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Chapter 8: Lubrication, Friction and

Wear
...among all those who have wri>en
on the subject of moving forces,
probably not a single one has given
sucient a>ention to the eect of
friction in machines...

Guillaume Amontons

Greases are a necessary lubricant for many applications,


including rolling element bearings, for the reduction of
friction and wear. Source: Courtesy of SKF USA, Inc.
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.
2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Surface Proles
Two common surface measures:
z Mean reference N
1
line Ra = |zi |
N i=1
N
21
1
Rq = zi2
N i=1

Figure 8.1: Surface prole


showing surface height variation
relative to mean reference line.

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Typical Surface Roughness
Roughness (Ra)
Mm 50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.012
Min. 2000 1000 500 250 125 63 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5
Casting
Sand casting Average application
Permanent mold casting
Investment casting Less frequent application
Die casting
Forming
Hot rolling
Forging
Extruding
Cold rolling, drawing
Roller burnishing
Machining
Planing, shaping
Milling
Broaching, reaming
Turning, boring
Drilling
Advanced machining
Chemical machining
Electrical-discharge machining
Figure 8.2: Typical arithmetic
Laser, Electron beam machining
average surface roughness
(Ra) for various
Finishing processes
Honing
Barrel finishing
Electrochemical grinding
Grinding manufacturing processes and
machine components. Source:
Electropolishing
Polishing
Lapping
Machine elements Adapted from Kalpakjian
and Schmid [2010] and
Gears
Plain bearings - journal
Plain bearings - pad
Rolling elements
Rolling bearings - races Hamrock, et al. [2004].

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Conformal and Nonconformal
Journal

Sleeve

Figure 8.3: Conformal surfaces.


Figure 8.4: Nonconformal surfaces.

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
W Nonconformal
Geometry
Solid a x

rax ray Eective radius:


1 1 1
y = +
R Rx Ry
x
where
rbx rby
1 1 1
= +
Rx rax rbx
1 1 1
= +
Solid b Ry ray rby
y
W
Radius ratio:
Figure 8.5: Geometry of contacting Ry
elastic solids. r =
Rx

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Sign Convention
Sphere Cylinder Conic frustum Barrel shape Concave shape
rax rax rax rax

ray ray ray ray


rax = ray = r > 0 rax > 0, ray = rax > 0, ray = rax > 0, ray > 0 rax > 0, ray < 0

(a)

Thrust Radial inner Radial outer


Ri rby
rby rby
rbx
rbx
rbx
rbx > 0, rby < 0 rbx > 0, rby < 0 rbx < 0, rby < 0

(b)
Thrust Cylindrical inner Cylindrical outer
rby Ri rby rby
`
_<` rbx
rbx
rbx
rbx > 0, rby < 0 rbx > 0, rby = rbx < 0, rby =

(c)

Figure 8.6: Sign designations for radii of curvature. (a) Rolling elements; (b) ball
bearing races; (c) rolling bearing races.

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Her_ Pressure Distribution

Pressure distribution:
D
x
2 2 2 12
x 2x 2y
pH = pmax 1
Dx Dy
pmax p
Dy where pmax is the central pressure:

2
y 6W
pmax =
Dx Dy

Figure 8.7: Pressure distribution in Note: no general solution, only


ellipsoidal contact. particular solutions for point and
line contacts.

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Simplied Contact Equations
Dene the ellipticity parameter as: ke = r2/

The contact diameters are:


13
6ke2 EW R
Dy = 2
E

13
6EW R
Dx = 2
ke E
The maximum deection is:
2 13
9 W
max = F
2ER ke E
where 2
E =
(1 a2 ) (1 b2 )
+
E
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Simplied Contact

5 10 Radius ratio range


Ellipticity parameter ke Property 1 _r 100 0.01 _r 1.0
Elliptic integrals, E and F

Ellipticity parameter, ke
y y
4 8
Elliptic integral E Dy

Dy 2

3 6 2
Geometry x x

2 4 Dx

2
Elliptic integral F Dx
1 2
2
2  2 
Ellipticity ratio k e = _r k e = _r

0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 Elliptic integrals = + < 1 ln _r = < < 1 ln _r
2 2 2 2
Radius ratio, _r < 2
=1+ =1+ < 1 _r
2_r 2

Figure 8.8: Variation of ellipticity


parameter and elliptic integrals of Table 8.1: Simplied elliptical
rst and second kinds as function of contact equations. Source: From
radius ratio. Hamrock and Brewe [1983].

