Chemical Monitoring and Management

1. Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring the reactants and products
of reactions and managing reaction conditions.

Point 1.1 Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise,
identifying the branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining a chemical principle
that the chemist uses.

This dot point - Copyright 2007; Ahmad Shah Idil

Robert Evans:

Robert Evans is an environmental chemist.

He is employed by Orica Ltd, and works at Botany Industrial Park, Sydney.
Role:
As an environmental chemist at an industrial location, his main role ensuring the sites
adherence to EPA (environment protection authority) regulations.
This job includes:
The management of disposal of contaminated wastes (such as neutralising strongly
acidic or basic wastes, or incinerating toxic wastes).
Ensuring noise levels comply with EPA standards for industry.
Investigating reports of contamination in soil or groundwater, determining the
source of contamination, and then correcting the damage.
Preparing periodic reports and presentations.
Chemistry:
Chemical principles needed for this role include:
Understanding acid/base reactions (neutralising wastes).
Knowing valid chemical sampling techniques.
Various techniques of chemical analysis of samples, including gravimetric and
volumetric analysis, as well as AAS.
Understanding site geology and groundwater flow patterns.
He collaborates with analytical chemists, measuring pollution in this area.

Point 1.2 Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse
data.

In a large company, there may be lots of chemists who specialise in certain areas. For a plant to
run efficiently and safely, each chemist must share their knowledge, ideas and data so that their
efforts can be coordinated. For example at a particular industrial plant, collaboration between
chemists of a different branch in chemistry is carried out:

Industrial chemists would monitor the conditions of the production process to ensure
that optimum yields of the product are achieved. They are also responsible for the safety
of the plant.
Analytical chemists would analyse the products by testing their purity and quality. They
will collaborate and consult with industrial chemists to determine ways of improving and
maintaining standards.
Environmental chemists would monitor the disposal of wastes of the industrial process.
They analyse the impact of the wastes on the environment and would collaborate with
the industrial chemists on how to reduce the amount of wastes. The analytical chemist
would advise industrial and environmental chemists of suitable techniques to analyse
and dispose of any wastes produced.
 Chemical Monitoring and Management

Point 1.3 Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where reactants
form different products under different conditions and thus would need monitoring.

Combustion reactions can produce different products, depending on the availability of oxygen. If
there is more than enough oxygen is available, then complete combustion takes place. The
following equation (combustion of octane) demonstrates that every time there is complete
combustion, carbon dioxide and water are always produced.

2C8H18 (l) + 25O2 (g) 16CO2 (g) + 18H2O (l)

However if there is not enough oxygen, incomplete combustion occurs. This means that not only
are carbon dioxide and water produced, pollutants such as carbon monoxide and soot (carbon
particles) are formed. The following equations show this:

2C8H18 (l) + 17O2 (g) 16CO (g) + 18H2O (l)

OR
C8H18 (l) + 5O2 (g) CO (g) + 7C(s) + 9H2O (l)

Combustion reactions in vehicles need to be monitored for engine performance:

The proportion of air to fuel ratio (AFR) has an important effect on engine
performance (stoichiometric ratio 15:1).
If the AFR is not between 6:1 and 17:1 by mass, the mixture will not ignite.
Having an AFR above the stoichiometric ratio lowers emissions of carbon monoxide
and unburned hydrocarbons but increases NOx emissions.

Combustion reactions in vehicles need to be monitored for environmental purposes:

Monitoring needs to be carried out to prevent poisonous gases such as carbon

monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide as well as soot being released into the
environment (see incomplete combustion reactions above).
This pollution must be minimised to reduce harm on people and environment.
Carbon monoxide is extremely toxic and may bring about premature death for
humans. Can also have detrimental effects on organisms such as birds. May result in
their deaths.
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen result in acid rain and this can have significant
impacts on environment such as death of vegetation, acidification of waterways,
buildings crumble etc.

Considering the effects of combustion reactions on society and the environment, continuous
monitoring needs to be carried out to prevent poisonous and toxic pollutants from being
produced.

Point 1.4 Gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the work of
practising scientists identifying: the variety of chemical occupations, a specific chemical
occupation for a more detailed study.

