15 Chapter6 PDF

6.
Performance Testing of Bellows
Bellows are correlated with actual test results to demonstrate predictability of

design parameters like rupture pressure, meridional yielding, squirm and cycle life
for a consistent series of bellows of same basic design.[20] Minimum five
meridional yield rupture tests on bellows of varying sizes are recommended by
EJMA.[20] A minimum of ten squirm tests on bellows of varying diameters and
number of convolutions are required. A minimum of twenty five fatigue test on
bellows of varying diameters, thicknesses, convolution profiles are required to
construct a fatigue life versus combined stress plot. The test bellows must be
representative of typical bellows design and manufacturing process. Hence lot of
cost is incurred in testing facilities of bellows. Many times special purpose test rigs
are required to be prepared for experimental verification or testing of bellows.
Testing results can be used for the foolproof design of expansion joints. Frequent
testing is essential for the manufacturers as customized design approach.
6.1 Purpose of Testing:
To assure a purchaser (user) that the product has been properly designed and
manufactured; which requires some method of examination and testing of the
product. The user may specify the kind of test required in the acceptance criterion.
Type of testing may be depending upon individual application. To ensure that the
product has been precisely designed and carefully manufactured, certain tests are
required. To ensure that the product is totally defect free, some method of
examination of the product is also required. The testing can be categorized in to
two groups, destructive testing and non-destructive testing. All tests are not
required for bellows, but the required types of tests are selected for individual
application.
Some standard non-destructive examinations are mentioned below.
6.2 Non-destructive Testing:

1. Radiographic examination
2. Liquid penetration examination
3. Fluorescent penetrant examination
Ph. D. thesis on Study of Design Aspects of Expansion Joints with Metallic Bellows and their Performance Evaluation
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4. Magnetic particle examination
5. Ultrasonic examination
6. Halogen leak examination
7. Mass Spectrometer examination
8. Air jet leak examination
9. Pressure Testing
A. Hydrostatic testing
B. Pneumatic testing
10. Spring rate test
Pressure tests are useful for detecting leaks, and also way to test bellows squirm,
meridional yield and rupture
6.2.1 Radiographic Examination:
This method is based on the principle that extremely high frequency light waves,
usually x rays will penetrate solid materials and, when projected on to
photosensitive film, will reveal voids, areas of discontinuity, and lack of
homogeneity. This examination is widely used to evaluate the soundness of
welds. Unless required by the purchaser, radiographic examination of the
longitudinal seam of a bellow need not be specified.
6.2.2 Liquid Penetrant Test:
This method consists of cleaning a surface, coating it with a dye, wiping the dye
off and coating the surface with a developer which after sufficient time will draw
the dye from the cracks, pin holes, and make them apparent to the observer.
Liquid penetrant examination is limited in the scope to detecting the surface
defects.
6.2.3 Flourcent Penetrant Examination:
Flourcent penetrant examination is similar in purpose to the liquid penetrant

examination but is accomplished by the use of a dye which contains a flourcent
material and developer.
6.2.4 Magnetic Particle Examination:
Magnetic particle examination consists of coating a surface with finely powdered

iron and establishing a magnetic field in the material being examined. The
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presence of discontinuities and irregularities in the magnetic field, as indicated by
the lines of powdered iron, will indicate surface and subsurface defects.
6.2.5 Ultrasonic Examination:
Ultrasonic examination used high frequency sound waves to detect flaws, and is
useful in determining thickness, depth and exact location of defects. Interpretation
of indications in sections of sharply varying thickness is difficult.
6.2.6 Halogen leak Examination:
Halogen leak examination utilizes a probe of suitable design which selectively

indicates the presence of halogen gases.
This examination is more sensitive than a hydrostatic test or air jet leak
examination but since it is done at low pressure, it can only determine the
presence of a leak and can not validate the structural integrity of the item being
examined.
6.2.7 Mass Spectrometer Examination:
Mass spectrometer examination is an extremely sensitive means of determining

the presence of a leak. The gas used is helium. This test is only recommended for
explosive service requirements.
6.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Testing:
The hydrostatic pressure testing is necessary to check the pressure withstanding

capability of bellow and detection of any leakage in the bellow. This test is carried
out in a suitable fixture as shown in the figure 6.1 or in case of large diameter; it
can be carried out without fixture with necessary fabrication. The bellows ends
must be closed and free length of the bellow should be made fixed with extra leg
support at three or four sides of the diameter.
This test involves filling of the expansion joint with a liquid, usually water. After
filling, it can be pressurized up to the test pressure. The test pressure is usually
1.5 times the design pressure at ambient temperature. Expansion joints placed in
high temperature service may require the pressure test to be performed at an
adjusted pressure. It is imperative that the test pressure does not produce any
membrane stress in excess of yield strength or cause permanent deformation or
instability of the bellows at test temperature. The observer has to take care about
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pressure drop in the bellow, leakages if any in the bellow. Bellow should come to
its original shape after removal of pressure.
Figure 6.1: Set up diagram for Hydro test
6.4 Pneumatic Pressure Testing:
This test is having similar objectives as to check the pressure withstanding

capability of bellow and detection of leakage. This test involves filling of the
expansion joint with air or other gas. After filling, it can be pressurized up to the
test pressure. The test pressure is usually 1.1 times the design pressure at
ambient temperature. Expansion joints placed in high temperature service may
require the pressure test to be performed at an adjusted pressure. It is imperative
that the test pressure does not produce any membrane stress in excess of yield
strength or cause permanent deformation or instability of the bellows at test
temperature.
6.5 Spring Rate Test:
The force required to deflect (usually compress) a bellow is a function of the

dimensions of the bellows and the material from which it is made. It can be
measured as load per unit deflection. The curve of force versus deflection for most
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bellows indicates motion extending into the plastic range, since material thickness
is taken very less in order to get higher flexibility.
Spring rate determination of a bellow becomes more critical as variation in

geometric parameters and bellow deforms in elastic range as well as plastic
range. Many times due to higher deflection taking place in piping length,
deformation stresses becomes very significant. But assuming the movement of
bellows deformation is within elastic limit, the axial theoretical spring rate can be
determined experimentally, which can be useful for the limit of axial deformations
of bellows.
Figure: 6.2 Setup diagram for spring rate test
A simple press type fixture is necessary for the spring rate test. Following
procedure can be used for test. The diagram is shown in figure 6.2.
1. The expansion bellow to be tested is placed in vertical position in the fixture

as shown in the figure 6.2. The bellow is held in place by means of
fastening clamps.
2. Measurement of the length of bellow should be feasible with fixed or free

scale at different loadings.
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3. Measurement of force, which is created by operating screw or bringing ram
downwards, should be through electronic load cell.
4. The initial position or free length of bellow is measured on the scale or

using separate scale.
5. Force is gradually applied in the steps by rotation of the screw or

pressurizing the ram.
6. Measure the load readings with reference to bellow length at various