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Rectangular (Line) Contacts
The Her_ solution for Rectangular contacts is as follows. The contact
semiwidth is: 1
2
8W
b = Rx

The dimensionless load is
w
W =
E Rx
The maximum deection is

2W Rx 2
max = ln 1 .
W
The maximum contact pressure, or Her_ pressure, is:
12
W
pmax = E .
2
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.
2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Metallic Bearing Materials
Yield Compressive
strength, strength, Brinell
Nominal composition, percent MPa MPa hardness
Alloy 6SHFLF
number Sn Sb Pb Cu As gravity 20 C 100 C 20 C 100 C 20 C 100 C
1 91.0 4.5 4.5 7.34 30.3 18.3 88.6 47.9 17.0 8.0
2 89.0 7.5 3.5 7.39 42.0 20.6 102.7 60.0 24.5 12.0
3 84.0 8.0 8.0 7.46 45.4 21.7 121.3 68.3 27.0 14.5
7 10.0 15.0 74.55 0.45 9.73 24.5 11.0 107.9 42.4 22.5 10.5
8 5.0 15.0 79.55 0.45 10.04 23.4 12.1 107.6 42.4 20.0 9.5

Table 8.2: Physical and mechanical properties of selected white metal bearing alloys.
Source: From Hamrock et al. [2004].
Tensile Maximum Allowable
Brinell strength, temperature, stress,
Material Designation hardness MPa C MPa
Copper lead SAE 480 25 55.2 177 13.8
High-lead tin bronze AMS 4840 48 172.5 204 20.7
Semiplastic bronze SAE 67 55 207 232 20.7
Leaded red bronze SAE 40 60 242 232 24.2
Bronze SAE 660 60 242 232 27.6
Phosphor bronze SAE 64 63 242 232 27.6
Gunmetal SAE 62 65 310 260 27.6
Navy G SAE 620 68 276 260 27.6
Leaded gunmetal SAE 63 70 276 260 27.6
Aluminum bronze ASTM B148-52-9c 195 621 260 31.1

Table 8.3: Mechanical properties of selected bronze and copper alloy bearing
materials. Source: Abstracted from Hamrock, et al.~[2004].
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.
2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Non-metallic Bearing Materials

Allowable Maximum Maximum pu


stress, temperature, speed, limit,
Material MPa C m/s N/m-s
Carbon graphite 4.1 399 12.7 525 10 3
Phenolics 41.4 93 12.7 525 10 3
Nylon 6.9 93 5.1 105 10 3
PTFE (THRQ 3.4 260 .51 35 10 3
Reinforced PTFE 17.2 260 5.1 350 10 3
PTFE fabric 414.0 260 .25 875 10 3
Polycarbonate /H[DQ 6.9 104 5.1 105 10 3
Acetal resin 'HOULQ 6.9 82 5.1 105 10 3
Rubber 0.34 66 7.6 525 10 3
Wood 13.8 66 10.2 525 10 3

Table 8.4: Limits of application of nonmetallic bearing materials.

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Bearing Materials and Forms
Bearing material Backing material

Lining
material

(a) (b) (c)

Phenolic Phenolic
staves liner
(a) (b)

Graphite filling Bronze

Carbon-graphite filler

(d) (e)
(c) (d)

Figure 8.9: Phenolic laminate bearings.


