SLENDER COLUMNS

1.0. INTRODUCTION
When a column bends or deflects laterally by an amount of , its axial load will cause an
increased column moment equal to P. This moment will be superimposed on to any moment
already in the column. Should this P. moment will be of such magnitude as to reduce the axial
load capacity of the column significantly, the column will be referred to as "slender column".
Code provision in the design of a compression member should be based on a theoretical
analysis of the structure that takes into account

(a) the effects of axial loads, moments, deflections;

(b) the duration of loads;
(c) the varying member sizes;
(d) the end conditions, etc.

If such a theoretical procedure is not used, the Code provides an approximate method for
determining slenderness effects.
This method, which is based on the factors just mentioned for an "exact" analysis, results
in a moment magnitude , which is to be multiplied by the larger moment at the end of the
column, and that the value is used in design.

2.0. NON-SWAY and SWAY FRAMES

The ACI Code refers to frames without sidesway as non-sway and those with sidesway as
sway frames. In designing a column, it is necessary to decide whether the frame is a non-sway or
a sway frame since the ACI Code provides a different treatment for each case.
We must realize that we will rarely find a frame that is completely braced against swaying
or one that is completely unbraced against swaying. Therefore, we are going to decide which way
to handle it.
The Code provides two ways of making a decision if we cannot tell by inspection whether
we have a sway or non-sway frame.
First, a story in a frame is said to be a non-sway if the increase in column and moments
due to second-order effects is 5% or less of the first-order moments.
Second, if the value of the so-called stability index, which follows is 0.05, the
Commentary states that the frames may be classified as a non-sway one.
Pu o
=
Vu c
where:
= total factored vertical load for all of the columns on the story in question.
o = the elastically determined first-order lateral deflection due to Vu at the top of the story
in question with respect to the bottom of that story.
 Vu = total factored horizontal shear for story in question.
c = the height of a compression member in a frame measured from center to center of the
frame joints.

3.0. DETERMINATION OF K FACTOR

The procedure use for estimating the effective length, K, involves the use of
(a) alignment charts
(b) equation

(a) Use of alignment chart

To use the alignment charts for a particular column, factors are computed at each end of
the column. The factors at one end of the column equals the sum of the stiffness [(EI/)] of
the columns meeting at that joint; including the column in question, divided by the sum of all the
stiffness of the beams meeting at the joint.
EI I
( )column ( )
c
= EI = I
( )beam ( )b

Should one end of the column be pinned, is theoretically equal to, and if fixed, =0.
Since a perfectly fixed end is impractically impossible to have, is usually taken as 1.0 instead
of zero (0) for assumed fixed ends.
When column ends are supported by, but not rigidly connected to a footing, is
theoretically infinity, but usually is taken as about 10 for practical design.

(b) Use of an Equation

The ACI Commentary provides an alternate method for determining k values which is the
use of relatively simple equations. (Note, these equations were taken from the British Standard
Codes of Practice)

(b.1) For braced compression member

An upper bound to the effective length factor may be taken as the smaller value
determined from the two equations to follow in which and are the values from the
Jackson and Moreland alignment charts and is the smaller of the two:
= 0.70 + 0.05( + ) 1.0
= 0.85 + 0.05 1.0
(b.2) For unbraced compression members
The value of k of unbraced compression members restrained at both ends may be
determined from the appropriate one of the following two equations, in which is the
average of and:
If < 2
20
= 1 +
20
 If 2
= 0.901 +
The value of k of unbraced compression members that are hinged at one end may
be determined from the following expression, in which is the value at the restrained
end:
k = 2.0 + 0.30
The ACI Code states that k should be taken to be 1.0 for compression members in
frames braced against sidesway unless a theoretical analysis shows that a lesser value can
be used.

4.0. FIRST-ORDER ANALYSES USING SPECIAL MEMBER PROPERTIES

Before moment magnifiers can be computed for a particular structure, it is necessary to make
a first-order analysis of the structure. The ACI Code permits the use of the following properties
both for non-sway or sway structures.

(a) Modulus of Elasticity

1.5
= 0.043c f for values of
= 4730f for normal weight of concrete, = 2400 kg/3

(b) Moment of inertia, Ig:

Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about the centroidal axis neglecting
reinforcement
Beams ----------------------------------------------------0.35 Ig
Columns ------------------------------------------------- 0.70 Ig
Walls- Uncracked-------------------------------------- 0.70 Ig
- Cracked ---------------------------------------- 0.35 Ig
Flat Plates ----------------------------------------------- 0.25 Ig

(c) Area ---------------------------------------------------------- 1.0 Ag

5.0. SLENDER COLUMNS IN NON-SWAY OR BRACED FRAMES

For a compression member in a non-sway frame, the effective slenderness ratio k /r is
used to determine whether the member is short or slender.
For non-sway frames, slenderness effect may be ignored if the following expression is
satisfied.
1
[34 12 ( )]
2
where:
= is the unbraced length of the member
 r = radius of gyration
r = 0.25 times the diameter of a round column
r = 0.30 times the dimension of a rectangular column in the direction that stability
is being considered
k = effective length factor which is equal to 1.0 unless an analysis provides a lesser value.
1 = is the smaller factored end moment in a compression member which has a positive
sign if the member is bent in single curvature and negative sign if the member is bent in
double curvature.
2 = is the larger factored end moment and is always plus in sign
1
= may not be less than -0.5
2

Should k /r be larger than the applicable ratio, we will have a slender column and the
effect of slenderness must be considered. This may be done by using the approximate method or
by using the theoretical second-order analysis that takes into account the deflection. If k /r >
100, a theoretical second-order analysis is a must.