intervals.
7. Plot the curve of force vs deflection, which is the spring rate of the bellow.
8. Compare the spring rate with theoretical designed value.
6.6 Destructive Testing:
1. Squirm testing
2. Meridional yield- rupture testing
3. Fatigue life testing
6.6.1 Squirm Testing:
Main objective of the test is to determine the internal pressure which will cause a
bellows to become unstable. Squirm is defined on the basis of change in pitch of
the bellows convolutions under internal pressure.
Test Procedure:
1. Expansion joint should be placed in a suitable fixture, with bellows in

straight position.
2. Bellows should be effectively sealed at the ends during pressurization.
3. End movements must be prevented.
4. Bellows can be tested either in horizontal or vertical position. Horizontal is

preferred.
5. Testing medium should be water for safety.
6. No restrictions to convolutions.
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7. Use two dial gauges in perpendicular direction (on outer surface of
convolution), to observe deflection of end centers of a bellow.
8. Change in pitch of all convolutions.
9. Pressurize the specimen in steps without releasing the pressure between

steps.
10. Each interval should not exceed 10% of the final anticipated instability
pressure, although smaller intervals are preferred.
11. Instability of axially aligned bellows is generally characterized by a sudden

acceleration of either the change in resultant lateral deflection and/or
change in convolution pitch.
6.6.2 Meridional yield rupture testing:
Rupture test is to determine the internal pressure which will cause yielding and
rupture of bellows. Place the expansion joint in any suitable fixture, with the
bellows fixed in the straight position which will effectively seal the ends during
pressurization, and most importantly will prevent any movement of the ends
during testing. Test medium should be limited to water as safety precautions.
Pressurize the specimen in steps, retaining to zero pressure after each step, up to
at least twice the yield pressure. Instrumentation should be arranged such as
pressure time recorder, strain gauges etc.
6.6.3 Fatigue Life Testing:
This test must be on proto type bellows. Fatigue life testing is a verification of the
ability of a bellow to withstand a given number of flexing cycles. With all other
shape factors remaining constant, cycle life will generally increase with diameter.
But for prototype testing it may be acceptable to cycle test the smaller size of
expansion joint being furnished for a given series of identical service condition.
Figure 6.3 shows the arrangement required for cycle life test of a bellow.
Test Procedure:
1. Place the bellow element in the suitable fixture as shown in the figure 6.3.
2. Bellows should be effectively sealed at the ends during pressurization.

Apply pressure gradually till it reaches design pressure.
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3. Set axial movement of bellow as per designed permissible limit. Check
whether the bellow test is as per free length or extended length. Set limits
according to these values.
4. Pressurize the bellow with water.
5. Start fatigue testing at room temperature, keeping it pressurized at design

pressure. The fatigue life frequency shall be kept constant as far as
possible.
Figure 6.3: Set up diagram for cycle life test
6. Continue cycle life testing till it reaches 10,000 cycles.
7. Check for any leakage in the bellow.
8. Carry out Die penetrant examination for any surface cracks after the fatigue
test.
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Fatigue may be performed at constant pressure or varying pressure condition. It is
also acceptable to cycle test at room temperature any expansion joint which will
be furnished for operating temperatures up to the active creep range. For
expansion joints operating above this range, consideration should be given to
testing at elevated temperature.
6.7 Experimental Work

All activities associated with the development of any product for the full
satisfaction of the customer requires extensive planning and as well as conducting
various research studies so that the optimum value of all decision variables can
be achieved. The quality engineering techniques are very much helpful in
[B13]
producing robust design of the products. Many more quality engineering
principles are helpful for making robust product. They are system design through
innovations, parameter design, tolerance design, product design optimization,
process design optimization, statistical quality control etc.
6.8 Design of Experiments

In the present business scenario of globalization a revolution is taking place due
to customers higher expectations and breakneck technical changes are taking
place which are causing yesterdays realities as tomorrows irrelevancies. Quality,
reliability and durability are the primary factors in the customers buying decisions
in the present overall business revolution. The robust design of products is the
fundamental requirement of the customers.
Robust design means that the performance of the system is always acceptably
close to the ideal function of the system. A systematic and efficient way to meet
the challenge of developing a robust product is the statistical approach to the
optimization of the product and process design which was originally developed by
Sir Ronal A Fisher and later adapted by Genichi Taguchi for industrial products.
This work is an attempt towards optimization of various geometric parameters for

the spring rate of bellows. After that some tests are carried out and using results
some meaningful conclusions are drawn.
6.8.1 Taguchis philosophy:
All products have characteristics that describe their performance relative to

customer requirements or expectations. The quality of product is measured in
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terms of these characteristics. Quality is related to the loss to society caused by a
product during its life cycle. A truly high quality product will have a minimum loss
to the society as it goes through this life cycle.
6.8.2 Purpose of Experimentation:
The purpose of product or process development is to improve the performance

characteristics of the product or process relative to customer needs and
expectations. The purpose of experimentation should be to understand how to
reduce and control variation of a product or process; subsequently, decisions
must be made concerning which parameters affect the performance of a product
or process. By adjusting the average and reducing variation, the product or
process losses can be minimized.
6.8.3 Basis of experimentation:
The basis of experimentation should be based on the use of orthogonal arrays to

conduct small, highly fractional factorial experiments up to larger, full factorial
experiments. The use of orthogonal arrays is just a methodology to design an
experiment, but probably the most flexible in accommodating a variety of
situations and yet easy for industry people to execute on a practical basis.
6.8.4 Introduction to Design of Experiments (DOE):
Design of Experiments (DOE) is a statistical technique introduced by R A Fisher in

England. This technique is useful for simultaneously study of multiple variables on
the any parameter or outcomes. Dr. Taguchi has carried out significant research
with DOE techniques in the field of electronics. This technique has many
advantages over classical experimentation procedure. DOE is helpful in
addressing quality of the product issue in the design phases of products. DOE is
helpful in finding influence of individual parameters, determination of relative
influence of individual factors and it leads to optimum design of the product or
process.
A designed experiment is the simultaneously evaluation of two or more factors

(design parameters) for their ability to affect the resultant average or variability of
particular product or process characteristics. To accomplish this in an effective
and statistically proper fashion, the levels of the factors are varied in a strategic
manner. The results of a particular test conditions are observed and a complete
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set of results are analyzed to determine the influential factors and preferred levels,
and weather increases or decreases of those levels will potentially leads to further
improvement. Basically this is an iterative process. Later on experiments typically
involve few factors at more than two levels to determine conditions of further
improvement.
6.8.5 The process of Design of Experiments DOE: [B13]
Following are the steps suggested for design of experiments by Taguchi

