Coconut

COCONUT
Handbook
COCONUT HANDBOOK
Tetra Pak International S.A., 2016
PUBLISHER
Tetra Pak South East Asia Pte Ltd
Coconut Knowledge Centre
19 Gul Lane, Singapore 629414
EDITOR
ShuQi Liu
Q Communications Pte Ltd
TEXT
Chan Su Yin
EDITORIAL CONSULTANTS
Selvi Tanujaya
Tan Swee Yng
Studio Green Cube Pte Ltd
PRODUCTION
Image Printers Pte Ltd
IBSN: 978-981-09-7362-9
All rights reserved. No portion of the Coconut Handbook may be

reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed on recycled paper.
The possibilities are endless.
Printed in Singapore, 2016
CONTENTS
006 FOREWORD
007 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
010 Origins of The Coconut

010 The Versatile Coconut
013 Coconut Production
CHAPTER 2: NUTRITIONAL
AND HEALTH BENEFITS
016 Coconut Water

020 Coconut Milk
021 Coconut Oil
CHAPTER 3: COMPOSITION CHAPTER 6: COCONUT FOOD CHAPTER 8: THE CHEMISTRY

PRODUCTION OF COCONUT MILK AND
024 Parts of The Coconut CREAM
058 Coconut Water
025 Overall Composition
087 Composition of Coconut Milk
062 Coconut Milk and Cream
026 Composition of Coconut
088 Properties and Reactions
Water 064 Coconut Milk Beverages
of Coconut Milk
030 Composition of Coconut 064 Coconut Oil
092 Effects of Environmental
Kernel
068 Coconut Flour Factors and Additives
068 Coconut Milk Powder on Quality
CHAPTER 4: PLANTATION 093 Microbiology of Coconut
069 Desiccated Coconut
Milk
038 Varieties 071 Nata De Coco
040 Agronomic Characteristics
of Coconut Production
CHAPTER 7: THE CHEMISTRY
044 Agroecology - Conditions OF COCONUT WATER
Required For Growth
076 Composition of Coconut
Water
CHAPTER 5: HARVESTING
077 Properties and Reactions
AND POST-HARVEST
of Coconut Water
MANAGEMENT
081 Effects of Environmental
052 Harvesting Factors and Additives
on Quality
054 Post-Harvest Management
083 Microbiology of Coconut
Water
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 9: RECOMBINED CHAPTER 11: LONG LIFE CHAPTER 12: CHILLED
COCONUT BEVERAGES COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
097 Major Components of 114 Processing Long Life Coconut 130 Processing Chilled Coconut
Coconut Beverages Liquid Products Liquid Products
099 Recombination Technology 115 Sterilizing Effect on Coconut 135 Distributing and Packaging
Liquid Products Chilled Coconut Liquid
102 Handling Coconut Beverages
117 Chemical and Bacteriological Products
Changes with High Heat
CHAPTER 10: RHEOLOGY
Treatment CHAPTER 13: PACKAGING
104 Shearing 119 Shelf Life
138 Role of Packaging
105 Types of Viscosity 120 Producing Long Life Coconut
Liquid Products 138 Methods of Sterilizing
106 Types of Flow
Packaging Material
109 Flow Behaviour Models 120 In-Container Sterilisation
140 Selecting Packaging for
122 Ultra High Temperature
110 Taking Viscosity Coconut Liquid Products
(UHT) Treatment
Measurements
143 Aseptic Packaging
111 Viscosity in Coconut Milk
143 Packaging Systems for
Coconut Liquid Products
150 Packaging Design Innovation
CHAPTER 14: QUALITY

PARAMETERS AND QUALITY
CONTROL METHODOLOGIES
154 Quality Control

Methodologies and
Suggested Quality
Parameters
161 Accelerated Shelf Life
CHAPTER 15: CLEANING OF

PROCESSING EQUIPMENTS
166 Coconut Food Soil Formation

168 Cleaning In Place (CIP)
174 Water Quality
175 The CIP System
176 Effluents
178 REFERENCES
183 INDEX
FOREWORD
For centuries, the coconut fruit of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.)
has been a great source of versatility. Providing food, oil, milk and
medicine, countries around the world have been producing coconut
products for income. Today, the leading producers in the world
are Indonesia, the Philippines and India. Together, these countries
account for over 75% of total coconut production globally.
More recently, the coconut has become a common visual of dreamy

relaxation and increasingly, a symbol of health. In 2015, the global
packaged coconut water market was estimated to be more than $1
billion, with the United States and Brazil leading in consumption and
growth. It is also interesting to note that ready to drink (RTD) coconut
milk beverages are growing in markets like China and the United
States. The sales of coconut milk beverages in the United States has
grown by three times over the past four years to 60 million Litres.
In 2012 we established a Coconut Knowledge Centre (CKC) in

Singapore. Recognizing the tremendous potential of the coconut,
with the CKC we aim to become the food industrys preferred
supplier of fully integrated coconut solutions. With over
20 years of knowledge and expertise in the processing and
packaging of coconut beverages, the range of solutions offered
includes product development, technical and consumer knowledge,
innovative packaging and processing solutions.
As a part of our marketing services, CKC is also the key driver

of partnerships in the food industry. We do so by tracking and
sharing key categories, market developments and trends; capturing
interesting product launches; identifying new products and market
opportunities; as well as lead strategic planning and execution. These
activities are intended to motivate and inspire our customers to grow
profitable businesses.
Therefore, this Handbook is the first of its kind that captures

our considerable knowledge and experience about the coconut. This
includes general and technical information such as quality aspects,
processing and packaging, as well as the health and nutritional
benefits of coconut.
We hope that customers can establish a solid foundation for practical

situations, and that the Coconut Handbook not only adds value but
also serves as an extension to your knowledge on coconuts. Enjoy!
Brought to you by the Coconut Knowledge Centre

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are pleased to acknowledge, with appreciation, the external
and internal reviewers, all experts in their field, for their extensive
review of this handbook, the Coconut Knowledge Centre team
for their dedication in compiling and ensuring the accuracy of its
content and the assistance of various other individuals, who, in one
way or another, contributed to the successful publication of the
Coconut Handbook.
EXTERNAL CONTRIBUTORS TETRA PAK CONTRIBUTORS

Asian and Pacific Marketing Services
Coconut Community Samit Chowdhury
Uron Salum
Deepthi Nair CoE Coconut
Muhartoyo Liew Mei Hin
Lim Xiang Ru
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)
Dr. Azhar Mat Esa CoE Dairy Aseptic
Dr. Tan Thuan Chew Cecilia Svensson
Horticulture Research Institute, CoE Beverages

Department of Agriculture Christer Lanzingh
(Thailand) Anders Lofgren
Wilaiwan Twishsri
CoE Processing Components
National University of Singapore (Homogenizers)
Bernadette Pekerti Jenny Jonsson
RheoLab
Sofia Lundgren
Development
and Services Operations
Packaging Technologies:
Food Packaging Safety
and Interaction
Dr. Alexander Saffert
Engineering Design
Arthur Filippis
Aseptic Performance Support

Lisawati Suhanda
Communications
Jaideep Gokhale
Sharmilee Padhi
Product Portfolio
Rosario Ciancimino
CoE: Centre of Expertise
NOTES
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
For hundreds of years, the coconut
fruit of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.)
has been a great source of versatility.
It provides food, drink, clothing and shelter,
as well as income from its products.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
10
INTRODUCTION
ORIGINS OF THE COCONUT

For hundreds of years, the coconut fruit of the coconut palm (Cocos
nucifera L.) has been a great source of versatility. It provides food,
drink, clothing and shelter, as well as income from its products. Due
to its continuous production, the coconut is readily available all year
round. Today, the main producers1 in the world are Indonesia, the
Philippines and India. Each bunch of coconuts can contain between
five to 12 nuts.
The coconut is a source of food, oil, coconut water, coconut milk,

and medicine. It has probably been used by humans for centuries.
Today, it is a common visual of dreamy relaxation and increasingly,
a symbol of health. From the Asian tropics to South America, the
coconut has certainly spread around the globe by waves of sea-faring
people migrating and trading across continents. Light and buoyant,
the coconut itself can traverse significant distances by ocean currents.
It was even reported that coconuts were collected from the seas in
Norway, far away from the tropics!
THE VERSATILE COCONUT

Break open a coconut and you will find a simple structured nut with
many uses. From the flesh to water, shell and husk, each part of the
coconut can become a useful object or source of nourishment.
Since the late 1980s, the coconuts water and flesh can be turned into
ready to drink (RTD) coconut beverages and ready-to-use coconut
milk and cream products. Often packed into cans and cartons, these
products are also increasingly available in other forms of packaging.
1
Source: Asian & Pacific Coconut Community & Statistical Year Book 2013
CHAPTER 1 | INTRODUCTION
11
COCONUT WATER
?
Year to date, Brazil is by far the largest market2, with Kero Coco as
the countrys leading brand of packaged coconut water. In the
United States, coconut water brands such as Vita Coco, Zico, Goya
Did you know and O.N.E. are the current market leaders. In Europe, consumers
that over years coconut are gaining more awareness about coconut waters nutritional and
water has been perceived
the as a dependable health benefits.
source of beverage?
Celebrities from Across the globe, established brand owners of packaged coconut
Hollywood are big fans
water are tapping into social media networks (Facebook, Twitter,
of coconut water.
Instagram) and digital marketing channels (YouTube videos, Amazon)
to increase consumer awareness. Increasingly, pure coconut water
and coconut water based fruit juices are seen as a lifestyle choice of
the new generation across major media outlets.
COCONUT MILK AND CREAM

