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ORGANIZATIONALBEHAVIOUR
ShortNotefromLecture115

SharedbyMustafaKhan
OrganizationalBehavior(OB)isthestudyandapplicationofknowledgeabouthowpeople,individuals,and
groupsactinorganizations.

ContributingdisciplinestotheOBfield:
Organizationalbehaviorisanappliedbehavioralsciencethatisbuiltuponcontributionsfromanumberof
behavioraldisciplines.

Psychologyisthesciencethatseekstomeasure,explain,andsometimeschangethebehaviorofhumansand
otheranimals.itmaybethementalandbehavourcharacteristicofanindividualorgroup
Sociologyisstudythesocialsysteminwhichindividualsfilltheirrolesthatis,sociologystudiespeoplein
relationtotheirfellowhumanbeings.
Socialpsychologyistheareawithinpsychologythatblendsconceptsfrompsychologyandsociologyandthat
focusesontheinfluenceofpeopleononeanother.itdealwiththefulfilmentofsocialneedsinaphycological
senseofinterpretations.itcausedifferentsociophychoconditionsandaffaireforthemodificationofOB.
Anthropologyisthestudyofsocietiestolearnabouthumanbeingsandtheiractivities.wealsodefine
anthrapologyas"scienceofhumanbeingsespecialyoftheirenvironmentandsocialrelationsandthereculture"
environmentplayapivotalroleintheiimprovmentandmodificationofOB
Politicalscienceisthestudyofthebehaviorofindividualsandgroupswithinapoliticalenvironment.

ManagementFunctions(HenryFayol)
Planning:Amanagermustdeterminewhattheorganizationsgoalsareandhowtoachievethosegoals.Much
ofthisinformationwillcomedirectlyfromthevisionandmissionstatementforthecompany.Settingobjectivesfor
thegoalandfollowingupontheexecutionoftheplanaretwocriticalcomponentsoftheplanningfunction.For
example,amanagerofanewlocalrestaurantwillneedtohaveamarketingplan,ahiringplanandasalesplan.
Organizing:Managersareresponsiblefororganizingpeopleandresources.Knowinghowmanyemployeesare
neededforparticularshiftscanbecriticaltothesuccessofacompany.Ifthoseemployeesdonothavethe
necessaryresourcestocompletetheirjobs,organizationhasnotoccurred.Withoutanorganizedworkplace,
employeeswillseeamanagerasunpreparedandmayloserespectforthatparticularmanagerssupervisory
techniques.
Leading:Managingandleadingarenotthesameactivity.Amanagermanagesemployeesthispersonmakes
surethattasksarecompletedontimeandpoliciesarefollowed.Employeestypicallyfollowmanagersbecause
heorsheisthesupervisorandinchargeofemployees.Employeesseealeaderassomeonethatmotivates
themandguidesthemtohelpmeetthefirmsgoals.Inanidealsituation,themanageralsoservesastheleader.
Managerswhowanttoleadeffectivelyneedtodiscoverwhatmotivatestheiremployeesandinspirethemto
reachthecompanyobjectives.
Controlling:Thecontrollingfunctioninvolvesmonitoringthefirmsperformancetomakesuregoalsarebeing
met.Managersneedtopayattentiontocostsversusperformanceoftheorganization.Forexample,ifthe
companyhasagoalofincreasingsalesby5%overthenexttwomonths,themanagermaychecktheprogress
towardthegoalattheendofmonthone.Aneffectivemanagerwillsharethisinformationwithhisorher
employees.Thisbuildstrustandafeelingofinvolvementfortheemployees.

ManagementRoles(HenryMintzberg)

InterpersonalRoles:Theonesthat,likethenamesuggests,involvepeopleandotherceremonialduties.
Leader:Responsibleforstaffing,training,andassociatedduties.
Figurehead:Thesymbolicheadoftheorganization.
Liaison:Maintainsthecommunicationbetweenallcontactsandinformersthatcomposetheorganizational
network.

InformationalRoles:Relatedtocollecting,receiving,anddisseminatinginformation.
Monitor:Personallyseekandreceiveinformation,tobeabletounderstandtheorganization.
Disseminator:Transmitsallimportinformationreceivedfromoutsiderstothemembersoftheorganization.
Spokesperson:Onthecontrarytotheaboverole,herethemanagertransmitstheorganizationsplans,policies
andactionstooutsiders.
DecisionalRoles:Rolesthatrevolvearoundmakingchoices.
Entrepreneur:Seeksopportunities.Basicallytheysearchforchange,respondtoit,andexploitit.
Negotiator:Representstheorganizationatmajornegotiations.
ResourceAllocator:Makesorapprovesallsignificantdecisionsrelatedtotheallocationofresources.
DisturbanceHandler:Responsibleforcorrectiveactionwhentheorganizationfacesdisturbances.

ManagementSkills(RobertL.Katz)
Threeimportantmanagerialskillsthatmustbecultivatedandenhancedbytheorganizationaretechnical,
human,andconceptual.'

Technicalskillsarethoseabilitiesthatarenecessarytocarryoutaspecifictask.Examplesoftechnicalskills
arewritingcomputerprograms,completingaccountingstatements,analyzingmarketingstatistics,writinglegal
documents,ordraftingadesignforanewairfoilonanairplane.
Humanskillsinvolvetheabilitytoworkwith,motivate,anddirectindividualsorgroupsintheorganization
whethertheyaresubordinates,peers,orsuperiors.Humanskills,therefore,relatetotheindividual'sexpertisein
interactingwithothersinawaythatwillenhancethesuccessfulcompletionofthetaskathand.Somehuman
skillsthatareoftennecessaryformanagerstodisplayareeffectivecommunication(writingandspeaking),
creationofapositiveattitudetowardothersandtheworksetting,developmentofcooperationamonggroup
members,andmotivationofsubordinates.
Conceptualskillsrequireanabilitytounderstandthedegreeofcomplexityinagivensituationandtoreduce
thatcomplexitytoalevelatwhichspecificcoursesofactioncanbederived.Examplesofsituationsthatrequire
conceptualskillsincludethepassageoflawsthataffecthiringpatternsinanorganization,acompetitor'schange
inmarketingstrategy,orthereorganizationofonedepartmentwhichultimatelyaffectstheactivitiesofother
departmentsintheorganization.

WhatisOrganization?
Anorganizationiscomposedoftwoormorepeople,whichfunctionsonarelativelycontinuousbasistoachievea
commongoalorsetofgoals.

ComponentsofanOrganization
Theenvironmentinfluencesorganizationaldesign.Whenuncertaintyexists,theabilitytorespondquicklyand
creativelyisimportantwhentheenvironmentisstable,anorganizationimprovesperformancebymaking
attitudesandbehaviorspredictable.Creativityandpredictabilityarefosteredbycertainstructuresandcultures.

Taskanorganizationsmission,purpose,orgoalforexisting
Peoplethehumanresourcesoftheorganization
Structurethemannerinwhichanorganizationsworkisdesignedatthemicrolevelhowdepartments,
divisions,&theoverallorganizationaredesignedatthemacrolevel
Technologytheintellectualandmechanicalprocessesusedbyanorganizationtotransforminputsinto
productsorservicesthatmeet

Formalvs.InformalOrganization
FormalOrganizationthepartoftheorganizationthathaslegitimacyandofficialrecognition
InformalOrganizationtheunofficialpartoftheorganization

HowdoesanOrganizationCreateValue?

