Seminar Report

On
Human Body Control Systems

Submitted
In partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the
Training Period 2016-17

By
Rajendra Kumar Senapati
EC No. 14600
Trainee Scientific Officer
BARC Training School, NFC Hyderabad
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I express my sincere thanks and gratitude to Mr. Komal Kapoor, Head, BARCTS
NFC HYD, for giving me the opportunity to undertake this seminar work and for
his constant support and gratitude throughout the work.

I also extend an accolade to Mr. Y.V.Rao for his support as a course coordinator
and also for showing extra care and effort to build our confidence.

Last but not the least, I express my sincere thanks to the TSOs and all those who
helped me directly or indirectly in completion of this work.

DATE RAJENDRA KUMAR SENAPATI

i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Seminar report titled Human Body Control Systems
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the training program by
Rajendra Kumar Senapati (EC NO. 14600) is a bonafide record of the trainees
own work carried out by him under my supervision and guidance.

Mr. Y.V.RAO

ii
 Contents
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................... iv
Chapter 1................................................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction to control systems ............................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 2................................................................................................................................................. 5
The Sensory System ................................................................................................................................ 5
Chapter 3................................................................................................................................................. 7
The Nervous System ............................................................................................................................... 7
Classification of Neurons: - ................................................................................................................ 8
Functions of Nervous System: - .......................................................................................................... 9
Reflexes .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Organisation of Nervous System: ..................................................................................................... 11
Chapter 5............................................................................................................................................... 14
The Endocrine System........................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 6............................................................................................................................................... 19
Homeostatic Control System ................................................................................................................ 19
Temperature Regulation.................................................................................................................... 19
Blood Glucose Level Regulation ...................................................................................................... 21
Osmoregulation ................................................................................................................................. 22
Blood Pressure and Breathing Rate Regulation ................................................................................ 23
Hunger Recognition .......................................................................................................................... 24
pH Control ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Fight or Flight Stress Response ........................................................................................................ 25
Sleep-Wake Cycle ............................................................................................................................. 27
References: ........................................................................................................................................... 28

iii
 ABSTRACT

The human body represents one of a highly evolved dynamical system. In it, one
can identify systems or subsystems which are analogous to many engineered
controlled systems. Perturbations of some of these regulated control systems lead
to what are known as medical emergencies in clinical parlance. These systems
can be classified based on the response time due to the complex feedback loops,
of (a) micro to milliseconds (e.g.: the neural reflexes, functions of the autonomic
nervous system, the visual-vestibular system of maintaining balance etc.), (b)
seconds to minutes (e.g.: glucose homeostasis, disruption of which lead to
diabetic ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar coma, homeostasis of the cardiovascular
system, perturbations of which lead to acute coronary syndromes, cardiac
arrhythmias etc.), and (c) hours to days (e.g.: homeostasis of the immune system,
perturbations of which lead to infectious or autoimmune diseases. We are
building and defining a working hypothesis of such systems at the basic level and
attempting to learn the principles of control systems.

iv
 Chapter 1

Introduction to control systems

We are surrounded by wonderful machines, of which, most are artificial. But, these artificial
machines are made by another machine, which we know it as human. We often try to figure
out the meticulous design of the artificial machines, but sorry to say we hardly understand the
design of the human body system. Like every machine, human body has various set points and
control systems that effectively guides the proper functioning of the body. To understand the
control system of the body, we need to have a very clear know-how of the processes that are
taking place in our body. But, the question arises why do we need to study the control system
of the human body. The answer is: studying the control system will allow us to develop
artificial machines, that will serve same function as the internal control system. In this way, we
are just trying to save ourselves in case our own body system will fail to work due to various
kind of reasons. Further, studying our own system will allow us to know what action leads to
what response. This will be very helpful in medical diagnosis and treatment of diseases and
will raise awareness among the people of what kind of lifestyle they should maintain in order
to keep them healthy. So, this is quest for studying and understanding ourselves for protecting
ourselves so that we can make further more advanced machines that will be for our betterment
and prosperity.

Before delving deeper into our control systems, we should be very well versed with the
terminologies such as stimulus and response. Stimulus is any kind of change that promotes a
reaction, which we know it as response. In other words, stimulus is an input and response is
an output.

Control Systems

Our reactions are very specific towards stimuli. We often close our eyes when something comes
towards our eyes inadvertently. Or say, we suddenly remove our hands when touch something
very hot. These reactions are very fast and takes place within a second. These fast actions are
controlled by Nervous Control System. Also, these fast responses are easy to understand. But
there are certain actions whose causes are very difficult to assess. These actions are a part of
continuous activity. For example, the body regulates it temperature constantly for its proper
functioning. This slow and continuous control action is carried out by Hormonal Control
System.

There is one more basic classification of control systems: Open and Closed Loop Control
System. Those control systems which generates a control signal on the basis of only input, is
called Open System. That might be the system that controls the eyelid, for example. There is

1
an input to the system--the approaching object--and an output from the system--the closing of
the lid. The system simply responds to the input. On the other hand, the system that controls
body temperature is called a closed loop system. This system generates the control signal on
the basis of cumulative assessment of the input signal and output signal. It is this assessment
of the output signal that makes this system closed. Body temperature regulation is an example
of closed control system. The body temperature is sensed by thermal receptors in the brain and
peripherally in the body, and the value is sent to the comparator where it is compared with the
set point. If the value is less than the set point, then signals go mainly to the heat gain
mechanisms; if it is greater than the set point, then they go mainly to the heat loss mechanisms.
In this way, body temperature is constantly sensed and maintained constant (i.e., homeostasis).

Fig. 1.1 An Open Loop Control System

Fig. 1.2 A closed loop control system

Closed Loop control systems are further divided into feedback and feedforward control
system.
In feedback control system, the output is sensed and this information is used at an earlier point
in the system- it feeds back. Feedback control systems are further divided into positive and
negative feedback control systems.