A cooking ingredient found in many traditional Indian and Southeast
Asian cuisines, coconut milk and cream is often packaged into cans
and cartons for frequent consumption. Containing 14-25% fat, this
staple is commonly enjoyed in sweet and savoury dishes, such
as creamy chicken curries and smooth chendol desserts. To date,
Indonesia and Thailand are one of the worlds largest exporters and
consumers of coconut milk.
2
Source: Euromonitor International
COCONUT HANDBOOK
12
COCONUT MILK BEVERAGE

Leading the market for packaged coconut milk beverages is China.
Yeshu is the countrys leading brand to date. With less than 1-2%
fat content, coconut milk beverages are also fast becoming low fat
contenders of soya and almond milk products in the United States
and Europe.
Increasingly perceived as a suitable dietary substitute for lactose

intolerant consumers, brands like So Delicious, Silk, Alpro and
Vitasoy are already diversifying their beverage offerings to include
coconut milk. Many are also highlighting the healthy composition
of coconut milk oil, which consists of medium chain triglycerides,
better known as the next breakthrough treatment for dementia
(Alzheimers disease)4.
Like coconut water, established brand owners of packaged coconut

milk beverages are tapping into social media networks and digital
marketing channels to increase global consumer demand.
Major coconut
producers globally
3
LARGEST
ARE IN
SOUTH &
SOUTHEAST
ASIA
Production of Coconuts in
Whole Nuts (1000 nuts) and
Copra Equivalent (MT)3
7. Mexico
1,463,735
292,455
4. Brazil
3,326,569
664,649
3
Source: Asian & Pacific Coconut Community Statistical Yearbook 2013
4
Source: Use of medium chain triglycerides for the treatment and prevention of Alzheimers disease and other diseases resulting from reduced neuronal metabolism II - US patent
CHAPTER 1 | INTRODUCTION
13
COCONUT PRODUCTION
Several economies around the world are heavily dependent on the
production of copra - the dried kernel of a coconut used to extract
coconut oil.
In 2013, it was estimated that the global production of coconuts

was 73,811,551,000 coconuts or 2,896,709 MT in copra equivalent.
Coconuts from Asia, Central and South Americas, as well as the
Pacific islands make up 97.3% of the global production.
Under suitable climate, rainfall and environmental conditions,

coconuts can germinate and grow into coconut palms and start
fruiting after three years. Commercially, coconut palms are planted
in different densities per hectare of land. In general, each hectare of
land can plant more dwarf coconut palms with smaller fronds than
tall coconut palms. More details of coconut plantation practices are
covered in Chapter 4.
8. Vietnam
PRODUCTION OF COCONUTS IN
WHOLE NUTS (1000 NUTS) AND
1,235,450 COPRA EQUIVALENT (MT)
370,635 9. Thailand
Number of Copra
No Country coconuts Equivalent
1. India
838,000 (000nuts) (MT)
220,000 11 Vanuatu 493,980 98,796
24,397,000
12 Tanzania 427,511 85,502
3,485,000
13 Myanmar 425,014 87,978
3. Philippines 14 Ghana 362,495 73,151
15
15,353,000 China 327,400 65,415
5. Sri Lanka 2,710,000 16 Mozambique 302,108 60,361
17 Jamaica 296,671 59,334

2,513,320 18 Samoa 267,000 52,920
480,497 19 Nigeria 264,999 54,007
6. Papau
New Guinea 20 Venezuela 251,377 50,477
2. Indonesia 1,482,592
Legend:
16,463,000 10. Malaysia
299,000
Number of coconuts (000 nuts)
3,228,111
647,000
Copra Equivalent (MT)
129,386
NOTES
CHAPTER 2
NUTRITIONAL AND
HEALTH BENEFITS
The coconut is a nutritious fruit.
With varying compositional properties,
both the coconut water and kernel are edible
parts packed with beneficial nutrients.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
16
NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS
The coconut is a nutritious fruit. Long life coconut liquid products like coconut milk based, coconut
With varying compositional water based beverages, coconut milk or cream, are sterilized by
properties, both the coconut undergoing strong heat treatment to inactivate microorganisms and
water and kernel are heat resistant enzymes. As such, they can be stored for long periods
edible parts packed with of time at ambient temperatures without bacterial growth.
beneficial nutrients.
Drinking straight from the nut, coconut water makes a refreshing
drink that rehydrates efficiently. Naturally low in sugar, it contains
lesser calories than the same amount of isotonic sports drink.
The sweet, energy-rich coconut kernel can be enjoyed as a snack.

But more often, it is desiccated or processed into coconut oil, milk or
cream for easy consumption as a staple cooking ingredient.
Coconut milk is also lactose free and suitable for consumers allergic
to dairy products. With a significant oil component consisting
more than 45% lauric acid (C12) which is a constituent of readily
metabolized medium chain triglycerides (MCTs), coconut milk is easily
absorbed by the body, and is considered a good source of energy.
COCONUT WATER
In many societies,
? Coconut water is a natural, fat-free drink. Low in sugars and calories,
it is rich in essential electrolytes and vitamins. Dubbed the fluid of
life, coconut water is safe for everyone to drink fresh from the nut.
coconut water is often
As the Hawaiians say, coconut water is dew from the heavens.
used to prevent and relieve
health problems such as
dehydration, constipation, With the presence of hypoglycemic and hypotension-inducing
digestive problems, compounds such as calcium and potassium, coconut water contains
fatigue, heatstroke, boils,
potential health benefits necessary for overcoming common
diarrhoea, kidney stones,
urinary tract infections and diseases such as diabetes and hypertension. Kinetin, the growth
even sterility. hormone which aids cell repair and regeneration, is also present
in coconut water.
More importantly, coconut water is an effective rehydration fluid,

suitable for oral and intravenous consumptions.
CHAPTER 2 | NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS
17
REHYDRATING THE BODY

The human body contains mostly water. It constitutes a major part
of our body cells. Water that is found within the cells of the body
is known as intracellular fluid. About two-thirds of bodily fluid is
found in the intracellular space of the cell. The rest is found in the
extracellular space between cells, and the blood plasma.
Playing an important role in our bodies, water cushions and lubricates

the brain and joints. It transports nutrients to and carries waste
away from cells. It also helps regulate our body temperature by
redistributing heat from active tissues to the skin, cooling our bodies
through perspiration.
Quick to respond to water imbalance, the body naturally

adjusts water intake and excretion through homeostatic control
mechanisms. When there is insufficient water intake, our blood
becomes concentrated, lips turn dry, and the hypothalamus, better
known as the brain centre that controls water balance, initiates
drinking behaviour. On the other hand, when there is excessive water
intake, the stomach expands and stretch receptors send signals to
stop drinking.
However, the bodys natural mechanism causes a water lag. By the

time a person feels thirsty and needs a drink, the body has already
lost some of its fluid. When the body loses too much water that is
not replaced in time, it suffers from dehydration. Typical symptoms
of fluid loss can vary from fatigue, weakness to dizziness and loss of
balance (Figure 2.1).
PERCENTAGE OF FLUID LOSS
1-2% 3-4% Above 7%

SYMPTOMS SYMPTOMS SYMPTOMS
Thirst, fatigue, weakness, Impaired physical Dizziness, spastic muscle,
vague discomfort and loss performance to dry loss of balance, delirium,
of appetite mouth, reduction in urine, exhaustion and collapse
flushed skin, impatience
and apathy
Figure 2.1 Typical sysptoms of fluid loss

COCONUT HANDBOOK
18
Typically, our bodies experience changing water levels, which

requires fluid replenishment to balance dehydration and rehydration
accordingly. As seen in Figure 2.2, the water level drops after the
body performs a series of activities, resulting in dehydration. This
requires fluid replenishment. After rehydration, water levels rise back
to normal again.
On average, our bodies lose

Normal
up to 2.5 litres of water a day
breathing, sweating, urinating Water Level BRF
and defecating. Water is Medium Water
also lost when we engage in
regular activities like walking,
Low
driving, studying and working.
After high intensity physical Fluid
Dehydration Replenishment
Rehydration
exercises, the body requires
even greater attention to Better Rehydration Fluid (BRF)
rehydration. Otherwise, the Figure 2.2 Changes in body water levels upon dehydration or rehydration
loss of water, even in the
slightest amounts, can affect
However, it can be challenging to achieve sufficient levels of
our mental and physical health
rehydration solely by drinking plain water. Even though it quenches
performances.
our thirst, it may not be an effective rehydration fluid for our bodies.
As we often lead fast-paced lifestyles, our bodies may need a Better
Rehydration Fluid (BRF) to rehydrate within a shorter timeframe.
For example, a rapid and complete restoration of fluid balance is

necessary during a marathon. Runners need to keep hydrated within
seconds and not pass out running long distances. Ingestion of high
volumes of water may cause a fall in plasma sodium concentration
and in plasma osmolality, resulting in excessive production of urine
whilst delaying the overall rehydration process.
As such, our bodies require BRF to replenish fluids faster. To

speed up the rehydration process, they usually contain important
body electrolytes (salts that dissociate into ions) like sodium,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate,
sulphate, organic acids and proteins in smaller volumes. This is why
carbohydrate-electrolyte sports drinks are popular as a rehydration
fluid among athletes.
However, these drinks may not be an ideal BRF for ordinary

consumers. Often, sports drinks contain added liquid sugar or high
fructose corn syrup to provide energy for working muscles during
exercise. For regular, low impact activities, these additional calories
may add up for ordinary consumers.
19
ELECTROLYTES FOR REHYDRATION