There are a number of fields within chemistry. Some of these include:

o Analytical chemistry
o Biomolecular chemistry
o Colloid + surface science chemistry
o Organic chemistry
o Inorganic chemistry
o Electrochemistry
 Chemical Monitoring and Management
o Environmental Chemistry
o Industrial Chemistry
o Physical Chemistry
o Polymer Chemistry

Environmental Chemistry

This job involves the continuous monitoring of the site to ensure it complies with EPA
(Environment Protection Authority) standards. This involves monitoring the wastes disposed by
industry into waterways and the atmosphere. Environmental chemists collaborate with analytical
chemists to determine the concentrations of substances released using techniques such as
volumetric + gravimetric analysis as well as AAS. They may also collaborate with industrial
chemists and may propose ideas to minimise wastes.

The environmental chemist would report his findings to engineers or managers in the form of
reports or presentations on a periodic basis recommending various solutions to improve the
environmental situation within the area.

2. Chemical processes in industry require monitoring and management to

maximise production.

Point 2.1 Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia.

Ammonia is a colourless gas with a pungent suffocating odour and formula NH 3. It is a very
important chemical in industries due to its many uses:

Used in the production of liquid fertilizer solutions which consist of ammonium and
nitrate salts. The nitrogen in the ammonia is an essential plant nutrient. These fertilisers
are used to grow many crops such as wheat, barley etc.
Used in pharmaceutical industry in the manufacture of drugs. These drugs made from
ammonia are used to control and prevent diseases such as malaria.
Used to synthesise important chemicals such as nitric acid. This in turn is used to
manufacture synthetic fibres such as nylon (in polymer industry) and explosives such as
TNT.
Used as a cleaning agent in factories, paint remover and dry cleaning because the
ammonium solution (ammonium hydroxide) present in these substances destroys
bacteria and dissolves grease.
Used in cosmetics to produce various lotions.
Used as a yeast nutrient in fermentation so maximum yield of ethanol can be obtained.
Used in water and wastewater treatment such as pH control.
Ammonia is also used in refrigeration and air conditioning.
Other uses include: rocket fuels, manufacture of ammoniated liquorice.

Point 2.2 Identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases nitrogen and
hydrogen.

Ammonia can be synthesised by reacting together hydrogen and nitrogen as in the following
reaction:
H = -92 kJ mol-1
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

As you can see from the reaction, 1 mole of nitrogen gas reacts with 3 moles of hydrogen gas to
produce 2 moles of ammonia gas. This is an important mole ratio. Nitrogen is obtained by the
 Chemical Monitoring and Management
fractional distillation of liquefied air and hydrogen is obtained by the reaction of steam with
methane obtained from natural gas:

CH4 (g) + H2O (g) 3H2 (g) + CO (g)

Point 2.3 Describe that synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will reach
equilibrium.

The above reaction is a reversible reaction which means it can proceed in both directions. In the
forward reaction, the nitrogen and hydrogen react to form ammonia. Because the overall rate of
reaction is extremely slow, the rate of forward reaction decreases and the rate of reaction for the
reverse reaction start to increase. As a result the equilibrium lies to the left. The ammonia
decomposes back into nitrogen and hydrogen. The forward and reverse reactions will continue
until the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of reverse reaction. Here the reaction has
achieved equilibrium.

Point 2.4 Identify the reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen as exothermic.

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) H = -92 kJ mol-1

From the reaction, energy is released when nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia.
There is less chemical energy in the product side than in the reactants. The energy needed to
break the covalent bonds in the nitrogen and hydrogen is less than the energy given out when the
new bonds in ammonia are formed. The bonds in ammonia are weaker than the bonds in the
reactants due to the energy being released. Every time the above reaction occurs, 92 kJ of energy
is released to the surroundings thus the above reaction is exothermic.

Point 2.5 Explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures.

High temperatures increase the rate of reaction. There are two reasons for this statement:

Higher temperatures result in an increase in the kinetic energy of the molecules

(increasing their speeds) in the reaction. Thus there will be more frequent energetic and
successful collisions between the molecules. This will increase the rate of reaction.
The amount of energy possessed by the molecules (from the high temperatures) allows
them to overcome the activation energy barrier (the energy needed to start the
reaction) thus increasing the rate of reaction.