2
In a positive feedback system, the feedback is used to increase the size of the input. By nature,
such systems are unstable. For example, haemorrhage leads to a decrease in blood pressure,
which, in turn, leads to a decrease in flow in coronary arteries. The consequences of the
decreased flow are:

increased lactic acid and hydrogen ion accumulation, which lead to further decrease in
coronary blood flow.
increased vasodilator metabolites, which lead to further decreased blood pressure.
decreased contraction of the ventricles of the heart, which leads to decreased cardiac
output and further decreased blood pressure.

Fig 1.3 Positive feedback system that is activated by haemorrhage.

Clearly, none of these consequences is good. Several passages through this system will lead to
excessive decrease in blood pressure and death. This is a positive feedback system because all
of the consequences tend to increase the effect of the haemorrhage in lowering blood pressure.

In a negative feedback system, the feedback is used to decrease the size of the input. These
systems are usually stable, and they are associated with beneficial regulation of physiological
parameters.

Fig 1.4 Negative feedback system activated by haemorrhage

3
The same example of haemorrhage can be used to demonstrate the negative feedback system.
Haemorrhage leads to decreased blood pressure, which in turn leads to
increased reabsorption of fluid
increased constriction of blood vessels
increased renal conservation of fluid
increased endogenous vasoconstrictor substances, such as catecholamine and
vasopressin.

All the above events tend to cancel out the effect of haemorrhage and tends to prevent the
decrease in blood pressure, which is beneficial to human body and hence is negative feedback
control system.

Then we will move onto feedforward system which is another kind of closed loop control
system. Feedforward control system implements its control action, before the controlled
variable is affected. It carries out its control action on the basis of proactive identification of
the disturbances to the process. An example of a feedforward system is the preadaptation for
exercise, changing the activity of postural muscles and of the vascular system in order to ready
the body for the movement when it occurs. Moving the arm laterally shifts the centre-of-gravity
laterally, and the person would be in danger of falling over were not compensations made in
the postural musculature to prepare for the movement.

Fig 1.5 Feedforward control system

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 Chapter 2

The Sensory System

The sensory system is one of the vital part of a control system. Without it, the control system
is incomplete. The main function of the sensory system is to sense the changes in the external
and internal environment and feed it to the efferent neurons. The human sensory system is
highly evolved and processes thousands of incoming messages simultaneously. This
complexity allows you to be aware of your surroundings and take appropriate actions.

Sensory receptors are dendrites of sensory neurons specialized for receiving specific kinds of
stimuli. Sensory receptors are classified by three methods:

Classification by receptor complexity:

Free nerve endings are dendrites whose terminal ends have little or no physical
specialization.
Encapsulated nerve endings are dendrites whose terminal ends are enclosed in a capsule
of connective tissue.
Sense organs (such as the eyes and ears) consist of sensory neurons with receptors for
the special senses (vision, hearing, smell, taste, and equilibrium) together with
connective, epithelial, or other tissues.

Classification by location:

Exteroceptors occur at or near the surface of the skin and are sensitive to stimuli
occurring outside or on the surface of the body. These receptors include those for tactile
sensations, such as touch, pain, and temperature, as well as those for vision, hearing,
smell, and taste.
Interoceptors respond to stimuli occurring in the body from visceral organs and blood
vessels. These receptors are the sensory neurons associated with the autonomic nervous
system.
Proprioceptors respond to stimuli occurring in skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments,
and joints. These receptors collect information concerning body position and the
physical conditions of these locations.

Classification by type of stimulus detected:

Mechanoreceptors respond to physical force such as pressure (touch or blood

pressure) and stretch.
Photoreceptors respond to light.
Thermoreceptors respond to temperature changes.
Chemoreceptors respond to dissolved chemicals during sensations of taste and smell
and to changes in internal body chemistry such as variations of O 2, CO 2, or H + in
the blood.
Nociceptors respond to a variety of stimuli associated with tissue damage. The brain
interprets the pain.

5
The Somatic Senses:

The somatic (general) senses collect information about cutaneous sensations (tactile sensations
on the surface of the skin) and proprioceptive sensations.

Tactile stimuli are detected by the following receptors:

Merkel discs are receptors with free nerve endings that detect surface pressure (light
touch). They are located deep in the epidermis.
Root hair plexuses are receptors with free nerve endings that surround hair follicles and
detect hair movement.
Corpuscles of touch (Meissner's corpuscles) are receptors with encapsulated nerve
endings located in the dermal papillae (near the surface) of the skin that detect surface
pressure (light touch).
Pacinian corpuscles are encapsulated nerve receptors that detect deep pressure and are
located in the subcutaneous layer (below the skin).
Thermal stimuli are detected by free nerve ending thermoreceptors sensitive to heat or
cold.
Pain stimuli are detected by free nerve ending nociceptors.

Proprioceptive stimuli are detected by the following receptors:

Muscle spindles are mechanoreceptors located in skeletal muscles. They consist of

specialized skeletal muscle fibres enclosed in a spindleshaped capsule made of
connective tissue.
Golgi tendon organs are mechanoreceptors located at the junctions of tendons and
muscles.
Joint kinesthetic receptors are mechanoreceptors located in synovial joints.

6
 Chapter 3

The Nervous System

The nervous system is one of the two control system in our body and also it is the fastest. The
communication b/w the cells in nervous control system takes place by means of
electrochemical signals, which are fast acting and complex. Once the electrical impulse is
received by the dendrites of the nerve cell, it will move away from the cell body towards the
axon. Further, the electrical signal flows down the axon with the help of axon potential
generated at the junction of two myelin sheath. Myelin sheath acts as an insulator for the axon
and inhibits the flow of sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane of the nerve cell.

