F17XB Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists 2

Department of Mathematics 20162017

Part 2:
Complex Numbers with Applications

i= 1, i2 = 1, ei = 1

Contents
2 Complex Numbers 1
2.1 Definitions and Basic Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Arithmetic of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.3 Solving Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 The Argand Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Polar Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6 Exponential Form of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 De Moivres Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

B Tutorial Exercises on Complex Numbers 22

B.1 Tutorial Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
B.2 Answers to Most Tutorial Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

December 7, 2016
F17XB 1

2 Complex Numbers

2.1 Definitions and Basic Algebra

To introduce complex numbers well take a quick (and somewhat abridged) tour through the
history of mathematics. The first numbers that appeared historically (evidence in cave art etc.),
and the first numbers that you learned about, are the counting numbers or natural numbers.
Aside from counting objects,
5 cookies
2 sheep,
basic operations can also be performed,
add 2 sheep and 3 sheep to get 5 sheep
7 cookies take away 3 cookies leaves 4 cookies.
With these operations comes the ability to solve equations:
? + 3 = 8 can be solved with ? = 5.
What about trying to solve the following?
? + 5 = 3.
We are now all quite happy with the idea of negative numbers and the solution 2. However this
hasnt always been the case; negative numbers initially appeared to some to be unnatural (what
does 2 cookies mean?), and even during the Renaissance they were still widely mistrusted. But
now their use has been recognised...a bank account with a negative balance makes perfect sense!

We now write
x+3=8
and solve to get x = 5. How about solving the equation
x2 2x = 3
for x? Rearranging gives
x2 2x 3 = 0
and we have a nice formula for solving such equations (courtesy of 1000s of years of work from the
Babylonians in 2000 BC, the Indians 8th century BC, the Greeks, the Chinese until finally the
Persians, Egyptians and other Islamic mathematicians in the 9th and 10th century AD cracked
it):
2 4 + 12
x = = 1 2 = 1, 3.
2
Now let us try to solve the equation
1 2
x x + 1 = 0.
2
Proceeding as before gives
1 12
x = = 1 1.
1
Maybe you are unhappy about taking the square root of a negative number? You are in good
company. It took many years from initial work by Bombelli (1572 AD) for them to be accepted
in the work of Euler (1707-1783) and Gauss (1777-1855). We cant spend 200 years convincing
you lets just carry on!
F17XB 2

Definition: We write
i= 1, and so i2 = 1.

Definition: A complex number is any expression of the form

a + ib
where a and b are real numbers.
We call a the real part and b the imaginary part of the complex number a + ib. Sometimes
the notation
Re(a + ib) = a, Im(a + ib) = b
is used for the real and imaginary parts of the number.

NB In Electrical Engineering it is conventional to use the notation j = 1 instead.

Example 2.1. Some examples of complex numbers include:

5 + i2, 7 i, 4 + 3i, e, i.

Notes:

7 i is the same as 7 + (1)i.

i3 = 3i.

e = e + i0 and i = 0 + i.

The real and imaginary parts of the above numbers are as follows:

Number 5 + i2 7i 4 + 3i e i
Real part 5 7 -4 e 0
Imaginary part 2 -1 3 0

2.2 Arithmetic of Complex Numbers

What can we do with complex numbers? For a start we would like the same basic arithmetic
operations that we have for real numbers.

Equality:
A basic question is when are 2 complex numbers the same? Well, two complex numbers are equal
if and only if their real and imaginary parts are equal.
We have: a + ib = c + id when a = c and b = d.

Example 2.2. 1 + 2i = 1 + 2i 6= 2 + 2i or 1 + i pretty obviously.

F17XB 3

Addition:
(a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d)

Example 2.3. (5 + 4i) + (2 3i) = (5 + 2) + (4 3)i = 7 + i.

Subtraction:
(a + ib) (c + id) = (a c) + i(b d)

Example 2.4. ( + 2i) ( + i) = ( ) + (2 1)i = i.

Multiplication:
(a + ib)(c + id) = (ac bd) + i(ad + bc)

To see where this formula comes from, multiply out the brackets as usual:

Example 2.5.

(a + ib)(c + id) = ac + iad + ibc + i2 bd

= ac + iad + ibc bd = (ac bd) + i(ad + bc),

where in the second step we made use of the fact that i2 = 1.

