein
Theil des state always contributes m o r e t h a n its protection costs; t h e sur-
plus goes to protect a n o t h e r part which contributes less. (108, 9) W h i l e the
35 colonies, then, are only viewed as distant provinces of the s a m e country, it
is absurd to represent their defence a n d g o v e r n m e n t as a b u r t h e n , either to
treasury, or to the forces of the other provinces. (117) 2) the wars which a
state u n d e r t a k e s scheinbar fr die Vertheidigung seiner colonial d o m i n i o n s ,
sehr selten die C o n s e q u e n z des Besitzes dieser distant territories. (118)
545
Commercial relations between a state and its colonies.
the m a r k e t afforded by countries newly settled u n d e r favourable circum-

stances, is n o t only extensive and advantageous to the industry of the older
provinces, b u t it continually a n d rapidly increases. (159) the extent of the
market, whose d e m a n d s call forth the industry, is of less i m p o r t a n c e t h a n 5
its progressive state. (160) Die Entfernung der Colonialmrkte das Vor-
theilhafte, da sie befrdert the breed of s e a m e n . (174) A navy is necessary
sei es fr die defence of a m a r i t i m e country u n d seine military operations
gegen a n d r e Lnder, sei es fr d e n Schutz seines H a n d e l s ... the services
r e n d e r e d by the trade a n d the navy reciprocal u n d die effects ihres progrs- 10
sive i m p r o v e m e n t m u t u a l . (190, 1) Die n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y of great capitals
towards those quarters whence great profits m a y be expected, a n d of small
capitals towards those parts where quick returns are to be obtained, distrib-
utes the stock of the n a t i o n in a certain way, i n d e p e n d e n t of colonial pos-
sessions. (209) T h e wealth of G r e a t Britain appears, from several symp- 15
t o m s , to be arriving at the state of overgrown magnificence; a n d , of course,
to require m o r e and m o r e the outlet of new colonies. (215) W h e n t h e p o p u -
lation of a c o m m u n i t y has b e c o m e very great in proportion to its m e a n s of
subsistence, the price of labour is diminished, a n d a large a c c u m u l a t i o n of
i n h a b i t a n t s is always to be found floating ... in ||103| the country: ready to 20
shift from o n e profession to another; often inclined, in their idleness a n d
exigencies, to adopt vicious m e a n s of procuring relief; a n d always prepared
to serve the state in the army or navy. In like m a n n e r , w h e n the wealth of a
country has greatly increased, a n d the lines of e m p l o y m e n t for stock are
n o t multiplied at the same t i m e ; the profits are d i m i n i s h e d , a n d a great 25
part of the n a t i o n a l capital floats about, shifting from o n e o c c u p a t i o n to
another, in order to obtain higher profits. A sort of revulsion often takes
place. I n s t e a d of each c h a n n e l retaining a separate portion of capital con-
stantly in it, all the channels overflow; a n d some capital c o m e s from each,
into a shifting mass ready for any speculation of trade or loans, or loans to 30
the state. V e r m e h r t sich die Population n o c h m e h r , so discontent etc. W a n -
dert aus long before actual want has compelled t h e m to a b a n d o n their
h o m e . E b e n s o m i t d e m Capital. T h e colonies where the spirit of mercantile
speculation prevails, are always preferred to those worin agriculture is the
staple occupation. But m u c h m o r e of the population of E u r o p e has b e e n 35
p o u r e d into the c o n t i n e n t a l colonies, t h a n of the national capital, weil die
negro slavery in den islands has proportioned the labouring population to
the d e m a n d arising from the capital employed etc w h r e n d die c o n t i n e n t a l
colonies furnish a d e m a n d for labour adapted to all constitutions, a n d o p e n
546
a field for m e n who have no stock at all. B i e t e n also die colonies no outlet
to the a b u n d a n t p o p u l a t i o n of a country, a n d to its overflowing stock, b o t h
the o n e and the other will naturally seek e m p l o y m e n t in foreign countries
or foreign colonies which are u n d e r s t o c k e d in h a n d s a n d in capital. Also
5 abgeschmackt die Surrender von Colonial possessions sei es an die colo-
nists als i n d e p e n d e n t power, sei es an foreign states in order to k e e p the
people a n d capital at h o m e . ( 2 1 8 - 2 2 ) the restrictions imposed u p o n the
a m e r i c a n settlements, by the policy of m o d e r n Europe, have consisted in
t h e m o n o p o l y of trade a n d the m o n o p o l y of labour. (239) Die prohibitions
10 or discouragements given to certain k i n d s of colonial industry, have rather
b e e n superfluous t h a n b u r d e n s o m e : framed urn to prevent was o h n e h i n
nicht passirt wre. Fabrikindustrie, u n m g l i c h in early settlements. (240)
A b e r die gilt nicht bei d e m Verbot fr die W e s t i n d i e s d e n Z u c k e r zu raffi-
niren. (241) Die french islands stets frei von dieser oppression. (I.e.) Dafr
15 anderseits das Tabackbauen in E n g l a n d verboten. Erst Steuer darauf. D a n n
gnzlich prohibirt. I n U e b e r e i n s t i m m u n g m i t d e m Geist der die M a n u f a c -
tur einiger feinrer Fabrikwaaren in A m e r i c a verbot, England ought to have
laid a heavy duty u p o n t h e cultivation of the cotton plant a n d sugar c a n e in
England. T h e statute 21 G e o II c. 30 granted a b o u n t y on the i m p o r t a t i o n
20 of indigo raised in the colonies, while t h e statutes 23 G e o . II c. 29 u n d 30
G e o . II c. 16 prohibited the colonists from erecting slitmills u n d furnaces,
which i m p e d e d the clearing of lands. (242, 3) Exclusive companies at differ-
ent times, obtained the m a n a g e m e n t of colonial trade, in every country of
E u r o p e . At first, Spain u n d Portugal, statt c o m p a n i e s : confinirten den |
25 |104| colonial trade to certain ports des M u t t e r l a n d e s u n d der colonies.
(249, 50) Die D u t c h C o m p a n y wie die ostindischenglische, b t e stets aus
die politische sowohl als mercantile Regierung der in ihrer charter begriff-
n e n colonies. Spanier u n d Portugiesen erlaubten nie diese politische Herr-
schaft der C o m p a g n i e n . (251)
30 H o l l n d i s c h e Colonialpolitik.
T h e necessary c o n s e q u e n c e of extensive opulence, acquired by a people

