CHE 1010

Book

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 Syllabus
0 Module 1: Water and Steam
0 Module 2: Compressed air
0 Module 3: Humidification and Dehumidification
0 Module 4: Refrigeration & Ventilation
0 Module 5: Industrial insulation
0 Module 6: Inert gases
0 Module 7: Industrial fuels
0 Module 8: Effluent treatment

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Module 1: Water and Steam
0 Requisites of Industrial Water and its uses.
0 Water treatment methods ion exchange demineralization
membranes technology reverse osmosis.
0 Water resources management.
0 Properties of steam.
0 Boiler types and mountings, boiler accessories, Indian
Boiler Act, 1923.
0 Steam distribution and utilization, steam economy, waste
heat utilization.
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 Basic info
0 Water most useful commodity in nature essential for
existence of life.
0 Occupies most important position in industries.
0 4/5th of earths surface is covered by water, 97% of it
located in oceans not fit for agriculture & industrial purposes.
0 80% of remaining water is in the form of ice caps and giant
glaciers. About 10% of water in under the earth in rock
crevices and minerals.
0 Thus, only a small part of water is available to domestic,
agricultural and industrial purposes readily.

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 Uses of water in industries
0 Used mainly as solvent in many industries Universal
Solvent.
0 Steam generation.
0 Coolant in heat exchangers.
0 Sanitation, drinking and diluting medium.
0 Steel, paper, Textiles, Chemicals, Air conditioning are
major industries using water as a predominant raw
materials.

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 Impurities in Water
0 Dissolved impurities Gases gets dissolved in water during rain
water; water flowing on the surface dissolves salts such as Na, K, Ca,
Mg, Fe, Al, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates etc.
0 Suspended impurities Dispersion of solid particles mixed in water.
Impurities include organic clay and sand particles. These impurities
gives color to water and make the water turbid in some cases.
0 Colloidal impurities Particles smaller than suspended particles.
These impurities make the water turbid. Finely divided clay, silica
alumina salts, ferric hydroxide, complex protein, amino acids fall in this
category
0 Organic (Bacterial) impurities Includes disease causing germs and
virus.
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 Types of water - Industrial
0 Soft water Water which does not contain any of the calcium
or magnesium salt dissolved in it. May contain sodium or
potassium salt dissolved in it.
0 Hard water Water containing the dissolved salts of calcium
and magnesium is called hard water.
0 Hardness is that characteristic which prevents the lathering of
soap, due to presence of Ca and Mg Salts, hard water cannot
produce good lather or foam with soap. The soap consuming
capacity in water is due to the reaction of hardness causing
salts with soap.
0 Hard water does not lather with soap but forms white curdy
substance with soap.
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Reaction between soap & hard water

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 Type of Hardness
0 Temporary Hardness Hardness developed in water due to
the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium.

Temporary hardness is mostly destroyed by boiling of water.

Due to boiling of water, the bicarbonates are decomposed and
formation of insoluble carbonates or hydroxide take place.
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 Type of Hardness
0 Permanent Hardness Hardness developed in water
due to the presence of chlorides, sulphates of calcium
and magnesium or other heavy metals.

Hardness developed due to the chlorides and sulphates

or salts other than bicarbonate cannot be removed by
boiling. It requires some chemical process to remove
these salts. Hence, it is known as permanent hardness.
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Disadvantages of Hard water
0 Hard water is not suitable for domestic, industrial and
steam generation purposes.
0 Cooking
0 Drinking
0 Washing

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 Disadvantages of hard water to Industries
0 Textile industry In textile industry, water is used for washing of yarn and cloth.
If hard water is used, precipitate makes the yarn fabric threads to adhere to
each other which is undesirable. During dying process, it does not produce
uniform and exact shades of color. Iron and magnesium salts produces spots in
fabric and spoil the beauty
0 Paper industry Usage of hard water spoils the shining finish of the paper.
Hard water affects the bleaching of paper and uniformity of thickness.
0 Sugar industry If water containing sulphates, nitrates, alkali carbonates are
used in refining of sugar, it creates difficulties in bleaching and crystallization of
sugar.
Sugar containing Ca and Mg salts has lower sweetness.
0 Chemical and Dying industry Hard water is not suitable for these industries.
Ca and Mg salts on reaction with different chemicals produce undesired
compounds. This affect the quality of product purity and the shade / odor of the
product.
0 Similar effects are observed if hard water is used in pharmaceuticals,
photography, battery, acid, laundry and similar industries. 13
 Measurement of Hardness
0 Concentration of hardness is expressed in terms of an equivalent amount of
CaCO3. Choice of CaCO3 is due to its molecular weight being 100 and equivalent
weight being 50. Also, it is insoluble in water and can be easily precipitated.