Example 2.6. We have (1 i)(2 + 3i) = 2 + 3 + 3i 2i = 5 + i.

Example 2.7. If z = 1 i then z 2 = (1 i)(1 i) = (1 1) + i(1 1) = 2i

Example 2.8. (1 + 2i)(1 2i) = (1 + 4) + i(2 2) = 5.

We can also put operations together:

(1 + i) (2 3i) + (12 + 8i) = (1 + i)(14 + 5i) = 9 + 19i.
F17XB 4

Complex Conjugate:
Division is a bit more complicated and we need to introduce the so-called complex conjugate first.

Example 2.9. We will use a trick...to multiply by 1, although written in a fancy way!
4 + 3i 4 + 3i 1 2i
=
1 + 2i 1 + 2i 1 2i
(4 + 3i)(1 2i)
=
(1 + 2i)(1 2i)
(4 + 6) + i(8 + 3) 10 5i
= = = 2 i.
(1 + 4) + i(2 + 2) 5

The useful number 1 2i is called the complex conjugate of 1 + 2i.

Definition: When a and b are real numbers the complex conjugate of a + ib is

a i b.
If z is a complex number we will write z for its complex conjugate.
Other notation is sometimes used in books and other places, e.g. z .

Example 2.10. (a) If z = 1 + i then z = 1 i. (b) If z = 2i, then z = 2i. (c) If z = 4, then
z = 4.

Having introduced the notion of complex conjugate, we can now go on to see how to do division
in general.

Division:
To divide two complex numbers multiply and divide by the complex conjugate of the denominator.

1
Example 2.11. Express in the form a + ib.
2i
Solution: Note that 2 i = 2 + i so we get
1 1 2+i 2+i 2+i 2 1
= = = = + i.
2i 2i 2+i (2 i)(2 + i) 5 5 5

Why does this work? The answer is the fact that any number multiplied by its complex
conjugate is a real number, i.e., zz is real. Let us check this for a general complex number
(a + ib). We have

(a + ib)(a ib) = (a2 + b2 ) + i(ab + ab) = a2 + b2 ,

which is real as predicted. Hence multiplying the denominator in division by its complex conjugate
produces a real denominator.

1
Example 2.12. Express in the form a + ib.
3 + 4i
[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 5

1
Example 2.13. Write in the form a + ib.
i
[Solution in lecture.]
1
This property = i is a particularly useful one to remember.
i

The algebraic operations for complex numbers satisfy the same properties as the corre-
sponding operations for real numbers. e.g.

z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3
z1 z2 = z2 z1
1
z 3 =
z3
There are many more.

2.3 Solving Quadratic Equations

To take the square root of a negative number d < 0 recall that 1 = i so
p
d = (1) d = 1 d = i d .

Example 2.14. Solve z 2 + 16 = 0.

[Solution in lecture.]
What about if we want to solve z 2 + 2z + 2 = 0? The answer, as when dealing with real
numbers is provided by the formula:

To solve for z in the general quadratic equation az 2 + bz + c = 0

where a, b, c are real constants, use the formula

b b2 4ac
z = .
2a
There are generally two solutions because of the . Whether these solutions are real or
complex depends on the quantity := b2 4ac called the discriminant.
If > 0 there are 2 real solutions.
If = 0 there is a single real solution.
If < 0 there are 2 complex solutions,
and they satisfy z 1 = z2 , forming a so-called complex conjugate pair.

(The symbol is the Greek letter capital delta.)

Example 2.15. Solve z 2 + 2z + 2 = 0 (for z).

[Solution in lecture.]

Example 2.16. Find the 2 solutions z1 , z2 of the equation z 2 + 14z + 58 = 0, and check that
z 1 = z2 .
[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 6

2.4 The Argand Diagram

If we want to visualize real numbers we can think of them as points on an infinite line:

-4 0 6 12
How do we visualize complex numbers? Firstly note that a complex number consists of two pieces
of data, a real part and an imaginary part. This gives us two real numbers we can use as co-
ordinates on the plane. The number a + ib is represented by the point with co-ordinates (a, b) in
the plane.

Imaginary
axis
6
4
2 + 4i
3
2
2+i
1
- Real
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 axis
1
2
3 2i
3
3 3i
4

Such a diagram is called an Argand Diagram or the complex plane. A useful feature of the
Argand diagram is that it provides a simple visual way of representing many of the key properties
of complex numbers.

