THE BASICS OF EXPERIMENTATION necessary that our shocks be intense., Dr. Zilstein said.
ary that our shocks be intense., Dr. Zilstein said. Unlike the first, on the second group
Independent variable (IV)
Is the antecedent condition that is deliberately manipulated by the experimenter to assess
its effect on behavior
It is independent in the sense that its values are not affected by anything else that will
happen within the experiment.
Also referred to as: treatments, manipulations, interventions, conditions
In order to meet the requirement of an experiment, it has have must at least have two
different treatment conditions: independent variable must have two values, which is called
levels of the independent variables
o Example 1: Having drug as the IV and its value is the dosage which has two levels,
the low and high dosage.
o Example 2: Having music as the IV and its values were classical and rock.
Dependent variable (DV)
In order for us to know whether changes in the levels of the IV have altered behavior we
measure dependent variable
it is the indicator of change in behavior
it is the result or outcome that is subject to explanation
Also referred to as: measures, effects, outcomes, results
in other words, the experiment is testing the effects of independent variable on dependent
variables
It is dependent in the sense that its values assumed to depend on the values of the IV.
Thus, in choosing the appropriate independent and dependent variables is important. Since
this field tries to know the causes of behavior, focusing on the relevant variables is a must.
One also needs to assess the impact of the treatment.
Some Research Examples:
Stanley Schacter
He conducted and experiment in 1959 with a hypothesis of If people are anxious, then they
will want to affiliate, or be, with others. The IV is the anxiety and the DV is the affiliation in
his hypothesis. He conducted the experiment by introducing himself as Dr. Gregor Zilstein
from Neurology and Psychiatry Department, and explained to them that his experiments
about the effects of electric shocks. The subjects were divided into two groups; the first
group were to see the equipment and make believed that is was very painful, ..it is
Dr. Zilstein stated that ..it will resemble more a tickle or a tingle... Therefore, the first
group was anticipated to be more anxious than the other since they expected more pain
from the electric shocks.
The experimenter then explained that there would be a delay while the experiment is being
set up, the subjects were to answer a questionnaire for them to indicate if they will wait for
the next part of the experiment alone, with the other subject or no preference. And the test
shows that those subjects who were more anxious would like to wait with others. The
purpose of the experiment was gained, there was no need to have the subjects receive the
electric shocks.
Schachters experiment supported his hypothesis: if subjects are anxious they would like to
affiliate with others. This explains the relationship between anxiety and affiliation as the
independent and dependent variables, respectively. This experiment also shows the
difference between the IV and DV, here anxiety was being manipulated by the experiment.
As the independent variable, it has two levels, the high and low. High is expressed in the first
group since they believed that the electric shocks would be painful whereas the low level of
anxiety was shown in the second group where electric shock is like a tickle or tingle.
Affiliation as the dependent variable, is the result and outcome.
Eckhard Hess
He conducted an experiment in 1975 with a hypothesis of Large pupils make people more
attractive. He came up with this since throughout history there has been popular support
for this thought. The independent variable is the pupil size and attractiveness as the
dependent variable.
He asked male subjects to rate four retouched photographs of two women with small and
big pupils. Subjects were asked to select which woman in a series of pairs of these
photographs appeared to be friendlier, charming and so on. As the experiment was done, it
shows that male subjects would prefer women with large pupils as more attractive than
those with small (replicated by Niedenthal and Cantor on 1986). Their experiment includes
photographs of both men and women. The results were the same, men find women with
large pupils as attractive and women attracted to men with large pupils.
Identifying Variables
When one is working for his or her hypothesis, one must try to answer these questions:
what will you manipulate to test your hypothesis? (This is your IV) What will you measure to
find out whether your independent variable had an effect? (This is your DV)
 Example, this would be ones hypothesis: People learn words faster when the words are
written horizontally than when they are written vertically. This hypothesis was greatly
influenced by the idea of seeing words horizontally, especially in English-speaking subjects
and suspected that vertically printed words were more difficult and hard to learn.
With this, we need to identify what are the independent and dependent variables in this
hypothesis. In this case, the IV is the word orientation, there are different levels of IV here it
could be horizontal, vertical and diagonal. The DV would be the rate of learning, which
depends on how words are presented.