0 Units commonly used for hardness are:

a) Parts per million (ppm) parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per million
part of water.
b) Milligrams per litre (mg/lit) milligrams of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per
litre of water.
c) Degree Clarke Clarkes degree is the number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent
per 70,000 parts of water.
d) Degree French French degree is the number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent
per 105 parts of water.

1 ppm = 1 mg / lit = 0.1 oFr = 0.07 oCl

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 Requisite of Industrial water
0 Quality of water required for industries is so variable that some of them
install their own water supply plant.

0 Textile: Water should be clear, bright and absolutely free from color. It
should be soft and should contain only a small amount of saline
constituents in solution.
0 Dying: Water should be free from iron, color and turbidity and should
have smaller quantity of the salts.
0 Paper: Water must be free from color, sedimentary matter and traces of
Iron & Manganese. Saline constituents should be present in such
quantity that no appreciable amount is deposited in the dryer paper.
However, water of any quality can be used for manufacture of coarse
brown paper.
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 Requisite of Industrial water
0 Photo film: Sufficient supply of water which is colorless and
absolutely free from suspended matter and metals.
0 Tanning: Water should be free from iron and lime salts should be
minimum.
0 Steam generation: Dematerialized water. Water should be free from
sedimentary matter and suspended matter. Calcium and Magnesium
salts should be completely absent.

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Need for water softening
0 Water to be used for industrial purpose should be sufficiently pure.

0 Presence of hardness causing ions in water leads to several disadvantages.

0 Process of removing the hardness causing ions from water is called water
softening.

0 Most commonly used water softening methods are:

a) Preboiling of water
b) Lime soda process
c) Zeolite or Permutit process
d) Phosphate treatment
e) Ion exchange process
Preboiling of water
0 Generally water feed to boilers is passed through heat exchanger and it is
preboiled.
0 During preboiling the dissolved gases are removed.
0 Bicarbonates of Ca and Mg causing temporary hardness are decomposed
to insoluble carbonates and removed by water.
Lime Soda Process
0 Most commonly used water softening method.

0 In this method, all soluble hardness causing impurities are chemically

converted into insoluble precipitate which can be removed by settling or
filtration.

0 Hard water is treated with calculated quantities of slaked lime Ca(OH)2 and
soda ash Na2CO3 in reaction tanks provided with stirrer. A slight excess of lime
and soda ash are mixed for fast reaction. The chemicals and water are mixed
using stirrer.
Water gets softened and the precipitates of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and
magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) settle down as sludge at the bottom of the
tank. To remove the suspended particles, water is filtered.
Lime Soda Process
0 Chemical reactions taking part in lime soda process are as follows:
Lime Soda Process
Lime Soda Process
0 Reaction of lime with Ca and Mg salts are slow. Reactions produce very
fine particles which require sufficient time to settle down.

0 Coagulating reagents like sodium aluminate or alum are used to coagulate

the precipitates at a faster rate.

0 Lime soda process does not introduce new soluble salts to water. It is best
suited to treat both types of hardness especially temporary hardness.

0 Softening of water using lime soda process can be carried either in cold or
hot.
Cold Lime soda process
0 In this method, a calculated quantity of lime and soda ash are mixed with
water at room temperature.

0 At this temperature, the precipitates formed are very fine and require more
time for settling which may be about 24 hours. Also it is not possible to
remove the fine precipitates by filtration.

0 Some coagulants like alum or sodium aluminate or aluminium sulphate are

added to water. These coagulants hydrolyze to flocculent, gelatinous
precipitate of Al(OH)3 which bring together fine precipitate particles.

