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Length of Probes: 6 to 30 ft (2 to 10 m); the permissible insertion length is a function of the maximum
operating temperature.
Response: 98% in 10 to 20 s
Probe: Stainless steel water-jacketed units with 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75 mm) diameters
Temperature Range: 0 to 2900F (0 to 1600C) with thermocouple and 0 to 4500F (0 to 2500C) with
pneumatic probes
Fan or ejector requirements: The fan must generate about 20 in. of water column (0.05 bar, or 37 mmHg) vacuum
and pull a flow rate of about 40 cfm (2000 lpm) of furnace gas.
Inaccuracy: 0.135F (0.075C) throughout the full range; 0.072F (0.04C) for the range of 58
to 302F (50 to 150C). For temperature difference measurement over an 18F
(10C) span, the error under laboratory conditions is within 0.018F (0.01C).
In this section, several unrelated methods of temperature relationship of pressure to temperature is given by the rela-
measurement will be briefly discussed. Some of these are tionship: pv = nrt. This relationship can be exploited in indus-
still in the experimental stage, while others have not been try where fixed volumes of gas may exist and where the
exploited commercially because they are not yet competitive pressure is known. A constant volume gas thermometer is
with the more common sensors. This fast-changing field is precisely this type of device.
so broad that only select examples will be covered. Similarly, the resistance of an electric heating coil can
be measured and used to define its own temperature, because
the resistance changes as a function of temperature.
SELF-MEASURING DEVICES Actually, any property having a consistent rate of change
for a temperature variation will serve to indicate tempera-
Sometimes temperatures can be measured by allowing a ture. The frequency of the chirp of crickets on a summer
material to serve as its own thermometer. This can be done by night is an indication of their temperature environment. The
measuring the pressure of a constant volume of confined gas, rate at which a viscous substance, such as oil drips through
because that indicates its mean temperature. The proportional a small hole in the bottom of its container, is just as much an
623
2003 by Bla Liptk
624 Temperature Measurement
indication of its temperature (provided the time-temperature acoustic thermometers (see Section 4.15), these devices can
relationship is known) as would be obtained by inserting a be highly accurate and much consideration has been given
glass-stem thermometer into the fluid itself. All of these to using this apparatus to define the lower end of the tem-
relationships may be derived by equation, but reasonably perature scale. Accuracies in the sub-milli-Kelvin range are
accurate measurements can be made from empirical data. achievable.
These indirect measurement techniques are quite useful for
correlating known temperatures. For example, in a fixed
volume of gas having a measured temperature, the pressure
CARBON RESISTORS
gauge should read the appropriate pressure for that temper-
ature. Because of the known relationship the parameters can
Commercially available carbon resistors have been used as
confirm each other.
temperature sensors in the cryogenic temperature area near
In addition to such self-measuring devices, there are also
absolute zero (from about 424F, or 253C, downward to
many new configurations of older systems. For example, the
below 458F, or 272C). One major benefit of the carbon
bimetallic spring can now be used as an optical temperature
resistor at low temperature is its lower susceptibility to
switch. In this design, the bimetallic element (Section 4.2) is
adverse effects caused by a magnetic field. They are some-
upwardly convex until the temperature is reached. At that what less accurate than competing sensors and do require
point it becomes downwardly convex, which blocks an opti- individual calibration to keep the measurement error under
cal light path. The number of devices that exploit old concepts 1%. Carbon resistors may be incorporated into resistor net-
in new ways is very large, and no attempt will be made here works to improve linearity in some ranges.
to fully cover them. Resistor sizes of 0.1 to 1 W and ambient resistance values
up to 150 exhibit a large increase in resistance below 424F
(253C). Reproducibility on the order of 0.2% are obtainable
ACOUSTIC TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY when calibrated individually. Small size, low cost, and general
availability make their use attractive in cryogenic work.