The intracellular space always consists of more potassium ions (less sodium ions) and the
extracellular space always contains more sodium ions than potassium ions. In the rest state of
the nerve cell, the intracellular space is at a negative potential as compared to the extracellular
space. This difference in potential is about -70mV in the rest state of the nerve cell, which is
due to excess positive ions in the extracellular space than in the intracellular space. This
difference is always maintained by the sodium-potassium pump and the leaky ion channel.
Leaky ion channel only allows the potassium ions to go out of the cell and allows very little
sodium ions to come into the cell. Now, when the neuron is stimulated by presynaptic neuron,
the sodium ion channels becomes open and the intracellular space is completely filled with
sodium ions, raising the potential inside the nerve cell, which is known as depolarisation. After
that the sodium ion channels will get closed and the potassium ion channels open up. This will
result in gushing out of potassium ions out of the nerve cell to recreate the negative potential
inside the nerve cell, which is known as repolarisation. If the repolarisation does not take place
properly, then leaky ion channel and sodium-potassium pump will take care of that situation.
This process repeats itself to pass on the electrical impulse down the axon.

After passing down the axon, the electrical impulse moves down to the axon terminal, where
the neurotransmitters are contained in the vesicles. Neurotransmitters (such as acetylcholine,
dopamine to name a few) in the vesicles are released through the membrane of the axon
terminal through a synapse b/w the neurons. Acetylcholine is the usual neurotransmitter to
stimulate muscle contraction. These neurotransmitters carrying information will reach the other
neuron and will be received the dendrites of the post-synaptic neuron. After transmitting the
information b/w neurons, the neurotransmitters again come back to the axon terminal of the
presynaptic neuron and are again stored inside the vesicles, thereby completing the whole
process of neurotransmission.

Some kinds of signals, like the ones for muscle position, travel on extra-fast nerve fibres at
speeds of up to 390ft/sec (119m/sec). Close your eyes & wave your arms aroundyou can
tell where they are at every moment because the muscle-position neuron is very fast. Other
messages, as in some kinds of pain signals, travel much more slowly. If you stub your toe, you
feel the pressure right away because touch signals travel at 250ft/sec. But you won't feel the
pain for another 2-3 seconds, because pain signals generally travel at only 2ft/sec.

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 Fig 3.1 Schematic Diagram of Neuron

Classification of Neurons: -

Afferent sensory neuron - these neurons carry nerve impulses from receptors to the
CNS.

Interneurons - connect neuron to neuron & are only found in the CNS. Interneurons
are responsible for the distribution of sensory information & coordination of motor
activity. The more complex the response to a given stimulus, the greater the number of
interneurons involved.

Efferent motor neuron - carry nerve impulses away from the CNS to effectors.

Nervous tissue is specialized for the conduction of impulses. There are two types of nerve
cells, neurons and neuroglia. Neurons are specialized to conduct signals/impulses, and
neuroglial cells support & maintain the neurons. Neuroglia separate & protect the neurons,
provide a supportive framework for neural tissue, act as phagocytes & help regulate the
composition of the interstitial fluid. One type of neuroglial cell produces cerebrospinal fluid,
which supports, physically protects, chemically protects, & nourishes the CNS inside & out.
The cerebrospinal fluid is the medium of exchange of nutrients & wastes between the CNS
cells & the blood. The cerebrospinal fluid must maintain a strict ionic composition for optimal
neuron signalling. Physically, the nerve tissue floats in cerebrospinal fluid & the fluid acts as
a shock absorber.

8
Functions of Nervous System: -

It uses its millions of sensory receptors scattered throughout the body (skin, organs,
glands, etc.) to monitor changes occurring both inside and outside the body. This
gathered information is called sensory input.

The general sensory receptors include the simple receptors for pain, touch, pressure,
and temperature found in the skin, those found in skeletal muscles and tendons that
monitor stretch and position, and in the visceral organs. Complex sense organs serve
the special senses (vision, equilibrium, hearing, smell, and taste).

It processes and interprets the sensory input and makes decision about what should
be done at each moment, a process called integration. Thus, it acts as the major control
centre for body functions.

It affects a response by activating muscles, organs, or glands: the response is called

motor output.

For example, lets say you are driving down Johnson Street. You are late for class already and
you cant find a place to park. Just before you reach the first stop light at the cross walk, you
see it turn yellow (sensory input). What do you do? Your nervous system integrates this
information (red light means stop) and your foot goes for the brake (motor output).

Reflexes

Reflexes are automatic, fast responses of the nervous system to stimuli and serve as the basic
functional unit of the nervous system. Reflex action are mostly carried through a neural path,
known as reflex arc.

There are two basic types of reflex arc:

Monosynaptic Reflex Arc: The reflex arc which consists of only one synapse through
which information will pass, is known as monosynaptic reflex arc. It consists of only
one sensory neuron and one motor neuron. Another name that monosynaptic reflex goes
by is the stretch reflex. Most monosynaptic reflexes can be found in the ankle, knee,
spine, triceps biceps and jaw.

Fig 3.2 Monosynaptic Reflex Arc

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When the patellar tendon of the quadriceps muscle is stretched, the stretch is detected by the
muscle spindles that are found in muscle quadriceps. The muscle spindle stimulates the sensory
neurons that travel to the spinal cord, where they synapse with the motor neurons that control
the contraction of the quadriceps muscle. These motor neurons cause immediate contraction of
the quadriceps muscle to produce movement of the leg. Although the reflex has been simplified
in diagram to show only one sensory and one motor neuron but it involves many neurons.
Stretching the quadriceps muscle activates hundreds of sensory neurons, each of which makes
contact with around 50 motor neurons. Additionally, these sensory neurons activate the
inhibitory interneurons that causes the action of the quadriceps muscle to be unopposed.

Polysynaptic Reflex Arc: In polysynaptic reflex pathways, one or more interneurons

connect afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) signals. All but the most simple
reflexes are polysynaptic, allowing processing or inhibition of polysynaptic reflexes
within the brain.