OrganizationalProcess:Theorganizationalenvironmentisthesetofresourcessurroundinganorganization,
including inputs (e.g., raw materials and skilled employees) resources to transform inputs (e.g., computers,
buildings, and machinery) and resources (e.g., customers) Organizations compete for the scarce, needed
resources. There is much uncertainty about obtaining needed resources. Organizations design their structures
andculturesinwaystosecureandprotectneededresources.Technologyistheseconddesigncontingencyan
organization faces. Technology refers to the combination of human resources (skills, knowledge abilities, and
techniques)andrawmaterialsandequipment(machines,computers,andtools)thatworkersusetoconvertraw
materialsintogoodsandservices.Eachjobispartofanorganizationstechnology.Anorganizationmustdesign
its structure and culture to allow for the operation of technology. Organizational processes develop plans of
actionsforcompetingsuccessfullybyobtainingresourcesandoutperformingcompetitors.Theseplansofactions
arestrategies.Toattractcustomers,forexample,organizationscanpursuethefollowingstrategies.

UnderstandingtheBasicsofHumanBehavior
Anorganizationshumanresourcepoliciesandpracticesrepresentimportantforcesforshapingemployee
behaviorandattitudes.Inthischapter,wespecificallydiscussedtheinfluenceofselectionpractices,trainingand
developmentprograms,performanceevaluationsystems,andtheexistenceofaunion.Humanresourcepolicies
andpracticeinfluenceorganizationaleffectiveness.Humanresourcemanagementincludes:employeeselection,
trainingperformancemanagement,andunionmanagementrelationsandhowtheyinfluenceorganizations
effectiveness.

BiographicalCharacteristics
Age:Therelationshipbetweenageandjobperformanceisincreasinginimportance.
Gender:Therearefew,ifany,importantdifferencesbetweenmenandwomenthatwillaffecttheirjob
performance,includingtheareasof:Problemsolving,Analyticalskills,Competitivedrive,Motivation,Sociability,
Learningability,Maritalstatus,Lengthofservice,etc.
MaritalStatus:Researchconsistentlyindicatesthatmarriedemployeeshavefewerabsences,undergofewer
turnovers,andaremoresatisfiedwiththeirjobsthanaretheirunmarriedcoworkers.
Tenure:Thereisapositiverelationshipbetweentenureandjobproductivity.

INDIVIDUALDIFFERENCES:ABILITIESANDPERFORMANCE
Thatpeopledifferfromeachotherisobvious.Howandwhytheydifferislessclearandisthesubjectofthe
studyofIndividualdifferences(IDs).Althoughtostudyindividualdifferencesseemstobetostudyvariance,how
arepeopledifferent,itisalsotostudycentraltendency,howwellcanapersonbedescribedintermsofan
overallwithinpersonaverage.Indeed,perhapsthemostimportantquestionofindividualdifferencesiswhether
peoplearemoresimilartothemselvesovertimeandacrosssituationsthantheyaretoothers,andwhetherthe
variationwithinasinglepersonacrosstimeandsituationislessthanthevariationbetweenpeople.Arelated
questionisthatofsimilarity,forpeopledifferintheirsimilaritiestoeachother.Questionsofwhetherparticular
groups(e.g.,groupingsbysex,culture,age,orethnicity)aremoresimilarwithinthanbetweengroupsarealso
questionsofindividualdifferences

Implicationsofglobalization:
Followingaretheimplicationsofglobalizations:
Neworganizationalstructures
Differentformsofcommunication
Morecompetition,change,mergers,downsizing,stress
Needmoresensitivitytoculturaldifferences

Ethics
Moralprinciples/valuesdetermineswhetheractionsareright/wrongandoutcomesaregood/bad.

Ethicalbehavior
Goodandrightasopposedtobadorwronginaparticularsetting.

Anorganizationsethicsarerules,beliefs,andvaluesthatoutlinewaysinwhichmanagersandworkersshould
behavewhenconfrontedwithasituationthatmayhelporharmotherpeopleinsideoroutsideanorganization.
Ethicalbehaviorenhancesthewellbeing(thehappiness,health,andprosperity)ofindividuals,groups,
organizations,andtheorganizationalenvironment.

Ability:Mentalandphysicalcapabilitiestoperformvarioustasks.

IntellectualAbilities:Thecapacitytodomentalactivities
Numberaptitude
Verbalcomprehension
Perceptualspeed
Inductivereasoning
Deductivereasoning
Spatialvisualization
Memoryability

Emotionalintelligence:Emotionalintelligenceistheabilitytounderstandandmanageonesownfeelingsand
emotionsandthefeelingsandemotionsofothers.Researchonemotionalintelligenceisinitsearlystages.
However,itisplausiblethatemotionalintelligencemayfacilitatejobperformanceinanumberofways,andalow
levelofemotionalintelligencemayactuallyimpairperformance.Emotionalintelligenceisimportantformanagers
andpeopleinleadershippositionswhomustunderstandhowothersfeelandmanagethesefeelings.
PhysicalAbility:Thecapacitytodotasksdemandingstamina,strengthandsimilarcharacteristics.Forsome
jobs,physicalabilityisimportant.Physicalabilityconsistsprimarilyofmotorskill,theabilitytomanipulateobjects
inanenvironmentphysically,andphysicalskill,apersonsfitnessandstrength.AccordingtoFleishman,there
are11typesofmotorskills(e.g.,reactiontime,manualdexterity,speedofarmmovement)and9typesof
physicalskills(e.g.,staticstrength,whichincludestheabilitytoliftweightsandstamina).
Learning:Arelativelypermanentchangeinthebehavioroccurringasaresultofexperience.

MethodsofShapingBehavior
Reinforcementistheprocessthatincreasestheprobabilitythatdesiredbehaviorsoccurbyapplying
consequences.Managersusereinforcementtoincreasethelikelihoodofhighersales,betterattendance,or
observingsafetyprocedures.
Positivereinforcementincreasestheprobabilitythatabehaviorwilloccurbyadministeringpositive
consequences(calledpositivereinforces)followingthebehavior.Managersdeterminewhatconsequencesa
workerconsiderspositive.
Negativereinforcementincreasestheprobabilitythatadesiredbehavior,thenoccurbyremovinganegative
consequence(ornegativereinforce)whenaworkerperformsthebehavior.

Extinction:Accordingtooperantconditioning,bothgoodandbadbehaviorsarecontrolledbyreinforced
consequences.Identifyingbehavioralreinforcesandremovingthemcandecreaseabehavior.Anundesired
behaviorwithoutreinforcementcandiminishesuntilitnolongeroccurs.Thisprocessiscalledextinction.
Punishmentconsistsofadministeringanegativeconsequencewhentheundesiredbehavioroccurs.
Punishmentisnotthesameasnegativereinforcement.Itdecreasesabehavior,whereasnegativereinforcement
increasesthefrequencyofabehavior.

UNDERSTANDINGTHEVALUE
Values:Valuesarebroadpreferencesconcerningappropriatecoursesofactionoroutcomes.Valuesinfluence
behaviorandattitudes.

Basicconvictions:Aspecificmodeofconductorendstateofexistenceispersonallyorsociallypreferableto
anoppositeorconversemodeofconductorendstateofexistence.Theycontainajudgmentalelementinthat
theycarrytheindividualsideaofwhatisright,good,ordesirable.
ValueSystem:Ahierarchybasedonarankingofanindividualsvaluesintermsoftheirintensity
Sourcesofvalues:Parents,Friends,Teachers,Rolemodels,Externalreferencegroups.