(a) Tubular bearing; (b) circumferentially Figure 8.10: Dierent forms of bearing
laminated bearing; (c) axially laminated surfaces. (a) Solid bearing; (b) lined
bearing; (d) stave bearing; (e) molded bearing; (c) lled bearing; (d) shrink-t
bearing. Source: From Hamrock, et al. bearing.
[2004].

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.


2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Viscosity

Friction force ub Viscosity:

F ub F/A Shear stress


Area A = =
ub /h Shear strain rate
u
h

z
Viscosity depends on:
Pressure
Temperature
Figure 8.11: Slider bearing illustrating Shear strain rate
absolute viscosity.

Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.


2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Viscosity Conversion Factors

To convert To
from cP kgf-s/m2 N-s/m2 lb-s/in.2
Multiply by
cP 1 1.02 10-4 10-3 1.45 10-7
kgf-s/m2 9.807 103 1 9.807 1.422 10-3
N-s/m2 10 3 1.02 10-1
1 1.45 10-4
2
reyn, or lb-s/in.2 6.90 106 7.03 10 6.9 103 1

Table 8.5: Absolute viscosity conversion factors.

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2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Temperature, tm, F

Fluid
40 0 100 200 400 600 800 1000

LB 550 X
103

Viscosities
104
Polypropylene glycol
derivatives
LB 100 X
Polymethyl siloxanes
(silicones)
DC 500 A
102
5
10

Fluorolube light grease

101
Absolute viscosity, d, lbf-s/in.2

Absolute viscosity, d, cP
Crude oil DC 200 E
106
(specific gravity,
0.855) Halocarbons
Kerosene
Fluorolube
Mercury FCD331
Gasoline
(specific gravity, 100
107 0.748) Water Navy
Octane plus 23% Symbol
NaCl 2135

Gasoline
(specific gravity, 0.680) Water

20.7 MPa 101


(3000 psi)
108
Superheated steam
(14.7 psig) Figure 8.12: Absolute
Air viscosities of a number of
Saturated steam 6.9 MPa uids for a wide range of
102
temperatures.
Hydrogen (1000 psi)
109
40 0 100 200 300 400 500
Temperature, tm, C

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Viscosity of Fluids
Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity at p = 0
at p = 0 , ,
, N-s/m 2 2
m /s
Temperature, C Temperature, C
Fluid 38 99 149 38 99 149
Advanced ester 0.0253 0.00475 0.00206 2.58 10 5 0.51 10 5 0.23 10 5
Formulated advanced ester 0.0276 0.00496 0.00215 2.82 10 5 0.53 10 5 0.24 10 5
Polyalkyl aromatic 0.0255 0.00408 0.00180 3.0 10 5 0.50 10 5 0.23 10 5
Synthetic parafQLc oil 0.375 0.0347 0.0101 44.7 10 5 4.04 10 5 1.3 10 5
Synthetic parafQLc oil 0.375 0.0347 0.0101 44.7 10 5 4.04 10 5 1.3 10 5
plus antiwear additive
C-ether 0.0295 0.00467 0.00220 2.5 10 5 0.41 10 5 0.20 10 5
SuperrHQHd napthenic mineral oil 0.0681 0.00686 0.002.74 7.8 10 5 0.82 10 5 0.33 10 5
Synthetic hydrocarbon (traction XLG 0.0343 0.00353 0.00162 3.72 10 5 0.40 10 5 0.19 10 5
Fluorinated polyether 0.181 0.0202 0.00668 9.66 10 5 1.15 10 5 0.4 10 5

Table 8.6: Absolute and kinematic viscosities of various uids at atmospheric


pressure and dierent temperatures. Source: From Jones, et al. [1975].