Unlike plain water, the presence of natural electrolytes in BRF
can help the body achieve rapid recovery of fluid loss and find its
balance. This is because electrolytes attract clusters of water with the
slight negative charge of the oxygen atom and the slight positive
charges of hydrogen atoms in water (H2O) (Figure 2.3).
To be compatible with the human body, the BRF should contain

sufficient electrolytes. So that when it is ingested, urinal output will
be reduced and the net water balance is regained and maintained at
normal levels.
With selective and semi- H

O H
permeable cell membranes, H H
O H H H H
the movement of electrolytes O O
H
H H O O
in and out of body cells is -
Na+ CI
regulated. This helps the H O H O K+ H
H H
O O
body maintain a state of fluid H H O H
H H
H O
balance and rehydrate when H
H
the electrolytes are absorbed
Figure 2.3 Clusters of water molecules are drawn to the electrolytes.
from the intestinal space
into the vascular system and
REHYDRATING WITH COCONUT WATER
transported to all parts of
Due to its ability to rehydrate the human body with its nutritional
the body.
content, coconut water is also known as Natures Isotonic.
Compared to other beverages, the human body can absorb coconut
waters fluid levels and electrolytes more quickly and efficiently.
It is a good and natural rehydration alternative to plain water and
sports drinks.
Unlike most varieties of sports drinks, coconut water is low in calories,

carbohydrates and sodium. In addition, it contains moderate to high
levels of important electrolytes, especially potassium, magnesium
and calcium. As such, it complements a high potassium and low
sodium diet, reduces the overall risks of chronic diseases and lowers
blood pressure levels in general.
While studies have shown that there is no significant difference

between rehydrating with coconut water and sports drink, these fluids
are significantly better than water. More importantly, rehydrating with
coconut water causes the least stomach upset.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
20
HEALTH BENEFITS OF COCONUT WATER

Coconut water hydrates and cools the body. Regarded as a natural
stress reliever in traditional Ayurvedic medicine, coconut water is
widely used to remove bodily heat, thus effectively treating pimples,
boils, sun burns and hot flushes. The latter is frequently experienced
by menopausal women.
Coconut water is also a natural diuretic. It increases urine flow and

flushes out waste products from our bodies.
Due to the nutritional As a digestive health booster, coconut water, when combined
value of these minerals, with spices like cinnamon, cardamom, ginger, cloves, garlic cumin,
vitamins and free amino acid coriander and turmeric, can be used to promote better health
L-arginine, coconut water is metabolism. These combinations can also be used to treat those
also perceived to be heart suffering from digestive problems. When treating diarrhoea, coconut
protective. It can help lower water has been proven effective to swiftly replace lost bodily fluids.
cholesterol levels, which
reduces the chances of blood Last but not least, coconut water is rich in cytokinins, which is a group
clot formation in the blood of hormones that regulate growth, development and ageing in the
vessels. human body. Research suggested that consuming a rich source of
cytokinins may produce an anti-ageing effect on the body. This could
in turn, lead to a lower risk of developing degenerative and age-
related diseases.
COCONUT MILK
When processed from the kernel, coconut milk is a staple food
for many.
HEALTH BENEFITS OF COCONUT MILK

Through the reversal of glycogen levels, studies have shown that
the coconut kernel have a potential anti-diabetic activity useful for
preventing diabetes.
At the same time, coconut milk can possibly have other anti-diabetic
activities, specifically the reversal of carbohydrate metabolizing
enzymes, and the reversal of pancreatic damage by an amino acid
called arginine.
Often found in cooking recipes
for savoury and sweet dishes
Another study further shows that coconut milk contains a protein
across the world, coconut milk
which displays immunostimulatory activity. This protein has the
is also increasingly used as a
potential to increase the levels of red and white blood cells, platelets,
substitute for milk by lactose
neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophil, B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes
intolerant consumers.
and Hb, all of which are important components in building the bodys
immune system (Manisha et al., 2011).
21
COCONUT OIL
A fresh coconut (wet kernel) contains about 33% coconut oil. It
contains more than 90% saturated fatty acids. While an earlier
epidemiologic study suggested that consuming large amounts of
coconut oil, consisting of saturated fats, can lead to high blood
cholesterol, later clinical studies have otherwise shown positive
outcomes about the virgin coconut oil (VCO) (Marina et al., 2009).
MEDIUM CHAIN TRIACYLGLYCERIDES (MCTS)

Coconut oil is rich in medium chain triacylglycerides (MCTs). The
term is used to describe one form of neutral lipid, which contains
fatty acid molecules with a chain length varying from six to 12 carbon
atoms. Otherwise known as triglycerides, it is especially high in lauric
acid, a 12-carbon saturated fatty acid which makes up to 45% of the
triglycerides present in Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO).
When fatty acids or triglycerides are absorbed into our bodies,

they are repackaged into small bundles of fat and protein called
lipoproteins. They are circulated into the bloodstream to other parts
of the body. These fatty acids are then deposited into our fat cells.
However, MCTs are digested and utilized differently from the long
chain triglycerides (LCT). Instead of being packaged into lipoproteins,
they are sent directly to the liver where majority are converted into
energy and hence, less get stored as body fat.
MCTs are also less dense than LCT, providing an average metabolized
energy of 8.0 kcal per g, compared to 9.0 kcal per g by the latter. In
addition, consuming MCTs can potentially increase thermogenesis
(heat generation) in the body to a greater extent than LCT.
HEALTH BENEFITS OF COCONUT OIL

Contrary to popular belief about saturated fatty acids, MCTs are
readily metabolized as an energy source. It is often claimed that
MCTs in coconut oil can increase our bodies resting metabolic rate,
leading to long-term fat loss. Some research has demonstrated that
VCO can increase thyroid activity, which corresponds to an increased
metabolic rate, helping subjects lose weight in the long run.
Containing 65% MCTs, Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) is directly

transported to the liver and rapidly metabolized and thereby
participates less in transporting cholesterol to other parts of the body.
As such, VCO can potentially help to lower overall cholesterol levels,
triglycerides, phospholipids and a variety of lipoproteins.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
22 By consuming MCT-based meals, the resting metabolic rate which metabolism is
carried at rest, can increase. This is due to higher energy expenditure, which can last
up to six hours after a single MCT-based meal. At the same time, ketogenesis and
lipogenesis (ketone and fat formation respectively) from medium chain saturated fatty
acids (MCFAs) is more energy-consuming than that of low-chain fatty acids, with most
MCFAs converted to ketone bodies instead of fats.
STRONG ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES

MCTs like lauric acid (C12) can be effective in safeguarding human
bodies against a range of bacteria, such as E-coli and bacillus subtilis.
Because of these anti-microbial properties, coconut oil can be
topically applied to the skin to get rid of bacteria like staphylococcus
aureus, which is commonly associated with acne and pimple
problems. At the same time, coconut oil can be used to moisturize
the skin.
Containing 45% lauric acid, some studies have shown that coconut
oil can be used to kill pathogenic gram-negative bacteria with
an appropriate chelator. By consuming coconut oil, it is useful in
supplying monolaurin to the body, producing a source of lauric acid
which meets dietary needs.
The presence of lauric acid, Furthermore, monolaurins antimicrobial spectrum can impede spore
or monolaurin, also makes germination and radial growth of infection-causing fungal species. It
coconut oil a common has been reported that monolaurin can kill all members of the herpes
ingredient used in beauty simplex virus (HSV), which plays a role in forming atherosclerotic
products to enhance hair and plaques that leads to heart disease. Fatty acids and monoglycerides
skin conditions. from saturated fatty acids ranging from C6 to C14, which includes
approximately 80% of fatty acids found in coconut oil, can also kill
HSV (Manisha et al., 2011).
Last but not least, MCTs in coconut oil have also been reported to
also disrupts membranes of viruses and interrupt their assembly and
maturation, resulting in an antiviral effect against lipid-coated viruses,
such as influenza virus, pneumono virus and hepatitis C virus.
CHAPTER 3
COMPOSITION
The coconuts composition is dependent
on several factors such as age and varieties.
This chapter gives a description of the
chemical composition of the coconut,
which will form a basis for understanding
chemical processes in the
following chapters.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
24
COMPOSITION
PARTS OF THE COCONUT