Typesofvalues
Terminalvalues:Preferencesconcerningtheendstobeachieved
Instrumentalvalues:Preferencesforthemeanstobeusedinachievingdesiredends.

WorkValues
Achievement(careeradvancement)
Concernforothers(compassionatebehavior)
Honesty(provisionofaccurateinformation)
Fairness(impartiality)

Workvaluesareaworkerspersonalconvictionsaboutexpectedoutcomesworkandbehavioratwork.
Outcomesmightincludeacomfortableexistencewithfamilysecurity,asenseofaccomplishmentandself
respect,orsocialrecognition,andanexcitinglifestyle.Appropriateworkbehaviorsatworkincludebeing
ambitious,imaginative,obedient,selfcontrolled,andrespectful.Workvaluesguideethicalbehavioratwork
honesty,trustworthiness,andhelpfulness.
Workmoods,howpeoplefeelwhentheyperformtheirjobs,aremoretransitorythanvaluesandattitudes,
changingfromdaytoday,hourtohour,orminutetominute.Moodsarecategorizedaseitherpositiveor
negative.Positivemoodsincludefeelingexcited,enthusiastic,active,strong,peppy,orelated.Negativemoods
includefeelingdistressed,fearful,scornful,hostile,jittery,ornervous.Moodscanalsobelessintense.Aworker
mightsimplyfeeldrowsy,sluggish,calm,placid,andrelaxed.

ValuesacrossCultures
Powerdistance:Thedegreetowhichpeopleinacountryacceptthatpowerininstitutionsandorganizationsis
distributedunequally.
Individualismversuscollectivism:Individualismisthedegreetowhichpeopleinacountryprefertoactas
individualsratherthanasmembersofgroups.Collectivismequalslowindividualism.
Quantityoflifeversusqualityoflife:Quantityoflifeisthedegreetowhichvaluessuchasassertiveness,the
acquisitionofmoneyandmaterialgoods,andcompetitionprevail.Qualityoflifeisthedegreetowhichpeople
valuerelationshipsandshowsensitivityandconcernforthewelfareofothers.
Uncertaintyavoidance:Thedegreetowhichpeopleinacountrypreferstructuredoverunstructuredsituations.
Longtermversusshorttermorientation:Longtermorientationslooktothefutureandvaluethriftand
persistence.Shorttermorientationvaluesthepastandpresentandemphasizesrespectfortraditionandfulfilling
socialobligations.

GLOBEFrameworkforAssessing
Cultures:
Assertiveness:Theextenttowhichasocietyencouragespeopletobetough,confrontational,assertive,and
competitiveversusmodestandtender
FutureOrientation:Theextenttowhichasocietyencouragesandrewardsfutureorientedbehaviorssuchas
planning,investinginthefutureanddelayinggratification
Genderdifferentiation:Theextenttowhichasocietymaximizedgenderroledifferences
Uncertainlyavoidance:Societysrelianceonsocialnormsandprocedurestoalleviatetheunpredictabilityof
futureevents
Powerdistance:Thedegreetowhichmembersofasocietyexpectpowertobeunequallyshared
Individualism/Collectivism:Thedegreetowhichindividualsareencouragedbysocietalinstitutionstobe
integratedintogroupswithinorganizationsandsociety
Ingroupcollectivism:Theextenttowhichsocietysmemberstakeprideinmembershipinsmallgroupssuchas
theirfamiliesandcirclesofclosefriends,andtheorganizationswheretheyareemployed
Performanceorientation:Thedegreetowhichsocietyencouragesandrewardsgroupmembersforperformance
improvementandexcellence
Humaneorientation:Thedegreetowhichasocietyencouragesandrewardsindividualsforbeingfair,altruistic,
generous,caring,andkindtoothers.

ATTITUDESATWORK
ImportanceofValues:Valueslaythefoundationfortheunderstandingofattitudesandmotivationbecausethey
influenceourperceptions.Individualsenterorganizationswithnotionsofwhatisrightandwrongwithwhichthey
interpretbehaviorsoroutcomesattimesthiscancloudobjectivityandrationality.Valuesgenerallyinfluence
attitudesandbehavior.

Rightsarenormative(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative)principles(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle),
variouslyconstruedaslegal(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law),social(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society),or
moral(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality)freedoms(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedoms)orentitlements
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entitlement).Whiletheconceptofrightsisfundamentaltocivilizedsocieties,thereis
considerabledisagreementaboutwhatismeantpreciselybythetermrights.
Right:Apersonsjustclaimorentitlement,Focusesonthepersonsactionsortheactionsofotherstowardthe
person
Legalrights:definedbyasystemoflaws
Moralrights:basedonethicalstandards,Purpose:letapersonfreelypursuecertainactionswithout
interferencefromothers
Attitudes:Anattitudeisamentalstageofreadiness,learnedandorganizedthroughexperience,exertinga
specificinfluenceonapersonsresponsetopeople,objects,andsituationswithwhichitisrelated.

Typesofattitudes:OBfocusesourattentiononaverylimitednumberofjobrelatedattitudes.Mostofthe
researchinOBhasbeenconcernedwiththreeattitudes:jobsatisfaction,jobinvolvement,andorganizational
commitment.

Jobsatisfaction:Itisanindividualsgeneralattitudetowardhis/herjob.Ahighlevelofjobsatisfactionequals
positiveattitudestowardthejobandviceversa.Employeeattitudesandjobsatisfactionarefrequentlyused
interchangeably.Oftenwhenpeoplespeakofemployeeattitudestheymeanemployeejobsatisfaction.

Jobinvolvement:Aworkabledefinition:themeasureofthedegreetowhichapersonidentifiespsychologically
withhis/herjobandconsidershis/herperceivedperformancelevelimportanttoselfworth.Highlevelsofjob
involvementarethoughttoresultinfewerabsencesandlowerresignationrates.Jobinvolvementmore
consistentlypredictsturnoverthanabsenteeism

Organizationalcommitment:Astateinwhichanemployeeidentifieswithaparticularorganizationandits
goals,andwishestomaintainmembershipintheorganization.Researchevidencedemonstratesnegative
relationshipsbetweenorganizationalcommitmentandbothabsenteeismandturnover.

Jobsatisfactionisthecollectionoffeelingsandbeliefspeoplehaveabouttheircurrentjobs.Inadditionto
attitudesaboutajobasawhole,peoplecanhaveattitudesaboutvariousaspectsoftheirjobs,suchasthekind
ofwork,coworkers,orpay.

PERSONALITY
Personality:Relativelystablepatternofbehaviorsandconsistentinternalstatesthatexplainaperson's
behavioraltendencies.Anindividualreactsandinteractswithothers.Meanhowpeopleaffectothersandhow
theyunderstandandviewthemselves,aswellastheirpatternofinnerandoutermeasurabletraitsandPerson
situationinteraction.