Fig 3.3 Schematic of Polysynaptic Reflex Arc

Lets look for other different types of reflex arc such as Spinal and Cranial Reflex arc. This
classification is based on the involvement of the brain to give a reflex action.

Spinal Reflex Arc: Automatic response system that consists of a receptor, afferent neuron,
synapse, efferent neuron, & effector (such as a muscle or gland) that involves the spinal cord.
Arcs may include more than one synapse.

Stretch Reflex Arc is an automatic response in which a muscle stretch receptor runs to
spinal cord, synapses with a motor neuron that twitches a muscle; a good example is
the knee jerk when the doctor hits your patellar tendon with his Thor-like hammer.

10
 Flexor Reflex Arc is automatic response that contracts flexor Muscle to pull the body
part away from the stimulus; a good example is when you place your hand on a hot
stove and jerk it away.

Crossed Extensor Reflex Arc is an automatic response of the extensor reflex, occurs at
the same time as flexor reflex arc, but on the opposite side of the body. Extensors
contract to ward off the stimulus. For example, when you step on a nail with your right
foot. The right leg flexes to pull your foot off the painful stimulus, and at the same time
your left leg extends to help you keep your balance.

Tendon Reflex Arc operates as a feedback mechanism to control muscle tension by

causing muscle relaxation before muscle force becomes so great that tendons might be
torn. As the tension applied to a tendon increases, the Golgi tendon organ (sensor) is
stimulated. Nerve impulses (action potentials) arise and propagate along the sensory
neuron into the spinal cord. Within the spinal cord (integrating centre), the sensory
neuron synapses with and activates (via glutamate) an inhibitory interneuron that
synapses with the alpha () motor neuron. The inhibitory interneuron releases
the neurotransmitter glycine that inhibits (hyperpolarizes) the alpha () motor neuron.
As a consequence, fewer nerve impulses are generated in the alpha () motor neuron.
The muscle relaxes and excess tension is relieved. It is just opposite of Stretch Reflex
Arc.

Cranial Reflex Arc: Automatic response system that consists of a receptor, afferent neuron,
synapse, efferent neuron, & effector (such as a muscle or gland) that involves the brain. Arcs
may include more than one synapse and in these instances the appropriate response may need
to be determined after several inputs have been evaluated; hence, integrative function of the
central nervous system is required.

Pupillary Reflex Arc: Automatic response that controls light entering the eye through
the pupil.
Corneal Reflex Arc: Automatic response that blinks the eyelid when the cornea is
touched.
Accommodation Reflex Arc: Automatic response that changes the shape of the lens
when focusing on objects at various distances.
Labyrinthine Reflex Arc: Automatic response to maintain balance.

Organisation of Nervous System:

The nervous system consists of two parts: central nervous system and peripheral nervous
system. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system (PNS) consists of nerves outside the CNS. Nerves of the PNS are classified in
three ways. First, PNS nerves are classified by how they are connected to the CNS. Cranial
nerves originate from or terminate in the brain, while spinal nerves originate from or terminate
at the spinal cord. Second, nerves of the PNS are classified by the direction of nerve
propagation. Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit impulses from skin and other sensory organs
or from various places within the body to the CNS. Motor (efferent) neurons transmit impulses
from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands). Third, motor neurons are further classified

11
according to the effectors they target. The somatic nervous system (SNS) directs the
contraction of skeletal muscles. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls the activities
of organs, glands, and various involuntary muscles, such as cardiac and smooth muscles and
hence helps in homeostasis.

Fig 3.4 Schematic Diagram for Organisation of Nervous System

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The autonomic nervous system has two divisions:

The sympathetic nervous system is involved in the stimulation of activities that prepare the
body for action, such as increasing the heart rate, increasing the release of sugar from the liver
into the blood, and other activities generally considered as fightorflight responses (responses
that serve to fight off or retreat from danger).

The parasympathetic nervous system activates tranquil functions, such as stimulating the
secretion of saliva or digestive enzymes into the stomach and small intestine.

Generally, both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems target the same organs, but often
work antagonistically. For example, the sympathetic system accelerates the heartbeat, while
the parasympathetic system slows the heartbeat. Each system is stimulated as is appropriate to
maintain homeostasis.

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 Chapter 5

The Endocrine System

The Endocrine System is one of the two constituents of the Human Body Control System, with
the other one being nervous system. The endocrine system typically brings about its effects in
a more leisurely way through the activity of hormones released into the blood that act on
tissues. A single hormone can alter the metabolic activity of many tissues simultaneously.

The endocrine system mainly consists of pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes,
thyroid gland, parathyroid gland and adrenal glands. The endocrine glands secrete their
hormones into the extracellular space and then hormones diffuse into the nearby capillaries and
are transported throughout the body in blood. This is in contrast with the exocrine system,
which secretes its hormones to the outside of the body using ducts. Exocrine glands produce
sweat, saliva, milk and digestive enzymes.

The hypothalamus makes up the lower region of the diencephalon and lies just above the brain
stem. The pituitary gland is attached to the bottom of the hypothalamus by a slender stalk called
the infundibulum. The pituitary gland consists of two major regions: the anterior pituitary gland
and the posterior pituitary gland. The hypothalamus oversees many internal body conditions.
It receives nervous stimuli from receptors throughout the body and monitors chemical and
physical characteristics of the blood, including temperature; blood pressure; and nutrient,
hormone, and water content. When deviations from homeostasis occur or when certain
developmental changes are required, the hypothalamus stimulates cellular activity in various
parts of the body by directing the release of hormones from the anterior and posterior pituitary
glands.