philosophy.
1. State the problem or area of concern:
A statement of problem should be critically framed so that will make clear and
concise description of the problem. Expansion joints are manufactured with
customized approach for individual application. The performance is mainly
depending on precise design and manufacturing methodology. The expansion
joint must perform expected flexibility while working. The flexibility of bellow is
depending on its material property and selection geometric parameters. The
initial theoretical axial spring rate can be evaluated from the parameters. The
spring rate of bellow must maintain consistently within limits, so performance is
assured. This testing will also help to reduce variation in manufacturing
procedure and quality will improve. The statement of the problem is framed as
Optimization of parameter design of expansion joints for the desired or
expected value of initial axial spring rate using Design of Experiment (DOE)
technique.
2. State the objectives of the experiment.
The objectives of the experiment are
(a) Effect of various geometric parameters on axial spring rate,
(b) Study of percentage influence of each parameter,
(c) To check expected performance of expansion joint,
(d) To verify existing design procedure.
3. Select the quality characteristics and measurement system.
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The initial axial spring rate of the bellow can be measured by spring rate test
as suggested by EJMA. This test is basically non-destructive test. Here the
spring rate is measured by movements of bellows at various pressure values.
The convolution movement can be measured by variations of pitch of the
convolutions. This movement can be measure by vernier caliper. The both
ends must be welded with flanges and their movements should be restricted
by a fixture.
4. Select the factors that may influence the selected quality characteristics.
Here the list of factors to be evaluated in the experiment for their effect on the
selected quality characteristics should be determined. The initial axial spring
rate of bellows depends on following factors
(a) Selection of material and its modulus of elasticity
(b) Selection material thickness,
(c) Design parameter - height of convolutions,
(d) Design parameter - pitch of convolutions
(e) Design parameter Mean diameter of bellow
(f) Design parameter number of plies of material.
5. Identify control and noise factors. (Taguchi-specific)
Control factors are those factors that a manufacturer can control the design of
a product, the design of a process, or during a process.
(a) Control on variations in thickness while forming convolutions.
(b) Control on precise dimension of height of convolutions.
(c) Control on pitch of convolutions.
Noise factors are those things that a manufacturer can not or wishes not to
control for cost reasons.
1. Very high precision level of dimensions
6. Select the levels for the factors.
Basically the spring rate of bellows mainly depends on two parameters for a
particular material. First parameter is thickness and number of plies. As higher
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the thickness, spring rate is increases and for lower thickness the spring rate
will be reduces. These two parameters must be considered as a common
parameter named as total thickness. This will simplify the understanding as a
common parameter.
So, Total thickness = Material thickness x number of plies.
Second important parameter is height of convolutions, as the height of

convolution increases, spring rate reduces and for lower height of convolution
spring rate is always higher.
Here, two levels of parameters can be selected for the total thickness and
height of convolution parameters for the design of experiment.
7. Select the appropriate orthogonal array. [B13, B4]
The determination of appropriate orthogonal array for the experiment is major

criteria for the experiment. Since two parameters are selected for two levels,
following orthogonal array may be selected for the experimentation.
Parameter A = Thickness of bellow material
Parameter B = Height of convolutions
Table 6.1: Experimental parameters for Axial Spring Rate
Thickness of bellow material Height of convolutions

t (cm) w (cm)
A1 B1
A1 B2
A2 B1
A2 B2
8. Select interactions that may influence the selected quality characteristics,
or go to step 4. (iterative process)
9. Assign factors to orthogonal array and locate interactions.
10. Conduct tests described by trials in orthogonal arrays.
11. Analyze and interpret results of the experimental trials.
12. Conduct confirmation experiment.
Steps 8 to 12 are performed in the experiment as per experimental results.
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6.9 Applying DOE on Spring Rate of Bellows:
The force required to deflect a bellow is a function of the geometric parameters of

the bellows and the material from which it is made. The curve of force versus
deflection for bellows may be represented by straight line, based on Hooks law of
elasticity (within elastic region). Here lower material thickness will permit higher
flexibility and leads to higher spring rate.
Spring rate will not be consistent because of large variations in geometric
parameters. U shape of convolutions permits higher spring rate, while toroidal
shape of convolutions will not. Hence for expected movement of expansion joint,
determination of spring rate of bellow becomes essential.
The influencing parameters for the spring rate of bellows are mean diameter,
thickness of material, number of plies, height of convolution, number of
convolutions and elastic modulus of the material. If the spring rate of bellows is
evaluated in force required per unit deflection, per convolution, than number of
convolution parameter can be reduced from the analysis.
The initial theoretical spring rate of bellows can be evaluated analytically using
following relationship which is suggested by EJMA. [20]
3
Dm E b t p n
Theoretical initial spring rate, fiu 1.7 (6.1)
w3 C f
where, Dm = Mean diameter of the bellow, 193.88 cm.

Eb = Elasticity of the bellow at room temperature, 19728608 N/cm2
tp = Thickness of bellow material, 0.058 cm
n = Number of plies, 3
w = Height of convolutions, 3.8cm.
Cf = Constant based on inside dia. and pitch of convolutions, 1.7
6.9.1 Axial Spring Rate of Metallic Bellows
The factors, which can influence axial spring rate, are thickness of material (t),
number of ply (n), convolution height (w), mean diameter of bellow (Dm), elastic
property of material, and constants. Table 6.1 shows the factors considered and
its corresponding levels along with the interactions. The inner array along with the
experimental results is given in Table 6.2. Experimental results are taken by
manual measurement. The movement of convolution is measured by distance
between two end flanges using Vernier calliper. For the analysis smaller is better
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quality characteristic is selected. Due to economic reasons, one test result for
each trial is used in this investigation only the interactions between two factors are
considered and all other interactions are ignored.
Table 6.2 Factors and Levels

No. Factors Level 1 Level 2
1 txn 0.058 0.065
2 w 3.5 3.8
3 txw INTERACTION
Table 6.3 Experimental Results

Sr. t w Axial Spring Rate (N/cm) Axial Spring Rate (N/cm)
No. (cm) (cm) Experimental data
1 0.058 3.5 3100 3210
2 0.058 3.8 2408 2260
3 0.065 3.5 4390 4240
4 0.065 3.8 3420 3580
Table 6.4: Experimental Results (In two level formats)

Parameter Parameter Total
(A1) (A2)
Parameter 3100, 3210 4390, 4240 14940
(B1)
Parameter 2408, 2260 3420, 3580 11668
(B2)
10978 15630 Total = 26608
6.9.2 Analytical Approach:
Sum of Squares (SS):
N 2 T2
SST = yi (6.2)
i 1 N
T2

= 3100 2 3210 2 2408 2 2260 2 4390 2 4240 2 3420 2 3580 2 N
= 92582664 88498208
= 4084456
Variations due to thickness (t):
kA Ai 2 T2
SSA = (6.3)

i 1 nAi
N

109782 15630 2 26608 2

= = 2705138
4 4 8
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A1 A2 2 10978 156302
SSA = = = 2705138 (6.4)
N 8
Variations due to convolution height (w) :
SSB =
B1 B2 2 =
14940 116682 = 1338248 (6.5)
N 8
Variations due to combined effect (t and w):
A1B1 = (A x B)1 = 6310
A2B2 = (A x B)2 = 8630
A1B2 = (A x B)3 = 4668
A2B2 = (A x B)4 = 7000
C ( AxB) 2 i 2 T 2
SS (AxB) = SS A SS B (6.6)
i 1 ( nAxB) i N
6310 2 8630 2 46682 7000 2 266082