who have not a proportionably great territory, is, that the m e a n s of advanta-
geously employing capital will b e c o m e m o r e and m o r e difficult; the profits
of its e m p l o y m e n t m o r e confined, and its a c c u m u l a t i o n m o r e slow. ... Ob-
35 gleich high wages ein G r u n d von small profits, yet, if the c q m p e t i t i o n of
capitals diminishes the profit, the wages m u s t fall mit d e n profits a n d n o t
rise m i t d e m extent of capital. Der h o h e rate of wages in Holland n u r ap-
parent, occasioned d u r c h die severity of the taxes. T h e w o r k m a n actually
547
enjoys less t h a n in any other free state, obgleich er n o m i n e l l m e h r erhlt.

(294, 5) Als die V e n e t i a n e r grossen R e i c h t h u m erworben d u r c h das M o n o -
pol des eastern c o m m e r c e , sie deprived of the m e a n s of profitably employ-
ing it, d u r c h die E n t d e c k u n g der Capepassage. T h e i r territories being ex-
tremely confined u n d a n d r e n a t i o n s getting t h e start of t h e m in t h e science 5
of navigation, they h a d only one m e a n s of investing t h e m o n e y which they
h a d h e a p e d together: p u m p t e n es aus to foreign countries fr ein P r m i u m ,
w u r d e n die brokers of E u r o p e . ... N a c h d e m die Dutch i m m e n s e n wealth er-
reicht, by engrossing the carrying trade of E u r o p e u n d der Fortschritt der
a n d r e n N a t i o n e n i h n e n a great part dieses e m p l o y m e n t r a u b t e , ihr over-
grown capital forced into various speculations in t h e m o s t r e m o t e b r a n c h e s
of foreign t r a d e ; in loans to foreign g o v e r n m e n t s ; u n d to individuals in for
eign c o u n t r i e s . (296, 7) W a h r s c h e i n l i c h d a die D u t c h oft waren creditors,
at o n e t i m e , v o n viel b e r 300 millions St. to their own g o v e r n m e n t u n d
to foreign states. (299, 300) H o l l a n d bedurfte also vor allem foreign colo- 15
nies in order to o b t a i n a new opening, of whatever kind, for t h e stock which
could n o t be employed at h o m e , and in order to secure t h e possession of
this o p e n i n g at all times u n d e r its own c o m m a n d . ... the english u n d
french colonies sehr i n d e b t e d d e n wealthy m e r c h a n t s of H o l l a n d , at their
first e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ; a n d the D a n i s h colonies owed their f o u n d a t i o n en- 20
tirely to D u t c h capital. (301) H o l l a n d c a p u t d u r c h das A u f k o m m e n der
a n d r e n Staaten. W e i l : the staple of H o l l a n d is of a kind n o t peculiar to any
o n e country: it belongs to one state of society in every country: it is extent
of capital a n d m e r c a n t i l e skill. (304) Bei Erffnung des H a n d e l s in frem-
d e n e n t l e g n e n L n d e r n , w e n n die Z a h l der large capitals h i n r e i c h e n d , ein 25
T h e i l d a v o n drawn p e r m a n e n t l y t o t h e operations des n e u e n M a r k t s u n d
employed exclusively in t h e tasks of collecting and assorting cargoes,
which t h e other capitals m i g h t circulate u n d transport. Daher das establish-
ment of factories in distant countries deren n a t i o n s little o c c u p i e d by trade.
Die E r r i c h t u n g derselben das primary object aller trading c o m p a n i e s m i t 30
j o i n t stocks. (318, 19) Die I n s t i t u t i o n der c o m p a n y , at first, drew to t h e dis-
t a n t trade m e h r capital als sonst d a h i n gegangen, in order to benefit a small
class of stockholders. D i e addition des M o n o p o l s kept out capitals that
would have gone thither, in order to preserve die Existenz der C o m p a g n i e :
die acquisition of political power oft prejudicial d e m M u t t e r l a n d ; generally 35
r u i n o u s to t h e association itself; and always fatal to t h e distant provinces
over w h i c h its d o m i n i o n was suffered to extend. D i e die G e s c h i c h t e der