Personality:Therelativelystablesetofpsychologicalattributesthatdistinguishonepersonfromanother

TheBigFivePersonalityTraits
TheBigFiveModelofPersonality:Personalityistypicallydescribedintermsoftraits.Atraitisaspecific
componentofapersonalitythatdescribestheparticulartendenciesapersonhastofeel,think,andactina
certainway.Thus,anindividualspersonalityisacollectionoftraits,thoughttobeorganizedhierarchically.
TheBigFivemodelofpersonalityplacesfivegeneralpersonalitydimensionsatthetopofthishierarchy
extroversion,neuroticism,agreeableness,conscientiousness,andopennesstoexperience

1.Extroversion:Referstothetendencytobesociable,friendly,andexpressive.Extraversion,orpositive
affectivity,isoneoftheBigFivepersonalitytraits,anddescribesthepredispositionofindividualstoexperience
positiveemotionalstatesandfeelgoodaboutthemselvesandtheworld.Extrovertsaremoresociable,
affectionate,andfriendlythanintrovertsandexperiencehigherlevelsofjobsatisfaction.

2.EmotionalStability:Referstothetendencytoexperiencepositiveemotionalstates.AnotherBigFivetrait,
neuroticism,ornegativeaffectivity,referstopeoplesdispositionstoexperiencenegativeemotionalstates,
feeldistressed,andviewtheworldaroundthemnegatively.

3.Agreeableness:Beingcourteous,forgiving,tolerant,trusting,andselfhearted.AgreeablenessisaBigFive
traitcapturingthedistinctionbetweenindividualswhogetalongwellwithothersandthosewhodonot.
Individualshighinagreeablenessarecaring,affectionate,andlikable,whereasindividualslowinthisdimension
areantagonistic,mistrustful,unsympathetic,anduncooperative.Agreeablenessislikelytocontributetobeinga
teamplayerandishelpfulinfosteringgoodworkingrelationships.

4.Conscientiousness:Isexhibitedbythosewhoaredescribedasdependable,organized,andresponsible.

TheBigFivetraitofconscientiousnessreferstotheextenttowhichanindividualiscareful,scrupulous,and
persevering.Individualshighonthisdimensionareorganizedandselfdisciplined,whereasindividualslowin
conscientiousnessmaylackdirectionandselfdiscipline.Conscientiousnesshasbeenfoundtobeagood
predictorofperformanceinmanyjobsinawidevarietyoforganizations.

5.OpennesstoExperience:Reflectstheextenttowhichanindividualhasbroadinterestsandiswillingtobea
risktaker.Opennesstoexperienceisatraitthatreferstotheextenttowhichanindividualisoriginal,isopentoa
widevarietyofstimuli,hasbroadinterests,andiswillingtotakerisks,ratherthanbeingnarrowmindedor
cautious.Foropennesstoexperiencetobetranslatedintocreativeandinnovativebehaviorinorganizations,the
organizationmustremoveobstaclestoinnovation.

OtherOrganizationallyRelevantPersonalityTraits:Othertraitsareimportantforunderstandingbehaviorin
organizations.
LocusofControl:Individualswhothinkthattheirownactionsandbehaviorshaveanimpactindetermining
whathappenstothemhaveaninternallocusofcontrol.Individualswhobelievethatoutsideforcesarelargely
responsiblefortheirfatehaveanexternallocusofcontrol.Internalsaremoreeasilymotivatedandneedless
directsupervisionthanexternals.

SelfMonitoring:Selfmonitoringreferstotheextenttowhichpeopletrytocontrolthewaytheypresent
themselvestoothers.Individualshighonselfmonitoringbehaveinasociallyacceptablemanner.

Sourcesofselfefficacy:
Priorexperiencesandpriorsuccess
Behaviormodels(observingsuccess)
Persuasion
Assessmentofcurrentphysical&emotionalcapabilities
SelfEsteem:Selfesteemistheextenttowhichpeoplehaveprideinthemselvesandtheircapabilities.
Individualswithhighselfesteembelieveintheirabilitiesandtendtosethighergoalsandperformmoredifficult
tasks,whereasindividualswithlowselfesteemarefullofselfdoubtandapprehension.Still,peoplewithlow
selfesteemmaybejustascapableasthosewithhighselfesteem.Personalitycharacteristicscreatethe
parametersforpeoplesbehaviortheygiveusaframeworkforpredictingbehavior.

TypeAandTypeBPersonalities
TypeAindividualshaveanintensedesiretoachieve,areextremelycompetitive,haveasenseofurgency,are
impatient,andcanbehostile.ATypeApersonalityisaggressivelyinvolvedinachronic,incessantstruggleto
achievemoreandmoreinlessandlesstime,and,ifrequiredtodoso,againsttheopposingeffortsofother
thingsorotherpersons.Theyarealwaysmoving,walking,andeatingrapidly,areimpatientwiththerateat
whichmosteventstakeplace,aredoingdotwoormorethingsatonceandcannotcopewithleisuretime.They
areobsessedwithnumbers,measuringtheirsuccessintermsofhowmanyorhowmuchofeverythingthey
acquire.

TypeBindividualsaremorerelaxedandeasygoing.TypeAindividualsmaygetalotaccomplishedin
organizations,buttheyalsoaremoreeasilyfrustrated,moreinvolvedinmoreconflicts,andmorelikelyto
developcoronaryheartdiseasethanTypeBindividuals.TypeBsneversuffersfromasenseoftimeurgency
withitsaccompanyingimpatienceandfeelsnoneedtodisplayordiscusseithertheirachievementsor
accomplishmentsunlesssuchexposureisdemandedbythesituation.

Playforfunandrelaxation,ratherthantoexhibittheirsuperiorityatanycostandcanrelaxwithoutguilt.
TypeAsoperatingundermoderatetohighlevelsofstress.Theysubjectthemselvestocontinuoustime
pressure,arefastworkers,quantityoverquality,worklonghours,andarealsorarelycreative.Theirbehavioris
easiertopredictthanthatofTypeBs.

AreTypeAsorTypeBsmoresuccessful?
TypeBsistheoneswhoappeartomakeittothetop.
GreatsalespersonsareusuallyTypeAsseniorexecutivesareusuallyTypeBs.
PersonalityTraits:Realizethatsomeworkersaremorelikelytobepositiveandenthusiasticandsomemore
likelytocomplainbecauseofpersonalitydifferences.Providemoredirectionforworkerswithlessinitiativeto
solveproblemsandwhotendtoblameothersorthesituationforproblems.Providemoreencouragementand
supporttoworkerswithlowselfesteemwhobelittlethemselvesandquestiontheirabilities.RealizethatTypeA
personalitiescanbedifficulttogetalongwithandhavedifficultyinteams.Communicatetosubordinateswhoare
overlyconcernedbeinglikedthatsometimeshonestfeedbackandbeconstructivecriticismarenecessary.

EMOTIONSANDMOOD
Workmoods:Howpeoplefeelwhentheyperformtheirjobs,aremoretransitorythanvaluesandattitudes,
changingfromdaytoday,hourtohour,orminutetominute.Moodsarecategorizedaseitherpositiveor
negative.Positivemoodsincludefeelingexcited,enthusiastic,active,strong,peppy,orelated.Negativemoods
includefeelingdistressed,fearful,scornful,hostile,jittery,ornervous

Emotionsdefined:Feelingsexperiencedtowardsanobject,personoreventthatcreateastateofreadiness.
WhatAreEmotions?
Affectisagenerictermthatcoversabroadrangeoffeelingsthatpeopleexperienceandencompassesboth
emotionsandmoods.Emotionsareintensefeelingsthataredirectedatsomeoneorsomething.Theyare
reactions,notatrait.Moodsarefeelingsthattendtobelessintensethanemotionsandwhichlackacontextual
stimulus.
Feltvs.DisplayedEmotions:Emotionallaborcreatesdilemmasforemployeeswhentheirjobrequiresthemto
exhibitemotionsincongruouswiththeiractualfeelings.Itisafrequentoccurrence.Forexample,whenthereare
peoplethatyouhavetoworkwithwhomyoufinditverydifficulttobefriendlytoward.Youareforcedtofeign
friendliness.Feltemotionsareanindividualsactualemotions.Displayedemotionsarethosethatare
organizationallyrequiredandconsideredappropriateinagivenjob.Theyarelearned.Keyfeltanddisplayed
emotionsareoftendifferent.Thisisparticularlytrueinorganizations,whereroledemandsandsituationsoften
requirepeopletoexhibitemotionalbehaviorsthatmasktheirtruefeelings.