= 2705138 1338248
2 2 2 2 8
= 18
AxB1 AxB2 2
SS (AxB) = = 18
N
SST = SSA + SSB + SS (AxB) + SSe 6.7
4084456 = 2705138 + 1338248 + 18 + SSe
SSe = 41052
Degree of freedom:
VT = N 1 = 8 1 = 7
VT = VA + VB + V AxB + Ve
VA = kA 1 = 2 1 = 1
VB = kB 1 = 2 1 = 1
VAxB = VA x VB = 1 x 1 = 1
Ve = VT VA VB VAxB = 71-11 =4
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6.9.3 Results and discussions:
The results are evaluated by Taguchi method and the methodology is shown
earlier. The results are tabulated in the ANOVA table 6.5. The influence of each
parameters can be observed easily by referring last column. Figure 6.4 and 6.5
shows effect of both geometric parameters by line graph.
Table 6.5: ANOVA Table

Factor Sum of squares Degree of Variance F-Ratio Percent contribution
(S S) freedom (v) (V) (F) (%)
t 2705138 1 2705138 263.582 65.98
w 1338248 1 138248 130.395 32.51
txw 18 1 18 0.002 -0.25
Error 41052 4 10263 1.76
Total 4084456 7 100
Variance = SS / degree of freedom

Factor F = Variance / Variance (error)
SSA = SSA (Ve) v A = 2705138 10263 = 2694875
Percent contribution = (SSA / SST ) x 100
= (2694875 / 4084456) x 100 = 65.98
Effect of t
6000
ASR, N/cm
4000
2000
0
0.058 0.065
t, cm
Figure 6.4 Influence of thickness of material
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Effect of w
4000
ASR, N/cm
3000
2000
1000
0
3.5 3.8
w , cm
Figure 6.5 Influence of height of convolution
6.9.4 Observations:
1. The experiment investigation and the subsequent analysis bring out the
influence of dominancy of selected geometric parameters (thickness and
height of convolution) for the axial spring rate of bellows.
2. The thickness is being the most significant parameter (65.98%), followed

by convolution height plays influence of (32.51%) and the combination of
these two parameters affects very negligible (-0.36%) for achievement of
axial spring rate in metallic bellows.
3. The factors are predominant for a confidence level of 95%, since error part
is very negligible, the results may consider reliable.
4. The most significant parameter is thickness of material (t) for desired axial
spring rate.
6.9.5 Limitation:
Spring rate measurement is carried out on four bellows and results are
extrapolated for L-8 orthogonal array. Further if all eight experimental data are
available, influence can be evaluated more precisely.
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6.10 Spring Rate Test:
The force required to deflect a bellow is a function of the dimensions of the

bellows and the material from which it is made. The curve of force versus
deflection for most bellows indicates motion extending into the plastic range, since
material thickness is taken very less in order to get higher flexibility. Spring rate
determination of a bellow becomes more difficult as variation in geometric
parameters and bellow deforms in elastic range as well as plastic range. Many
times due to higher deflection taking place in piping length, deformation stresses
becomes very significant.
Bellows are loaded by internal pressure, which may cause a bellow to become
deflect axially, laterally or angularly. Bellows performance is depending on critical
pressure and temperature and their fluctuations. The bellow convolution may get
expand or contract axially and laterally.
Figure 6.6: General curve of Bellows Force vs Deflection
The curve shown in figure 6.6 shows the curve of force vs deflection for most
bellows indicates motion extending into the plastic range. The first portion of the
curve is a straight line as the bellows is deflected through its elastic range
(Hookes law). As bellows deflection continues and extends into plastic range, the
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force vs deflection relationship becomes non-linear until the point of maximum
deflection is reached.
When the restraining force is released, the curve again becomes linear until the
applied force is zero at which point the residual deflection of the bellows still has a
positive value. To return the bellows to its initial position, a restoring force must be
applied in the opposite direction as shown by the curve below the abscissa. This
phenomenon is similar to hystersis loop behavior of materials while supplying
electric or magnetic energy.
Line A represents theoretical initial elastic spring rate, which can be determined
analytically with reasonable accuracy. This equation is mentioned in analytical
approach and for U shape convolution as shown in figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7: Convolutions of bellows
6.10.1 Experimental method to check Spring Rate:
An experimental set up requires a bellow with both ends blind. This bellow is
mounted between two end plates with fixed lungs. The bellow can not expand but
due to pressure force, it can contract. The whole set up is made vertical and at the
top, pressure gauge is mounted. Same side one opening is kept through water
pump. The water is filled till it overflows, and then the hole is closed.
Now using water pump inside pressure can be increased at different values and
the movements of convolutions can be observed and measured. The length
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variations can be measured with reference to convolution tip. It can also be
termed as pitch. The pitch variation is taken at 4 sides, 900 to each other, named
as A, B, C and D.
6.10.2 Assumptions of Analysis:
1. Bellow material is having uniform thickness.
2. Bellow material is homogeneous.
3. Pitch measurement is carried out with vernier caliper, but due to manual
approach, measurement error can be approximately 0.2 mm.
Geometric Dimensions of a bellow:
A bellow with following dimensions is taken for experiment for the spring rate
measurement.
Table 6.6: Geometric dimensions of a bellow
Db Dm t w q N n E
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (N/cm2)
190 193.68 0.06 3.5 5 10 3 19728608
Mean diameter, Dm = Db + w + (n x t) = 190 + 3.5 + (3x0.06) = 193.68 cm

Cylinder bore = 10 cm.
Figure 6.8: Measurement indication of a bellow
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6.10.3 Experimental Results:
Table 6.7: Experimental Results
Sr. Change in length between convolutions, cm Average
Pressure
No change,
N/cm2 A B C D
. cm
1 0 45.10 45.20 45.30 45.50 45.27
2 20 44.85 45.00 45.00 45.30 45.04
3 40 44.60 44.90 44.80 45.00 44.82
4 60 44.35 44.60 44.50 44.80 44.56
5 80 44.10 44.25 44.20 44.55 44.28
6 100 43.80 44.00 44.00 44.25 44.02
7 0 45.10 45.20 45.30 45.50 45.27
Maximum variations
between 20-100 1.05 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.025
N/cm2.
6.10.4 Result Analysis:

Table 6.8: Computation of Axial Spring Rate
Force Unit Deflection Bellow Spring Rate
Sr. Pressure
= Pr. x Area (Reference : 45.27) =Force/Unit deflection
No. N/cm2
(N) (cm) (N/cm )
1 20 1570 0.23 6826
2 40 3140 0.45 6978
3 60 4710 0.71 6633
4 80 6280 0.99 6344
5 100 7850 1.25 6280
Average: = 6612.2
6.10.5 Sample calculations:

Force at 100 N/cm2 pressure = Pr.xArea =100x
2
Dbore =100 x (10) 2 = 7850 N
4 4
Unit deflection at 100 N/cm2 pressure measured = 1.25 cm
Spring rate = Force / unit deflection = 7850 / 1.25 = 6280 N/cm
211
Graphs:
9000
8000
7000
6000
Force (N)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Deflection (cm)
Figure 6.9: Force Vs Deflection curve
6.10.6 Analytical Approach:

EJMA suggests an analytical approach to check the initial spring rate of bellows. It
also suggests that; since there is no standard manufacturing methodology at
various industries, frequent experimental testing must be carried out to validate
the design methodology.
3
Dm Eb t p n
Bellows initial Axial Elastic Spring Rate fiu 1.7 (4)
w3 C f
1.7 x193.68 x 19728608 x 0.06 3 x 3

= = 54540 N/cm/convolution.
3.5 3 x 1.8
Axial spring rate of bellow = 545.4 / 10 = 5454 N/cm.
212
8000
Spring rate, N/cm/conv

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
2
Pressure, N/cm
Experimental Analytical Average Exp
Figure 6.10 : Comparison of Spring Rate Results
6.10.7 Comparison of Results:

Table 6.9: Comparison of Results
Average Experimental Analytical Deviation in
Spring rate Spring rate spring rate % deviation
(N/cm) (N/cm) (N/cm)
6610 5454 1156 21.19
6.10.8 Observations:
1. Experimental results shows that the spring rate of bellows vary with respect to
internal pressure load. Hence, the average movement of convolution is
considered for various pressure loadings in elastic range. As the pressure
increases towards designed value, the spring rate also approaches to
expected value. In the present study maximum deviation is up to 21.19%.
2. Bellows with lower value of spring rate are flexible, while bellows with higher
spring rate value are stiffer. We desire more flexibility from expansion joints.
3. Stiffness of bellow is directly proportional to mean diameter of bellow,
thickness of material, number of plies of bellow, while inversely proportional to
height of convolutions.
213
6.11 Squirm Test:
The purpose of squirm test is to check critical buckling pressure of a bellow. The
objectives of the test are to find actual factor of safety, validation of the design
procedure and confirmation of manufacturing process. The bellow is said to be
squirmed on the basis of major (sudden) change in pitch of the bellows
convolutions under internal pressure. The test will also be helpful to determine the
critical internal pressure at which it will become unstable.
6.11.1 Geometric dimensions of a bellow:
Material type = SS 304

Db Dm t w q N n E
16.90 20.48 0.04 3.5 2.6 7 2 19728608
Length of a bellow = N x q = 18.20 cm
Design Pressure = 50 N/cm2
6.11.2 Estimation of Critical pressure:
Ratio of Length to diameter of bellow = (18.20 / 16.90) = 1.0769
4.72 f i u q 2
Transition Point factor, Cz = = 2.25
S y Db Ac
Since Lb/Db ratio is less than transition point factor (1.0769<2.25), it is short
column.
Where, fw = Theoretical spring rate = 1998 N/cm/convolution
Sy = Yield strength of material = 20310 N/cm2
Ac = Cross section metal area of one bellow = 0.365 cm2
Critical Pressure (In-plane) = 72 N/cm2
0.87 Ac S y 0.73 Lb 2
Critical Pressure (Column) Psc = 1 = 95.4 N/cm
Db q C z Db
214
6.11.3 Experimental Readings:
Table 6.11: Experimental Readings of Pitch dimensions
1 2 3 4 5 6
25.7 25.7 26.3 26.7 26.4 27.1
25.9 26.1 26.1 26.1 25.8 26.4
26.7 26.1 26.3 26 26.3 26.8
25.9 26.7 26.1 26.8 26.7 26.7 0
26.05 26.15 26.2 26.4 26.3 26.750 26.30
28.1 26.1 26.5 26.7 27.3 27

25.8 26.1 26.5 27 26.7 26.7
26.5 27.1 26.3 26 26.5 26.5
26 26.5 26.7 27.1 23.7 26.4 1
26.6 26.45 26.5 26.7 26.05 26.650 26.492
26.1 26.5 26.5 26.9 26.9 26.9

25.8 26.3 26.4 26.9 26.5 26.3
27 26.8 26.3 26.7 26.7 26.7
26 25.8 26.5 26.5 26.5 26.5 2
26.225 26.35 26.425 26.75 26.65 26.600 26.50
26.2 26.6 27 27 26.6 26.6

26.3 26.7 25.7 26.7 26.2 27
26.6 26.6 25.7 26.3 26.3 26.2
25.5 25.7 25.8 27.1 26 26 6
26.15 26.4 26.05 26.775 26.275 26.450 26.35
25.5 25.9 26.3 26.3 26.3 26.3

26 26 26 26 26 26
25.7 26.4 25.6 26.3 26.7 26.1
25.7 26.2 27 26.5 26.7 26 9
25.725 26.125 26.225 26.275 26.425 26.100 26.15
25.9 25.9 26.4 26.6 26.9 26.3

25.9 26.3 26 26.4 26.3 26.3
26.2 26.8 26.3 26.4 26.3 26.2
25.5 25.6 27 26.8 26.4 26.3 12
25.875 26.15 26.425 26.55 26.475 26.275 26.30
26.2 26.2 26.3 26.5 26.5 26.5

26.7 26.5 26.5 26.5 26.4 26.2
26.5 26.5 26.1 26.2 26.1 26.1
26.1 26.1 26.9 26.7 26.7 26.5 15
26.375 26.325 26.45 26.475 26.425 26.325 26.40
1 2 3 4 5 6
26.2 26.2 26.3 27.2 26.6 26.4
26.1 26.1 25.9 26 26.9 26.5
26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2
26.9 26.4 26.4 26.4 26.4 26.4
26.35 26.225 26.2 26.45 26.525 26.375 26.35
26.1 26.5 26.9 26.5 26.3 26.2

26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1 26.1
26.2 26.7 26.1 26.2 26.6 26.2
26.3 26.3 26.7 26.7 26.7 26.4
215
26.175 26.4 26.45 26.375 26.425 26.225 26.34
26.8 26.8 26.8 27.1 26.9 26.8

27.2 26.8 26.9 26.9 26.9 26.9
27 27 26.7 26.7 26.7 26.7
27.2 27.2 27 27 26.8 26.5
27.05 26.95 26.85 26.925 26.825 26.725 26.88
27.9 26.6 27.2 27.3 26.9 26.9

28 27.2 26.6 26.6 26.8 26.9
28.3 27.6 27 27 27.3 26.9
27.5 27.5 26.8 27 27.6 27.6
27.925 27.225 26.9 26.975 27.15 27.075 27.20
33 20.4 27.1 32.8 26.8 24.3

21 33.5 26.9 21.7 28.6 31.8
33 20.6 26.9 32.7 27.5 23.4
20.9 24.7 26.6 22.1 28.2 31.1
26.975 24.8 26.875 27.325 27.775 27.650 26.90
6.11.4 Summary of Results:

Table 6.12: Summary of Pitch Dimensions
2
Pressure, N/cm Average pitch, mm
0 26.30
10 26.50
20 26.50
60 26.35
90 26.15
120 26.30
150 26.40
180 26.35
210 26.35
250 26.90
290 27.20
350 26.90
27.4
27.2
AVG. PITCH, mm
27
26.8
26.6
26.4
26.2
26
25.8
25.6
0 10 20 60 90 120 150 180 210 250 290 350
2
PRESSURE, N/cm
Figure 6.11: Graph showing pitch variations
216
1. Experimental results of squirm test of bellows shows variations of pitch well

within elastic limits up to the pressure 210 N/cm2. But beyond that pressure,
deformation exceeds continuously till squirm failure.
2. The pitch variation suddenly increases from 250 N/cm2, i.e. because of drastic
deformation of bellows beyond elastic limits. Here the pitch disturbs
permanently even after releasing pressure. This is called squirm failure.
3. Bellow should be loaded well within the limits of critical pressure to avoid
squirm failure.
4. In case of short column bellows, it is observed that the bellow initially failed by
in-plane squirm, than subsequently by column squirm.
5. Critical value of pressure suggested by EJMA involves following safety factor.
Factor of safety in in-plane squirm failure = (250 / 72) = 3.47
Factor of safety in column squirm failure = (290 / 95.4) = 3.04
217
6.12 In-Plane Stability Tests:
In actual practice, piping are operates at various temperatures in a specific range.