The high temperatures enable the reaction to be completed in a shorter period of time.

Point 2.6 Explain why the yield of product in the Haber Process is reduced at higher
temperatures using Le Chateliers principle.

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) H = -92 kJ mol-1

The Haber Process (shown above) is exothermic which means it releases heat as ammonia is
formed. However if the temperature is increased in the reaction, the equilibrium will shift to the
left to try and absorb the heat added. This means that ammonia will decompose back into the
reactants nitrogen and hydrogen thus decreasing the yield of ammonia.
This can be related to Le Chateliers principle which states that If a change is imposed on a
closed equilibrium system, then the system will alter in a way to counteract and minimise the
imposed change. As we can see, the system has altered to maintain equilibrium.
Therefore we can conclude that the yield of the product (ammonia) in the Haber Process is
reduced at higher temperatures.
 Chemical Monitoring and Management

Point 2.7 Explain why the Haber Process is based on a delicate balancing act involving
reaction energy, reaction rate and equilibrium.

To ensure the maximum yield of ammonia is obtained, optimum conditions need to be met. This
means that continuous monitoring of equilibrium, rate of reaction and reaction energy is
required. The synthesis of ammonia in the Haber Process is an extremely slow reaction i.e. a slow
reaction rate. To increase the rate of reaction, temperature is increased. However this increase in
temperature causes a shift in the equilibrium to the left reducing yield of ammonia. However if
the temperature is too low, the rate of reaction will be very slow thus production of ammonia will
be slower. This is why it is important to have a moderate temperature of around 400-500C. An
increase in pressure will cause the equilibrium to shift to the right. Pressures of around 200
atmospheres are used. This in conjunction with the moderate temperature of 400C used to
produce the optimum yield of ammonia.

There are also economic factors which are taken into consideration by industries. The amount of
reaction energy needs to be monitored as pollution may result. But more importantly, high
reaction energy caused by high temperatures and pressures in the reaction process increases the
cost for the industry. To solve this problem a cheap catalyst may be used or careful monitoring to
ensure efficient production.

Thus the best conditions which industries strive for in producing ammonia from the Haber
process are: a fast reaction rate, equilibrium which lies to the right and a high enough reaction
energy which has minimal impact on environment and has little economical costs.
Therefore there needs to be a compromise between the equilibrium, rate of reaction and reaction
energy in order to obtain an optimum yield of ammonia.

Point 2.8 Explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required and
identify the catalyst(s) used in the Haber process.

A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction without itself being used in the
reaction. The catalyst used in the Haber process is iron/iron oxide. This catalyst may contain small
amounts of potassium oxides and aluminium oxide. The purpose of high temperatures in the
Haber process is to achieve a faster rate of reaction thus producing the yield of the product
(ammonia) quicker. However as discussed earlier, these high temperatures cause the equilibrium
to shift to the left (decreasing yield of ammonia) and causes pollution associated with energy
costs. Thus the cheap catalyst mentioned above is used.

The catalyst increases the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy (the energy needed
to start the reaction) for the reaction thus reducing the reaction temperature required. It provides
a surface on which the reaction can proceed. Both the forward and reverse reactions are
increased by using a catalyst. Basically to sum up, the iron/iron oxide catalyst is used in the Haber
process to enable the reaction to proceed more quickly at lower temperatures.

Point 2.9 Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber
process.

This is the equation of the reaction in the Haber process:

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) + 92kJ

We can see on the reactants side, there are 4 moles of gas. On the products side, there are only 2
moles of gas. If increased pressure is added to the reaction, then the equilibrium will shift to the
right. This can be explained by using Le Chateliers principle: If a change is imposed on a closed
equilibrium system, then the system will alter in a way to counteract and minimise the added
change. In this case, the increased pressure is the change. Increasing pressure means that you
are increasing the moles of gas in a given volume. Thus the system wants to counteract this
 Chemical Monitoring and Management
change by reducing the number of moles of gas. Since there are less moles of gas on the products
side, the equilibrium shifts to the product side. Basically to sum up this dot point, added
increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber process, will cause the equilibrium to shift
to the right and as a result the yield of ammonia is increased.