Identifying the IV and DV is not the end. It is important to remember that the IV of one
experiment can function as a dependent variable in another. From Schachters experiment,
the independent variable was anxiety and dependent variable was affiliation one can suggest
a new hypothesis: People who are anxious tend to be with others since being with them
lessens the anxiousness of a person. Since being with people is the IV, the subjects would be
divided, the first one waits alone in a room for 30 minutes, the other waits at the same time
but with people surrounds. The DV is the anxiousness of the subjects then one can use
devices to measure if waiting alone decreases the levels of anxiety than waiting with
company. As you can see, we changed the status of these variables when we modified the
hypothesis.
Operational Definitions
Conceptual definitions is not enough most especially in the context of science. If one says
the color is violet, what makes the color violet violet? In this field one must consider
precision in everything since we are dealing with experiments.
So, when one person says anxiety his or her anxiety maybe different from others
definition. The meaning of every variables in one experiment can be change when it comes
to the other experiment. When defining a concepts, there are numerous thoughts related to
tit and sometimes theyre ambiguous and unclear. That is the reason why every procedures
in the experiment that would made needs to be stated clearly.
There are two definitions of each IV and DV. The first one is conceptual definition that is
used in the everyday language and the other is operational that is used in carrying out the
experiment. The operational definition defines a variable in terms of observable operations,
procedures and measurements. It is called operational because it describes the operations
involved in manipulating or measuring the variables in an experiment. Operational definition
is quite different with that of ordinary dictionary meanings. The definitions we found in
dictionary do not give us the procedures needed in the experiments. These meaning cannot
tell how to produce values on the variables.
Defining the Independent Variable: Experimental Operational Definitions
Experimental operational definitions explain the precise meaning of the independent
variables; these definitions describe exactly what was done to create the various treatment
conditions of the experiment. In Schachters experiment, it shows the experimental
operational definitions of the high and low anxiety. The high anxiety condition was described
by the electronic equipment set up in the room, the threatening behavior of Dr. Zilstein, and
the statement he give to the subjects that they should expect painful shocks. The low anxiety
condition was defined by the absence of the equipment, Dr. Zilsteins more relaxed manner
and his words that the electric shocks would not be painful.
In the case where the hypothesis is about learning of words presented in a certain word
orientation, one must specify the exact nature of the experimental procedures and stimuli.
In order to replicate the work one needs to provide a detailed description of how to set up
the treatments; along with this is the procedure of how to present the words to the subjects,
the size of the words, the type of printing, the level of light in the room, the distance and
location of the words in the subjects visual field, and of course, the duration of word
presentation.
The experimental operational definition for those nonexperimental study was quite
different. For in this case, there is no treatment conditions present. In ex post facto studies,
for example it is essentially the procedure used to select subjects who fit the required levels
of the independent variable. Whether the IV is manipulated or selected, one needs a precise
experimental operational definitions.
Defining the Dependent Variable: Measured Operational Definitions
Measured operational definitions of the dependent variable describe exactly what
procedures we follow to assess the impact of different treatment conditions. It includes
exact descriptions of the specific behaviors or responses recorded and explain how those
responses are scored. If the dependent measure is not standardized, then it is in enough
detail to allow other experimenter to repeat those procedures. In Schachters experiment,
affiliation as the DV was given a measured operational definition. Schachter scored it by
having the subjects check off their preferences on questionnaire. Again, it would be easy to
replicate his procedures for measuring affiliation: one would just administer the same
questions in the same way.
Defining Constructs Operationally
Hypothetical constructs variables are those that cant be observed. It is an unseen principles
that explains behavior. Thus, the existence of this can only be shown on those observable
behaviors.
Example: Fear. Some observable characteristics of a person in fear maybe present in another
person who does not feel fear. This concept expresses the difference between one variable
in a two opposite condition. By saying fear is not enough hence; one must have an
accurate operational definition.
A construct variable like anxiety also needs a measured operational definition if it is a
dependent variable. It comes with many different measured operational definitions such as
the number of heartbeats. One can determine the heartbeats since we can read a persons
pulse. A written test just like Taylor Manifest Anxiety or TMAS can also determine anxiety
through its score.
Defining Nonconstruct Variables
Operational definitions are equally important when we are working with variables that can
be observed more directly.
Suppose we want to test the effects of lighting on newborn babies. Irwin and Weiss (1934)
compare crying among babies in light rooms versus crying in dark rooms. Before anything,
we must operationally define what we mean by light versus dark by the use of a
photometer or light meter in order to make a legitimate comparison. The DV crying must
also be defined in such a way that independent observers would reliably agree on its
occurrence.