0 Use of sodium aluminate as coagulating agent removes silica & oil present in
water.
Cold Lime soda process
0 Batch process:
Cold Lime soda process
0 Batch process:

0 It is an intermittent process. It consists of at least two tanks used

alternately for softening of water. Each tank is provided with inlets for
raw water, inlets for chemicals, outlet for soft water and sludge outlet
along with a mechanical stirrer.
Cold Lime soda process
0 Conventional type continuous process:
Cold Lime soda process
0 Continuous process:

0 Raw water and calculated quantities of chemicals are continuously feed from the
top into an inner chamber of vertical circular tank provided with a paddle stirrer.

0 Raw water and chemicals flowing down the chamber come into close contact
because of continuous stirring and the chemical reaction takes place to soften the
water.
The sludge formed settles down to the bottom of the outer chamber from where it is
removed through sludge outlet. The softened water rising up passes through the
fiber filter which removes traces of sludge and filtered soft water passes through the
outlet.

Soft water obtained from cold lime soda process still contains 50 60 ppm of residual
hardness.
Hot Lime soda process
Hot Lime soda process
0 In this process, raw water is treated with softening chemicals at a temperature of 80
oC to 100 oC. At this temperature, the chemical reactions are mush faster than in
cold process.

0 Hot lime soda softeners are much faster in operation and require less storage
capacity tank. Elevated temperatures accelerates the rate of actual chemical
reaction, increases the rate of aggregation of particles and reduces the viscosity of
water. Thus rate of settling and filtration is increased.

0 The sludge formed settles down rapidly and hence there is no need of adding
coagulating agents. In this process, the dissolved gases are driven out due to high
temperature treatment

0 The water softened by hot lime soda process contains residual hardness of 15 30
ppm
Advantages of Lime soda process
0 Very Economical.

0 Process increases pH value which reduces the corrosion of tanks and

pipe lines.

0 Removes dissolved salt and gases along with hardness.

0 Does not introduce any new salts to water.

0 Can be used with lower quantity of coagulants as required.

Zeolite or Permutit process
0 Zeolite is used to refer certain group of naturally occurring minerals which
release their water of hydration in the form of steam.

0 Chemical structure of sodium zeolite can be represented as

Na2OAl2O3.SiO2.H2O. These are capable of exchanging their sodium ions
for multivalent ions of calcium & magnesium present in water.

0 Removes dissolved salt and gases along with hardness.

0 Does not introduce any new salts to water.

0 Can be used with lower quantity of coagulants as required.

Zeolite or Permutit process
Zeolite or Permutit process
Zeolite or Permutit process
Zeolite or Permutit process
Zeolite or Permutit process
Zeolite vs Lime Soda process
Phosphate Treatment
0 Water treated by lime-soda or Permutit process has traces of impurities left in them
which may cause scale formation in boiler.

0 In high pressure boilers, scale formation can be avoided by addition of phosphate to

boiler water.

0 The soluble phosphates for this purpose are:

Disodium hydrogen phosphate Na2HPO4
Sodium dihydrogen phosphate Na2H2PO4
Trisodium phosphate Na3PO4
Sodium ortho phosphate Na2P2O7

These sodium phosphates react with calcium and magnesium impurities to convert
them to their insoluble phosphate as Ca(PO3) which are deposited and removed as
sludge. This avoids scale formation.
Phosphate Treatment

0 For effective phosphate treatment, pH of water should be in the range of

9.5 to10.5. Depending on the original pH of water sample, suitable
phosphates are used for treatment.
Ion exchange process
0 Water treated by lime-soda or Permutit process has lots of dissolved
sodium salts left in them.

0 Water to be used in boiler must be free from all types of dissolved

impurities and must be very near to distilled water. Such a quality of
water can be obtained by demineralization or deionization process.

0 Soft water is free from Ca & Mg ions but can contain Na, K, Cl, SO4
ions. However the dimineralized water does not contain any ion.
Hence, every soft water is not dimineralized water but every
dimineralized water is a soft water.
Ion exchange process
0 Ion exchange resins are insoluble cross linked long chain organic polymers
with a microporous structure and the functional groups attached to chains
are responsible for the ion exchanging properties.