The coconut, scientifically known as cocos nucifera, is a fibrous drupe
fruit (Figure 3.1). Usually ovoid in shape, it comes in various sizes and
colour (Figure 3.2). In general, a coconut takes about 12 months to
mature, weighing up to 1.2-2kg.
TESTA
EXOCARP Thin, brown layer of
The thin outermost seed-coat immediately
skin of the drupe covering the meat.
About 0.2 mm thick
MEAT (KERNEL)
MESOCARP The white, edible
The fibrous husk endosperm. Up to
11mm thick
ENDOCARP WATER
The liquid endosperm,
The hard shell
a slightly turbid liquid
surrounding the meat.
found in the cavity of
Up to 4mm thick
the coconut
Figure 3.1 Parts of the coconut

Photo courtesy of Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC)
?
HOW WELL DO YOU KNOW THE COCONUT?
Malaysians & Indonesians Filipinos Thais Brazilians
KELAPA NIYOG MAPHRAW COCO

CHAPTER 3 | COMPOSITION
25
Aromatic Dwaft Malayan Red Dwaft Malayan Yellow Dwaft
Malayan Tall Tagnanan Tall West African Tall
Figure 3.2 Different varieties of coconuts1
LIFE CYCLE OF THE COCONUT

Under ideal conditions, the coconut palm produces one leaf and
one inflorescence, or better known as male and female flowers
within a spathe, on a monthly basis. After the inflorescence opens
and fertilization of the flowers take place, coconuts begin to form
(Figure 3.3). They start to grow in size, and the cavity inside the nut
differentiates itself in the second month, reaching its maximum size
by the seventh month, filled with coconut water. It is also during this
time that a thin and soft layer of raw kernel forms. As the nuts ripen,
Figure 3.3 Male and female flowers within a spathe
(top right), and newly formed coconuts (bottom left)1 its hardness and quantity increases at a declining rate. The thickness
of the kernel also increases, while the internal cavity reduces in size.
There is also a progressive decrease in the quantity of coconut water
as the nut ripens. More details on the life cycle of the coconut are
covered in Chapter 4.
OVERALL COMPOSITION
In general, a new bunch of coconuts forms on a monthly basis.
As they grow in size over a 12 month period, the volume
composition of the coconut water and the weight of the kernel
undergoes major changes.
After they ripen, unharvested coconuts left hanging on the

trees will begin to germinate. This process depletes both the
coconut water and kernel to facilitate root and shoot growth in
a germinating coconut.
1
Photo courtesy of Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC)
COCONUT HANDBOOK
26
COMPOSITION OF COCONUT WATER

The coconuts composition is
Coconut water is the liquid endosperm found in the cavity of the nut.
dependant on several factors
By the third month of fruit development, there are small quantities of
such as age, varieties, growing
coconut water. This amount increases and reaches the maximum when
seasons (monthly or yearly
the nut is 7-9 months old. This is also when the coconut water tastes
variabilities), geographical
the sweetest, and is classified as young coconut water.
locations and environmental
conditions, including rainfall
Coconut water harvested from nuts between 10-13 months old is
and temperature.
classified as mature coconut water. After the nuts ripen, the amount
of coconut water declines. This is because during maturation,
coconut water is used to form coconut flesh inside the fruit, a
phenomenon across all of the coconuts varieties.
Coconut water comprises of 95% water, with trace amounts of

carbohydrates, proteins, oils, vitamins and minerals.
The chemical composition of Malayan Tall Coconuts is illustrated in

Table 3.1.
COCONUT MATURITY STAGE (MONTHS)

Malayan Tall coconuts have PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
the highest sugar level at 5-6 8-9 >12
6.15 Brix (total soluble solids) Volume of water (mL) 684 518 332
(Table 3.1). Local Thai Tall Total soluble solids (Brix) 5.60 6.15 4.85
coconuts known as Tap Sakae Titratable acidity (%)
1
0.089 0.076 0.061
have an average sugar level
pH 4.78 5.34 5.71
at 6.7 Brix (Twishsri, 2015).
Turbidity 0.031 0.337 4.051
For Thai Nam Hom coconuts,
sugar levels can reach up to SUGAR CONTENT
7.6-8.0 Brix at an age of seven Fructose (mg/mL) 39.04 32.52 21.48

months and two weeks. It even Glucose (mg/mL) 35.43 29.96 19.06
goes as high as 9 Brix at an Sucrose (mg/mL) 0.85 6.36 14.37
age of eight months and three
MINERALS
weeks (Petchpirun,1991).
Potassium (mg/100mL) 220.94 274.32 351.10
Sodium (mg/100mL) 7.61 5.60 36.51
Magnesium (mg/100mL) 22.03 20.87 31.65
Calcium (mg/100mL) 8.75 15.19 23.98
Iron (mg/L) 0.294 0.308 0.322
Protein (mg/mL) 0.041 0.042 0.217
Total phenolics compound2 (mg/L) 54.00 24.59 25.70

Table 3.1 Physicochemical properties of coconut water
1
Titratable acidity as malic acid percentage
2
Total phenolics content, expressed as mg GAE/L
Source: Tan et al., 2014
27
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates, otherwise known by the general chemical
formula Cn(H2O)m, consist of monosaccharides and disaccharides
(simple sugars), oligosaccharides and polysaccharides (complex
carbohydrates such as starch, hemicellulose, cellulose and pectin).
Coconut water consists of carbohydrates, namely sucrose, glucose

and fructose. These are primary sugars which contribute to the
sweetness of the coconut water. As the coconut matures, more
sucrose content can be found in coconut water. The reverse is
observed for fructose and glucose when the coconut matures.
PROTEINS
Proteins, described as giant molecules made of amino acids, are
an essential part of our diet. A protein molecule usually contains
one or more interlinked chains of 100-200 amino acids, where they
are arranged in a specific order. When the human body consumes
proteins, they are broken down into simpler compounds in the
digestive system and liver. These compounds are then transported
to body cells, where they are used to construct and build the bodys
own protein. Active proteins, better known as enzymes, control
a large majority of these chemical reactions inside our bodies.
They have the ability to trigger and affect the course and speed
of such chemical reactions. Surprisingly, enzymes have the ability
to do this without being consumed. Therefore, they are sometimes
called biocatalysts.
Coconut water contains a small AMINO ACIDS % TOTAL PROTEIN
amount of proteins. The total Alanine 2.41
protein content of coconut Arginine 10.75

water increases as the coconut Aspartic acid 3.6
matures (Table 3.1). The amino Cystine 0.97-1.17
acid composition of coconut
Glutamic acid 9.76-14.5
water can be found in
Histidine 1.95-2.05
Table 3.2.
Leucine 1.95-4.18
Lysine 1.95-4.57
Proline 1.21-4.12
Phenylalanine 1.23
Serine 0.59-0.91
Tyrosine 2.83-3.00
Table 3.2 Amino acid composition of coconut water
Source: Rethinam P., 2006
COCONUT HANDBOOK
28
Coconut water also contains a small amount of enzymes, which varies

The two major enzymes
according to the coconuts maturity. When packaging coconut water,
found in coconut water are
it is important to manage these reactions so that the coconut water
polyphenol oxidase (PPO)
remains colourless, ensuring a quality product over time. In general,
and peroxidase (POD). Both
the measurement of enzyme content is based on their enzymatic
contributes to the colouration
activity. As the coconut matures, the enzymatic activity of peroxidase
of coconut water to pink or
(POD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) decreases (Table 3.3).
brown when the reaction
between polyphenols and
oxygen is catalyzed. ENZYME ACTIVITY COCONUT MATURITY STAGE (MONTHS)
(U mL-1 Brix-1 min-1) 5-6 8-9 >12
Peroxidase (POD) 0.052 0.117 0.129
Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) 0.543 0.160 0.056

Table 3.3 Enzyme activity of coconut at different maturity stages before thermal treatments.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic substances occurring in very small
concentrations. It consists of complex chemical compositions, and
is essential to normal life processes. However, vitamins cannot be
synthesized by the body.
Coconut water contains water soluble vitamins. In particular,

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and a range of Vitamin B, as shown in
Table 3.4.
As coconut water has no VITAMINS AMOUNT % RDA FUNCTIONS
oil composition, fat soluble Vitamin B1 Helps energy production, brain function and
0.030 mg 2.5
(Thiamin) digestion.
vitamins are not present in
Vitamin B2 Maintains healthy skin, hair, nails and eyes.
significant amounts. 0.057 mg 4
(Riboflavin) Also regulates body acidity.
Helps energy production, brain function and

Vitamin B3
0.080 mg 0.5 skin health. Balances blood sugar and lowers
(Niacin)
cholesterol levels too.
Helps energy production, controls fat

Vitamin B5
metabolism, is essential for brain and nerves.
(Pantothenic 0.043 mg <1
Produces anti-stress hormones (steroids), while
acid) maintaining healthy skin and hair.
Useful for protein digestion and utilization,

brain function and hormone production. Helps
Vitamin B6
0.032 mg 2.5 balance sex hormones, acts as a natural anti-
(Pyridoxine)
depressant and diuretic. Helps control allergic
reaction too.
Vitamin B9 Helps develop the brain and nerves during