Point 2.10 Explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is crucial
and discuss the monitoring required.

Various steps in the Haber process need to be monitored in order to obtain an optimum yield of
ammonia as well as considering the environmental and economic costs for the industry. Factors
that need to be carefully monitored and controlled include the following:

Catalyst The reaction rate of the Haber process is extremely slow. This is undesirable as
the formation of ammonia may take days or even weeks. Thus the efficiency for the
industry is very low. The reaction rate can be increased by using an iron/iron oxide
catalyst. The size of catalyst must be monitored. If its too small, impurities start clogging
the spaces between them and if its too large, reaction will be slower. Normally the
catalyst has been grounded into small pieces which increases rate of reaction by
providing larger surface area. The catalyst must also be free from any impurities (e.g.
carbon monoxide and oxygen) which poison it.
Temperature - The reaction rate can also be increased by raising temperature. However
increasing the temperature causes the equilibrium to shift to the left (because it is an
exothermic reaction) thus reducing yield of ammonia. Also a very high temperature can
weaken and rupture the reaction vessel. However a low temperature will result in a very
slow reaction rate. Thus the temperature (moderate) has to be monitored at all times in
order to obtain the maximum yield of ammonia in a desirable period of time.
Pressure Yield of ammonia can be increased by using high pressure (approx 150-250
atm). However if the pressure exceeds this amount, it also can damage and rupture
reaction vessel. On the other hand, a low pressure would mean that less ammonia is
formed. Thus pressure needs to be continuously monitored in the Haber process.

Other factors which need to be monitored include:

Need to ensure that reactant gases (nitrogen and hydrogen) are pure when put into
reaction vessel as well as the stoichiometric ratio of nitrogen to hydrogen is 1:3.
Any excess of these gases which did not react in the reaction vessel, must be recycled to
improve efficiency and to ensure that they are not wasted (minimising energy costs)
Ammonia must be continuously separated from nitrogen and hydrogen as it is produced
to prevent reaction from reaching equilibrium. This is done by cooling, liquefying and
condensing the ammonia under pressure to form liquid ammonia which is removed from
reaction vessel. This drives equilibrium to the right to obtain a higher yield of ammonia.
Industry essentially drives the reaction to completion by condensing out the product.
Ensuring that heat produced in reaction is removed to maintain reaction temperature of
around 450C.
This heat is to be recycled to heat up the gas mixture entering reaction chamber.
Whether the yield and purity of ammonia is adequate to ensure the product meets
customer specifications.
Movement of gases and liquids through pipelines
Whether the rate and evenness with which the gases flow through the catalyst is
sufficient.
If heat escapes, it needs to be monitored so it doesnt cause harm to living organisms.
Any build up of unreactive gases such as argon needs to be monitored because they can
lower efficiency of reaction.

So just to sum up: The optimum conditions for the Haber process are the following:
 Chemical Monitoring and Management
Nitrogen and hydrogen in the mole ratio of 1:3.
Pressure of 250 350 atmospheres
About 400C temperature
Iron/iron oxide catalyst
Liquefaction and removal of ammonia as it is formed

These conditions must be carefully maintained in order to increase the rate of reaction and encourage
the reaction to proceed in the forward direction. Removal of the ammonia as it is formed, the use of
moderate temperatures, high pressure and a catalyst ensure the maximum yield of ammonia. Hence
monitoring is crucial to ensure that these conditions for the optimal yield are obtained.
Checks must be made by the industry to ensure that minimal amount of gases are released into the
surroundings as well as the proper disposal of any wastes produced by the reaction.

Point 2.11 Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the conditions
under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia and evaluate its significance at
that time in world history.

Basically for this dot point, information can be gathered from secondary sources such as internet,
books etc. To process the data, pick out the main, relevant points.

To answer the first part of this dot point, consider the historical AND reaction conditions under which
Fritz Haber developed the Haber process.

This is a scaffold for the evaluate part of the question:

Identify Fritz Haber + when he developed Haber process

Describe the Haber process
Advantages of Haber process at that time in world history
Disadvantages of Haber process at that time in world history
Criteria for Haber process to be of great significance in world history
Judgement of the significance and impact of Haber process in world history

3. Manufactured products, including food, drugs and household chemicals, are

analysed to determine or ensure their chemical composition.