Like for a particular application of expansion joint, the piping operates between
250 F to 3750 F (-30 C to 1900 C). Now the installation of expansion joint should be
carried out at minimum design temperature, and at minimum temperature, the
bellow will be under compression mode. To facilitate the installation for such
cases, bellows are initially pre-compressed axially by certain amount and than
installation is carried out. The amount of pre-compression is calculated based on
coefficient of thermal expansion at various temperatures.
Pre-compression of bellows creates very high longitudinal bending stresses due to

deflection. If the compression amount is higher, than permanent deformation of
material takes place in the convolution area. The maximum stresses are develops
at roots of convolutions.
To analyze the amount of longitudinal stresses developed in the bellows, following

calculations are made using EJMA relations.
Table 6.13: Evaluation of longitudinal stresses under pre-compression

Bellows meridional Bellows meridional
Total meridional
Pre-compression membrane stress bending stress
stresses
(cms) due to deflection due to deflection
N/cm2
N/cm2 N/cm2
0 0 0 0
0.25 800 69080 69880
0.5 1600 138160 139760
0.667 2140 184300 186440
1.0 3200 276320 279520
2.0 6400 552640 584600
3.0 9600 828960 838560
5.0 16000 1381590 1397590
7.5 24010 2072390 2096400
10.0 32010 2763190 2795200
218
6.12.1 Bellow subjected to compressive deformation:
Bellows are used in free length installation, compression length installations or

expanded length installations. These conditions are selected for space availability
and for special requirements. This test is conducted on a bellow after 10 cm initial
compression. The geometric dimensions of bellow are as following. The objectives
of the test are to study convolution movement, in-plane behavior, and squirm
failure (critical pressure) of bellows in compression mode.
Design Pressure = 0.5 Pascal

Db Dm t w q E
N n
40.60 42.98 0.08 2.3 2.26 15 1 19728608
Length of a bellow = N x q = 33.90 cm
Initial compression of bellow = 10 cm
6.12.3 Evaluation of Critical pressure:
4.72 f w q 2
S y Db Ac
Since Lb/Db ratio is less than transition point factor, it is short column.
Db = Inside diameter of bellow = 42.98 cm,
Limiting critical pressure (in-plane) (Psi) = 53.3 N/cm2
0.87 Ac S y 0.73 Lb 2
Buckling pressure, (column) Psc = 1 = 51.1 N/cm
Db q C z Db
219
Table 6.15: Experimental Readings of Pitch Dimensions
Pr. Mode 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
0 A 18 17.2 16.4 16.8 15.5 15.8 15.8 15.8 15.6 15.6 16.1 15 16.8
B 19 16.6 16.7 15.1 15 15.6 15 14.8 16.6 15.4 17.5 14.9 17.7
C 15.5 15.7 15.2 15.5 15.3 14.6 16.3 16 15.6 16.5 16.4 16.1 19.9
D 18.5 16.1 18.2 15.3 15.6 15.3 15.4 16.7 16.7 16.3 17.3 15 18
66.5 62.7 66.5 62.7 61.4 61.3 62.5 63.3 64.5 63.8 67.3 61 72.4 64.3
2 A 17 17 17 17 16 16 16 17 16 16 16 16 18
B 18 16 18 15 16 15 15 17 17 16 17 14.5 18
C 16 15.5 17 15 15.5 15 14 16 16.5 15.5 16.5 15.5 20
D 17.5 17 17 16.5 15 16 15 15 16.5 16 18 15 17
68.5 65.5 69 63.5 62.5 62 60 65 66 63.5 67.5 61 73 65.15
6 A 18.5 17 17 17 16.5 16.5 16 16.5 16 16 16 15 17.5

B 18 16.5 17.5 15.5 16 15 15 16.5 16.5 15.5 17 15 17
C 15.5 15.5 17.5 15 15.5 15 14 16.5 16 15 16 15 20.5
D 18.5 16 17 16.5 15 16 15 15 17 17 18.5 15 18
70.5 65 69 64 63 62.5 60 64.5 65.5 63.5 67.5 60 73 65.23
9 A 18 16.5 17.5 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 15.5 17

B 18 16.5 18 15 16 15 15 16.5 17 15.5 17 15 18
C 16 15.5 17.5 15 16 14.5 14 16 16 15.5 16.5 15 20.5
D 18.5 16.5 17 17 15 16 15.5 15 16.5 16.5 18.5 15 18
70.5 65 70 64 63 61.5 60.5 63.5 65.5 63.5 68 60.5 73.5 65.30
12 A 18.5 17 17 17 16.5 16.5 16.5 17 16.5 16.5 16.5 16 17.5

B 18 16 18 15 16 15 15 16 16.5 16 17.5 15 18
C 17 15.5 17.5 14.5 15.5 15.5 14.5 16 16 15 16.5 15.5 20.5
D 18 17 17 17 16 16 15.5 15.5 17 16.5 18 15 17.5
71.5 65.5 69.5 63.5 64 63 61.5 64.5 66 64 68.5 61.5 73.5 65.88
13 A 15 15 16 18 21 21 20 20 19 16 19 14 15
B 22 19 20 13 10 10 10 12 16 16 18 15 20
C 20 18 20 14 12 10 10 10 11 15 21 22 24
D 17 16 17 17 18 18 17 19 20 18 19 11 14
74 68 73 62 61 59 57 61 66 65 77 62 73 66.00