Dutch East India Company. Ihre a n n u a l dividends fr die 6 J a h r e e n d e n d
1610: 3 6 % . In a short time die |[105[ actions rose von 3000 auf 15,000 u n d
at o n e t i m e s t a n d e n sie so h o c h wie 24,000 florins, 8 x ihre P r i m e Cost. - 40
Die C o m p a g n i e erhielt das M o n o p o l d a d u r c h d a sie die R e g i e r u n g in ih-
548
ren Kriegsverlegenheiten m i t Geld u n t e r s t z t e . 1602 ihr diese charter first

granted exclusive right of trading to the East u n d die Sovereignty ( u n d e r
s u p e r i n t e n d a n c e der States-General) aller territories die sie dort erwerben
m c h t e n durch Kauf-Vertrag, c o n q u e s t ; Volle M a c h t of appointing their
5 own servants; j e d e force zu raise fr die Vertheidigung ihrer Territorien;
a n d of m a k i n g whatever laws they m i g h t t h i n k proper for the internal ad-
m i n i s t r a t i o n of their d o m i n i o n s . ... Die great c o m m e r c i a l cities der R e p u -
blik, interested in t h e j o i n t stock, n a m e d e a c h of t h e m a certain n u m b e r
der 60 directors, d e n e n die c o m p a n y ' s affairs c o m m i t t e d in the first in-
10 stance. 17 davon entrusted m i t d e m ordinary m a n a g e m e n t der c o m m o n
concern, erhielten good salaries, besides t h e patronage a n n e x e d to their
places. W e n n i m m e r ein settlement a d d e d z u d e n c o m p a n y ' s d o m i n i o n s ,
die Regierung davon gegeben in die h a n d s eines captain-general, der c o m -
m a n d e d die forces u n d presided im council; a director general, entrusted
15 m i t d e m m a n a g e m e n t des C o m p a n y ' s stock u n d der s u p e r i n t e n d a n c e ihrer
c o m m e r c i a l interests; a major general, der second in council u n d 5 select
councillors. Die u n i o n dieser 8 officers bildete d e n grand council, invested
with full deliberative u n d executive powers in all matters of government,
war, negotiation u n d trade. 1616 schon h a t t e die C o m p a n y 45 large vessels
20 engaged in war u n d c o m m e r c e , m i t 10,000 soldiers u n d sailors in their
l
service u n d 4000 pieces of artillery. ( 3 2 0 - 4 ) Am E n d e des 18 Jh. 80 ves-
sels, carrying von 3 0 - 6 0 guns u n d 25,000 m e n , soldiers included; w h r e n d
die whole d o m i n i o n s in Java u n d its d e p e n d e n c i e s were farmed for
361,260 dollars. (326) Bis 1780 der gain gefallen auf 2 % fr die A k t i e n -
25 besitzer. (332) T h u s , instead of profiting by their possessions in the East, to
secure an opening for the overflowing c a p i t a l . . . the U n i t e d Provinces have,
by m e a n s of their East I n d i a C o m p a n y , almost entirely r u i n e d the East In-
dia trade, stunted the growth of their settlements, alienated m a n y of the n a -
tive powers, and, at the expence of all the G r e a t capitalists u n d industrious
30 adventurers in the republic, have obtained, for the indolence of s o m e petty
stockholders, a paltry annuity, a n d for the avarice of some great adventur-
ers i m m e n s e fortunes. (332, 3) Die charter granted fr das 8' m a l 1762; u n d
das D u r c h s c h n i t t s p r m i u m paid fr diese renewals an 270,000 /. St. oder
3 mill, florins. Sie zahlte uniformly a c o m p o s i t i o n von 16 000 florins per
35 a n n u m in lieu of customs on exports; u n d der a m o u n t der customs on East
I n d i a n imports 425 000 fl. im D u r c h s c h n i t t . Die C o m p a g n i e p u m p t e oft
d e m Staat Geld, besonders im spanischen Krieg. Supported hufig die de-
clining m a n u f a c t u r e s in verschiednen H a u p t s t d t e n der provinces; allotted
stets a considerable yearly revenue to the Stadtholder, which secured the
40 favourable influence dieses officer u n d granted gewhnlich der R e g i e r u n g
a percentage on the prime cost of the actions, besides furnishing at a low
549
price a b u n d a n c e of saltpetre for the service der army u n d navy. D u r c h