Point 3.1 Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests.

POINT 3.3 (FLAME TEST PRAC) ALSO DISCUSSED IN THIS DOT POINT.

The two main tests used in the laboratory to deduce certain ions in a sample are the: flame test
and using precipitation reactions. First of all lets look at the flame test.

Flame Test

The flame test is a qualitative technique where a sample of a salt solution is held near a flame
and a colour is emitted. Note: the flame test only tests for cations. However every metal emits a
characteristic colour when their salts are heated in a blue flame (or their vapours are exposed to
an electric discharge). This is because each metal contains different energy shells and their
electrons exist in different energy levels. The electrons in the atom absorb energy of a certain
wavelength from the flame and as a result they become excited and they jump to higher energy
levels. After a while, the excited electrons fall back to their original lower energy levels (ground
state) in the process emitting radiation (light) of a particular wavelength which gives the flame a
unique colour.
 Chemical Monitoring and Management
On the diagram, the electron becomes excited when it absorbs the energy from the flame and as a
result moves to a higher energy level (outer shell).

In this diagram, the excited electron falls back to ground state, in the process
emitting light of a particular wavelength.

The flame test is an example of destructive testing as the sample tested is burnt and cannot be used
again. An example of the practical use of the flame test principle is in fireworks where metal
compounds are chosen to produce various colours.

DOT POINT 3.3 Identifying various ions flame test prac

We did a practical on the flame test. We dipped salt solution onto a paddle pop stick and held it in the
Bunsen burners blue flame until a distinguishable colour was detected. These were our results:

Salt Cation Flame colour

Barium nitrate Ba2+ Yellow/green
Calcium nitrate Ca2+ Red
Strontium nitrate Sr2+ Red
Potassium chloride K+ Lilac
Copper nitrate Cu2+ Blue/Green

Note: Some metals cannot be tested using the flame test as they are poisonous and produce toxic
vapours e.g. lead and iron. To ensure that the colour was produced only from the cation, we would
use the same anion. Thus our experiment was not valid as we used different anions. Nothing in terms
of accuracy as it was a qualitative analysis and experiment not reliable as we did not repeat
experiment 10 times. However when compared with other groups results, we all got similar results.

The other method which is used to deduce the ions present in a sample is using precipitation
reactions.

Precipitation reactions

A precipitate is an insoluble substance which is formed by the reaction between two soluble
substances. All precipitation reactions are reversible thus the double arrow is used to show
equilibrium. Precipitation reactions rely on the solubility rules outlined below:

Solubility Rules
Compounds which are soluble Compounds which are insoluble
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All salts of Group 1 metals All carbonates and phosphates except those
All ammonium salts of Group 1 and ammonium
All nitrates and acetates All hydroxides except those of Group 1,
All chlorides, bromides and iodides except ammonium, calcium and barium hydroxide
silver, lead and mercury
All sulfates except lead, barium, mercury and
strontium

(calcium and silver sulfates are only slightly

soluble)

Here is a flowchart showing the test for cations:

We did a prac of the testing of the cations in a solution. You can combine the flame test and
precipitation reaction tests to identify the cation in a sample. A confirmatory test is needed because
some metals produce same coloured precipitates or flames. Here is a table which summarises the
testing for cations:

Cation Test Observations Confirmatory tests

Barium Add drops of sulfuric acid or salt that contains sulfate. White precipitate Flame test Ba2+
Ba2+ Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3(aq) barium sulfate produces
formed yellow/green
flame or add
sodium phosphate
to produce white
precipitate.
Calcium React calcium solution with a salt that contains White precipitate Flame test Ca2+
Ca2+ fluoride. calcium fluoride produces red flame
Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaF(sq) CaF2 (s) + 2NaNO3(aq) formed or add sodium
phosphate to
produce white
precipitate.
Copper Add drops of sodium hydroxide. Blue precipitate of Flame test Cu2+
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Cu2+ Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Cu(OH)2 (s) + 2NaNO3(aq) copper (II) produces
hydroxide formed blue/green flame
or add sodium
carbonate to form
a blue precipitate.
Lead(II) Add drops of hydrochloric acid or salt that contains White precipitate Addition of
Pb2+ chloride. of lead (II) chloride sodium iodide to
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaCl (aq) PbCl2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq) lead salt will
produce the bright
yellow precipitate
of lead iodide.
Iron (II) Add drops of sodium hydroxide. Green/white Add potassium
Fe2+ Fe(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Fe(OH)2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq) precipitate of iron permanganate to
(II) hydroxide produce blue
formed. Quickly precipitate or add
oxidises in air to sodium carbonate
form a brown to produce a white
precipitate. precipitate which
turns brown.
Iron(III) Add drops of sodium hydroxide. Brown precipitate Add ammonium
Fe3+ Fe(NO3)3 (aq) + 3NaOH (aq) Fe(OH)3 (s) + 3NaNO3 (aq) iron (III) hydroxide thiocyanate to
produce deep red
solution or add
sodium phosphate
to produce brown
precipitate.

We can also test for anions. Here is a flowchart which can be used to test anions:

We did a prac of the testing of the anions in a solution. A sample is tested against a known cation to
try and distinguish anion. Some anions have special confirmatory tests. Here is a table which
summarises the testing for anions:

Anion Test Observations Confirmatory

test
Carbonate Add drops of dilute nitric acid Carbon dioxide gas Add silver nitrate
CO32- Na2CO3 (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) 2NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) produced turns and white
limewater (calcium precipitate of
hydroxide) milky. silver carbonate
forms
Sulfate Add drops of barium chloride: White precipitate Add lead (II)
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SO42- Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + BaSO4 (s) barium sulfate forms nitrate and white
precipitate lead
(II) sulfate is
formed.
Phosphate Add drops of silver nitrate solution: Yellow precipitate Add lead (II)
PO43- Na3PO4 (aq) + 3AgNO3 (aq) 3NaNO3 (aq) + Ag3PO4 (s) silver phosphate nitrate to form
forms white
precipitate.
Chloride Add drops of silver nitrate: White precipitate of Add lead (II)
Cl- NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq) silver chloride forms nitrate and white
which darken under precipitate lead
sunlight. (II) chloride is
formed.

Point 3.2 Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting
concentrations of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific understanding of the
effects of trace elements.

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy is a technique developed by Dr. Alan Walsh at the CSIRO during
the 1950s. It uses the absorption of light to measure the concentration of a metal in a sample
being analysed. This is just a brief outline of how AAS works:

A cathode lamp that emits certain wavelengths of light which the electrons in the sample
can absorb, is used.
The sample which contains the metal to be tested is aspirated and sprayed into a flame.
The light from the lamp is shone through the flame.
The detector measures the intensity of light absorbed by the gaseous atoms of the
sample. (The more of the element being tested for is present in the sample, the more
light is absorbed).
A computer records the absorbance in units by comparing the light absorbed against the
calibration curves of the standards (samples which contain same element in different
concentrations).

AAS is so useful as it is very sensitive measuring concentrations down to parts per million (ppm) and
even parts per billion (ppb). AAS can measure the concentrations of trace elements. Trace elements
are those elements required by living things in extremely small amounts for the efficient action of
enzymes.

Trace elements which are usually found in living things include: zinc (needed to help enzymes
function), magnesium (aides maintaining muscle condition) and cobalt (deficiency can impair immune
 Chemical Monitoring and Management
functions). AAS is used constantly by scientists to determine the concentrations of trace elements in
living things. Since AAS can detect extremely small concentrations of an element, it has been very
useful in understanding trace elements.

Until AAS was invented, trace elements could not be detected in sufficiently low levels, so their
importance in crop growth and health of livestock was not understood. Using AAS, experiments can be
carried out to compare growth conditions to yield which allows the efficient supplementation of trace
elements in soil. The detection of trace elements in the tissues has led to an understanding of the
chemistry of these elements in organisms.

Therefore, AAS has had a huge impact on the understanding of the effects of trace elements in living
things. It can detect extremely small concentrations of trace elements in the body and can propose
solutions to fix this problem. AAS has helped scientists understand the functions and effects of certain
trace elements in organisms. They have been able to work out the recommended amounts of various
trace elements in the body needed to conduct physiological functions.