Example 2.17. If z is a point in the Argand diagram then z, the complex conjugate of z, is the
point obtained by reflection in the real axis.

Im

1 + 3i

2+i

Re
2i

1 3i
F17XB 7

Example 2.18. Plot all complex numbers of the form a + 5i.

Solution: The imaginary part is always 5 while the real part is whatever you like. This leads to
the following picture:
Im

Re

Example 2.19. Plot all complex numbers a + ib with the property that a2 + b2 = 2.

Solution: Recall that a2 + b2 = 2 is the equation of a circle with radius 2. Thus a complex
number a + ib satisfies a2 + b2 = 2 if it lies on this circle.

Im
1+i

2
Re

1 i

Each point on the circle is a complex number satisfying the requirement.

F17XB 8

2.5 Polar Form of a Complex Number

The Modulus
How big is a complex number? To answer this we need to know what big means. One way of
measuring this is to take the distance from the given complex number to the origin in the Argand
diagram.

Im

a + ib

Re

Using Pythagoras Theorem we get

p
r 2 = a 2 + b2 or r= a 2 + b2 .

The modulus of the complex number a + ib is written as |a + ib|.

It is defined by p
|a + ib| = a2 + b2 ,
remembering that a and b are standard real numbers.

The modulus of a complex number z gives us an idea of how big this number is. On the
Argand diagram |z| is the distance of the complex number z from the origin.

Example 2.20. If z = 3 i calculate |z|.

Solution: Here z = a + ib with a = 3 and b = 1. Therefore

p
|z| = 32 + (1)2 = 10.

 
 1 1 
Example 2.21. Find 1. |i|, 2. | 9 |, 3.  i .

2 2
[Solution in lecture.]

Example
2.22. In the Argand diagram, draw the set of all complex numbers z with modulus
|z| = 2.
[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 9

Example 2.23. Plot the set of complex numbers z satisfying 1 |z| 2 in the complex plane.

Solution: Since the modulus is the distance to the origin the set consists of all those complex
numbers which are a distance 1 and 2 from the origin. This gives the area shown below.

Im

2i

i
Re
1 2

The Argument
A point z in the Argand diagram determines an angle with the positive real axis.

Im 6
z

} -
Re

We can choose so that < . In particular:

Above the real axis we have 0 .
Below the real axis we have < < 0.

Suppose z is a complex number. The principal argument of z is the angle in radians that
z makes with the positive real axis, chosen so that < .
The principal argument of z is written as Arg(z).

How do we compute this angle? The simplest method is by drawing the diagram.

Example 2.24. Arg(6) = 0, Arg(3) = , Arg(27i) = /2. Arg(4i) = /2.

Example 2.25. Arg(1 + i) = /4, Arg(1 + i) = 3/4,

Arg(1 i) = /4, Arg(1 i) = 3/4
F17XB 10

Example 2.26. Arg(1) = 0, Arg(i) = , Arg(1) = , Arg(i) = (and 6= 3/2 which
2 2
would be out of the range of the principal argument).

Example
2.27. Use the /6, /3 right angle triangle to show that Arg( 3 + i) = /6, Arg(1 +
i 3) = /3 etc.

These are all simple cases for which we can obtain the angles by drawing and using our experience
with simple triangles. We should however develop a more systematic method to use when this
simple method fails.
Suppose z = a + ib is a complex number which determines an angle with the real axis.

Im 6
z
b
r = |z|

o -
a Re
We have
b
tan() = .
a
b
So the trick is to compute tan() = a and then use your calculator to find .

Example 2.28. Find Arg(1 + 2i).

Solution: We have the picture:

Im

2 1 + 2i

Re
1

Using the above formula we know that tan() = 2/1 = 2. Using a calculator we get

= tan1 (2) = 1.107

to 3 d.p. (in radians!)

F17XB 11

b
WARNING! For a given a and b there are two values of < with tan() = . These
a
two values always differ by . Using tan1 on your calculator gives the value between /2
and /2.

Example 2.29. tan(/4) = 1, and tan(3/4) = 1. However, if you compute tan1 (1) on
your calculator, it just returns the single value /4. Try it (you do of course need to have your
calculator set to radians mode - remember this in the exam!).