0 The resins containing acidic functional group such as COOH, SO3H are
capable of exchange their H+ ions with cations coming in their contact and
the resins containing basic functional group NH2=NH2 are capable of
exchanging their anions with other anion coming in their contact. Hence
there will be two types of ion exchanger beds in this process.
a) Cation exchange resins
b) Anion exchange resins
Ion exchange process
0 a) Cation exchange resin: These are capable of exchanging cations in
water by hydrogen ions. Resins such as sulphonated coals, tannin
formaldehyde represented as RH2 are the examples. Their exchange
resins are given as:

Cation exchange beds, when exhausted, can be regenerated by passing

through their bed, an excess of strong acid solution.
Ion exchange process
0 b) Anion exchange resin: These are capable of exchanging anions in water
by hydraulic ions. The functional groups in anion exchangers are N(CH3)2
and -OH groups which are stable and react fast. Their exchange resins are
given as:

Anion exchange beds, when exhausted, can be regenerated by passing

through their bed, an excess of strong alkali solution.
Ion exchange process
Ion exchange process
0 Hard water is first passed through the cation exchange bed and then
through anion exchange bed, the resulting water will be free from both
cations and anions.

0 The H+ ions obtained in cation exchange step and OH- ions obtained in
anion exchange step combine to give water.

Cation exchange Anion exchange

Ion exchange process
0 Water obtained through the process is free of all ions.

0 To make water free from dissolved gases like CO2 and O2, it has to be
passed through a degasifier. In the degasifier tower, the sides are heated
by steam and the tower is connected to vacuum pump. The higher
temperature and lower pressure reduces the proportion of CO2 and O2 in
water.

0 Water obtained by this process has a hardness less than 2 ppm

Ion exchange process
0 Demineralization process can be used to purify highly acidic or alkaline
water.

0 Resulting water can be used in boilers, manufacture of photographic

material, synthetic rubber, plastics, explosives, ceramics, cosmetics,
soaps, batteries, oil refining, electroplating etc

0 Process is costly.

0 Equipments as well as regenerating chemicals are costly compared with

Zeolite process.
Characteristics of Drinking water
0 Water used for domestic purpose must be safe for drinking. The
essential characters of drinking water are as follows:
Purification of water
0 Water available from natural sources like rivers, ponds, lakes etc are
generally purified by the following methods:
Screening
0 Process of removing large and small floating matter by passing the raw
water through screen having large number of perforations.

0 All floating matter are arrested on the screen.

0 Primary removal of suspended matter is carried out here.

0 Area of the screen, flow rate and amount of floating / suspended matter
in water affects the performance of this water purification step.
Sedimentation
0 Process of removing suspended solid particles from water.

0 Water is allowed to stand undisturbed in big tank about 5 m deep. Most of

the suspended particles settle down at the bottom due to force of gravity.
Settling period of water in sedimentation tank ranges from 2 to 8 hours
depending on the nature and quantity of suspended impurity.

0 Velocity with which a suspended particle in water settle down under action
of gravity depends on:
a) Horizontal flow of water
b) Size of the settling particle
c) Specific gravity of the particle
d) Shape of the particle
e) Temperature of water
Sedimentation
0 Rate of settling in still water at 10 oC is known as hydraulic settling value of a
particle. It is expressed in mm/sec.

0 Sedimentation tanks generally used are rectangular shape for horizontal flow and
circular shape for upward flow.

0 Sedimentation takes a long time, requires a larger capacity of tanks and does not
ensure complete removal of suspended particles.

0 Sedimentation removes about 70% to 80% of suspended particles.

0 In continuous flow tanks, the water flows continuously at a slow but uniform speed.

0 The heavier suspended particles settling down are periodically removed from
bottom of the tank and clear water is obtained as continuous flow.
Coagulation
0 Finely divided silica, Clay and organic matter, being lighter in weigh, does not settle
down easily and hence they are not removed in sedimentation.

0 Particles of 0.06 mm dia require 10 hrs to settle in 3 m deep sedimentation tank and
particles of 0.004 mm dia takes 4 days for settling. This is not practicable for
domestic / industrial water supply.