diesen u n b e d e u t e n d e n dodge blieb die C o m p a n y populr sie by far m o s t
hurtful c o m m e r c i a l institution that ever arose a m o n g m e n . (335, 6) In
H o l l a n d : T h e m e r c h a n t who receives an a p p o i n t m e n t as agent u n d con-
signee of a planter, gives public notice, that, at a certain t i m e , a certain 5
s u m will be required for the plantation, by way of loan; da die d o c u m e n t s
der valuation u n d produce deposited with h i m ; t h a t he has received cre-
dentials as director of the affair u n d die nthige Z a h l of acts of hypotheca-
tion, w o d u r c h der planter wie er selbst b e c o m e b o u n d , personally, u n d to
the u t m o s t extent ||106| of their property, to repay, in a certain t i m e die 10
loans advanced in der F o r m von p u r c h a s e m o n e y u n d to discharge the inter-
est at certain t e r m s . So das public eingeladen to buy diese b o n d s oder ac-
tions, bearing interest u n d transferable from h a n d to h a n d . D i e holders
allowed to m e e t u n d erwhlen aus ihrer Mitte c o m m i s s i o n e r s , d e n e n der
Director verpflichtet jhrlich R e c h n u n g abzulegen u n d to exhibit docu- 15
m e n t s b e r d e n state der plantation u n d d e n progress des loan, the m o n i e d
m e n eagerly buy up the actions of s u c h private copartneries u n d geben ih-
n e n a currency like that der british Exchequerbills. W h e n this mercantile
e x p e r i m e n t zuerst tried, unbegreiflich m i t what rapidity die shares were
seized by all u n d wie viele new loans, on similar terms, were i m m e d i a t e l y 20
o p e n e d m i t der expectation of a similar success. D i e smallest capitalists
did not scruple to risk part of their stock in each of those adventures ... So
die smaller capitals of Holland attracted to the colonial cultivation. Der
a m o u n t der colonial debts war e n o r m . N a c h M a l o u e t allein die S c h u l d e n
von S u r i n a m 1776, an 80 Millions fl. Er schzt d e n Theil des n e t p r o d u c e 25
which c o m e s to the planters zu n u r Y ; % goes an die Regierung. % to insur-
10
3
ance, freight u n d c o m m i s s i o n ; / als Zins of debts u n d to casualties. V o n
10
400 h o u s e s of proprietors, 1776, n u r 20 schuldenfrei u n d e n o r m reich; 100