So for a given z = a + ib, how do we know if tan1 (b/a) gives us the correct value for the
argument? The answer is you draw the point z in the Argand diagram to see whether Arg(z) > 0
or Arg(z) < 0. If the answer you get from tan1 (b/a) has the wrong sign, you add or subtract
from it to give the correct argument.

Example 2.30. Find Arg(2 + i).

[Solution in lecture.]

Summary. To find Arg(a + ib) :

1. Draw a picture showing the angle. If the angle is obvious - stop. If not:

2. Work out which quadrant the point is in and use the following:
If a 6= 0 and b 6= 0, then we are inside one of the four quadrants and

Im
   
1 b 1 b
tan + tan
a a

a<0<b 0 < a, 0 < b

Arg(a + ib) = Re

a < 0, b < 0 b<0<a

   
1 b 1 b
tan tan
a a

Remark: If a = 0 we cant calculate tan1 (b/a)! However we dont have to if a = 0 then

the complex number lies on the imaginary axis so its argument is either +/2 (if b > 0) or
/2 (if b < 0).
F17XB 12

Example 2.31. Find Arg(1 + 2i).

Solution: We have the picture:

Im

1 + 2i 2

Re
1

We see that 0 < Arg(1 + 2i) < , but the value is not obvious from the picture. Using the above
formula we know that tan() = 2/1 = 2. Using a calculator we then get

tan1 (2) = 1.107

to 3 d.p. This is not in the correct range for ; recall that since the complex number is above the
real line, we want 0 . Adding gives

= 1.107 + = 2.034 (to 3 d.p.).

Example 2.32. Calculate Arg(3 4i).

[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 13

Polar Form:
Given a complex number we can determine its modulus and argument. How about going the
other way?
Let z be a complex number with modulus r and principal argument .

Im 6
z

o
-
Re

Then, remembering a little trigonometry, this right-angle has base length r cos() and height
r sin(). Hence, we have

z = r cos() + i sin() .

z = r cos() + i sin() is called the polar form of the complex number z.

Example 2.33. Suppose |z| = 2 and Arg(z) = /3. Write z in polar form.

Solution: Set r = |z| = 2 and = Arg(z) = /3. Then

z = r cos() + i sin()


= 2 cos(/3) + i sin(/3)

If we are given a complex number in the form a + ib and want to write it in polar form, we:

1. Calculate the modulus, r = |z|.

2. Calculate the principal argument, = Arg(z).

3. Write z as z = r cos() + i sin() .

We will see in the next subsection that we can also write this as z = r ei .

Example 2.34. Write 1 + i in polar form.

[Solution in lecture.]

Example 2.35. Write z = 1 + 2i in polar form.

Solution: The modulus is | 1 + 2i| = 5, and from a previous example Arg(1 + 2i) = 2.034
(3DP). Thus, the polar form of z is

z = 5(cos(2.034) + i sin(2.034)).
F17XB 14

2.6 Exponential Form of a Complex Number

One of the most important functions in mathematics is the exponential function. For all real
values of x, this function is defined by its Maclaurin series
x2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + + ...
2! 3!

The exponential of any complex number z is defined in the same way by

z2 z3
ez = 1 + z + + + ...
2! 3!

It is not at all obvious, but it is a fact that the RHS sums to something finite for all complex
z so long as |z| < . However, adding up the terms in the infinite series is usually not a good
way to evaluate ez or indeed cos , sin below.

Example 2.36. Taking z = i gives

i2 i3 i4 i5
ei = 1 + i + + + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5!
1 i 1 i
= 1 + i + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5!
 1 1   1 1 
= 1 + ... + i 1 + ...
2! 4! 3! 5!
=?
Recall the Maclaurin series for cos and sin:
x2 x4 x3 x5
cos(x) = 1 + ... and sin(x) = 1 + ...
2! 4! 3! 5!
Therefore
1 1 1 1
cos(1) = 1 + ... and sin(1) = 1 + ...
2! 4! 3! 5!
so we finally get the result
ei = cos(1) + i sin(1).
The previous result can be made more general and more useful! By definition of the exponential
and the Maclaurin series for cos and sin we have (for real numbers )
i2 2 i3 3 i4 4 i5 5
ei = 1 + i + + + + + ...
2! 3!  4! 5!
i2 2 i4 4 i3 3 i5 5
  
= 1+ + . . . + i + + + ...
2! 4! 3! 5!
2 4 3 5
   
= 1 + ... + i + + ...
2! 4! 3! 5!
= cos + i sin .