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Pressure-Viscosity Coecients
Temperature, C
38 99 149
Pressure-viscosity coefFLHQW
Fluid , m2 /N
Advanced ester 1.28 10 8 0.987 10 8 0.851 10 8
Formulated advanced ester 1.37 10 8 1.00 10 8 0.874 10 8
Polyalkyl aromatic 1.58 10 8 1.25 10 8 1.01 10 8
Synthetic parafQLc oil 1.99 10 8 1.51 10 8 1.29 10 8
Synthetic parafQLc oil 1.96 10 8 1.55 10 8 1.25 10 8
plus antiwear additive
C-ether 1.80 10 8 0.980 10 8 0.795 10 8
SuperrHQHd napthenic mineral oil 2.51 10 8 1.54 10 8 1.27 10 8
Synthetic hydrocarbon (traction XLG 3.12 10 8 1.71 10 8 0.939 10 8
Fluorinated polyether 4.17 10 8 3.24 10 8 3.02 10 8

Table 8.7: Pressure-viscosity coecients of various uids at dierent temperatures.


Source: From Jones, et al. [1975].

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2014 CRC Press
Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Single Grade Oils
10
4
2
1
0.4
0.2

0.1
Absolute viscosity, d, N-s/m2

0.06
0.04
0.03
0.02
SAE 70

0.01

60
50
0.005
0.004
40
30
0.003
20
10
0.002
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Temperature, C

(a)

Figure 8.13: Absolute viscosities of SAE lubricating oils at atmospheric pressure. (a)
Single grade oils;

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Multigrade Oils
10
4
2
1
0.4
0.2

0.1
Absolute viscosity, d, N-s/m2

0.06
0.04 20W-50
0.03
0.02 10W-30
20W-40

0.01

0.005 20W
5W-30
0.004
10W
0.003

0.002
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Temperature, C

(b)

Figure 8.13: Absolute viscosities of SAE lubricating oils at atmospheric pressure. (b)
multigrade oils.

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Viscosity of Single Grade Oils


C2
C1 exp
English units
tF + 95
=

C2
C1 exp S.I. units
1.8tC + 127

SAE Grade Constant C 1 Constant C 2


reyn N-s/m2
10 1.58 10 8 1.09 10 4 1157.5
20 1.36 10 8 9.38 10 5 1271.6
30 1.41 10 8 9.73 10 5 1360.0
40 1.21 10 8 8.35 10 5 1474.4
50 1.70 10 8 1.17 10 4 1509.6
60 1.87 10 8 1.29 10 4 1564.0
Table 8.8: Curve t data for SAE single grade oils for use in Eq. (8.26). Source: From
Seirig and Dandage [1982].
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.
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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Regimes of Lubrication

Boundary film Film parameter:


Bulk lubricant
hmin
= 12
2 + R2
Rqa qb

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.14: Regimes of lubrication. (a) Fluid lm Note:


lubrication - surfaces completely separated by bulk Boundary lubrication, < 1
lubricant lm. This regime is sometimes further Partial lubrication, 1 < 3
classied as thick or thin lm lubrication; (b) Hydrodynamic lubrication,
partial lubrication - both bulk lubricant and 3
boundary lm play a role; (c) boundary lubrication Elastohydrodynamic
- performance depends essentially on a boundary lubrication},
lm.
3 < 10

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Lubrication Eect
10

1 Unlubricated Seizure
Severe wear

Wear rate
Coefficient of friction, +

10 1 Boundary
Hydrodynamic
Elastohydro- Elastohydro- Unlubricated
10 2 dynamic
dynamic

Hydro- Boundary
10 3 dynamic
Relative load

10 4

Figure 8.15: Bar diagram showing Figure 8.16: Wear rate for various
coecient of friction for various lubrication regimes. Source: From
lubrication conditions. Source: From Beerbower [1972].
Hamrock, et al. [2004].

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Hydrodynamic Lubrication

ub W
W
W
wa
h min pa
ub
ps
Conformal surfaces
pmax 5 MPa (a) (b) (c)
h min = f (W, ub, d0, Rx , Ry) > 1 +m
No elastic effect
Figure 8.18: Mechanisms of pressure
Figure 8.17: Characteristics of development for hydrodynamic lubrication.
hydrodynamic lubrication. Source: (a) Slider bearing; (b) squeeze lm bearing; (c)
From Hamrock, et al. [2004]. externally pressurized bearing. Source: From
Hamrock, et al. [2004].