0 Also, the colloidal particles due to their continuous motion do not settle due to
gravity.

0 All these impurities are removed by chemically carried sedimentation. The

chemicals added to water produce ions of right electrical charge to neutralize
oppositely charged colloidal and other smaller particles about bring about their
coalescence. This process of bring colloidal particles together is called coagulation.
A small particle is formed as a result of this process which fall through still water at a
reasonable rate, called flocculation.
Coagulation
0 Commonly used chemicals for coagulation process are alum, aluminium
sulphate, ferric sulphate, potash alum, ammonia alum. When these are
added to water, they hydrolyze to form colloidal aluminium hydroxide as,

The aluminium hydroxide formed, acts as floc or coagulant which

removes finely divided colloidal impurities. The smaller particles join
together to form denser particles which settle down to the bottom of the
tank. The coagulant removes color & odor from water.

The reaction occurring in natural alkaline water is

Coagulation
0 If water does not have sufficient alkalinity, some alkalis like sodium
oxide are added to water.

The maximum coagulation is possible for the pH value between 7 to 8.5.

Filtration
0 Process of clarification of water by passing through a porous material
which is capable of retaining the coarse impurities on its surface an pores.
This porous material used is called filtering medium and the equipment
used for filtration is called filter.
0 Filtration of water take place due to difference between the pressure. The
difference in pressure is called pressure drop through filtering medium.
0 The pressure drop depends on the rate of filtration, height of filter bed, size
of grains of filter medium, trapped impurities in pores.
0 Depending upon the filter medium and material used, there are three types
of filtration
a) Slow sand filtration
b) Rapid sand filtration
c) Pressure filtration
Filtration
Slow sand filtration:
Filtration
Slow sand filtration:
0 Process is carried out in a watertight tank of 2.4 to 4 m deep with surface
area of 100 to 2000 sq. m.

0 Tank contains 60 to 90 cm thick layer of fine sand and 15 to 30 cm of

gravels.
The gravels are of 3 or 4 different sizes bottom layer of 40 to 60 mm,
middle layer of 20 to 40 mm and top layer of 10 to 20 mm dia.
The gravel layer is supported on a concrete sloping towards an underdrain
channel.

0 Sedimented water enters the slow sand filter through the inlet. Water is
uniformly distributed over the layer of fine sand without disturbing the layer.
Water passes through the filter layer at an average rate of about 100 to
200 lit / m2 hr.
Filtration
Slow sand filtration:
0 The suspended and colloidal impurities are held in sand which result in
clogging of pores. This increases resistance to flow of water and rate of
filtration decreases.

0 When the rate of filtration decreases considerably, about 2 3 cm of the

top fine sand layer is removed and replaced by clean sand and the filter
can be used again. The used sand is washed, cleaned, dried and reused.

0 This slow sand filtration removes all suspended and colloidal impurities
and some bacteria. It removes odor and color of water. But due to slow
rate of filtration, it creates a requirement of larger tanks yielding smaller
quantity of filtered water.
Filtration
Rapid sand filtration:

http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%2011.htm
Filtration
Rapid sand filtration:
0 This process of filtration requires smaller tanks. Tank is rectangular having
depth of 2.5 to 3.5 m and surface area of 10 to 100 m2.

0 Tank contains 60 to 65 cm thick layer of sand of size 0.35 to 0.55 mm dia.

Fine sand is spread on the top and coarser one below the fine.
5 to 6 layers of gravels of 10 15 cm thick each, are present below the
sand layer. The size of gravels range from 0.5 cm at top to 2.5 cm at the
bottom. The size of gravels depends on the rate of filtration.
The gravel layer is supported on a concrete sloping towards an underdrain
channel.

0 A drainage system is provided at bottom to collect filtered water and few

wash gutters are provided slightly above sand bed for wash water. Some
pipes are used above gravels for compressed air.
Filtration
Rapid sand filtration:
0 Water after coagulation and sedimentation is allowed over fine sand
through inlet pipe and spread uniformly on the sand bed. Water percolates
through the sand and is collected in the under drainage system and taken
out through water outlet.