We get Eulers formula: ei = cos() + i sin(). Special case ei = 1.

This remarkable formula was obtained by Leonhard Euler in around 1768. The special case
(one of the Top 10 equations ever!) links 3 fundamentally important numbers: e, and i that
have their origin in different branches of mathematics. Using Eulers formula we can get a new
and very useful representation for complex numbers in polar form.
F17XB 15

Suppose we have a complex number z written in polar form as

z = r cos() + i sin() ,

then we can use Eulers formula to write it in the exponential form: z = rei .
To write a complex number z in exponential form:

1. Calculate r, the modulus of z.

2. Calculate , the principal argument of z.

3. Write z = rei .

Example 2.37. Write 1 + i in exponential form.

Solution: We have already seen that |1 + i| = 2 and Arg(1 + i) = . Hence, the exponential
4
form is i/4
1 + i = 2e .

Example 2.38. Write i in exponential form.

[Solution in lecture.]

In the above examples, we have shown how to write a complex number of the form a + ib in
the exponential form rei . Going in the opposite direction is very easy:

Example 2.39. Write the complex number z = 2ei/4 in the form a + ib.
[Solution in lecture.]

Multiplying and dividing the exponential form

The exponential function has another remarkable property:

Multiplication of exponentials: For any complex numbers z and w

ez ew = ez+w .

Example 2.40. e2 e3 = e5 , e3+2i = e3 e2i .

F17XB 16

The multiplication formula can be used together with Eulers formula as follows:

Example 2.41. If z = 5 + 4i write ez in the form a + ib.

Solution: We have

e5+4i = e5 e4i = e5 cos(4) + i sin(4) 97.01 112.32i

(to 2 d.p.)

Multiplication and division in exponential form:

If complex numbers z = r ei and w = s ei then
z r
z w = r s ei(+) and = ei() .
w s
Also in polar form: z = r(cos + i sin ) and w = s(cos + i sin ).
z r
z w = r s (cos( + ) + i sin( + )) and = (cos( ) + i sin( )) .
w s

Example 2.42. Supposing z = 2(cos(/4) + i sin(/4)), and w = (cos(/4) + i sin(/4), find

z w and z/w.

Solution: We immediately have r = 2, s = 1, = /4, = /4 for the formula above and so

z 2
z w = 2(cos(0) + i sin(0)) = 2 and = (cos(/2) + i sin(/2)) = 2i.
w 1

Complex exponentials and trigonometric functions

Eulers formula gives us an alternative way to write the sin and cos functions which is used very
widely in science and engineering. Note that

ei + ei = (cos() + i sin()) + (cos() i sin()) = 2 cos()

and
ei ei = cos() + i sin() (cos() i sin()) = 2i sin()
and we rearrage to get the following:

The exponential form of sin and cos:

1  i  1  i 
cos() = e + ei , sin() = e ei .
2 2i

Example 2.43. Use complex exponentials to show that 2 sin() cos() = sin(2).
[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 17

Calculus with complex exponentials

The complex exponential is also commonly involved in the solution of differential equations,
particularly in cases where solutions oscillate (like in AC electronics, quantum mechanics, etc.).
It satisfies the same rules of differentiation and integration as any other exponential function.

d ix d2 ix eix
Z
e = ieix , e = (i)2 eix = 2 eix , eix dx = + C.
dx dx2 i

Example 2.44. Verify that y(t) = Cei4t is a solution of y = 16y.

[Solution in lecture.]

How about logarithms of complex numbers?

We have seen the exponential applied to complex numbers above, so what about the logarithm of
complex numbers? There are various complex log functions. They are in general very complicated
beasts, with properties far beyond this introductory course. Use with caution! Here is one example

Example 2.45. The principal value (complex) logarithm Ln(z) is defined by

Ln(z) = ln |z| + i Arg(z).

When z = 42ei/7 find Ln(z).

Solution: So |z| = 42 and Arg(z) = /7 so Ln(z) = ln 42 + i/7.

F17XB 18

2.7 De Moivres Theorem

Example 2.46. Show that (cos() + i sin())2 = cos(2) + i sin(2).

Solution: This just follows immediately from the general multiplication rule in the previous sub-
section with z = w = cos() + i sin().