h a t t e n S c h u l d e n zu zwischen % u n d % ihres Werths, 150, der Rest von %
bis z u m G a n z e n u n d mehr. Die avidity of all m o n e y h o l d e r s in the m o t h e r 30
country to engage in colonial loans, induced the planters, who wished to
overtrade or relieve their desperate circumstances, to transmit to E u r o p e
estimates of their property higher t h a n t h e truth. W a r u s u a l to send a b o u t
dasselbe slaveship u n d cattle von einer Plantation z u r a n d r e n zur Zeit des
m a k i n g up der Inventarien u n d valuations u n d das p r o d u c e oft ausge- 35
schmuggelt of the settlement in foreign ships, to t h e prejudice des director-
consignee in Holland, who, on his part, during seasons of misfortune, ex-
h a u s t e d his own funds a n d credit in advancing to the stockholders the
interest d u e from the colonists u n d oft war ganz bankrutt, w h r e n d die Ak-
tien were all the while selling at a p r e m i u m . Die failure of a great W e s t In- 40
diahouse frequently shook the whole ' C h a n g e at A m s t e r d a m u n d wurde ge-
550
fhlt over the R e p u b l i c like the shock of a n a t i o n a l bankruptcy. Anderseits

evils arise oft den planters von d e m h a r s h t r e a t m e n t einiger Creditors, die,
observing the strict letter of the law, have agents ready u p o n the spot, to
force a sale of the plantation, on the failure of p a y m e n t s , the m o m e n t they
5 are d u e . In this case, t h e creditor or a friend is generally the purchaser, u n d
stets buys at a very low price. ( 3 5 3 - 7 ) h c h s t e n s 500,000 M a n n die emi-
grated n a c h den Spanish colonies w h r e n d a period of 3 centuries. (387)
Mesta ... Die proprietors of flocks in den n o r t h e r n provinces das R e c h t to
drive t h e m through the k i n g d o m s of Castile u n d Leon n a c h d e n provinces
10 of E s t r e m a d u r a u n d A n d a l u s i a fur winter pasture. On their way, these
flocks have the free use of all t h e c o m m o n or u n e n c l o s e d lands, which are
very extensive; and no enclosures can be m a d e in the two tracks t h r o u g h
which they pass, without leaving a space of 90 yards wide for their accom-
m o d a t i o n . Ja, selbst in d e n bestcultivirten districts, their pasture is fixed at
15 a very low price; they have the use of all t h e olive grounds, a n d the shep-
herds have certain privileges of woodcutting. D i e Z a h l der Schaafe wech-
selte in den different ||107| t i m e s ; im 16' Jh. 7 m i l l i o n e n , jezt 5. All these
animals, begleitet von 25 000 a t t e n d a n t s , e b e n s o viel dogs u n d betrcht-
liche Zahl von horses, during 40 days, 2 x a year, ravage by law, the finest
20 provinces of Spain. (407, 8)
Vol. II.
Book II Of the foreign relations of Colonies.
Bei den Alten nie solche Verhltnisse der Sklaven zu den Freien, wie in
W e s t i n d i e n . Der D u r c h s c h n i t t in d e n british colonies war, 1790,
25 = 10 (Sklaven):l (Freien), exclusive of Barbadoes, the B e r m u d a s u n d die
B a h a m a s . In d e n french colonies = 1 4 : 1 ; in d e n d u t c h = 2 3 : 1 . D e r average
von ganz W e s t i n d i e n = 10:1. Statt wie bei d e n Alten besonders zahlreich
in den towns zu sein, wo die freemen are most n u m e r o u s u n d das govern-
m e n t am strksten, wie in d e n a n c i e n t states, die negroes besonders distrib-
30 uted over the country. Die capital of J a m a i c a enthlt % oder % der g a n z e n
weissen Bevlkerung der Insel u n d n u r % Neger. (74)
551
Book IV. Of the Domestic Policy of the European Powers

in their Colonial Establishments.
Voluntary labour for hire, however simple it m a y appear to us who are ac-
c u s t o m e d to it, is nevertheless a refinement wholly u n k n o w n a m o n g the
savage tribes of Africa. ... No such thing as a m a n working for another, 5
from the i n d u c e m e n t of hire or reward, or from any voluntary bargain, was
ever heard of in that continent. N o t h i n g t h e n , b u t c o m p u l s i o n c a n there ef-
fect that division of l a b o u r and reward which is so r e p u g n a n t to n a t u r a l j u s -
tice. (419, 20)
552

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KARL MARX

EXZERPTE NOTIZEN MARGINALIEN

HERAUSGEGEBEN VON DER

Bearbeitet von einer Forschungsgruppe der

DIETZ VERLAG BERLIN

Der vorliegende Band wurde noch unter der frheren

Marx, Karl: Gesamtausgabe : (MEGA) / Karl Marx ; Friedrich Engels.