Trace Element Function/effect in living things

Zinc Needed for metabolism of amino acids and in
energy production.
Manganese Required for blood clotting and is also involved in
carbohydrate and fat metabolism
Copper Needed for the production of enzymes involved
in oxidation reactions.
Cobalt Enables immune functions to function efficiently.
Magnesium Needed to maintain muscle condition.

Point 3.3 Perform first-hand investigations to carry out a range of tests, including flame tests,
to identify the following ions: phosphate, sulfate, carbonate, chloride, barium, calcium, lead,
copper, iron.

SEE DOT POINT 3.1

Point 3.4 Gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for the
need to monitor levels of one of the above ions in substances used in society.

Lead ion

Lead is considered a heavy metal. A heavy metal is a metallic chemical element that has a
relatively high density and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Here is a table showing the
breakdown of the lead ion:

Aspect of lead ion Explanation

(Pb2+)
Main sources of lead There are many sources from which lead comes from. Here are the main
ions sources of lead ions:
In lead-acid car batteries
Present in old paints from buildings prior to 1970
Found in drinking water caused by the corrosion of leaded plumbing
materials in the water supply and household distribution systems.
In soil around the home
Exhaust emissions from leaded petrol driven vehicles.
Food and liquids stored in lead crystal or lead-glazed pottery or
porcelain.
 Chemical Monitoring and Management

Lead smelters in industry which release lead ions into air. The
extraction of lead from lead ores: 2PbO (s) + C (s) 2Pb (s) + CO2 (g)
Stained glass
Why does the lead Lead is a toxic heavy metal. Concentrations of lead ions need to be
ion need to be monitored carefully as excessive concentrations of it can damage all
monitored? organs in humans, especially the brain, kidneys and the reproductive
system by disrupting enzyme systems. Lead ions also hamper the
formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells reducing the ability of blood
to carry oxygen as well as causing nervous system disorders. Also
excessive concentrations of lead ions in the atmosphere (due to pollution
from vehicle exhausts) are harmful to organisms such as birds and may
result in their deaths. Also excessive concentrations of lead ions exist in
the soil. This soil gets washed away into rivers and lakes and could cause
lead poisoning in aquatic organisms such as fish and crab. It could have
implications on their reproductive systems and even result in their deaths.
Substances Soil, air, waterways (lakes, rivers, ponds), bloodstream, hair and tissues in
monitored for the humans.
lead ion
How is the lead ion Concentrations of the lead ion is readily detected and measured by AAS,
monitored? usually as accurate and low as parts per billion (ppb).
Summing up Excessive concentrations of the lead ions mainly caused by the emissions
explain the need for from vehicle exhausts result in major implications for humans and other
monitoring lead ion organisms. Thus it needs to be monitored by AAS and if there are excess
levels. concentrations found, pollution control must be carried out immediately.
These are the reasons why the concentrations of lead ions need to be
monitored carefully.

Point 3.5 - Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform first-hand investigations to
measure the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry involved.

Measuring the sulfate content in a lawn fertiliser is an example of quantitative analysis. Here is a
brief outline of the procedure used to determine this:

A sample of the lawn fertiliser is finely grounded using a mortar and pestle.
A mass of around 2.00g is accurately weighed using an electronic balance. The mass of
beaker must also be calculated.
This accurately weighed sample is placed in a 250mL beaker.
About 100mL (using measuring cylinder) of HCl is added to fertiliser sample to remove
any impurities.
About 60mL, 0.5molL-1 barium chloride is added to fertiliser sample to precipitate out
sulfate in sample.
Leave overnight by letting the precipitate to settle.
Decant liquid ensuring that precipitate is not removed.
200mL distilled water is added, beaker is sealed using cling wrap and it is put into an
oven overnight.
Next day, liquid on top layer is decanted to leave the white precipitate on the bottom.
Add more barium chloride and repeat last 2 steps.
Repeat last 2 previous steps 1 more time but this time not adding any more barium
chloride.
Accurately weigh mass of beaker + white precipitate on same electronic balance.
Calculate percentage composition of sulfate in lawn fertiliser.