Example 2.47. Show that (ei )n = ein .

Solution: This follows by using the multiplication rule for complex numbers n times, e.g., for n = 3
we have

ei ei ei = ei2 ei = ei3 .

The property (ei )n = ein can be written in polar form as

n
cos() + i sin() = (cos(n) + i sin(n)),

in which case it goes by the special name of De Moivres Theorem.

De Moivres Theorem. If n is an integer, then

n
cos() + i sin() = cos(n) + i sin(n).

If complex number z = r ei in exponential form, then

z n = rn ein = rn (cos(n) + i sin(n)) .

De Moivres Theorem has several uses including the following:

Applying De Moivre Computing powers of complex numbers

To compute the power of a complex number in a simple way, we just need to first put it in polar
form and then use De Moivres Theorem.

Example 2.48. Compute (1 + i)8 .

Solution: We could do this by multiplying out 8 times, but this would be rather tedious and it far
easier to use De Moivres Theorem. First of all we write 1 + i in polar form as


1 + i = 2 cos(/4) + i sin(/4) .

Then we have

8
8
(1 + i)8 = ( 2)8 cos(/4) + i sin(/4) = 16 cos(/4) + i sin(/4)


= 16 cos(2) + i sin(2) = 16.

Example 2.49. Compute (1 + 2i)10

[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 19

Applying De Moivre Computing roots of complex numbers

If we have a complex number given in exponential form z = r ei (where by definition r 0) it is

relatively easy to find its square root, cube root etc..

Given a complex number z = r ei and integer n, there are precisely n different nth roots
of z. They are given by

z 1/n = r1/n ei(+2k)/n for k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1

where r1/n is the positive nth root of r.

For square roots of z = r ei we have n = 2 and so two roots with the same modulus, but
arguments 2/2 = radians apart.

z 1/2 = r1/2 ei/2 and r1/2 ei(+2)/2

and r1/2 is the positive square root of r.

For cube roots of z = r ei we have three roots with the same modulus, but arguments
2/3 radians apart.
z 1/3 = r1/3 ei/3 , r1/3 ei(+2)/3 , r1/3 ei(+4)/3
and r1/3 is the positive cube root of r.

Example 2.50. If z = 9 ei/3 then find the two values of z and verify that they are correct.

Solution:

z = z 1/2 = 91/2 ei/6 and 91/2 ei(/3+2)/2
= 3 ei/6 and 3 ei7/6

Verify by squaring again:

 2
3 ei/6 = 32 ei2/6 = 9 ei/3 OK.
 2
3 ei7/6 = 32 ei(27)/6 = 9 ei7/3 = 9 ei/3+i2 = 9 ei/3 ei2 = 9 ei/3 OK.
F17XB 20

Square roots of z = 9 exp(i /3) Third roots of z = 8(1+i)/sqrt(2)

3 3
2 2
imaginary part

imaginary part
1 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
2 0 2 2 0 2
real part real part
4th roots of z = 1+i2 5th roots of z = 1+i2
3 3
2 2
imaginary part

1 imaginary part 1
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
2 0 2 2 0 2
real part real part

Spot the pattern!

Note the equal spacing in wedges with angle 2/n around a circle of radius r1/n for nth roots of
z = rei , where
r = |z|, = Arg(z).

Example 2.51. Find the 5th roots of z = 1 + i2. See plot above.
[Solution in lecture.]
F17XB 21

Applying De Moivre Deriving Trigonometric Identities

On the formula sheet accompanying this course, there are a range of identities between trigono-
metric functions, e.g.,

cos(2) = cos2 () sin2 ().

One way to prove such formula is to use De Moivres Theorem.

Example 2.52. Prove the identity cos(2) = cos2 () sin2 () using De Moivres Theorem.

Solution: De Moivres Theorem tells us that

cos(2) + i sin(2) = (cos() + i sin())2 .

The trick is to expand the RHS to obtain

cos(2) + i sin(2) = cos2 () sin2 () + i2 cos() sin().

The identity follows by taking the real part of both sides of this equation. Note, that if we take
the imaginary part, we get the additional identity

sin(2) = 2 cos() sin()

for free!

Example 2.53. Prove the identity sin(3) = 3 cos2 () sin()sin3 () using De Moivres Theorem.
[Solution in lecture.]