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication

W W

ub

h min
h min
Nonconformal surfaces
High-elastic-modulus material. Nonconformal surfaces (e.g., rubber)
(e.g., steel) pmax 0.5 to 4 MPa
pmax 0.5 to 4 GPa h min = f (W, ub, d0 , Rx , Ry , E) 1 +m
h min = f (W, ub, d0 , Rx , Ry , E, j)>0.1 +m Elastic effects predominate
Elastic & viscous effects both important

Figure 8.19: Characteristics of hard Figure 8.20: Characteristics of


elastohydrodynamic lubrication. softelastohydrodynamic lubrication.

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Material
Self-mated metals iQ air
CoefFLHQW
of IULFWLRQ Friction
Values
Gold 2.5
Silver 0.8-1
Tin 1
Aluminum 0.8-1.2
Copper 0.7-1.4
Indium 2
Magnesium 0.5
Lead 1.5
Cadmium 0.5
Chromium 0.4
Pure metals DQd alloys VOLGLQJ
oQ steel (0.13% FDUERQ) iQ air
Silver 0.5
Aluminum 0.5
Cadmium 0.4
Copper 0.8
Chromium 0.5
Indium 2
Lead 1.2
Copper - 20% lead 0.2
Whitemetal (tin based) 0.8
Whitemetal (lead based) 0.5
_-brass (copper - 30% zinc) 0.5 Table 8.9: Typical coecients of
Leaded _/` brass (copper - 40% zinc) 0.2 friction for combinations of
Gray cast iron 0.4
Mid steel (0.13% carbon) 0.8 unlubricated metals in air.

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Sliding and Rolling Friction

W
W

F
F

(a) (b)

Figure 8.21: Friction force in (a) sliding and (b) rolling.

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Adhesive and Abrasive Friction
Small spot welds
Transferred softer metal
W
Asperity

e
F

Intimate contact between metals


L of two opposing surfaces

Figure 8.22: Conical asperity having Figure 8.23: Adhesive wear model.
mean angle plowing through a
softer material. Also simulates
abrasive wear.

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Wear Coecients
WL
Archard Wear Law: v = k1
3H

CoefFLHQt of $GKHVLYe wear


RubbLQg materLals frLFtLoQ, FRHfFLHQW k1
Gold on gold 2.5 0.1-1
Copper on copper 1.2 0.01-0.1
Mild steel on mild steel 0.6 10-2
Brass on hard steel 0.3 10-3
Lead on steel 0.2 2 10-5
3RO\WHWUDXRroethylene WHRQ) on steel 0.2 2 10-5
Stainless steel on hard steel 0.5 2 10-5
TXQJVWHn carbide on WXQJVWHn carbide 0.35 10-6
Polyethylene on steel 0.5 5 10-8
Table 8.10: Coecients of rubbing friction and adhesive wear constant for nine
rubbing materials.
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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Fatigue Wear

(a) (b)
Figure 8.24: Fatigue wear
simulation. (a) Machine element
surface is subjected to cyclic
loading; (b) defects and cracks
develop near the surface; (c) the
cracks grow and coalesce,
eventually extending to the
surface until (d) a wear particle
is produced, leaving a fatigue
spall in the material.
(c) (d)

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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson
Orthopedic Implants
Femur
Femoral component
Acetabulum

Acetabular cup

Femoral head
Patella

Femoral stem UHMWPE


articulating
surface
Liner (metal)

Tibial plate
Femur

Fibula
Tibia

(a) (b)

Figure 8.25: Examples of common orthopedic implants. (a) Total hip replacement,
using a metal-on-metal interface Source: Courtesy DePuy, Inc.; (b) total knee
replacement using a metal-on-polymer interface. Source: Courtesy Zimmer, Inc.
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, 3rd ed.
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Schmid, Hamrock and Jacobson

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