3 g 0.75
(Folates) pregnancy, as well as form red blood cells.
Strengthens the immune system, makes

Vitamin C collagen for skin, bones and joints to remain
(Ascorbic 2.4 mg 4 firm and strong. As an antioxidant, it detoxifies
acid) pollutants and protects humans against cancer
and heart disease.
Table 3.4 Coconut water vitamin content
Source: USDA National Nutrient database
29
MINERALS
Coconut water contains
Electrolytes are minerals which have an electric charge in our
a range of important
bodies. Many of our bodily functions are regulated by the amount of
electrolytes, primarily from
electrolytes present in the body to conduct electrical signals. These
minerals, potassium, calcium,
electrolytes are obtained by consuming food and drink. They are also
and magnesium (see Table
lost through sweat and urine.
3.1) which are required to
rehydrate our bodies (see
ACIDITY
Chapter 2).
Acidity refers to the concentration of hydrogen ions in a specific
amount of liquid. This varies from one solution to another. The
pH symbol is used to denote the hydrogen ion concentration.
Mathematically, pH is defined as the negative logarithm to the
base 10 of the hydrogen ion concentration expressed in molarity
i.e. pH = -log[H+]. This results in the following scale at 25C:
Neutral Solution
Acidic Solution Alkaline Solution
Figure 3.3 pH of different solutions
Acidity affects the flavour of coconut water. As the coconut matures,

the pH of coconut water increases in alkaline levels. It becomes less
acidic and, coupled with increasing sugar levels, coconut water tastes
sweeter when it is seven to nine months old.
Acidity also influences the thermal processing method required

to package coconut water. With a pH value ranging from 4.9-5.5,
coconut water is above the benchmarked pH value of 4.6. It is
therefore considered a low-acid product, suitable for the growth of
microorganisms. As such it is recommended that low acid products
like coconut water undergo ultra-high temperature (UHT) thermal
processing for a longer shelf life. This will be covered in greater detail
in Chapter 11.
PHENOLIC CONTENT
Phenolic content contributes to the overall complex flavour profile
of coconut water. Phenolic content of coconut water decreases with
maturity. When oxidised, the polyphenols can also contribute to the
colouration of coconut water.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
30
COMPOSITION OF COCONUT KERNEL

The composition of coconut kernel is commonly measured according
to the percentage of oil in the kernel which is remarkably consistent
across different coconut varieties. As the coconut matures, the growth
of the shell cavity is almost complete before the endosperm (kernel)
enters the rapid growth stage, which begins after eight months and
lasts for about three months thereafter. During this stage, the amount
of coconut kernel increases up to 44% of the dehusked nuts
weight (Table 3.5).
COCONUT MATURITY STAGE (MONTHS)

PARTS (gm)
7 9 12 15
Husk 1,190.0 740.0 518.5 269.0
Shell 140.0 189.1 156.6 134.3
Meat 20.3 180.5 244.5 160.4
Water 425.0 255.0 165.0 35.0
Total 1,775.3 1,365.0 1,084.6 598.7

Table 3.5 Weight of various parts of coconut (Laguna Tall) at different stages of maturity
Source: Banzon et al., 1982
RAW KERNEL OIL CONTENT

When a coconut matures, the weight and meat composition
changes rapidly. This is because the moisture content decreases to
approximately 50% when coconuts reach 12-15 months old. On the
other hand, the oil composition of a coconut increases as it advances
through different stages of maturity. For comparison, a younger
coconut between eight to nine months old has 18-26% oil content,
whereas a mature nut can have up to 43% oil content on a wet basis.
This shows that the amount of oil contained in the raw material is
strongly dependent upon maturity.
In the initial stages of coconut fruit growth, the oil content of the
kernel only increases by a small amount. However, when the coconut
is nine months old, some raw kernel is developed, which can be
turned into copra or coconut milk. By then, the oil content of the
kernel would have increased drastically to approximately 25-30% on
wet basis (50% moisture). The remaining percentage of raw kernel
consists of carbohydrates, protein, fibre and ash.
As the coconut continues to mature, the oil content will further

increase until it peaks at approximately 43%. Thereafter, the oil
content decreases when the coconut germinates.
31
Table 3.6 shows that different coconuts vary in the levels of oil
content at various coconut ages.
OIL CONTENT/% FRESH MEAT

AGE/MONTH
AROD1 SBT2 MAWA3
6 2.74 6.24 5.74
7 9.47 8.57 12.40
8 18.45 26.62 21.60
9 25.35 32.89 28.41
10 30.56 36.65 31.29
11 30.50 38.48 38.92
12 32.87 36.81 43.30

Table 3.6 Oil content of coconut at different stages of maturity
1
AROD: Aromatic Green Dwarf
2
SBT: Sabah Tall
3
MAWA: Malaysia Yellow Dwarf (MYT) x West Africa Tall (WAT)
Source: Au WF, 2010
In most countries, coconuts are harvested at 10-13 months old. This

is when high oil content can be used to produce copra, coconut milk,
cream and related food products. There are two types of wet kernel
one where the testa (brown skin) is still attached to the white kernel,
and another where the testa has been peeled off.
COPRA
Raw kernel can be dried under the sun or using a kiln to produce
dried kernel, otherwise known as copra cake. This is later processed
into coconut oil. Copra cake contains 6% moisture levels, with oil
content ranging from 60-65%. It also consists of 27% carbohydrates,
20% proteins, fibre and ash (Table 3.7).
CONTENT (%)
SAMPLE CRUDE
MOISTURE OIL PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES ASH
FIBER
WC1 4.3 59.8 10.2 24.3 7.0 1.4
CWK 2
3.8 63.6 8.1 22.4 6.6 2.1
CT3 4.0 59.0 9.3 26.3 11.6 1.4
WCW 4
42.2 37.0 7.5 12.3 14.3 1.0
WCWK5 43.5 38.8 6.2 10.6 11.7 0.9
WCT6 32.9 34.7 7.1 24.6 17.2 0.7

Table 3.7 Proximate composition of copra and coconut kernel
Source: Appaiah et al., 2014
1
WC: Whole copra 4
WCW: Wet coconut whole
2
CWK: Copra white kernel 5
WCWK: Wet coconut white kernel
3
CT: Copra testa 6
WCT: Wet coconut testa
COCONUT HANDBOOK
32
OIL
At least 55% of dried kernel consists of oils like triglycerides, free
fatty acids, phospholipids and unsaponifiables. It is one of the few
fruits which stores a major portion of its energy source in medium
chain triglycerides (MCTs) an important source of energy for
coconuts to germinate. Originating from a plant source, coconut oil
is also cholesterol-free.
Triglycerides contain three free fatty acids and one alcohol called
glycerol. Depending on the number of multiple bonds present in its
chain, a fatty acid may be classified as saturated or unsaturated.
Saturated fatty acids comprise of exclusively single bonds between

all carbons in their backbone. Unsaturated fatty acids have double
bonds in their backbones, known as mono (if there is only one double
bond), or poly (if there are multiple double bonds).
Coconut kernel contains 90% saturated fatty acids and 10%

unsaturated fatty acids. These saturated fatty acids are mostly MCTs
with a range of six to 12 carbon atoms in their chains. A significant
proportion of these MCTs is made out of 12 carbon long lauric acid
(C12) (Table 3.8).
Recent studies have shown that
?
CHAIN LENGTH FATTY ACID %
MCTs have many health benefits.
C8:0 5.6
They are metabolized differently
C10:0 5.8
from long-chain fatty acids.
C12:0 52.8 Similar to carbohydrates, they are
MCTs have also been
C14:0 19.2 more readily oxidized through
described as healthy and
supportive of an efficient C16:0 7.4 the -oxidation pathway, and is
metabolism, providing an therefore rapidly absorbed by the
C18:0 1.9
immediate and sustained
C18:1 5.5 body. As a result, MCTs are also
source of crash-free energy.
used as a supplement to enhance
C18:2 1.0
the fat burning process and
SFA1 92.7
improve the body composition of
MUFA2 5.5
fat and lean tissue.
PUFA 3
2.0
MCFA4 64.2
Table 3.8 Fatty acid compositions of oils extracted
from wet coconut white kernel
1
SFA: Saturated Fatty Acids
2
MUFA: Monounsaturated Fatty Acids
3
PUFA: Polysaturated Fatty Acids
4
MCFA: Medium-Chain Fatty Acids
33
Oil content during coconut germination

Triglycerides in the coconut kernel primarily provides energy supply
for the coconut to germinate and mature. Initially, the coconut uses
its limited sources of sucrose as energy. When the carbohydrate store
becomes exhausted after 60-90 days of germination, the growing
haustorium, roots and shoots accumulate lipids rich in lauric acid
(C12). This depletes the lauric acid supply in the coconut kernel.
Lauric acid is presumably used as an energy source to fuel

biochemical activities for growth by generating carbon. It is
important to note that such coconuts should not be used for copra
or coconut milk production as the available oil content is lower when
germination occurs.
PROTEIN
Coconut kernel contains 5-10% of proteins on a wet matter basis.
Coconut kernel has a mix of essential, non-essential and conditionally
essential amino acids. USDA defines essential amino acids as those
that have carbon skeletons which cannot be synthesized and must
therefore be supplemented in the diet.
Conversely, non-essential amino acids can be synthesized from

simpler precursors, often essential amino acids. There are also some
conditionally essential amino acids which, under regular conditions,
can be synthesized when the body feels relaxed. The classification of
amino acids is shown in Table 3.9.
NON-ESSENTIAL
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS CONDITIONAL
AMINO ACIDS
Histidine Alanine Arginine
Isoleucine Aspartic acid Cysteine
Leucine Asparagine Glutamine
Lysine Glutamic acid Glycine
Methionine Serine Proline
Phenylalanine Tyrosine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine
Table 3.9 Essential, non-essential and conditional amino acids
COCONUT HANDBOOK
34
The breakdown of amino acids in coconut meal is shown in Table