And finally, something for future studies

w = 0.5(z+1/z)

1.5
Imgainary part of w
Imgainary part of z

1 0.5

0.5
0
0

0.5
0.5
1
2 1 0 1 1 0.5 0 0.5
Real part of z Real part of w
Using a complex function to convert between an aerofoil shape (on the right) and a circle.
This can be used to make fluid dynamics calculations easier. Each dot on the left plot (the z
values) is connected to one on the right (the w values) by the formula
 
1 1
w= z+ .
2 z

The highlighted circles and diamonds show where their z values end up on the w value plot.
B Tutorial Exercises on Complex Numbers

B.1 Tutorial Exercises

Tutorial Exercises for Section 2.2
Ex 1. Find the real and imaginary part of the following complex numbers
5 + 4i, 7 5i, + i, 8, 10i
Ex 2. Express the following as a single complex number
(2 + 4i) + (3 i), (2 + 4i) (3 i), (8 i) + 5, (5 + 2i)(2 i), 3(4 2i),
(3 + 2i)(3 2i), (1 i)((2 + 3i) + (1 4i)), (1 + i)(2 + 2i)(3 4i)
Ex 3. (i) Let z = 1 2i. Calculate z 2 and z 3 .
(ii) Let z = 1 i. Calculate z 5 .
(iii) Let z = 12 + 12 i. Calculate z 2 . Does your answer tell you anything about i?
Ex 4. Let z = 5 + i, w = 10 i. Calculate z w, z 2 w and w2 z.
Ex 5. Express the following complex numbers in the form a + bi.
2 + 3i 2i 2i 1 2 + 3i
, , , ,
4+i 1i 1+i i 5i
Ex 6. Solve the following equations for z, writing your answer in the form a + bi.
1
(i) z i = 5 2i (ii) 4 + 3i = 7(i z) (iii) = 4i
z
5i i
(iv) =2+i (v) =2i
z z 2i

Tutorial Exercises for Section 2.3

Ex 1. Solve (a) z 2 = 16, (b) z 2 = 25, (c) z 2 = 7.
Ex 2. Solve (a) z 2 + 2z + 5 = 0, (b) z 2 4z + 13 = 0.
Ex 3. Solve (a)z 2 + 6z + 10 = 0, (b)z 2 + 6z + 14 = 0.
Ex 4. Find the solutions z1 , z2 of 2z 2 6z + 7 = 0 and verify that z1 + z2 = 3, z1 z2 = 7/2.
Ex 5. Find the solutions z1 , z2 of z 2 10z + 29 = 0 and verify that (z1 z2 )2 = 16.

Tutorial Exercises for Section 2.4

Ex 1. Plot the following complex numbers in the complex plane
2 + i, 3 + i, 4 + i, 4 + 2i, 4 + 3i, 4 + 4i, 4 + 5i
Now multiply each of these by i and plot these points too. Can you guess what multiplication by
i is doing geometrically?
Ex 2. In the complex plane plot the set of complex numbers of the form 3 + bi.
Ex 3. In the complex plane draw the set of complex numbers with modulus 1.
Ex 4. In the complex plane draw the set of complex numbers satisfying |z| 2.
Ex 5. In the complex plane draw the set of complex numbers satisfying 2 |z| 3 and 0
arg(z) /2.
Ex 6. In the complex plane draw the set of complex numbers z satisfying |z 1| = 1.
Ex 7. In the complex plane draw the set of complex numbers z satisfying |z i + 1| = 2.

Tutorial Exercises for Section 2.5

Ex 1. Calculate the modulus of each of the following complex numbers.
1, 1, i, i, 12 + i 12 , 12 i 12
Ex 2. Plot the following complex numbers in the complex plane and in each case find the principal
argument (to 3 decimal places - always use radians!).
2 + i, 3 + 4i, 5, 6i, 1 i, 2 3i, 3 + i
Ex 3. Using the triangle below (and not using your calculator) find the principal argument of
the
following complex
numbers.
3 + i, 3 i, 1 + 3i, 1 3i

/3
2
1

/6

3

Ex 4. Plot all complex numbers z satisfying arg(z) = /2 in the complex plane.