IV. Abt. ISBN 3-320-00150-7

Text und Apparat

L o n d o n e r Hefte 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 5 3 . Heft XI-XIV 3 563

Exzerpte aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts und arti-

Heft XII 110 604

Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie ... 172

Heft XIII 199 635

Heft XIV 325 669

Verzeichnis der Abbildungen

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Inhaltsverzeichnis 7

19) J. C. Symons. Arts and Artisans. At Home and Abroad. Edinburgh.

Iii Labour defended against the claims

Theilung der Arbeit, sagt m a n , ist u n m g l i c h o h n e vorlufige A c c u m u l a -

compared to the general c o n s u m p t i o n s (11) the only thing w h i c h c a n be

those who fleece t h e rest of m a n k i n d to conceal t h e h a n d t h a t shears t h e m .

Robert Owen. Observations on the Effect

Vor 30 oder 40 J a h r e n war G r o b r i t a n n i e n wesentlich agricultural. ...

The Oppressed Labourers,

N a c h d e m Schlu des Kriegs 1814 die labourers in agriculture b e c a m e t h e

Das country is morally a n d o u g h t to be legally, b o u n d to afford t h e m (the

Nassau William Senior.

My principal object has b e e n to draw attention to the elementary proposi-

t h e wages of t h e 3 would be higher, t h e price of t h e work d o n e by t h e m

Hints on Wages, the Corn Laws, High and

In every n a t i o n , the q u a n t u m of wages received by the labourer is accord-

der 1/39 Theil der wages o b t a i n e d fr wages der labourers, in r e t u r n for

rate of profit is comparatively h i g h (d. h. wo der Arbeitslohn absolut nied-

D i e difference between the h o u r s of work u s u a l over t h e whole world in cot-

d e n Tag, d. h. 12 S t u n d e n fr 5 Tage u n d 9 am Samstag. N u n die folgende

the n e t profit of 10 %. W e n n d a h e r (prices r e m a i n i n g the same) die factory

20 tal would be replaced, b u t there would be no fund to c o m p e n s a t e the pro-

tories generally worked from 70 to 80 h o u r s per week. (15) D a s G a r n , das

A us dem Brief von Horner (Leonard) an Senior.

Brereton. (. M.) (Rev.)

Am Schlu des 14* Jh. W a t Tyler, J a c k Straw, H o b Carter u n d T o m Miller,

which supplies the wages of labour. (40, 41) T h e quantity of e m p l o y m e n t 35

A greater supply of m e a t , dessen C o n s u m sehr wuchs n a c h der Reforma-

20 So at u n d after t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , die quantity des arable land in Propor-

der Reformation die average p r o d u c t i o n per acre, of all k i n d s of grain,

|7| Character, Object and Effects

5 Die mchtigste, extensivste u n d bestorganisirte U n i o n in d e m U n i t e d

labour is absolutely necessary to t h e working des establishment; folglich,

tion) is t h e disproportion equally great. (12, 13) D e r m o s t extensive u n d

d e n 4 d. ( 1 3 - 1 7 ) D i e hufigste U r s a c h e der strikes in d e m cotton trade war

exercises by the peculiar n a t u r e of the trade, control over t e n t i m e s its own

In clothing diese wages g e m e s s e n ist n o c h grsser.

Die masters versuchten frische Arbeiter aus a n d r e n T h e i l e n E n g l a n d s zu

masters zurckkehren. D e r U n i o n f u n d s hatte an 18,000 /. in allowances

purpose of being t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e millowners a n d small m a n u f a c t u r e r s .

von 17 s. zu 7 s. per week u n d his spinners von 27 s. auf 10 s. N a c h 3 M o n a -

price, a n d the object of a t u r n o u t would be defeated. (64, 5) F r c h t e r l i c h e

q u e n t reaction taking place, it has b e e n ascertained, that after a t u r n o u t of

week's e m p l o y m e n t . " Sie wollen e q u a l i z a t i o n of wages". (92, 3) In d e n

Th. H. Stirling. The Question Propounded:

The Evils of England. Social and

William Logan (City Missionary)

F e m a l e s h a u p t s c h l i c h der Prostitution geliefert % from being servants in