EmotionDimensions
Variety:Therearemanyemotions.Sixuniversalemotionshavebeenidentified:anger,fear,sadness,
happiness,disgust,andsurprise.Emotionsareidentifiedalongacontinuumfrompositivetonegative.Thecloser
anytwoemotionsaretoeachotheronthiscontinuum,themorepeoplearelikelytoconfusethem.
Intensity:Peoplegivedifferentresponsestoidenticalemotionprovokingstimuli.Sometimesthiscanbe
attributedtopersonality.Peoplevaryintheirinherentabilitytoexpressintensityfromnevershowingfeelingsto
displayingextremehappinessorsadness.Jobsmakedifferentintensitydemandsintermsofemotionallabor.For
example,airtrafficcontrollersmustremaincalmeveninstressfulsituations.
Frequencyandduration:Emotionallaborthatrequireshighfrequencyorlongdurationismoredemandingand
requiresmoreexertionbyemployees.Whetherornottheemployeecansuccessfullymeettheemotional
demandsofajobdependsonboththeintensityoftheemotionsdisplayedandforhowlongtheefforthastobe
made.






CanPeopleBeEmotionless?
1.Somepeoplehavedifficultyinexpressingtheiremotionsandunderstandingtheemotionsofothers.
Psychologistscallthisalexithymia.Peoplewhosufferfromalexithymiararelycryandareoftenseenbyothersas
blandandcold.Theirownfeelingsmakethemuncomfortable,andtheyarenotabletodiscriminateamongtheir
differentemotions.Arepeoplewhosufferfromalexithymiapoorworkperformers?Notnecessarily.Theymight
verywellbeeffectiveperformers,inajobrequiringlittleornoemotionallabor.Salesorcustomerservicejobs
wouldnotbegoodcareerchoices.

GenderandEmotions
1.Itiswidelyassumedthatwomenaremoreintouchwiththeirfeelingsthanmen.
2.Theevidencedoesconfirmdifferencesbetweenmenandwomenwhenitcomestoemotionalreactionsand
abilitytoreadothers.Womenshowgreateremotionalexpressionthanmen,experienceemotionsmore
intensely,anddisplaymorefrequentexpressionsofbothpositiveandnegativeemotions.Womenalsoreport
morecomfortinexpressingemotions.Womenarebetteratreadingnonverbalcuesthanaremen.

Thesedifferencesmaybeexplainedseveralways:Thedifferentwaysmenandwomenhavebeen
socialized.Womenmayhavemoreinnateabilitytoreadothersandpresenttheiremotionsthandomen.
Womenmayhaveagreaterneedforsocialapprovaland,thus,ahigherpropensitytoshowpositiveemotions
suchashappiness.

Women:
Canshowgreateremotionalexpression.
Experienceemotionsmoreintensely.
Displayemotionsmorefrequently.
Aremorecomfortableinexpressingemotions.
Arebetteratreadingothersemotions.
Men
Believethatdisplayingemotionsisinconsistentwiththemaleimage.
Areinnatelylessabletoreadandtoidentifywithothersemotions.
Havelessneedtoseeksocialapprovalbyshowingpositiveemotions.

EmotionalIntelligence:EIreferstoanassortmentofnoncognitiveskills,capabilities,andcompetenciesthat
influenceapersonsabilitytosucceedincopingwithenvironmentaldemandsandpressures.

a.Selfawareness.Beingawareofwhatyouarefeeling.
b.Selfmanagement.Theabilitytomanageonesownemotionsandimpulses.
c.Selfmotivation.Theabilitytopersistinthefaceofsetbacksandfailures.
d.Empathy.Theabilitytosensehowothersarefeeling.
e.Socialskills.Theabilitytohandletheemotionsofothers

SeveralstudiessuggestEImayplayanimportantroleinjobperformance.EI,notacademicI.Q.,characterized
highperformers.TheimplicationsfromtheinitialevidenceonEIarethatemployersshouldconsideritasafactor
inselection,especiallyinjobsthatdemandahighdegreeofsocialinteraction.

ExternalConstraintsonEmotions:Everyorganizationdefinesboundariesthatidentifywhatemotionsare
acceptableandthedegreetowhichtheycanbeexpressed.Thesameappliesindifferentcultures.
Organizationalinfluences:Thereisnosingleemotionalsetsoughtbyallorganizations.
Culturalinfluences:CulturalnormsintheUnitedStatesdictatethatemployeesinserviceorganizationsshould
smileandactfriendlywheninteractingwithcustomers.Butthisnormdoesnotapplyworldwide.

OBApplicationsofUnderstandingEmotions
AbilityandSelection:Emotionsaffectemployeeeffectiveness.AbilityandSelection:Peoplewhoknowtheir
ownemotionsandaregoodatreadingothersemotionsmaybemoreeffectiveintheirjobs.
DecisionMaking:Emotionsareanimportantpartofthedecisionmakingprocessinorganizations.
Motivation:Emotionalcommitmenttoworkandhighmotivationarestronglylinked.Motivationtheoriesbasically
proposethatindividualsaremotivatedtotheextentthattheirbehaviorisexpectedtoleadtodesiredoutcomes.
Leadership:Emotionsareimportanttoacceptanceofmessagesfromorganizationalleaders.Theabilitytolead
othersisafundamentalqualitysoughtbyorganizations.Effectiveleadersalmostallrelyontheexpressionof
feelingstohelpconveytheirmessagesandisoftenthecriticalelementthatresultsinindividualsacceptingor
rejectingaleadersmessage.
InterpersonalConflict:Conflictintheworkplaceandindividualemotionsarestronglyintertwined.
Wheneverconflictsarise,youcanbefairlycertainthatemotionsarealsosurfacing.
Amanagerssuccessintryingtoresolveconflicts,infact,isoftenlargelyduetohisorher
abilitytoidentifytheemotionalelementsintheconflictandtogettheconflictingpartiesto
workthroughtheiremotions.
DeviantWorkplaceBehaviors:Negativeemotionscanleadtoemployeedevianceintheformofactionsthat
violateestablishednormsandthreatentheorganizationanditsmembers.
i.Productivityfailures
ii.Propertytheftanddestruction
iii.Politicalactions
iv.Personalaggression

PERCEPTION
WhatisPerception?
Aprocessbywhichindividualsorganizeandinterprettheirsensoryimpressionsinordertogivemeaningtotheir
environment

WhyisitImportant?
Becausepeoplesbehaviorisbasedontheirperceptionofwhatrealityis,notonrealityitself.
Theworldthatisperceivedistheworldthatisbehaviorallyimportant.