Ex 5. Plot all complex numbers z satisfying arg(z) /2 and |z| < 2 in the complex plane.
Ex
6. Write the following complex numbers in polar form.
3 i, 1 + 3i
(the triangle in Exercise 3 should mean you dont need to use a calculator).
Ex 7. Write the following complex numbers in polar form.
2 + i, 3 + 4i, 5, 6i.

Tutorial Exercises for Section 2.6

Ex 1. Write e3+i and e22i in the form a + ib (specify a and b to 2 decimal places).
Ex 2. Write 1 + i and i in exponential form.
Ex 3. Use the result of the previous question to work out
i
(1 + i)2 , i(1 + i) and
1+i
using the exponential formulas, and verify using the methods from Section 2.2.
Ex 4. Find the complex numbers A, B such that
Aei + Bei = 4 cos() + 2 sin().
Ex 5. Given > 0, show that y(t) = Ceit + Deit is a solution of y = 2 y and find C, D
such that y(0) = 0 and y (0) = .
Ex 6. Show that
1 ei2
   
1 ei2
tan() = i = i .
1 + ei2 1 + ei2

Tutorial Exercises for Section 2.7

Ex 1. Express (cos(/7) + i sin(/7))6 in the form a + ib.

Ex 2. Use De Moivres theorem to write ( 3 i)4 and (1 i)25 in the form a + ib.
Ex 3. Use De Moivres theorem to prove the identities
(i) sin(4) = 4(sin() cos3 () sin3 () cos())
(ii) cos(5) = cos5 () 10 cos3 () sin2 () + 5 cos() sin4 ()
Ex 4. Find 4i in exponential form and then find its square roots.
Ex 5. Find all of the 4th roots of 1 in exponential and a + ib form.
Ex 6. Find all of the 3rd roots of 8 in exponential and a + ib form.
B.2 Answers to Most Tutorial Exercises
Section 2.2
1. 5, 4; 7, 5; , ; 8, 0; 0, 10.
2. 5 + 3i; 1 + 5i; 13 i; 12 i; 12 6i; 13; 2i; 16 + 12i.
3. (i) 3 4i; 11 + 2i, (ii) 4 + 4i, (iii) i.
4. 5 + 2i; 14 + 11i; 94 21i.
11 10
5. 17 + 17 i; 3/2 + 1/2 i; 1/2 3/2 i; i; 3/5 2/5 i.
4 9 7 12
6. (i) 5 i, (ii) 4 7 + i 7 , (iii) 4 , (iv) 5 i 5 , (v) 5 + i 5 .
i 1

Section 2.3
1. (a) 4i, 4i, (b) 5i, 5i, (c) 7 i, 7 i 2. (a) z = 1 2i, (b) z = 2 3i 3. (a) z = 3 i,

(b) z = 3 5 i 4. z1 = 23 + 25 i , z2 = 32 25 i 5. z1 = 5 + 2i, z2 = 5 2i
Section 2.4
1. Multiplication by i is the same thing as an anti-clockwise rotation by 90 degrees about the origin.
2. Vertical line going through 3 on the real axis.
3. Circle of radius 1 centred at 0.
4. Filled in circle of radius 2 centred at 0.
5. Quarter ring shape
6. Circle of radius 1 centred at 1.
7. Circle of radius 2 centred at 1 + i.
Section 2.5
1. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1.
2. 0.464, 0.927, 0, 1.571, 2.356, 0.983, 2.820.
3. /6, 5/6, 2/3, /3.
6. 2(cos(/6) + i sin(/6)), 2(cos(/3) + i sin(/3)).
7. 2.236(cos(0.464) + i sin(0.464)), 5(cos(0.927) + i sin(0.927)), 5(cos(0) + i sin(0)), 6(cos(/2) + i sin(/2)).
Section 2.6
1. 10.85
+ 16.90i to 2 d.p., 3.07 6.72i to 2 d.p.
2. 2ei/4 , ei/2 .
i/2
3. 2e , 2ei3/4 , ei/4 / 2
4. A = 2 i, B = 2 + i.
5. C = i/2, D = i/2.
Section 2.7
1. cos(6/7) + i sin(6/7)

2. 8 i8 3, 4096 4096i.
4. 4ei/2 , 2ei/4 , 2ei5/4 .
5. ei0 , ei/2 , ei , ei/2 . 1, i, 1, i.

6. 2ei0 , 2ei2/3 , 2ei4/3 . 2, 1 i 3, 1 + i 3.