3.10 below. In particular, arginine has cardio protective benefits.
CLASSIFICATION AMINO ACID MOLE (%)

Non-essential Alanine 8.0
Aspartic acid 9.46
Glutamic acid 23.96
Serine 3.35
Essential Histidine 1.74
Isoleucine 3.26
Leucine 6.04
Lysine 4.67
Methionine 0.2
Phenylalanine 3.46
Threonine 2.9
Valine 6.04
Conditional Proline 4.49
Cysteine 0.37
Arginine 13.78
Glycine 7.28
Tyrosine 1.01
Table 3.10 Amino acid in coconut meal (coconut meal = defatted coconut kernel)
Source: Souci et al., 1990
CARBOHYDRATES
Coconut kernel contains about 10-15% carbohydrates on a wet
matter basis. This makes carbohydrates the second largest dry
component in coconuts. However, carbohydrates are economically
less important than coconut oil, as the kernel is mostly used to extract
copra oil. The remaining dry matter is used as animal feed, and
coconut flour is produced for human consumption.
Soluble Carbohydrates
Soluble carbohydrates comprise of monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides (e.g. mannose, galactose, sucrose,
raffinose, stachyose), and polysacharides (e.g. galactomannan).
In general, soluble carbohydrates decrease with the maturity of the
coconut kernel.
Insoluble Carbohydrates
Insoluble carbohydrates include cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin.
These carbohydrates are mostly structural components of cell walls.
These insoluble carbohydrates generally increase when the kernel
thickens with maturity.
35
VITAMINS
Mature coconut kernel contains both water and oil soluble vitamins.
Table 3.11 shows the vitamin contents in coconut kernel.
AMOUNT/
VITAMINS UNIT 100g FRESH BENEFITS
KERNEL
Vitamin B1 Helps energy production, brain
mg 0.066
(Thiamin) function and digestion.
Vitamin B2 Maintains healthy skin, hair, nails and

mg 0.02
(Riboflavin) eyes. Also regulates body acidity.
Helps energy production, brain

Vitamin B3 function and skin health. Balances
mg 0.54
(Niacin) blood sugar and lowers cholesterol
levels too.
Useful for protein digestion and

utilization, brain function and
Vitamin B6 hormone production. Helps balance
mg 0.054
(Pyvidoxine) sex hormones. Acts as a natural
anti-depressant and diuretic. Helps
control allergic reaction too.
Helps develop the brain and nerves

Folate
g 26 during pregnancy, as well as form
(DFE)
red blood cells.
Strengthens the immune system,

makes collagen for skin, bones and
Vitamin C joints to remain firm and strong.
mg 3.3
(Ascorbic acid) As an antioxidant, it detoxifies
pollutants and protects humans
against cancer and heart disease.
Helps the body use oxygen,

prevent blood clots, thrombosis and
Vitamin E
mg 0.24 atherosclerosis as an antioxidant.
(a-tocopherol)
Improves wound healing and fertility,
and is good for the skin.
Vitamin K
g 0.2 Controls blood clotting.
(Phylloquinone)
Table 3.11 Vitamin content of kernel
COCONUT HANDBOOK
36
MINERALS
Coconut kernel contains 1-2% ash content on a wet matter basis.
The major minerals present are potassium, calcium, magnesium, and
sodium (Table 3.12).
MINERAL CONTENT (mg/kg)

COCONUT CULTIVAR
K 1
Cl2 P3 Mg4 Ca5 Na6
Nam Hom
2280 852 222 148 86 55
(Aromatic Green Dwarf)
Thung Kled
2471 785 274 174 115 64
Green Dwarf
Patio Green Dwarf 2738 732 257 150 110 53
Maphrao Fai 1897 766 245 166 113 84
Malayan Yellow Dwarf 2487 760 225 164 110 52

Table 3.12 Level of minerals/ trace metals in coconut kernel
Source: Twishsri, 2009
1
K:Potassium 4
Mg: Magnesium
2
Cl: Chloride 5
Ca: Calcium
3
P:Phosphorus 6
Na:Sodium
FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
Flavour compounds contribute to the overall flavour profile of
coconut kernel and its derived products. It is a complex mixture of
phytosterols and phenolic acids (Table 3.13).
PARAMETERS AMOUNT
The composition of flavour
compounds changes across Total phytosterols (mg/100g) 30.66
different varieties and maturity Total Phenolic Content (mg/100g) 0.2

stages, imparting characteristic
Phenolic acids (g/100g)
flavour profiles to the different
Syringic acid 37.3
coconuts. Hydroxybenzoic acid 34.7
Gallic acid 15.9
Cinnamic acid 6.9
Table 3.13 Flavour compounds in a white coconut kernel sample from India
CHAPTER 4
PLANTATION
Under suitable climate, rainfall and environmental
conditions, coconuts can germinate and grow
into coconut palms and start fruiting after three
years. This chapter is an introduction to the
basics of cultivating coconut palms.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
38
Solomon Islands Rennell Islands Malaysian Tall Hybrid Malaysian Fiji Dwarf
Tall Tall Dwarf
Figure 4.1 Different varieties of coconut trees1
PLANTATION
Under suitable climate, rainfall and environmental conditions,
coconuts can germinate and grow into coconut palms and start
fruiting after three years. This chapter is an introduction to the basics
of cultivating coconut palms.
VARIETIES
Coconut palms can be classified according to the size and stature
of the palm, and are referred to as Talls and Dwarfs. They are also
monoecious. In other words, they consist of male and female flowers
on the same inflorescence (spadix) that develops within a woody
spathe. Depending on the variety of the coconut trees, the male and
female flowers develop at same or different times. As the coconut
tree is propagated by seed, they are subjected to some variations
which can be distinguished in the trees, fruits and leaves. As such,
there are hundreds of vernacular names for the coconut types
(Figure 4.1).
TALL COCONUT PALMS

Tall coconut palms are usually cross-pollinated, and are subjected to
the most variations. They are classified by the location where they are
grown, assuming that some uniformity in the population is developed
in one location across several generations, adapting to drought, high
rainfall, alkaline soil or resistance to various insects and diseases long
established in the specific location. This is why they are sometimes
classified as West African Tall, Malayan Tall and such.
1
Sources: http://www.newtonsapple.org.uk/the-common-coconut/
CHAPTER 4 | PLANTATION
39
Tall coconut palms have longer economic lives than Dwarf trees,
typically about 60-80 years, and can live up to 100 years old under
favourable conditions. They also have larger fronds than Dwarf trees,
so fewer Tall coconut trees can be planted per hectare of land. Tall
coconut palms are also fairly resistant to diseases and pests, except
some virus diseases, and thrive under different soil conditions. After
six to eight years of planting, Tall coconut palms will begin to bear
fruits.
DWARF COCONUT PALMS

Although Tall coconut trees Dwarf coconut palms are mostly self-pollinated, and have fewer
are usually the choice for variations compared to Tall varieties. They are classified by the colour
commercial planting, Dwarf of the coconut fruits produced. As the name suggests, Dwarf coconut
varieties can be found in palms are smaller in stature than Tall varieties.
The Philippines, Malaysia
and Indonesia where there Dwarf coconut palms have shorter economic lives than Tall palms and
is greater control over soil only live up to 60 years old. With smaller fronds, more Dwarf coconut
conditions, and the smaller trees can be planted per hectare of land. Compared to Tall coconut
stature allows for higher trees, Dwarf varieties cannot adapt as well to different soil conditions,
density planting. and are more susceptible to diseases, although they do show good
resistance to some virus diseases. However, they begin to bear fruits
earlier, after only three years of planting. At about 10 years old, they
come into regular fruiting. Similar to Tall varieties, the bigger the
coconuts, the lesser number of fruits found per bunch.
HYBRID COCONUT PALMS

Hybrids are inter-varietal crosses between two morphological forms
of coconut trees. In particular, hybrids from Dwarf and Tall, Tall and
Tall varieties also produce high-yielding coconut palms. In general,
hybrid coconut palms are more superior in terms of quality and
quantity of copra production. They also contain the greatest amount
of copra per nut. As such, they are usually selected for commercial
planting.
The hybrid crosses between Dwarf and Tall varieties have exhibited
marked hybrid vigour by having the advantages found in both
palms. As such, high yielding hybrid coconut trees are resistant to
environmental stress, including drought and diseases. They also bear
fruits after three to four years of planting. Compared to Dwarf and
Tall varieties, hybrid coconut palms have more nut yields and higher
copra production (Figure 4.2). The copra and oil produced are also of
better quality.
Figure 4.2 A high yielding coconut palm