FactorsInfluencingPerception
Perceiver
Target
Situation
Whenanindividuallooksatatargetandattemptstointerpretwhatheorshesees,thatinterpretationisheavily
influencedbypersonalcharacteristicsoftheindividualperceiver.Themorerelevantpersonalcharacteristics
affectingperceptionoftheperceiverareattitudes,motives,interests,pastexperiences,andexpectations.
Characteristicsofthetargetcanalsoaffectwhatisbeingperceived.Thiswouldincludeattractiveness,
gregariousness,andourtendencytogroupsimilarthingstogether.Forexample,membersofagroupwith
clearlydistinguishablefeaturesorcolorareoftenperceivedasalikeinother,unrelatedcharacteristicsaswell.
Thecontextinwhichweseeobjectsoreventsalsoinfluencesourattention.Thiscouldincludetime,heat,light,
orothersituationalfactors.

TheNatureofPerception
Perceptionistheprocessbywhichindividualsselect,organize,andinterprettheinputfromtheirsensestogive
meaningandordertotheworldaroundthem.Theprocessofperceptioninvolvestheperceivertheperson
makingtheinterpretation,thetargetofperceptionwhattheperceiverinterprets,andthesituationinwhich
perceptiontakesplace.Thetargetcanbeanevent,asituation,anidea,anoise,agroupofpeople,oranother
person.Personperception,ortheprocessofperceivinganotherperson,playsalargeroleinorganizational
behavior.

InternalandExternalAttributions
Causalexplanationsforbehaviorscanbeeitherinternalattributions,behaviorcausedbysomecharacteristic
ofthetarget,orexternalattributions,behaviorassignedtofactorsoutsidetheindividual.Commoninternal
attributionsincludeability,effort,andpersonality.Poorperformancemaybeattributedtolackofeffortorability,
andpoorrelationswithcoworkersmaybeattributedtopersonality.Commonexternalattributionsincludeluck,
chance,andeasytasks.Aworkersaccomplishmentmaybeviewedasastrokeofluck.Whetherattributionsare
internalorexternaldetermineshowpeoplerespondtobehavior.Highperformance,attributedtoability,resultsin
apromotion,butattributedtoluck,resultsinnopromotion.Theattributionspeoplemakefortheirownbehavior
influencesubsequentactions.Asuccessfulworkerwhoattributesanoutcometoluckremainsunaffected,
whereasattributingsuccesstoabilityincreasesconfidence.

SocialPerception:Theprocesses,throughwhichindividualsattempttocombine,integrateandinterpret
informationaboutothers.Socialstatus,atargetsrealorperceivedpositioninsocietyoranorganization,also
affectsperception.Highstatustargetsareperceivedasmorecredible,knowledgeable,andresponsiblethan
lowstatustargets.Organizationsuseahighstatustargettomakepublicannouncementsandpresentations
becausetheaudienceperceivesthatpersonascredible.


BarrierstoSocialPerception
SelectivePerception:Anycharacteristicthatmakesaperson,object,oreventstandoutwillincreasethe
probabilitythatitwillbeperceived.Itisimpossibleforustoassimilateeverythingweseeonlycertainstimulican
betakenin.
HaloEffect:Thehaloeffectoccurswhenwedrawageneralimpressiononthebasisofasinglecharacteristic:
a.Thisphenomenonfrequentlyoccurswhenstudentsappraisetheirclassroominstructor.
b.Studentsmaygiveprominencetoasingletraitsuchasenthusiasmandallowtheirentireevaluationtobe
taintedbyhowtheyjudgetheinstructoronthatonetrait.
Stereotyping:Stereotypingjudgingsomeoneonthebasisofourperceptionofthegrouptowhichheorshe
belongs.Generalizationisnotwithoutadvantages.Itisameansofsimplifyingacomplexworld,anditpermitsus
tomaintainconsistency.Theproblem,ofcourse,iswhenweinaccuratelystereotype.Inorganizations,we
frequentlyhearcommentsthatrepresentstereotypesbasedongender,age,race,ethnicity,andevenweight.
Fromaperceptualstandpoint,ifpeopleexpecttoseethesestereotypes,thatiswhattheywillperceive,whether
ornottheyareaccurate.

PERCEPTION,ATTITUDESANDPERSONALITY
FrequentlyUsedShortcutsinJudgingOthers
SelectivePerception:Peopleselectivelyinterpretwhattheyseeonthebasisoftheirinterest,background,
experience,andattitudes.
HaloEffect:Ageneralimpressionaboutanindividualisbasedonasinglepositivecharacteristic.
ContrastEffects:Evaluationsofapersonscharacteristicsthatareaffectedbycomparisonswithotherpeople
recentlyencounteredwhorankhigherorloweronthesamecharacteristics.
Projection:Attributingonesowncharacteristicstootherpeople
Stereotyping:Judgingsomeoneonthebasisofthegrouptowhichhe/shebelongs.

MOTIVATIONTHEBASICCONCEPT
Motivation:Astateofmind,desire,energyorinterestthattranslatesintoaction.Ortheinnerdrivethatdirectsa
personsbehaviortowardgoals
Motivationiscentraltounderstandingandmanagingorganizationalbehaviorbecauseitinfluencesworkers
behaviors,workerslevelofeffort,andtheirpersistenceinthefaceofobstacles.
DefiningMotivation:Theprocessesthataccountforanindividualsintensitydirectionandpersistenceofeffort
towardattainingagoal

KeyElements
Intensity:howhardapersontries.Intensityisconcernedwithhowhardapersontries.Thisistheelementmost
ofusfocusonwhenwetalkaboutmotivation.
Direction:towardbeneficialgoal.Directionistheorientationthatbenefitstheorganization.
Persistence:howlongapersontries.Persistenceisameasureofhowlongapersoncanmaintainhis/her
effort.Motivatedindividualsstaywithatasklongenoughtoachievetheirgoal.

MotivationalTheories

MaslowsHierarchyofNeeds
Needtheoryisactuallyacollectionoftheoriesthatfocusonworkersneedsasthesourcesofmotivation.
Aneedisarequirementforsurvivalandwellbeing.Maslowstheoryhelpsmanagersunderstandthatworkers
needsdifferandthatmotivationforoneworkerisnotmotivationforanother.Managersmustidentifyaworkers
needsandensuresatisfactionoftheseneedsifdesiredbehaviorsareperformed.

Physiologicalneeds:food,drink,shelter,sexualsatisfaction,andotherphysicalrequirements.
Safetyneeds:securityandprotectionfromphysicalandemotionalharm,aswellasassurancethatphysical
needswillcontinuetobemet.
Socialneeds:affection,belongingness,acceptance,andfriendship.
Esteemneeds:internalesteemfactorssuchasselfrespect,autonomy,andachievementandexternalesteem
factorssuchasstatus,recognition,andattention.
Selfactualizationneeds:growth,achievingone'spotential,andselffulfillmentthedrivetobecomewhatoneis
capableofbecoming.Intermsofmotivation,Maslowarguedthateachlevelinthehierarchymustbe
substantiallysatisfiedbeforethenextisactivatedandthatonceaneedissubstantiallysatisfieditnolonger
motivatesbehavior.
Maslowseparatedthefiveneedsintohigherandlowerlevels.Physiologicalandsafetyneedsweredescribedas
lowerorderneedssocial,esteem,andselfactualizationweredescribedashigherorderneeds.Thedifference
betweenthetwolevelswasmadeonthepremisethathigherorderneedsaresatisfiedinternallywhilelower
orderneedsarepredominantlysatisfiedexternally.