Pressure, N/cm2 Average pitch, mm
0 64.3
20 65.2
60 65.2
90 65.3
120 65.9
130 66
220
66.5
Movement of convolutions, mm
66
65.5
65
64.5
64
63.5
63
0 0.2 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.25
2
Pressure, N/cm
Movement
Figure 6.12: Movement of convolutions
1. In this experiment the pressure intervals are comparatively larger than

previous column squirm test.
2. Experimental results of squirm test of bellows shows average pitch as 16.5

mm instead of 22.6 mm as bellow is compressed by 10 cm.
3. The pitch variations are almost negligible at all pressure values (64.3 to 66.00
for the pressure 0 to 130 N/cm2 ). This is because all convolutions do not have
space or room for the movement as the bellow is compressed.
4. Bellow squirm occurs at 130 N/cm2 pressure.
5. In case of short column bellows, it is observed that the bellow initially failed by
in-plane squirm, than subsequently by column squirm.
6. Critical value of pressure suggested by EJMA includes factor of safety of as

following. Factor of safety in in-plane squirm failure = (130 / 49.2) = 2.64 and
Factor of safety in column squirm failure = (130 / 5.11) = 2.54.
7. The factor of safety is less compared to normal bellow in earlier experiment.
221
6.12.7 In-Stability Test of Bellow Subjected To Tensile Mode
Bellows are used in free length installation, compression length installations or

expanded length installations. These conditions are selected for space
management and for special requirements. The squirm test in pre-extension mode
is conducted on an expansion joint of following dimensions. The objective of the
test is to study convolution movement, and squirm failure of bellows in extension
mode.
Design Pressure = 0.5 Pascal

Db Dm t w q E
N n
40.60 193.68 0.08 2.3 2.26 15 1 19728608
Length of a bellow = 33.90 cm
Initial extension of bellow = 5 cm
6.12.9 Evaluation of Critical pressure:
4.72 f w q 2
S y Db Ac
Since Lb/Db ratio is less than transition point factor, it is short column.
Db = Inside diameter of bellow = 42.98 cm,
Limiting critical pressure (in-plane) (Psi) = 50 N/cm2
0.87 Ac S y 0.73 Lb 2
Buckling pressure, (column) Psc = 1 = 51.1 N/cm
Db q C z Db
222
Table 6.18: Experimental Readings of Pitch Dimensions
Pres 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0 A 26 25 25 26 25 24 25 25 26 24 25.5 24 24.5 25.5
B 24.5 25.5 25 24.5 24 24 24 24.5 25 25 25 25 25.5 25.5
C 24 25 25 24 24 24 24 25 24 25.5 25.5 25 25.5 25.5
D 24.5 25.5 24.5 25.5 24 23.5 25 25 24.5 23.5 24 23.5 24 25
99 101 99.5 100 97 95.5 98 99.5 99.5 98 100 97.5 99.5 101.5
5 A 25 25.5 25 25.5 24 24 24 24 25.5 23.5 25 23.5 24.5 25.5

B 25 25 25.5 24.5 23.5 25.5 24 23.5 25 24.5 25 25 25 26
C 24 25.5 25.5 24 25 24.5 25 25 23.5 25 25 25 24.5 25
D 25 25.5 24.5 25 24 23.5 25 25.5 24.5 24 25 24.5 23.5 25
99 102 100.5 99 96.5 97.5 98 98 98.5 97 100 98 97.5 101.5
7 A 25 25.5 25.5 25 24 23.5 24.5 24.5 25.5 23.5 25 23.5 24 25

B 24.5 24.5 25.5 25.5 23.5 25 24.5 24.5 25.5 25 25 24 25 24.5
C 24 25 25 23.5 24.5 25 24.5 24.5 24 25.5 25.5 25 24.5 25.5
D 25.5 25.5 25 25.5 24 23 25 25 24 23.5 25 25.5 24.5 25.5
99 101 101 99.5 96 96.5 98.5 98.5 99 97.5 101 98 98 100.5
10.5 A 25.5 25 25 26 24.5 24 24.5 24 25.5 23.5 26 23 24.5 25

B 24.5 24.5 25 25 23.5 25.5 24.5 24.5 26 25 25 25 24.5 24.5
C 23 24.5 25.5 23.5 24 24.5 24 25 24 25.5 25 25 25.5 25
D 26.5 25.5 24 25.5 25 23 24.5 25.5 23.5 25 25 25 24.5 26
99.5 99.5 99.5 100 97 97 97.5 99 99 99 101 98 99 100.5
13 A 22.5 26.5 26 27 23.5 22.5 22 19.5 23.5 23.5 27 25.5 22.5 28.5
B 19 22 23 24 24 30 35 35 30 26 24 22.5 22 16.5
C 19 23 26 25.5 26.5 28.5 26.5 26.5 25.5 26.5 25.5 25.5 24.5 21
D 32 29.5 24.5 25.5 21 18.5 21 22 18 22.5 22 24 26.5 35.5
92.5 101 99.5 102 95 99.5 105 103 97 98.5 98.5 97.5 95.5 101.5

Pressure, N/cm2 Average pitch, mm
0 98.96
50 98.75
70 98.79
105 98.96
135 98.96
223
99
Movement of convolutions, mm
98.95
98.9
98.85
98.8
98.75
98.7
98.65
98.6
0 50 70 105 135
2
Pressure , N/cm
Movement
Figure 6.13: Movement of convolutions
1. In this experiment the pressure intervals are comparatively larger than

previous column squirm test.
2. Experimental results of squirm test of bellows shows average pitch as 25.93

mm instead of 22.6 mm as bellow is extended by 5 cm.
3. The pitch variations are almost negligible at all pressure values (98.75 to 98.96
for the pressure 0 to 105 N/cm2). This is because of bellow is extended by 5
cm. and convolution movement is constrained by tension force.
4. The convolutions became unstable at around 135 N/cm2 pressure. This is

called in-plane squirm. The critical pressure value for instability is 51.1 N/cm2
as per EJMA.
5. Critical value of pressure suggested by EJMA involves following safety factor.
Factor of safety in in-plane squirm failure = (135 / 50.1) = 2.69
Factor of safety in column squirm failure = (135 / 51.1) = 2.64
6. The factor of safety is lowest, while bellow is in compression mode, and

highest when it is in normal mode.
224
6.12.13 Comparison of Results
Table 6.20: Comparison of results of in-plane stability tests

In-plane Column
Actual
S5+S6 critical Critical Acting Acting
Initial squirm
(Theo.) pressure, Pressure, fos fos
condition pressure,
N/cm2 N/cm2 N/cm2 (in-plane) (column)
N/cm2
(Theoretical) (Theoretical)
Compression 280564 50.1 51.1 130 2.59 2.54
by 10 cm
Extension 142324 50.1 51.1 135 2.69 2.64
by 5 mm
6.13 Squirm failure mechanism:
While performing above experiments, following observations are made about

squirm phenomena in case of short column. The squirm failure for short column
bellow may be explained in to three stages.
1. Bulging of flanks: The pressure inside the bellow is gradually increases at

periodic intervals. The convolutions of bellow will remain in elastic limit up
to the pressure for which it is designed. However, when the pressure is
further increases, convolution flanks becomes inclined between their root
and crest part of each convolution. The convolutions are bulging from
flanks. At this stage the maximum axial force is developed at root and crest
part of convolutions. These two sections provide strength to the
convolutions of bellows.
Figure 6.14: Bulging of flanks

2. Deformation along plane: The further increase in internal pressure will
develop very high amount of force at root sections. This will create very
high membrane and bending stresses in the convolution flanks. Practically,
not all convolutions will have similar precise wall thickness and diameters,
hence in-plane deformations occurs in weak areas. This deformation
initiates in elastic region and may continue until plastic region. This
225
deformation will be non-uniform in convolutions only. This stage is in-plane
squirm.
Figure 6.15: In-plane deformation