Communication between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary occurs through chemicals
that are produced by the hypothalamus and delivered to the anterior pituitary through blood
vessels in the infundibulum. The releasing and inhibiting hormones are produced by specialized
neurons of the hypothalamus, called neurosecretory cells. The hormones are released into a
capillary network (primary plexus) and transported through veins to a second capillary network
(secondary plexus) that supplies the anterior pituitary. The primary plexus and the portal veins
are in the infundibulum and the secondary plexus is in the anterior pituitary. The hormones
then diffuse from the secondary plexus into the cells of the anterior pituitary, where they initiate
the production of specific hormones by the anterior pituitary. Many of the hormones produced
by the anterior pituitary are tropic hormones, that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete
their hormones.

Communication between the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary occurs through
neurosecretory cells that span the short distance between the hypothalamus and the posterior
pituitary. Hormones produced by the cell bodies of the neurosecretory cells are packaged in
vesicles and transported through the axon, and stored in the axon terminals that lie in the
posterior pituitary. When the neurosecretory cells are stimulated, the action potential generated
triggers the release of the stored hormones from the axon terminals to a capillary network
within the posterior pituitary. Two hormones, oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), are
produced and released in this way.

14
Hormones

A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by a cell that effects specific change in the
cellular activity of target cells. They are instrumental in maintaining homeostasis and
regulating reproduction and development.

Hormones can be chemically classified into four groups:

Amino acidderived hormones are modified amino acids.

Polypeptide and protein hormones are chains of amino acids of less than or more
than about 100 amino acids, respectively.

Steroid hormones are lipids that are synthesized from cholesterol. Steroids are
characterized by four interlocking carbohydrate rings.

Eicosanoids are lipids that are synthesized from the fatty acid chains of
phospholipids found in the plasma membrane.

Hormones circulating in the blood diffuse into the interstitial fluids surrounding the cell. Cells
with specific receptors for a hormone respond with an action that is appropriate for the cell.
Because of the specificity of hormone and target cell, the effects produced by a single hormone
may vary among different kinds of target cells. Hormones activate target cells by one of two
methods, depending on the chemical nature of the hormone:

Lipidsoluble hormones (steroid hormones and hormones of the thyroid gland) diffuse
through the cell membranes of target cells. The lipidsoluble hormone then binds to a
receptor protein that in turn activates a DNA segment that turns on specific genes. The
proteins produced as a result of the transcription of the genes and subsequent translation
of mRNA act as enzymes that regulate specific physiological cell activity.

Watersoluble hormones (polypeptide, protein, and most amino acid hormones) bind to
a receptor protein on the plasma membrane of the cell. The receptor protein in turn
stimulates the production of one of the two hormones: Cyclic AMP (cAMP) and
Inositol triphosphate (IP 3). Cyclic AMP then triggers an enzyme that generates specific
cellular changes. IP 3 in turn triggers the release of Ca 2+ from the endoplasmic
reticulum, which then activates enzymes that generate cellular changes.

The endocrine system releases hormones in response to one of the following stimuli: Hormones
from other endocrine glands, Chemical characteristics of Blood and Neural Stimulation. The
nervous system and certain endocrine tissues monitor various internal conditions of the body.
If action is necessary to maintain homeostasis, hormones are released, either directly by an
endocrine gland or indirectly via the action of the hypothalamus of the brain, which stimulates
other endocrine glands to release hormones. The hormones activate target cells, which initiate
physiological changes that adjust body conditions.

15
Below is a table that lists down the hormones released by the glands along with their target
locations and functions.

Abbreviation Name Target Action

From Hypothalamus
GHRH Growth Hormone Anterior Pituitary Stimulates the
Releasing Hormone release of GH
GHIH Growth Hormone Anterior Pituitary
Inhibits the release
Inhibiting Hormone of GH
TRH Thyrotropin Release Anterior Pituitary Stimulates the
Hormone release of TSH and
GH
GnRH Gonadotropin Anterior Pituitary Stimulates the
Release Hormone release of LH and
FSH
PRH Prolactin Hormone Anterior Pituitary Stimulates release of
PRL
PIH Prolactin Inhibiting Anterior Pituitary Inhibits release of
Hormone PRL
CRH Corticotropin Anterior Pituitary Stimulates release of
Release Hormone ACTH
From Anterior Pituitary Gland (Tropic Hormones)
TSH Thyroid Stimulating Thyroid Gland Stimulates secretion
Hormone of T3 and T4
ACTH Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal Cortex Stimulates secretion
Hormone of glucocorticoids
FSH Follicle Stimulating Ovaries and Testes Regulates oogenesis
Hormone and spermatogenesis
LH Luteinising Hormone Ovaries and Testes Causes ovulation
and release of
testosterone
From Anterior Pituitary Gland (Not Tropic Hormones)
PRL Prolactin Mammary Glands Stimulates
production of milk
hGH Human Growth Bones, muscles and Stimulates Growth
Hormone cells
From Posterior Pituitary Gland
OT Oxytocin Uterus and Produces uterine
mammary glands contractions and
release of milk
ADH Antidiuretic Kidneys and Sweat Prevents
Hormone glands dehydration
From Thyroid Gland
T3 Thyroxine Bone and general Increases
cells metabolism
T4 Triiodothyronine Bone and general Increases
cells metabolism
CT Calcitonin Bone and general Decreases Blood Ca-
2+
cells

16
 From Parathyroid Gland
PTH Parathyroid Hormone Bone, Kidneys and Increases Blood Ca-
2+
small intestine
From Adrenal Medulla
EPI Epinephrine or Blood vessels, liver Increases Blood
adrenaline and heart glucose level
NE Norepinephrine Blood vessels, liver Increases Blood
and heart glucose level