Sample results:
 Chemical Monitoring and Management

Object/substance Mass (g)

250mL beaker 95.31
Sample of lawn fertiliser 2.03
250mL beaker + barium sulfate precipitate 98.57
Barium sulfate precipitate 3.26

Calculations:

Mass of barium sulfate precipitate = 3.26g.

Molar mass of SO4-2

Molar mass of BaSO4

(32.06) + (4x16.00) x 100

(32.06) + (4x16.00) + 137.3

= 41%

Amount of sulfate in original lawn fertiliser sample:

41 x 3.26 = 1.3366g
100

Percentage composition of sulfate in barium sulfate precipitate:

1.3366 x 100
2.03

= 65.8% w/w

Chemistry involved:

We added 100mL, 1molL-1 hydrochloric acid to the sample of some lawn fertiliser. This hydrochloric
acid was used to react with and remove any unwanted impurities in the lawn fertiliser sample as well
as helping to dissolve it. This step is essential as we need to accurately calculate the sulfur content in
the lawn fertiliser. The acid also aids dissolution:

SO42-(aq) + H+ (aq) HSO4- (aq)

We then added about 60mL, 0.5molL-1 barium chloride solution to the lawn fertiliser sample to try and
produce a precipitate which we could measure the mass of later (this step was repeated 3 times). The
barium chloride provided excess Ba2+ ions. When the barium ions in the barium chloride reacted with
the sulfate ions in the fertiliser sample, the following reaction occurred:

BaCl2 (aq) + SO42- (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2Cl- (aq)

The white precipitate of barium sulfate was produced in the reaction.

Point 3.5 Analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above
investigation and to propose solutions to problems encountered in the procedure.
 Chemical Monitoring and Management
Our experiment was not reliable as we did not repeat experiment 10 times. When we compared
our results with other groups, there were varying percentage compositions of the sulfate in the
lawn fertiliser thus experiment was not reliable. To better improve reliability of experiment other
than repeating, is to average out results. Experiment could also have been improved if a larger
mass of fertiliser was used to minimise percentage errors.

The major problem we encountered was decanting the liquid from beaker. We found that small
amounts of the precipitate were being removed from the beaker. To solve this problem, we
should have filtered solution using a sintered glass crucible.

Point 3.6 Gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS
measurements and evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control.

For this dot point, the concentration of a particular cation in a sample is to be calculated using a
graph. These are the steps on how to do this:

On a graph, there will be concentration (ppm) on the horizontal axis and the absorbance
on the vertical axis as well as a calibration curve.
In the question they will give the absorbance of the sample at a given wavelength.
Using calibration curve, find corresponding concentration.
This concentration will be in ppm (mg/kg)
Convert kg to grams and you will have mg/g
Now use original mass of sample in grams and convert it to kg.
Final concentration = mg/kg (mass of original sample).

Sample Problem: Calculate the lead level in the soil in ppm.

Background facts: 2.00g sample of soil, diluted and made up to 100.0mL solution.

Using graph, the concentration of Pb when the absorbance is 0.600 is approx 5.5mg/kg. Since it
was diluted to 100.0mL, multiply 5.5 by 0.1 = 0.55mg/kg. This is the mass of Pb in solution. To get
the final concentration, divide this result by the original samples mass: 0.55/ (2/1000) = 275ppm.

Evaluate effectiveness of AAS in pollution control

This is a suggested scaffold:

Identify that AAS was invented by Dr Alan Walsh

Describe how it is used and where it is used (e.g. to measure concentrations of
pollutants in atmosphere, soil and waterways)
Advantages of AAS in pollution control (e.g. extremely accurate, quick and reliable,
enables to detect excess heavy metal concentrations thus pollution control can be
carried out immediately)
Disadvantages of AAS in pollution control (e.g. cannot detect non-metal pollutants such
as carbon dioxide, can only test for one metal ion at a time, expensive to start up, cannot
test complex ions as we dont know what specific ion is being tested, destructive testing)
Criteria (e.g. there needs to be evidence for fast, efficient analysis resulting in quick
pollution control)
Judgement (e.g. Therefore AAS is effective in pollution control because.)