AlderfersERGTheory:ClaytonAlderfersexistencerelatednessgrowth(ERG)theoryisalsoaneedtheoryof
workmotivation.Alderferreducesthenumberofneedsfromfivetothreeandstatesthatneedsatmorethanone
levelcanbemotivatorsatanytime.LikeMaslow,Alderferproposesahierarchyofneeds.Yet,hebelievesthat
whenanindividualhasdifficultysatisfyingahigherlevelneed,motivationtosatisfylowerlevelneedsincrease
Athreelevelhierarchicalneedtheoryofmotivationthatallowsformovementupanddownthehierarchy.
ExistenceNeeds
RelatednessNeeds
GrowthNeeds

McGregor'sTheoryXandTheoryY
DouglasMcGregorisbestknownforhisformulationoftwosetsofassumptionsabouthumannature:
TheoryXandTheoryY.Verysimply,TheoryXpresentsanessentiallynegativeviewofpeople.Itassumesthat
workershavelittleambition,dislikework,wanttoavoidresponsibility,andneedtobecloselycontrolledtowork
effectively.TheoryYoffersapositiveview.Itassumesthatworkerscanexerciseselfdirection,acceptand
actuallyseekoutresponsibility,andconsiderworktobeanaturalactivity.McGregorbelievedthatTheoryY
assumptionsbettercapturedthetruenatureofworkersandshouldguidemanagementpractice.

UnderTheoryX,thefourassumptionsheldbymanagersare:
Employeesinherentlydislikeworkand,wheneverpossible,willattempttoavoidit.
Sinceemployeesdislikework,theymustbecoerced,controlled,orthreatenedwithpunishmenttoachieve
goals.
Employeewillavoidresponsibilitiesandseekformaldirectionwheneverpossible.
UnderTheoryY,theassumptionsare:
Employeescanviewworkasbeingasnaturalasrestorplay.
Peoplewillexerciseselfdirectionandselfcontroliftheyarecommittedtotheobjectives.
Theaveragepersoncanlearntoaccept,evenseek,responsibility.
Theabilitytomakeinnovativedecisionsiswidelyspreadthroughoutthepopulationandisnotnecessarilythe
soleresponsibilityofthoseinmanagementpositions.
TheoryZ
Amanagementphilosophythatstressesemployeeparticipationinallaspectsofcompanydecisionmaking

DavidMcClellandsTheoryofNeeds:McClelland'sapproachisnotparticularlyassociatedwithatheoretical
perspective,butidentifiesthreeneedsimportantintheworkplace.Thepresenceoftheseneedscanbe
examinedinvariousways,butMcClelland'sdrewuponMurray'suseofprojectivepicturesandstorytellingasa
wayofidentifyingthepositionoftheseneedsinaleader.
Theneedforaffiliation(NAffil):Thisistheneedforfriendlyrelationshipsandhumaninteraction.Thereisa
needtofeellikedandacceptedbyothers.Apersonwithahighneedforaffiliationislikelytobeateamplayer
andthriveinacustomerservicesenvironment.Theywillperformbestinacooperativeenvironment.McClelland
saidthatastrongneedforaffiliationwillinterferewithamanagersobjectivity.Theneedtobelikedwillaffecta
managersdecisions,promptingthemtomakedecisionstoincreasetheirpopularityratherthanfurtheringthe
interestsoftheorganization.
Theneedforpower(NPow):Thisistheneedtoleadothersandmakeanimpact.Thisneedcanexhibititself
intwoways.Thefirstwhichistheneedforpersonalpowermaybeviewedasundesirableasthepersonsimply
needstofeelthattheyhavepoweroverothers.Theydonthavetobeeffectiveorfurthertheobjectivesoftheir
employer.
Thesecondtypeofneedforpoweristheneedforinstitutionalpower.Peoplewiththeneedforinstitutional
powerwanttodirecttheeffortsoftheirteam,tofurthertheobjectivesoftheirorganization.
Theneedforachievement(NAch):Thisistheneedtoachieve,excelandsucceed.Apersonwiththistypeof
needwillsetgoalsthatarechallengingbutrealistic.Thegoalshavetobechallengingsothatthepersoncanfeel
asenseofachievement.Howeverthegoalsalsohavetoberealisticasthepersonbelievesthatwhenagoalis
unrealistic,itsachievementisdependantonchanceratherthanpersonalskillorcontribution.Thistypeofperson
preferstoworkaloneorwithotherhighachievers.Theydonotneedpraiseorrecognition,achievementofthe
taskistheirreward.
GoalSettingTheory
Goalsettingtheorywasdevelopedoverthepast40yearsthroughresearchconductedby
industrial/organizationalpsychologists.Itspurposeistoexplainandpredicttheeffectsthatsettingconscious
performancegoalshaveontaskperformanceorachievementlevels.Amajoraimhasbeentounderstandwhat
typesofgoalsareeffectiveinmotivatinghighperformanceandwhatotherfactorsaffectgoalsetting,motivation
andperformance.Theevidencesupportsthepropositionthatsettingspecificandchallenginggoalsisan
effectivewaytodeliverhighperformanceforbothindividualsandorganizations.

KeyFindingsofGoalSettingTheory

Themainfindingssofarofgoalsettingtheoryare:
Themereactofsettinggoalsleadstohigherperformancecomparedtohavingnoexplicitgoals.
Settingspecific,difficultbutattainablegoalsleadstohigherperformance.
Settinggoalsaffectsperformancebydirectingattentionandbehaviortowardgoalrelevantactivities.
Challenginggoalsenergizepeopletoputforthgreatereffortthantheyotherwisewould.
Hardgoalsalsoenhancepersistencewhenpeoplecancontrolhowtheyallocatetheirtime.
Difficultgoalsleadtothemarshallingofexistingknowledgeandskillsaswellas,whennecessary,motivate
thesearchfornewlearningandstrategiestoaccomplishtherequiredtasks.

Adams'EquityTheory
AdamsEquityTheorycallsforafairbalancetobestruckbetweenanemployeesinputs(hardwork,skilllevel,
tolerance,enthusiasm,etc.)andanemployeesoutputs(salary,benefits,intangiblessuchasrecognition,etc.).
Accordingtothetheory,findingthisfairbalanceservestoensureastrongandproductiverelationshipisachieved
withtheemployee,withtheoverallresultbeingcontented,motivatedemployees.