From the Pancreas

- Glucagon (from Liver Increases Blood
alpha cells) glucose levels
- Insulin (from beta Liver, muscle and Decrease Blood
cells) general cells of the Glucose Level
body
- Somatostatin Alpha and Beta cells Inhibits glucagon
and insulin release
(from delta cells) and inhibits release
of growth hormone
- Pancreatic Delta Cells Increase
Polypeptide (from F somatostatin and
cells) pancreatic enzyme
release
From the Testes
- Testosterone General body cells Determine
secondary sex
characteristics and
plays minor role in
spermatogenesis
- Inhibin Anterior Pituitary Inhibits the release
of FSH
From Pineal Gland
- Melatonin General Body Cells Regulates Biological
clock and circadian
rhythms
From Kidneys
EPO Erythropoietin Bone Marrow Stimulates RBC
formation
- Calcitriol (Vitamin Small Intestines Increases Ca2+
D) absorption
From Gastrointestinal Tract
- Gastrin Cells of the stomach Stimulates the
release of HCl and
pepsinogen
GIP Glucose dependent Beta cells of the Stimulates release of
insulinotropic pancreas insulin
peptide
- Secretin Pancreas and liver Stimulates
production of buffer

17
 from pancreas and
bile from liver
CCK Cholecystokinin Pancreas and gall Stimulates
bladder production of
enzymes from
pancreas and bile
from gall bladder
- Serotonin Stomach Stimulates stomach
muscle contraction
From the Heart
ANP Atrial Natriuretic Kidneys Causes loss of
peptide sodium ion and
water; decreases
blood pressure

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 Chapter 6

Homeostatic Control System

Homeostatic Control system is an integration of nervous and endocrine system, which aims for
proper monitoring of the internal body environment and act for the change that needs to be
implemented in order to restore the internal body environment. Homeostatic control system is
mostly a negative feedback loop, which aims the reduce the effect of the disturbance in our
body. The disturbance can be either present inside the body or outside the body. This control
system maintains suitable parameters such as temperature, blood pressure, blood glucose level,
salt concentration, blood pH, thirst etc. to a required set point value.
Here, we will be mostly discussing how this control system regulates the internal body
environment and what role does hypothalamus and pituitary gland play in this process.
Hypothalamus connects the central nervous system to the endocrine system through the
pituitary gland. Hypothalamus prompts the pituitary gland to release or inhibit the production
of hormones. Hypothalamus not only controls the action of pituitary but it also secretes at least
nine hormones as compared to seven of the pituitary gland. Pituitary gland stores the hormones
secreted by hypothalamus and releases it into the bloodstream.

Temperature Regulation

The human body works properly at an optimum temperature of 37. Temperature regulation
occurs on the basis of two input temperatures: internal temperature and external temperature.
Temperature receptors present in the skin monitor the external temperature and receptors
present in the hypothalamus monitor the internal core temperature. Temperature receptors pass
on information to the processing centre in the brain, called hypothalamus. As the hypothalamus
receives temperature as input, it compares with the set point value of 37.

Fig. 6.1 Various actions due to change in the blood temperature

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If the input temperature is more than 37, hypothalamus will send a control signal through the
neurons, which will ultimately release a neurotransmitter known as acetylcholine. This
acetylcholine molecule will finally bind to the receptor of the sweat gland, thereby activating
the sweat gland. Once activated, the sweat gland releases sweat onto the skin surface through
the ducts and evaporation of sweat results in cooling effect. Again, the hypothalamus will send
a signal to the medulla oblongata, which will dilate the blood capillaries near to the skin, so as
to increase the heat loss from the body.
But if the temperature input is less than 37, then hypothalamus will send control signal
through efferent neurons to the muscles near the skin to pull the hairs upright and reduce heat
loss. Further, the hypothalamus sends the signal to the skeletal muscles to generate shivering
action, which will generate heat and will keep us warm. Again, the control signal will be send
to the medulla oblongata, which will constrict the blood capillaries near to the skin, so as to
reduce the heat loss from the body and will keep us warm.

Fig 6.2 Homeostasis of Body Temperature

Often, the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system will work together to change
the metabolic rate to regulate the body temperature. If the core body temperature is more than
37, hypothalamus can act to decrease the metabolic rate by secreting the TRH (thyrotropin
release hormone), which will act on the anterior pituitary gland, prompting it to release TSH
(thyroid stimulating hormone). This thyroid stimulating hormone will prompt the thyroid gland
to produce T3 and T4 hormones. This T3 and T4 hormones will act on the muscles and cells to
decrease the metabolic rate. In this way, the sequence of release of chemical messengers will
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help us cool down. And if temperature of body is less than 37, the reverse of the above
sequences will occur to increase the metabolic rate.

Blood Glucose Level Regulation

Glucose is the transport carbohydrate in animals and its concentration in blood badly affects
every cell in the body. Hence, its concentration in blood is strictly maintained at around 0.8-1
g/dm3 of blood and very low and very high levels can lead to death. Blood glucose
concentration is controlled by pancreas. The pancreas has glucose receptor cells and also
endocrine cells such as alpha and beta cells. The alpha cells secrete glucagon hormone and beta
cells secrete insulin hormone.
Once you take up meal, the blood glucose level will suddenly rise and that will be detected by
the glucose receptor cells in the pancreas. These receptor cells will communicate with the islet
of Langerhans and will prompt the beta cells to increase the secretion of insulin hormone into
blood. This insulin hormone will prompt the liver and adipose tissue in muscles to take up more
glucose. Liver takes up glucose and store it in the form of glycogen and adipose tissue stores it
in the form of fat, thereby reducing the blood glucose level.

Fig. 6.3 Homeostatic control of Blood glucose level

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In the reverse case, if blood glucose level decreases, then glucose receptor in pancreas will
stimulate the alpha cells to produce more glucagon. The increase in glucagon level in the blood
will stimulate the liver to break down glycogen into glucose and release it into the blood and
thereby increasing the blood glucose level.