0 After some time, the filter bed gets clogged by the impurities and rate of
filtration decreases. Then all the valves are closed and compressed air is
passed up the bed for 2 3 min. The air agitates the sand bed which loose
the clay and dirt. The water is passed and removed through the wash
water outlet. The washing is continued till the bed becomes clear.

0 The bed requires cleaning once in a day and the cleaning process takes
about 30 minutes. The rate of filtration is about 4000 lit/m2/hr. This type of
filtration removes all suspended impurities but not bacteria.
Filtration
Pressure filtration:
Filtration
Pressure filtration:
0 Pressure filtration is carried out in a closed steel cylinder. Cylinder shell
contains sand and gravels. Vertical filter unit is 2.5 m in diameter and 2 to
2.5 m high. It filters 6000 to 15000 lit / m2 / hr.

0 Raw water is mixed with coagulant, enters the filter from top. It is passed
through sand bed and is uniformly distributed on the sand bed by a
deflector plate.

0 An air pressure is maintained on the surface of water to increase rate of

filtration. Cleaning of clogged filter bed is done by back washing with water.

0 This method is most preferred for industrial water treatment due to the
compact nature and high rate of filtration.
Sterilization
0 Water obtained after coagulation, sedimentation and filtration still
contains considerable proportion of bacteria which produce diseases.

0 The process of removing the bacteria and micro-organism from water

and making it safe for drinking is called sterilization. This is done by
a) Boiling
b) Bleaching powder
c) Chlorine treatment
d) Choramine treatment
e) Ozonizing
f) Ultraviolet (UV) light treatment etc
Sterilization
Boiling
0 Bacteria in water can be killed by boiling for about 10 min. This removes
completely bacteria and germs in water. But this method is costly and
suitable only on small scale.

Bleaching powder:
Bleaching powder contains available chlorine. Calculated quantities of
bleaching powder is added to water which reacts with water to give
chlorine which further gives nascent oxygen.

Nascent oxygen oxidizes the germs and bacteria in water.

Bleaching powder increases the calcium content of water and hence the
hardness of water increases.
Sterilization
Chlorine
0 Bleaching powder is replaced by chlorine gas and is directly passed into
water. This avoids the addition of calcium to water and hence no hardness
is caused to water.

0 Chlorine on reaction with water produces nascent oxygen which kills germs
and bacteria by oxidation.

0 This process is carried out in a chlorinator. Filtered water and chlorine gas
are introduced at the top of the chlorinator. They get mixed and oxidation
reaction takes place. Sterilized water is collected at the bottom.

0 Water is treated with calculated amount of chlorine. The residual chlorine in

sterilized water should not exceed 0.15 ppm.
Sterilization
Chlorine

0 Chlorination is most effective way of sterilization. It kills all bacteria, does not make
the water hard, requires less space and suitable for treatment of water on large
scale.
Sterilization
Chloramine solution
0 Chloramine is a compound obtained by mixing chlorine with ammonia
in the proportion 2:1 by volume.

0 Chloramine can be used for sterilization in place of chlorine. It sterilizes

water by the same process of oxidation due to nascent oxygen.
Sterilization
Ozone
0 Ozone when dissolved in water decomposes to give nascent oxygen,
which can bring sterilization of water by oxidation.

0 Ozone can be prepared by silent electric discharge through cold and dry
oxygen.

0 Sterilization by ozone is carried out in a contact tank. Filtered water and

ozone are introduced in the tank from the top and allowed to come in
contact with each other. The oxidation of germs and bacteria take place
and sterilized water is available in few minutes.
Sterilization
Ozone

0 An addition of 2 to 3 ppm of ozone is sufficient for oxidation. Sterilization of

ozone does not affect the taste or odor of water, but this method is costly.

0 Excess of ozone is harmful to any living organism

Sterilization
UV rays
0 UV light rays having wavelength between 1000 to 4000 Ao can be obtained
by passing electric current in mercury lamp enclosed in quartz - globe.

0 These UV rays are high energy rays and kill the bacteria un water.

0 Flowing water of small thickness is exposed to UV rays. These rays

penetrate through water and kills the bacteria.

0 During this process no chemicals are added, hence the taste, odor and
hardness of water remains the same.

0 This method requires a costlier equipment and electricity, hence it is costly

method as compared with chlorination and ozonization.