Defining Scales of Measurement
Level of measurement: kind of scale used to measure a variable.
o Nominal are not really scales at all; their only purpose is to name subjects
Does not have the property of magnitude, equal intervals or an absolute 0
E.g: Meal preference: Breakfast, Lunch Dinner
o Ordinal measured in the form of ranks
Ex: Ranks: 1st place, 2nd place, last place
o Interval provide information about order and also possess equal intervals
Constructing them involves an understanding of mathematical and
statistical principles beyond covered in this course
Ex: Time of day on a 12-hour clock
o Ratio a scale that has all three properties this includes magnitude, equal intervals
and an absolute 0.
Ex. Years of work experience and number of children
Evaluating Operational Definition
Reliability refers to the accuracy, dependability and consistency. It implies that good operational
definitions are reliable. If the operational operation definition is reliable every time one will apply the
definition, one should obtain similar consequences.
Interrater Reliability
o It is the agreement between the measurements of the same responses, taken by
the different observers. This method is typically used in a content analysis, when
raters must score the qualitative content of the subjects responses
Test-retest Reliability
o Refers to the comparison of scores of the people who have been measured twice
with the same instrument. If one takes the test once, after a reasonable interval,
one should take the test again.
Interitem Reliability
o Is the extent to which different parts of a questionnaire, test, or other instruments
designed to assess the same variable attain consistent results. Scores from various
items designed to measure the same construct should be highly correlated
o Have two approaches. First is split-half reliability. It involves the splitting of the test
into halves at random and computing a coefficient of reliability between the scores
obtained on the two halves. Second approach evaluates the internal consistency of
the entire set of items using statistical tests.
Validity
Refers to the principle of actually studying the variables that we intend to study.
Face Validity
o Self-evident way of measuring
o We simple use a standard measuring device for instance a ruler to define the
treatment condition.
Content Validity
o Depends on whether we are taking a fair sample of the variable we intend to
measure.
o High content validity means that the measuring instrument is not evaluating other
qualities that we do not intend to measure.
 Predictive Validity 3. Testing
o Our procedures should yield information that enables us to predict future behavior This refers to effects on the DV produced because of previous administration of the
or performance. same test.
Concurrent Validity Taking a test generally affects subsequent testing; thus, participants performance
o Compares scores on the measuring instrument with an outside criterion on a measure at the end of the study may differ from an initial testing, not because
o Whether scores on the measuring device correlate with scores obtained from of treatment but because they are familiar with the measure.
another method of measuring the same concept. 4. Instrumentation
Construct Validity When some feature of the measuring instrument itself changes over the course of
o Deals with transition from theory to research application an experiment
Convergent Validity Instruments used to measure participants performance may change over time
o Test results should also correlate highly with scores on other intelligence tests. (e.g., observers may become bored or tired); thus, changes in participants
performance may not be due to treatment but to changes in the instruments used
Internal Validity - the degree to which a researcher is able to state a causal relationship between to measure performance.
antecedent conditions 5. Statistical Regression
This can occur whenever people are assigned to conditions based on extreme
Extraneous Validity things changing throughout the experiment
scores on a test
Extraneous Variables factors that are not the focus of the experiment but can influence Participants sometimes perform very well or very poorly on a measure because of
the findings. chance factors (e.g., luck). These chance factors are not likely to be present in a
Confounding - when the value of an extraneous variable changes systematically across second testing, so their scores will not be so extreme the scores regress to the
different conditions of the experiment mean. These regression effects, not the effect of treatment, may account for
changes in participants performance over time.
8 CLASSIC THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY 6. Selection
Whenever the researcher does not randomly assign to the different conditions of
Donald Campbell identified 8 kinds of extraneous variables that can threaten the internal
the experiment
validity of experiments.
When differences exist between individuals in treatment and control groups at the
1. History start of the study, these differences become alternative explanations for any
Refers to the history of the experiment differences observed at the end of the study (rather than treatment).
When an event occurs at the same time as treatment and changes participants 7. Subject Mortality
behavior, this event becomes an alternative explanation for the changes in If more subjects drop out of one condition compared to another
participants behavior (rather than treatment); thus, participants history includes 8. Selection Interactions
events other than treatment. A selection threat can combine with another threat to form a selection interaction
2. Maturation
refers to any internal (physical or psychological) changes in subjects that could
affect the dependent measure
Participants naturally change over time; these maturational changes, not
treatment, may explain any changes in participants during the experiment.