Osmoregulation

The water potential of the blood must be regulated to prevent the shrinkage or swelling of the
body cells. It is controlled by the hypothalamus, which contains osmoreceptors, which have
the capability of detecting the changes in the water potential of the blood passing through the
brain. In response, the hypothalamus can control thirst by prompting the posterior pituitary
gland to secrete Antidiuretic Hormone. ADH secreted into the blood reaches epithelial cells,
target cells present in the kidney. These cells can only allow water molecules to flow across its
membranes via water channels known as aquaporin, rather than the lipid bilayer. Once the
released ADH reaches these epithelial cells, water channels in these epithelial cells get opened.

Fig. 6.4 Homeostasis of blood water level

If the water potential of the blood is low in blood, then hypothalamus will produce more ADH,
which will result in more retention of water from the waste stream of the kidney. Otherwise,
hypothalamus will inhibit the production of ADH, which in turn result in less retention of water
from the urine.

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Blood Pressure and Breathing Rate Regulation

Blood pressure is regulated by the autonomic nervous system through medulla oblongata.
Medulla oblongata is present in brain stem. It controls the blood flow by increasing or
decreasing the cardiac output or by stimulating the blood vessels to dilate or contract.
Let us say we have hot an injury in head, which decreases the blood pressure. Decrease in blood
pressure is sensed by baroreceptor and signals the medulla oblongata with the help of neurons.
Baroreceptors are located on the walls of the blood vessels. On receiving this signal from
baroreceptor, medulla oblongata stimulates the heart to increase the rate and stroke volume. It
also stimulates the arteries and veins to constrict, resulting in increase in blood pressure.

Fig. 6.5 Schematic diagram of the system involved in heart rate control
We can see from the above diagram that there are two types of nerves such as accelerator nerve
and vague nerve. Accelerator nerve is stimulated when heart beat is needed to be increased and
vague nerve is stimulated when heart beat is needed to be decreased. This stimulation process
involves the release of neurotransmitter at the sinoatrial node. Sino atrial node consists of
pacemaker cells that generate electric pulses. Conducting cells relay the signal to the left and
right atrium to contract. These conducting cells also relay the signal to the atrioventricular
node, which slow down the relay of signals to the ventricles. After the ventricles get the relayed
signal, the ventricles contract. The delay in relaying signals to the ventricles is necessary as it
gives time for the atrium to contract and send the blood to the ventricle before the ventricles
contract.

23
Apart from the baroreceptors present in the blood vessels, the medulla oblongata also gets
signal from the chemoreceptors about the concentration of CO2 in blood. This is mostly useful
when we do rigorous exercise. During exercises, the coronary arteries requires excess blood
that supplies to the heart and thereby to the exercising muscles, which are in dire need of
oxygen. Apart from the oxygen requirement, the exercising muscles need more blood flow to
release the heat generated by the body. More blood flow to capillaries near the skin, more is
the heat loss. To meet the above requirement of blood flow to the muscles, the arteries that
provide blood to these muscles undergo vasodilation whereas the arteries that provide blood to
the digestive system and kidneys undergo vasoconstriction. The blood flowrate increases from
normal value of 5 lit/min to 35 lit/min during exercise. The increase in blood flowrate to the
heart is also facilitated by constriction of the veins. The vasodilation and vasoconstriction
results from the stimulation of the precapillary sphincter muscle around the blood capillaries
by the medulla oblongata. And further the breathing rate is increased by the stimulation of
sinoatrial node by the medulla oblongata in the same way as described above.

Hunger Recognition

Hypothalamus has three regions that are associated with receptors for certain chemical
messengers that signal hunger. These are as follows:
Lateral Hypothalamus: Used for hunger recognition.
Ventromedial hypothalamus: Used for recognition of feeling of fullness.
Paraventricular hypothalamus: Used for regulation of hunger.
In the previous case of glucose level control, let us say, glucose level is low. Now, glucose
receptor cells will prompt the alpha cells to produce more glucagon in the blood. This increase
in glucagon further stimulate the liver to produce more glucose from the stored glycogen. But
if we havent taken meal for a while, then stomach will be empty and there will be no stored
glycogen. Then liver will stimulate the stomach to feed in more nutrients and as the stomach is
empty, it will secrete a chemical messenger called as the ghrelin into the blood. This chemical
messenger will bind to the receptor of the hypothalamus and thus will initiate the feeling of
hunger.
Similarly, if we are taking food continuously, then there is another chemical messenger that is
secreted by the adipose tissue, that signals the body of satiety. If the food intake level is such
that adipose tissue is flooded with the stored fats, then it will release leptin into the blood,
which will bind to the receptor in the hypothalamus and signals our body of satiety.

pH Control

+ + 3 2 3 2 + 2
Blood pH may increase due to more ammonia production in deamination reaction of the amino
acids. Now, from where this excess of ammonia comes? This can be explained in a very simple
as follows. Generally, the proteins in our food are broken down into amino acids and these

24
amino acids are absorbed into the blood stream. The blood stream containing amino acids goes
to the liver, where amino acids are stored in the poll of amino acids. If there is excess of amino
acid, then it undergoes deamination reaction to give NH3, which increases the blood pH. This
excess of ammonia is counteracted by CO2 evolving out of the cells and converting the NH3
into urea. In this way, it adjusts for increase in pH. Further, Kidneys will stop secreting more
3 and will rather store it for later use. As, 3 concentration decreases the equilibrium
reaction will shift towards left resulting in increase in + ion concentration, which will
counteract the increased pH of the blood.
Again, if the blood pH decreases due to more H+ ions concentration in the blood or more
concentration of 2 in the blood, then the kidneys will pee out more H+ ion and reabsorb
more 3 ions. Further, the lungs will take out more CO2 from the system with the help of
increased breathing rate. The increased breathing rate helps us in preventing acidosis during
rigorous exercise.
So, the lungs and kidneys both help in maintaining blood pH level but the lungs are fast acting
but kidneys are slow acting.