3. Deformation along longitudinal axis: When further internal pressure is
increases in the bellow, gradually the whole structure becomes unstable
along its longitudinal axis. The end centers are slowly disturbs from its
coinciding axis. An individual convolution may come closer to each other at
one side and becomes spreader from opposite side. This stage is column
squirm.
Figure 6.16: Axial displacement
Above three stages of failure of bellows are snapped and shown below.
Initial condition of Convolutions planes are Convolutions deformed

convolutions deformed within plane laterally - Column squirm
Figure 6.17: Photographic images: In-plane stability test
226
1. Actual squirm failure occurs at minimum 2.5 times the designed critical
pressure.[4] This can be visualized by comparing values of actual critical
pressure and design critical pressure. Hence, this may be considered as
the factor of safety provided in the design procedure.
2. Short bellows having Lb/Db less than transition point factor; the in-plane
critical pressure is always less than column squirm critical pressure. This
observation are agreed and verified with the analytical approach of EJMA.
3. By experimental observation we may conclude that the short bellows

(Lb/Db<Cz), initially deformed by in-plane squirm and subsequently
deformed by column squirm.
4. Bellows may fail by column squirm, if number of convolutions and pitch of

bellows are selected on higher side. As, these two parameters are directly
proportional to the length of bellow. In addition, these bellows will be
amongst the long column bellows.
227
6.14 Dynamic Analysis:
Every individual metallic bellows are different in dimensions, and unique for the
applications. The natural frequency of expansion joints must be evaluated
analytically and designer should take care to avoid similar/near by natural
frequency of expansion joint and frequency of vibration, because of pumping
machinery in the piping. Overlapping of both frequencies will leads to resonant
condition and very heavy vibration amplitudes may be created.
A metallic bellow with following dimensions is selected for the analysis.
6.14.1 Geometric dimension of Flanges bellow:
Material: SS 304

Db Dm t w q E
N n
20 21.62 0.04 1.5 1.3 8 3 19728608
Initial spring rate, fi = 282.5 N/cm/convolution
Overall spring rate of bellow, Ksr = fi / N = 282.5 / 8 = 35.3 N/cm
K sr
Axial vibration, f n C n
W
35.3
= 9.81 = 42 Hertz
1.857
The frequency of vibration can be measured with FFT analyzer. In this experiment
FFT analyzer (make: Pruftechnique, Germany) is used to measure natural
frequency. The vibrations are created with rubber coated hammer with manual
hammering on the expansion joint. Total three sets of readings are taken to check
the repeatability of the experiment. The readings are mentioned in table 6.22. The
objectives of an experiment are to measure natural frequency of vibration of
expansion joint. The detailed specifications of FFT analyzer is mentioned in
appendix E.
228
6.14.2 Experimental results:
Table 6.22: Experimental results of FFT Analyzer
Reading Number First peak (Hz) Second Peak (Hz)
1 33 76
2 33 77
3 33 77
6.14.3 FEA Approach:
The metallic bellow which is tested for measurement of natural frequency earlier,
same is modeled in the ANSYS software and analyzed for dynamic analysis. The
model is shown in figure 6.17. The results are mentioned in table 6.23. The result
of natural frequency from FEA is shown in figure 6.18.
Figure 6.18: Axi-symmetry FEA model (Full view and close view)
6.14.4 FEA results:
Table 6.23: FEA Results

Reading Number First peak (Hz) Second Peak (Hz)
1 38 73
229
Figure 6.19 : FEA Results
1. Analytically natural frequency of expansion joint is 42 cycles/sec, actual

measurement with experiment shows that natural frequency of vibration
is 33 cycles/sec and FEA results shows frequency as 38 cycles/sec.
2. It should be noted that, there are three layers of bellow in the expansion
joint. Hence, the natural frequency vibration is the cumulative natural
frequency of all three layers. Since, the transducer is attached at flange
part. This is an example of parallel mode of frequency.
230

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6.

Performance Testing of Bellows

Bellows are correlated with actual test results to demonstrate predictability of

6.1 Purpose of Testing:

Some standard non-destructive examinations are mentioned below.

6.2 Non-destructive Testing:

6.2.1 Radiographic Examination:

6.2.2 Liquid Penetrant Test:

6.2.3 Flourcent Penetrant Examination:

Flourcent penetrant examination is similar in purpose to the liquid penetrant

6.2.4 Magnetic Particle Examination:

Magnetic particle examination consists of coating a surface with finely powdered

6.2.5 Ultrasonic Examination:

6.2.6 Halogen leak Examination:

Halogen leak examination utilizes a probe of suitable design which selectively

6.2.7 Mass Spectrometer Examination:

Mass spectrometer examination is an extremely sensitive means of determining

6.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Testing:

The hydrostatic pressure testing is necessary to check the pressure withstanding

Figure 6.1: Set up diagram for Hydro test

6.4 Pneumatic Pressure Testing:

This test is having similar objectives as to check the pressure withstanding

6.5 Spring Rate Test:

The force required to deflect (usually compress) a bellow is a function of the

Spring rate determination of a bellow becomes more critical as variation in

Figure: 6.2 Setup diagram for spring rate test

1. The expansion bellow to be tested is placed in vertical position in the fixture

2. Measurement of the length of bellow should be feasible with fixed or free

4. The initial position or free length of bellow is measured on the scale or

5. Force is gradually applied in the steps by rotation of the screw or

6. Measure the load readings with reference to bellow length at various

8. Compare the spring rate with theoretical designed value.

6.6 Destructive Testing:

2. Meridional yield- rupture testing

3. Fatigue life testing

6.6.1 Squirm Testing:

1. Expansion joint should be placed in a suitable fixture, with bellows in

2. Bellows should be effectively sealed at the ends during pressurization.

3. End movements must be prevented.

4. Bellows can be tested either in horizontal or vertical position. Horizontal is

5. Testing medium should be water for safety.

8. Change in pitch of all convolutions.

9. Pressurize the specimen in steps without releasing the pressure between

11. Instability of axially aligned bellows is generally characterized by a sudden

6.6.2 Meridional yield rupture testing:

6.6.3 Fatigue Life Testing:

2. Bellows should be effectively sealed at the ends during pressurization.

4. Pressurize the bellow with water.

5. Start fatigue testing at room temperature, keeping it pressurized at design

Figure 6.3: Set up diagram for cycle life test

6. Continue cycle life testing till it reaches 10,000 cycles.

7. Check for any leakage in the bellow.

6.7 Experimental Work

6.8 Design of Experiments

This work is an attempt towards optimization of various geometric parameters for

6.8.1 Taguchis philosophy:

All products have characteristics that describe their performance relative to

6.8.2 Purpose of Experimentation:

The purpose of product or process development is to improve the performance

6.8.3 Basis of experimentation:

The basis of experimentation should be based on the use of orthogonal arrays to

6.8.4 Introduction to Design of Experiments (DOE):

Design of Experiments (DOE) is a statistical technique introduced by R A Fisher in