Photo courtesy of Asian and Pacific Coconut
Community (APCC)
COCONUT HANDBOOK
40
AGRONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF COCONUT PRODUCTION
LIFE CYCLE OF A COCONUT

The agronomic characteristics of coconut production can be mapped
out by the life cycle of a coconut (Figure 4.3).
Flowering
And fruiting
Growth and development of Propagation

coconut palm and germination
Figure 4.3 Life cycle of a coconut
FLOWERING AND FRUITING

Under favourable conditions, Tall coconut palms start flowering after
planting for five years (three years for Dwarf), while the fruit fully
ripens after 11-12 months.
Usually, only 30-40% of the fruits are carried to full term, while most
are aborted within three months of pollination. The palm produces
12-15 inflorescences (spadices) each year at fairly regular intervals.
This means that, every month, a new bunch of coconuts are formed.
They continue to grow on the coconut tree until they are ready for
harvest, or drop from the tree for propagation and germination.
However the number of female and male flowers per spadix varies,
depending on the variety of the coconut tree.
41
GERMINATION AND PROPAGATION

Dwarf and some Tall varieties, Propagation is done by means of the coconut fruit, which has no
such as the Malayan Tall, dormancy and requires no specific treatment for germination.
germinate while still on the However, the speed of germination varies within and among coconut
palm. Others like the West ecotypes and varieties.
African Tall and most Pacific
coconut populations can Generally, 90% of seed fruits will germinate. The remaining 10%
take up to eight weeks to is usually discarded, failing to germinate due to the pathogenic
germinate. infection of the seed interior caused by the fracture of the shell, after
sprouting in the first three months.
During germination, the coconut haustorium, starts to develop. It

is a sweet, spongy mass (cotyledon) which dissolves and absorbs
the endosperm. As it develops, the haustorium depletes both the
coconut water and kernel, which facilitates root and shoot growth in
a germinating coconut (Figure 4.4). Under the right conditions, this
germinated coconut will grow into a seedling (Figure 4.5).
Scientific and technological advances now allow for in-vitro collection

of the coconut embryo, which can be employed in the exchange
of plant materials across countries for propagation and breeding
purposes (Engelmann et al., 2011).
Figure 4.4 Germination of a mature coconut into a
coconut seedling1
Propagation by seed nut
Seed nut collection

Seed nuts may be collected throughout the year as and when they
have reached the desired maturity level. When seed nuts mature,
the husk loses moisture, while the exocarp (skin) starts to turn brown.
When shaken, the fruit produces a sloshing sound. This indicates that
the volume of coconut water in the cavity is decreasing.
After pollination, seed nuts usually take 12 months to ripen, around

which time they start to fall from the trees. However, when the seed
nuts are collected by picking off the ground, the identity of the
female parent is difficult to establish. As such, the fruit is usually
picked directly from the palm, so that the female parent can be
identified for seed nut production.
Seed nuts should be selected from a block of uniform palms

producing an average of at least 1,500 nuts per ha every 45 days.
Figure 4.5 Coconut seedlings being prepared for
propagation and planting to grow into a coconut This is equivalent to an annual 2.8 tons of copra per ha. Within
tree1
this block, the selected mother palms should have at least 40-50
full-sized nuts, anytime of the year under ordinary farm conditions
(Magat, 1999).
1
Figures 4.4 and 4.5 Photo courtesy of Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC)
COCONUT HANDBOOK
42
Seed nut storage

Coconuts have no dormancy period between seed nut harvesting
and germination. Therefore, it is not advisable to store fruits over
extended periods of time. For varieties with cultivars that germinate
early, such as Malayan Talls, immediate planting with no storage
period is advisable. For varieties which are slower germinators, such
as West African Talls and most Polynesian types, seed nuts may be
stored for up to a month with no ill effects, as long as the coconut
water in the cavity does not dry out. Alternatively, seed nuts may
be picked when they are 11 months old and stored in a dry cool
place for longer time periods. To hasten germination, partially or
completely brown seed nuts can be stored in a ventilated or open
shed for three to four weeks.
Seed nut planting

Coconuts do not require pre-planting treatment, so seed nuts can be
planted directly. To facilitate seedling selection when there is a large
quantity of seed nuts, a two-stage nursery may be used (Figure 4.6).
In the first stage, the germination bed allows seed nut selection
based on the speed of germination (Figure 4.7). The early
germinators are usually the best performers, while the slowest
germinators (about 20-30% from the total seed nuts) are discarded.
Figure 4.6 A coconut nursery
Photo courtesy of Asian and Pacific Coconut In the second stage of the nursery, seedlings are grown to an
Community (APCC)
acceptable size for out-planting. Those which display abnormal
attributes are culled. Here, seed nuts are laid flat in rows, with two-
thirds of the nut buried in coarse soil. Upon germination, nuts are
pried out, trimmed of exposed roots, and planted back in the field.
Figure 4.7 Coconut seedlings laid out for selection

43
Transplanting
The best time to transplant seedlings is at the onset of the rainy
season. Seedlings should be 8-10 months old. Eight month
old transplants give a better idea of their general growth and
development. Differences in vigour are best seen when the seedlings
are still too young to be moved, with the majority of their leaves
still succulent.
Before transplanting, each hold should be applied with fertilizers

mixed with soil. In addition, a small amount of organic matter like
coconut husks can be placed at the bottom of the hole and covered
with soil, leaving about one-third free for the seedling nut to sit.
For polybagged seedlings, the polybags are first removed, then the
seedling is transplanted. The hold should be covered with loose
topsoil, slightly firmed at the base of the crown. The top of the
nut must be about 5-8 cm below the ground level. Deep planting
might suffocate the bud, while the shallow planting might cause the
planting material to bend, sway or lean during heavy rains and windy
days. A slight depression towards the base of the crown must be
provided to trap rainwater (Santos et al., 1995).
Propagation by coconut embryo culture

For propagation by coconut embryo culture, two coconut embryos
in vitro collecting protocols have been established. One consists
of storing the disinfected embryos, while the other includes in vitro
inoculation of the embryos in the field.
In the former, a cylinder of solid endosperm containing the embryo is

removed and stored in a potassium chloride solution for transporting
to a laboratory, where the cylinders are disinfected again and the
embryos extracted. These are placed in a solid embryo culture
medium in a culture tube, and inoculated in vitro under sterile
conditions.
In the latter, in vitro inoculation of the embryos in the field follow

steps similar to storing disinfected embryos. However, instead
of being stored in potassium chloride solution, the cylinder of
endosperm is directly placed in a Petri dish. The embryo is extracted
on the field inside a wooden box, which provides some protection
from external contaminants. Then, it is rinsed again and inoculated
to a solid embryo culture medium. Next, the tube is transported to
a laboratory where the embryo is allowed to grow on the culture
medium.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
44
When the first true leaf is visible and the root system starts
developing at least one root with ramifications, the plantlets are
transferred to light conditions. Thereafter, plantlets are transferred to
large tubes containing fresh medium every 4-6 weeks.
When plantlets display 3-4 unfolded green leaves, they can go

on to acclimatisation after 6-7 months of initial inoculation. At this
stage, plantlets are removed from culture tubes and planted in the
greenhouse where soil nutrition and quality are controlled. After two
months, they are then transferred to plastic bags filled with forest leaf
mould mixed with sand before they are planted in the field.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF COCONUT PALM

The most rapid growth occurs between the second and fifth year
of planting a coconut palm. A stem appears under the crown after
growing for 3-4 years, and stem elongation reaches 30-50 cm
annually, but slows down in older palms which are 40 years and
older. After the sixth year, fruit production increases at the expense
of vegetative growth. Thereafter, the coconut tree experiences fairly
constant growth as yields are sustained over the next 40 years, and
palm age can be roughly gauged from the length of the stem.
AGROECOLOGY - CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR GROWTH
SOIL
Coconut prefers fertile and adequately drained soils with a minimum
depth of 75 cm, with high water-holding capacity (at least 30% clay
content). A wide range of soil textures (sand-clay) is suitable for
coconut production. The palm tolerates soil pH from 5.0-8.0. For
optimum growth, a pH range of 5.5-6.5 is ideal (Magat, 1999).
RAINFALL
As one of the thirstiest denizens of the plant kingdom, water plays an
indispensable role in the successful cultivation of coconut palms.
As such, it is strongly advised that coconuts be planted at the start
of the rainy season, or under weather conditions with a rainfall of
1500-2300 mm evenly distributed throughout the year.
For profitable cultivation, total rainfall of 1800-2000 mm or more

per year or 150 mm per month (4-5 mm per day), evenly distributed
throughout the year is ideal (Magat, 1999). However, coconuts
can still grow normally even with less rainfall, provided there is
enough soil moisture or a high water table with good drainage.
This is because the coconut palm requires large quantities of water
to grow well, and water constitutes about 50% the total weight of
fresh coconuts.
45
Generally, the coconut palm absorbs 24 litres of water each day,

and the daily loss of moisture from mature coconut palm varies
from 28-74 litres per day. However, the coconut does not like being
waterlogged, and coconut palms will not survive more than two
weeks of surface water logging.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
For normal growth and high yield, the relative humidity should be
80-90% and must not go below 60%. A persistently high humid
condition is not suitable for the palm as it favors the rapid spread of
Phytophthora disease (fruit rot or bud rot), a fatal disease commonly
observed in yellow, red or orange dwarf varieties (Magat, 1999).
LATITUDES, ALTITUDES AND SALT