This thermometer operates on the principle that in solids The influence of stray radio interference and a loss of
ultrasound pulses travel at speeds, which are a function of sensitivity are drawbacks. Variation in the resistors make
the temperature of the solids (Figure 4.8a). The measurement calibration difficult and generally impose an individual
is made by detecting the time needed for the acoustic pulses device calibration requirement.
to travel from the transducer to the impedance demarcation In addition to carbon resistors and conventional resis-
point (which may be the junction between the wire and the tance temperature detectors (RTDs) (Section 4.10) or ther-
wall of the tank) and back to the transducer. This device is mistors (Section 4.12), there is a variety of special resistors
in the development stage and shows good potential, although used as temperature sensors. One example consists of a thin
some drift in the measurement has been reported. nickel film deposited onto an electrically insulating substrate
Gas temperature can be measured by detecting the time in a reducing atmosphere. The sheet resistance is a function
needed for an ultrasonic pulse to travel through a fixed dis- of the heat treating temperature, cycle time, and thickness.
tance in the hot gas (Section 4.15). This type of measurement The different designs of special temperature-sensitive resis-
is useful where conventional techniques may be less suitable, tors are too numerous to mention. These systems are engi-
such as nuclear reactor environments. Often referred to as neered for specific applications and lack the widespread
applicability required of most temperature measurement sys-
Temperature, F tems. They are, however, a very effective method of solving
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000
5 0.20 specific measurement problems.
Molten Aluminum
Reciprocal Velocity m/sec
Sound Velocity m/sec
4 Aluminum 0.25
Molten
Thin Wire Iron 0.5C Prenium
3 Silver Thin Wire 0.30 CAPACITANCE CABLE FOR DETECTING HOT SPOTS
Thin Wire
Molten
Sodium 0.40
2 0.50 A cable consisting of an electrical conductor, a dielectric,
and a conductive plastic can be used to detect hot spots.
1 10 The polymer in the over-temperature locator cable increases
20 its electrical resistance with temperature. Therefore when a
0 hot spot evolves anywhere along the length of the cable,
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
this will result in a drop in capacitance, as measured from
Temperature, C
one end of the cable. The location of the hot spot can be
FIG. 4.8a determined by comparing the measured capacitance from
The velocity of sound is higher in thin wires when they are cold, the control end of the cable with the capacitance of the full
2
and it drops as the wires are heated. length of the cable.
The strong temperature dependence of the brightness of cer- Suction Pyrometers The suction pyrometer consists of a
tain luminescent materials may be converted into a pattern sheathed TC (sheathed against chemical attack) located inside
of color that can be recorded photographically. A thin layer a radiation shield at the tip of a suction pipe (Figure 4.8d).
Radiation Shield
A
Operating Length
B
To Aspiration Equipment
FIG. 4.8d
Sheathed thermocouple detects the hot gas temperature in an aspirating suction pyrometer. (Courtesy of Land Combustion, a Division of
Land Instruments International Inc.)
The combustion gases are sucked through the shield and over and cold venturi are inversely proportional to the densities
the TC at high velocity by aspirating equipment. The effi- of the hot and cold gas. Therefore they are directly propor-
ciency of this aspirating TC is a function of the quality of tional to the absolute temperatures at the hot and cold venturi.
the radiation shield and of the suction flow rate. If, for exam- As the temperature at the cold venturi (Tc) is measured, the
ple, a suction pyrometer has a 100C error without suction hot gas temperature (Th) can be calculated by multiplying Tc
and a 10C error when the suction flow is on, it is said to and a configuration constant K with the ratio of Ph /Pc. There-
have an efficiency of 90%. fore, the absolute temperature of the gas is:
The suction pyrometer probe is usually made of stainless
steel and is water-cooled. These probes are designed for high Th = KTc ( Ph / Pc ) 4.8(2)
gas velocities of 500 fps (152 mps). At such velocities the
radiation shields usually produce better than 90% pyrometer Relative to the suction pyrometer, the pneumatic pyrom-
efficiencies. The furnace gases can be pulled out by fans or eter requires more utilities and more design attention as
by air or steam ejectors. The main limitations of this design almost all units must be uniquely designed.