UnderstandingtheTheory
TheAdamsEquityTheoryisnamedforJohnStaceyAdams,aworkplaceandbehavioralpsychologist,who
developedthisjobmotivationtheoryin1963.
Muchlikemanyofthemoreprevalenttheoriesofmotivation(theoriesbyMaslow'sHierarchyofNeeds,
Herzberg'sTheory,etc.),AdamsEquityTheoryacknowledgesthatsubtleandvariablefactorsaffectan
employeesassessmentandperceptionoftheirrelationshipwiththeirworkandtheiremployer.
Thetheoryisbuiltonthebeliefthatemployeesbecomedemotivated,bothinrelationtotheirjobandtheir
employer,iftheyfeelasthoughtheirinputsaregreaterthantheoutputs.Employeescanbeexpectedtorespond
tothisisdifferentways,includingdemotivation(generallytotheextenttheemployeeperceivesthedisparity
betweentheinputsandtheoutputsexist),reducedeffort,becomingdisgruntled,or,inmoreextremecases,
perhapsevendisruptive.
ExpectancyTheory
Expectancytheory,developedbyVictorVroom,focusesonhowworkersmakechoicesamongalternative
behaviorsandlevelsofeffort.Withitsemphasisonchoices,expectancytheoryfocusesonworkersperceptions
andthoughtsorcognitiveprocesses.Bydescribinghowworkersmakechoices,expectancytheoryprovides
managerswithvaluableinsightsonhowtogetworkerstoperformdesiredbehaviorsandhowtoencourage
workerstoexerthighlevelsofeffort.Expectancytheorymakestwoassumptions:(1)workersaremotivatedto
receivepositiveoutcomesandavoidnegativeoutcomesand(2)workersarerational,carefulprocessorsof
information.Expectancytheoryidentifiesthreefactorsthatdeterminemotivation:valence,instrumentality,and
expectancy.ThemostcomprehensiveandwidelyacceptedexplanationofemployeemotivationtodateisVictor
Vroom'sexpectancytheory.Althoughthetheoryhasitscritics,mostresearchevidencesupportsit.

ReinforcementTheory
Incontrasttogoalsettingtheory,reinforcementtheorysaysthatbehaviorisafunctionofitsconsequences.Goal
settingtheoryproposesthatanindividual'spurposedirectshisorherbehavior.Reinforcementtheoryarguesthat
behaviorisexternallycaused.Whatcontrolsbehaviorarereinforces,consequencesthat,whengiven
immediatelyfollowingabehavior,increasetheprobabilitythatthebehaviorwillberepeated.

Thekeytoreinforcementtheoryisthatitignoresfactorssuchasgoals,expectations,andneeds.Instead,it
focusessolelyonwhathappenstoapersonwhenheorshetakessomeaction.Thisideahelpsexplainwhy
publisherssuchasPearsonEducationprovideincentiveclausesintheirauthors'contracts.Following
reinforcementtheory,managerscaninfluenceemployees'behaviorbyreinforcingactionstheydeemdesirable.
However,becausetheemphasisisonpositivereinforcement,notpunishment,managersshouldignore,not
punish,unfavorablebehavior.Eventhoughpunishmenteliminatesundesiredbehaviorfasterthannon
reinforcementdoes,itseffectisoftenonlytemporaryandmaylaterhaveunpleasantsideeffectsincluding
dysfunctionalbehaviorsuchasworkplaceconflicts,absenteeism,andturnover.

Negativereinforcement:Alsoknownasavoidance.Thewithdrawalofnegativeconsequencestoincreasethe
likelihoodofrepeatingthedesiredbehaviorinsimilarsettings
Punishment:Theadministrationofnegativeconsequencesorthewithdrawalofpositiveconsequencestoreduce
thelikelihoodofrepeatingthebehaviorinsimilarsettings.

Followingarethecoreconceptofmotivation:
Needtheories:Weintroducedfourtheoriesthatfocusedonneeds.ThesewereMaslowshierarchy,twofactors,
ERG,andMcClellandsneedstheories.Thestrongestoftheseisprobablythelast,particularlyregardingthe
relationshipbetweenachievementandproductivity.Iftheotherthreehaveanyvalueatall,thatvaluerelatesto
explainingandpredictingjobsatisfaction.

Goalsettingtheory:Thereislittledisputethatclearanddifficultgoalsleadtohigherlevelsofemployee
productivity.Thisevidenceleadsustoconcludethatgoalsettingtheoryprovidesoneofthemorepowerful
explanationsofthisdependentvariable.Thetheory,however,doesnotaddressabsenteeism,turnover,or
satisfaction.

Reinforcementtheory:Thistheoryhasanimpressiverecordforpredictingfactorslikequalityandquantityof
work,persistenceofeffort,absenteeism,tardiness,andaccidentrates.Itdoesnotoffermuchinsightinto
employeesatisfactionorthedecisiontoquit.

Equitytheory:Equitytheorydealswithallfourdependentvariables.However,itisstrongestwhenpredicting
absenceandturnoverbehaviorsandweakestwhenpredictingdifferencesinemployeeproductivity.

Expectancytheory:Ourfinaltheoryfocusedonperformancevariables.Ithasprovedtoofferarelativelypowerful
explanationofemployeeproductivity,absenteeism,andturnover,butexpectancytheoryassumesthat
employeeshavefewconstraintsontheirdecisiondiscretion.Itmakesmanyofthesameassumptionsthatthe
rationalmodelmakesaboutindividualdecisionmaking.Thisactstorestrictitsapplicability.

ManagementbyObjectives(MBO)
Motivatingpeoplebyaligningtheirobjectiveswiththegoalsoftheorganization
Formanypeopleworkinginmodernbusinessenvironments,it'shardtorememberatimewhennonmanagerial
employeesweren'tinvolvedwith,andinterestedin,corporatestrategyandgoals.Weareregularlyreminded
aboutthecorporatemissionstatement,wehavestrategymeetingswherethe"bigpicture"isrevealedtous,and
weareinvitedtoparticipateinsomedecisions.Andwe'reawareofhowourdaytodayactivitiescontributeto
thesecorporategoals.
Thistypeofmanaginghasn'tbeenaroundforever:It'sanapproachcalledManagementbyObjectivesa
systemthatseekstoalignemployees'goalswiththegoalsoftheorganization.Thisensuresthateveryoneis
clearaboutwhattheyshouldbedoing,andhowthatisbeneficialtothewholeorganization.It'squiteeasytosee
whythistypeofmanagingmakessensewhenthepartsworkinunisonthewholeworkssmoothlytoo.Andby
focusingonwhatyou'retryingtoachieve,youcanquicklydiscriminatebetweentasksthatmustbecompleted,
andthosethatarejustawasteofvaluabletime.
MoneyasaMotivator:AccordingtoMaslowandAlderfer,payshouldproveespeciallymotivationaltopeople
whohavestronglowerlevelneeds.Ifpayhasthiscapacitytofulfillavarietyofneeds,thenitshouldhavegood
potentialasamotivator.
Theyvaluetheirservicesandplacehighvalueonthem
Perceivemoneyassymboloftheirachievement
Willnotremaininlowpayingorganization
Veryselfconfident
Knowtheirabilitiesandlimitations

TheMeaningofMoney
Moneyandemployeeneeds:affectsseveralneeds,notjustexistenceneeds
Moneyandattitudes:Moneyethicnotevil,representssuccess,shouldbebudgetedcarefully
Moneyandselfidentity:Influencesourselfperceptions,evidencethatmanmorethanwomenidentifywith
money
PayandMotivation:VariablePayProgramscantaketheformofpiecerateplans,wageincentives,profit
sharing,bonuses,andgainsharing.Aportionofanemployeespayisbasedonsomeindividualand/or
organizationalmeasureofperformance.Unlikemoretraditionalbasepayprograms,variablepayisnotan
annuitythereisnoguarantee.Thefluctuationinvariablepayprogramsmakesthemattractivetomanagement.
Theorganizationsfixedlaborcoststurnintoavariablecostreducingexpenseswhenperformancedeclines.
Also,tyingpaytoperformancerecognizescontributionratherthanbeingaformofentitlement.

Fourwidelyusedprogramsarepieceratewages,bonuses,profitsharing,andgainsharing:
Pieceratewages
Bonuses
Profitsharingplans
Gainsharing

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