6.0. APPROXIMATE DESIGN APPROACH FOR SLENDER COLUMNS (THE

MOMENT MAGNIFIER METHOD)
If conventional first-order structural analysis based on approximate relative stiffness and
on ignoring the effect of lateral deflections of members is used to determine the moments and
forces in a frame, the actions so found must be modified actions. The design procedure given in
ACI Code for this purpose is the moment magnifier method.
The moment magnifier method is illustrated on the interaction diagram of the above
figure. Let the ultimate column load and moment to be resisted, found using a first-order elastic
frame analysis, be and = e. Then the load and moment used in the design of the section
are and , where is the moment minification factor.

6.1. MAGNIFICATION OF COLUMN MOMENTS IN NON-SWAY FRAMES

The moment magnifier which is used to estimate the effect of member curvature or lateral
deflection in a column in a non-sway frame is given by the following relationship

= 1.0

1
0.75
The determination of the moment magnifier involves the following calculations:

(1) Ec = 4730
(2) Ig = gross inertia of the column cross section about the centroidal axis beimg
considered.
(3) = 200,000 MPa.
 (4) = moment of inertia of reinforcing about the centroidal axis of the section = of
each bar area times distance to centroidal axis squared.
(5) The term d, a concrete creep factor, is defined differently for non-sway and sway
frames. For non-sway frames it is defined as the ratio of the maximum factored axial dead
load divided by the total factored axial load. It is always assumed to have a plus sign. It
range 0 d .
(6) The two expressions given for EI in the Code were developed so as to account for
creep, cracks, and so on. If column and bar sizes have already been selected, or estimated,
EI can be computed with the following expression, which is particularly satisfactory for
columns with high steel percentage.
(0.2 + )
=
1+
An alternate expression for EI when steel percentages are low is
0.40
=
1 +

(7) The Euler buckling load is computed from:

2
=
( )2
k = effective length factor for columns, varying between 0.5 and 1.0 for frames
braced again sidesway and being greater than 1.0 for unbraced frames.
= unsupported length of column
(8) The end effect factor can vary from 0.40 to 1.0. It is determined from the
following expression:
1
= 0.60 + 040 0.40
2
1 = smaller of the ultimate end moment of the column which is positive if
member is bent in single curvature and is negative if bent in double curvature.
2 = larger of the ultimate end moment of the column which is always positive.
For all other cases, is taken as 1.0.

In the ACI Code, the factored design moment for slender columns with no sway is
increased by using the following expression.
= 2
where:
= magnified or increased end moment
2 = larger factored end moment
should the calculations provide very small end moments at both column ends, the Code provides
an absolutely minimum value of 2 to be used in design. In effect it requires the computation of
a moment based on a minimum eccentricity of (15+0.3h) where h is the overall thickness of the
member perpendicular to the axis of bending
2 = (15 + 0.03)
where h is in mm, as is the number 15.

6.2. MAGNIFICATION OF COLUMN MOMENTS IN SWAY FRAMES

If a frame is unbraced against sidesway, it is first necessary to compute the slenderness
ratio. For an unbraced against sidesway frame or a sway frame, the slenderness effect is not
neglected if the following expression is meet

> 22

When sway frames are involved , it is necessary to decide for each load combination
which of the loads cause appreciable sidesway and which do not. The factored end moments that
cause sidesway are referred to as 1 and 2 and they must be magnified because of the P
effect. The other end moments, which do not cause appreciable sidesway, are 1 and 2 .
They are determined by first-order analysis and will not have to be magnified.
The Code states that the magnified moment can be determined by any one of the
following three methods.

(1) They may be obtained by using a second-order elastic analysis based on the reduced
moment of inertia values previously given in the first-order analysis. The k factors should
be determined with these values and must be > 1.0.
(2) The magnified sway moments may be calculated with the equation given below in
which Q is the stability index. Should the computed value of be > 1.5 it will be
necessary to compute by one of the other two methods describe here (other is in no.
3)

=
1
where:
0
=

(3) With the third method and the one used in the topic, the magnified sway moments may
be computed with the following expression:

=

1
0.75
 where:
= the summation of all vertical loads in the story in question.
2
= the sum of all the Euler buckling loads ( = ) for all of the columns in the
( )2
story with k values determined as from previous topic.

Whichever of the three preceding methods is used to determine the values, the
design moments to be used must be calculated with the expressions that follow
1 = 1 + 1
2 = 2 + 2
Sometimes the point of maximum moment in a slender column with a high axial load will
fall between its ends. This can be true even if the column is sufficiently braced against lateral end
deflections by the other columns on that level. For compression member which has
35
>



the maximum moment will occur at a point between the member ends and will exceed the
maximum end moments by more than 5%. For such a case, the maximum moment must be
determined by magnifying the end moments with the previously presented equations 1 and 2 .
For these equations d must be determined for the load combinations under consideration. The
effective length factor k will equal 1.0 unless an analysis shows that a lesser value can be used.
For this case the design moment is to be determined by the following expression:
= (2 + 2 )
It is possible for sway frames to become unstable under gravity loads alone. Whichever of
the three methods for determining magnifying check must be made. These checks follow.

(1) If is determined with a second-order analysis, the ratio of the second-order

lateral deflection to the first-order lateral deflection (for 1.4D+1.7L plus the lateral load
applied to the structure) shall not be larger than 2.5.
(2) If is computed with the ACI Equation

=
1
the value of Q, the instability index, computed which 1.4D + 1.7L must not exceed 0.60.
This value is equivalent to = 2.5.
(3) If is determined with equation

=

1
0.75
The obtained using and corresponding to the factored dead and live load must
be positive and may not exceed 2.50. (If > 2.5 it will be necessary to stiffen the frame).