include plugging of the probe when the combustion products
are dusty (as in pulverized coal burners). In addition, they Quartz Crystal Thermometry
cannot be used in applications where the temperatures exceed
2912F (1600C). The effect of temperature on the frequency of quartz crystal
controlled oscillators has been known since work on this
Pneumatic Pyrometers The pneumatic probe was invented subject been published in 1946. Temperature measurement
in 1893 for use in blast furnaces. It is superior to suction using quartz thermometers is based on the very linear change
pyrometers in that dust in the combustion gases does not plug that occurs in resonant frequency in response to a change
it as easily and that it can measure very high temperatures, in temperature. Under ideal conditions, this temperature sen-
such as in turbojet engines or rockets. This pyrometer can sitivity is on the order of 0.0005F (0.0003C), and temper-
6
detect higher gas temperatures than can the aspirating TC ature deviations on the order of 10 F have been measured
because the thermometer does not need to reach the gas in the laboratory.
temperature (Figure 4.8e). The pneumatic probe can handle A reference and a sensor oscillator are used. The refer-
gases heavily laden with dust because it does not have a ence oscillator frequency is selected to provide zero reference
radiation shield, which is prone to plug. beat when the probe is at 32F (0C). Sensor oscillators
The pneumatic pyrometer measures the pressure drop of provide a sensitivity of 500 cps/F and dividers are arranged
the hot combustion gases through one restriction at the probe to obtain a sample period of .01 s. A resolution of 0.2F (0.1C)
tip and measures their pressure drop again after they have has been obtained with a digital readout (Figure 4.8f). When
been cooled through an identical restriction (see Figure 4.8e). arranged for differential measurement, gating circuits are
Because the mass flow rate of the gas is the same across these added to enable the oscillators to be heterodyned against each
restrictions, the only reason these two pressure drops are dif- other.
ferent is because of the change in the gas temperature, which In past applications, probes were provided with the quartz
affects its density. The pressure differentials across the hot crystal hermetically sealed inside a well, formed from a 3/8
Th
Th
Ph
Water
Ph
Expansion Bellows Platinum Resistance Thermometer
A
Operating Length
B
To Aspiration Equipment
Tc
Ph Ph
Cooling Water
FIG. 4.8e
Pneumatic pyrometer determines hot gas temperature by multiplying cold and temperature (Tc) with the ratio of pressure drops across the
hot and cold venturis. (Courtesy of Land Combustion, a Division of Land Instruments International Inc.)
Sensor in. (9.5 mm) outside diameter stainless steel cylinder (Figures
Sensor
Indicator Oscillator 4.8g and 4.8h). The probes can be used at pressures up to
+ or 3000 PSIG (21 MPa) and can stand shocks of 10,000 g
Recorder D/A Digital
without changing their calibration.
Input Output Counter
Mixer In a well-stirred water bath, the response time for a step
Digital change is 1 s. Long-term stability, for periods of a month or
to more, is on the order of 0.02F (0.01C). Oscillator drift can
Analog
Gate lower the stability, but, in an environmentally controlled area,
Converter Dividers
Control this is not much of a problem.
Reference
Oscillator Advantages and Disadvantages The main advantages of
quartz crystal thermometry are that:
FIG. 4.8f
Quartz thermometer system block diagram. 1. There are no lead resistance or noise problems because
the temperature is converted to frequency.
Sleeve 2. It has excellent short-term stability.
3. It has good accuracy.
4. It has a 1-s response time.
Insulated 5. It has accurate differential measurement.
Probe Coaxial
6. It is ruggedit can withstand shocks without chang-
Cable
ing calibration.
FIG. 4.8g
Quartz crystal sealed in a capsule. The disadvantages include that:
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