Fight or Flight Stress Response

The fight or flight stress response is a physiological reaction of body in response to perceived
harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. A threat is basically sensed by the visual senses or
any other senses. Fear from the sensed threat can be generated in two ways: longer way and
shorter way. And this generation of fear takes place in both the ways simultaneously.

Fig. 6.6 Depiction of the path for fear generation

The shorter way goes as follows. Lets us say we have seen something terrible. As soon as you
have seen something, the brain sends the sensory data to the thalamus. At this point, thalamus

25
doesnt know whether the signal received possess any sign of threat to life or not. So, thalamus
will forward the signal to amygdala. The amygdala on receiving the neural impulses will
prompt the hypothalamus to activate fight or flight stress response. In this way, the shorter
route generates the sensation of fear without any analysis of the sensed signal.
But the longer route is quite opposite to the previous one. After getting the sensed signal, the
thalamus will send the signal to sensory cortex, where it will be analysed for the real cause of
that signal. The sensory cortex might find several combinations of instances that would lead to
that kind of sensory signal. Then the sensory cortex will forward the signal to the hippocampus.
Hippocampus will try to find out the actual instance out of the various combination of instances
relayed to it. Then it will send a signal to amygdala about the severity of the situation. And
finally, amygdala will respond to the relayed signal from hippocampus by prompting
hypothalamus to either switch on/off the flight/fight stress response. Low road always
generates fear and high road generates fear if required. Thats we can observe that most often
we always get fearful in any adverse situation but calm down after sometime.
Hypothalamus is the centre for every route of fear generation, be it low road or high road. So,
let us try to know how hypothalamus generates fear. To generate the flight/fight stress response,
the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic and adrenal-cortical system. The sympathetic
nervous system uses nerve pathways to initiate reactions in the body, and the adrenal-cortical
system uses the bloodstream. The combined effects of these two systems are the fight-or-flight
response.

Fig. 6.7 Action of hypothalamus to generate fear

26
When the hypothalamus tells the sympathetic nervous system to kick into gear, the overall
effect is that the body speeds up, tenses up and becomes generally very alert. The sympathetic
nervous system sends out impulses to glands and smooth muscles and tells the adrenal medulla
to release epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) into the bloodstream.
These "stress hormones" cause several changes in the body, including an increase in heart rate
and blood pressure.
At the same time, the hypothalamus releases corticotropin releasing hormone into the pituitary
gland. The pituitary hormone then releases ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which
moves through the blood stream and ultimately arrives at the adrenal cortex, which releases
various hormones to prepare the body to deal with a threat.

The sudden flood of epinephrine, norepinephrine and dozens of other hormones causes changes
in the body that include:

heart rate and blood pressure increase

pupils dilate to take in as much light as possible
veins in skin constrict to send more blood to major muscle groups
blood-glucose level increases
muscles tense up, energized by adrenaline and glucose (responsible for goose
bumps -- when tiny muscles attached to each hair on surface of skin tense up, the
hairs are forced upright, pulling skin with them)
smooth muscle relaxes in order to allow more oxygen into the lungs
nonessential systems (like digestion and immune system) shut down to allow more
energy for emergency functions
trouble focusing on small tasks (brain is directed to focus only on big picture in
order to determine where threat is coming from)

All of these physical responses are intended to help you survive a dangerous situation by
preparing you to either run for your life or fight for your life, giving its name as fight/flight
response.

Sleep-Wake Cycle

The sleep wake cycle is controlled by two separate biological mechanisms in the body, which
interact together and balance each other. These mechanisms are often referred to as two process
model of sleep-wake regulation, which are as follows:
Circadian Rhythm
It is the regulation of bodys internal processes and alertness levels, which is governed by a
internal biological clock. The bodys built in biological clock is centred in the hypothalamus
of the brain and is the main mechanism that controls timing of sleep and is independent of the

27
amount of preceding sleep or wakefulness. The internal clock is coordinated with the day-night
over a 24-hour period, and regulates the bodys sleep patterns, core temperature, brain wave
activity and cell regeneration and other biological activities. Even a long sleep wont be
effective enough if it occurs at wrong time of circadian cycle. Generally, neurotransmitters
such as serotonin is released in the brain, which stimulates a particular part of the
hypothalamus, which in turn induces sleep. Serotonin is used by our body to produce another
hormone known as melatonin in the pineal gland under the directions from bodys internal
circadian clock, which works on the day-night cycle.
During the daytime, circadian clock senses the light through the eye lens and retina. After
sensing the daylight, it will prompt the pineal gland to store melatonin produced. But when it
senses darkness, it prompts the pineal gland to release the melatonin to blood to inhibit the
pulse signals sent by hypothalamus for maintaining wakefulness.
Sleep-Wake Homeostasis
It can be thought of as internal timer or counter that generates the drive for sleep as a function
of the elapsed time since the last adequate sleep episode. The drive for sleep generally comes
due to accumulation of the sleep regulating substance in our cerebrospinal fluid when we are
awake. The desire to sleep is only decreased by sleeping itself, during which the level of sleep
regulating substance decreases substantially. The best of the known sleep regulating substance
is adenosine, which operates as a neuromodulator and it inhibits many of the actions associated
with norepinephrine, acetylcholine and serotonin. Adenosine is created over the day as a natural
by-product of using up our internal energy stores, ATP. This seems to be quite logical that
bodies crave to sleep comes as a need to replenish the depleting energy stores during our
wakefulness. Further, it has been observed that brains glycogen stores get depleted during our
daytime, extracellular adenosine builds up and then during sleep, adenosine is removed and
replaced by glycogen.

References:

https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/anatomy-and-physiology/the-nervous-
system/nervous-system-organization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex_arc

http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/emotions/fear2.htm

http://www.howsleepworks.com/how_neurological.html

Benzinger TH., On physical heat regulation and the sense of temperature in man, Proc
Natl Academy Science USA. 1959;45: 645659.

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