The coconut thrives in the tropics between latitudes 23N and 23S,
at low altitudes not exceeding 600 m, where the temperature is
between 22-34C, with a mean temperature of 28C.
Ideally, the relative humidity for coconuts to thrive should be more

than 60%. There should also be no prolonged soil water deficit and
excessive soil salinity. As coconuts are semi halophyte, they can
grow in solutions where roots come into constant contact with salt
concentrations of up to 0.6%. Therefore, it is possible to temporarily
use sea water for irrigation purposes without any ill effects. However,
an exclusive use of sea water is detrimental to the growth of
coconuts, especially young trees.
FERTILIZERS
Salt fertilizer can also be applied to improve yields. In addition, they
are environmentally-friendly.
The use of sodium chloride (NaCl) or common salt as fertilizer is a

Salt fertilizers accelerate crop practical mean of increasing coconut production. Salt is the cheapest
growth and development, and best source of chlorine to increase copra weight per nut and
increase copra weight and copra yield per tree. Generally, bearing palms are fertilized annually
the number of nuts per tree, in areas with almost uniform rainfall distribution. In areas with distinct
as well as minimise leaf spot wet and dry seasons, uneven rainfall distribution, and those with
damage. sandy soils, fertilizers are best applied every six months. In a long-
term study of salt application, 1.5 kg NaCl/tree per year is considered
to be most effective and economical to increase copra weight/nut
and copra yield (per tree and per hectare). Split application is done at
the pre-bearing stages of palms, equivalent to 1-4 years. This practice
helps reduce the loss of fertilizer nutrients through leaching and run-
off, which makes the use of fertilizer more effective (Magat, 1999).
COCONUT HANDBOOK
46
The use of multi-nutrient fertilizers (MNF), such as Nitrogen-

Phosphorous-Potassium (NPK)-Sulphur-Sodium-Chlorine-Boron, is
even more effective. This can increase yield by another 20%, 33% and
66% above that of salt-fertilised palms in the first, second and third
years respectively (PCA, 2010). More importantly, the use of MNF can
help to prevent mineral deficiency, which can lead to retarded root
growth, delayed flowering, ripening of nuts and poor leaf health. In
turn, these may result in smaller fruits produced and lower overall
yield.
PLANTING SYSTEMS
Monocrop or pure palms are planted at a density that allows the tips
of horizontally held mature leaves to touch. The planting density is
about 7-8 m spacing for Dwarf palms, 8-8.5 m for hybrids and
9-10 m for Tall palms. This is because the crown size of Tall palms
are approximately 30% larger than hybrid and Dwarf varieties.
This results in about 115-236 palms/ha under triangle system, or
100-200 palms/ha under square system.
Considering the same distance of planting, the triangular system can

accommodate 15% more palms than the square system. As a guide,
Table 4.1 shows the population and planting density under typical
square and triangular systems of planting (Magat, 1999).
POPULATION DENSITY (palms/ha)

SPACING
SQUARE METHOD TRIANGULAR METHOD
8mx8m 156 180
8.5 m x 8.5 m 138 160
9mx9m 134 143
10 m x 10 m 100 115
Table 4.1 Square and Triangular Systems and Their Planting Densities
YIELDS
Yields vary from place to place. In general, commercial monocrop
plantings out yield those in home gardens. Higher yields are
obtained when there are more inputs, such as proper management,
maintenance and regular fertilization. Annual yields range from
15-20 kg of copra or, depending on the fruit size, 50-80 fruits per
coconut palm.
47
COMPETITION
Coconut competes well with most plants for nutrients and water.
However, its growth and yield slows in the presence of aggressive
grasses such as the Imperata cylindrical. Pasture grasses, including
Ischaemum aristatum, are commonly grown under old palms for
cattle grazing. In general, coconuts grow poorly in shade. For
instance, seedlings planted under older palms or other trees can take
up to 10 years to flower with low yields.
For maximum productivity, all weeds that compete with coconut for
nutrients, water, or sunlight should be suppressed. However, keeping
the soil bare is not always a good management practice because
apart from being laborious, it increases erosion risks and nutrient loss,
and causes humas. Therefore, weeding may be done manually or
mechanically. Animals can also be allowed to feed on them. However,
it is better to leave about 1.0-1.5 m around the base of the palms
uncropped. In addition, to minimise soil water loss during dry season
and the growth of weeds, mulching with two layers of coconut husks
around the base of coconuts can be done (Magat, 1999).
PESTS AND DISEASES

Coconut yield is susceptible to various pests and diseases, which
affects the quality of coconut production during their life span. They
even cause the palm to die. Common examples are as follow:
Rhinoceros beetle, Orycts rhinoceros

Rhinoceros beetle (Figure 4.8 and 4.9) attacks coconut palms in all
stages of growth especially young palms which can be killed.
Its entry hole is marked by chewed up tissues; feeding of the beetle

is shown by bilaterally symmetrical triangular cuts on the youngest
open frond.
Figure 4.8 Rhinoceros beetle Figure 4.9 Rhinoceros beetle infected coconut palms
1
COCONUT HANDBOOK
48
Nematode (worm), Radopholus similis

The burrowing nematode (worm), attacks the coconut root zone.
Symptoms include main roots showing lesions and rotting as the
nematode penetrates delicate regions behind the root cap.
Eriophyid Mites, Aceria guerreronis Keifer

Eriophyid Mites are so minute in size that they are not visible to the
naked eye. Measuring 200-250 microns in length and 20-30 microns
in width, they remain underneath the periyanth (cap) of the coconut
and injures by feeding on the soft paranchymatic tissues.
Visible symptoms are brown discolouration in patches of the husk.

In severe attacks of the button sheds, setting percentage of coconut
is very poor. Coconuts are deformed and undersized, with poorly
developed kernel and husk.
Red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus

The larvae of the Red palm weevil (Figure 4.10) can tunnel into the
trunk of coconut palms, destroying the entire cabbage at which time
the young fronds wilt. This can eventually cause palms to die.
Infestation occurs when there are chewed fibres and reddish-brown

sap oozing from entrance channel.
Figure 4.10 Red palm weevil
Coconut scale, Aspidiotus destructor Signoret

Coconut scale (Figure 4.11) attacks palms at all stages. Infested
leaflets turn yellowish, due to numerous spots which mark the
position of scales on the underside of leaflets. This reduces the
vitality of young palms. As a result, there is low yield.
Figure 4.11 Coconut scale infected coconuts
1
Figures 4.10-4.12 Photo courtesy of Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC)
49
DISEASES
Basal stem rot is a type of fungal disease which affects coconut production. The causal agent for
basal stem rot is Ganoderma boninense. The symptoms are similar to severe drought, making it
difficult to recognise under drought conditions. These include few, poorly developed female flowers;
narrow and elongated nuts in the immature stage; small and distorted nuts in mature stage; thicker
husks; dark brown streaks on the husk, and premature nut fall.
At later stages, reddish brown discolouration develops at the base of the stem, accompanied by
exudation of brown, viscous gummy substance. Dry rot of internal tissue also occurs at the base of
the stem, leading to the formation of large cavities in the bole, causing palms to break off from the
base and fall.
Stem bleeding is associated by fungi - Thielaviopsis paradoxa, Phytophthora palmivora and P.

katsurae. Symptoms include bleeding patches leading to a reddish, brown liquid oozing out of the
stem. When old lesions stop oozing, the fluid dries and turns black. The tissues under the lesions rot,
turn yellow to black, and disintegrate to a dry powdery mass.
Bud or heart rot commonly occurs in humid regions through fungal infection. Symptoms include the
withering of the youngest unfolded leaf and progressive leave fall, starting with the youngest. Light
brown speckles are also found on the petiole bases of the youngest leaves. Often, the first typical
external symptom is the withering and tilting of spear, at the advanced stage of the disease.
Lethal yellowing disease, associated with phytoplasma, causes coconuts to drop prematurely. New
inflorescences will also blacken. The first affected inflorescences usually show partial necrosis but as
the disease progresses, newer inflorescences show more extensive necrosis.
Most of the male flowers die and no fruit are set on those affected inflorescences. Leaves usually
start to yellow after necrosis has developed in more than two inflorescences. The first leaves to turn
yellow are the old, lower hanging ones. Yellowing then advances upwards, affecting the younger
middle and finally, the young, upper leaves. When yellow leaves turn brown, they desiccate and die
while hanging for a few days before falling. Eventually, the whole crown perishes, leaving a bare
trunk or telephone pole.
Bogia Coconut Syndrome (Papua New Guinea) exhibits symptoms similar to the lethal yellowing
disease. Symptoms include leaflet yellowing, necrosis, frond collapse, premature nut fall and
subsequent death.
The Weligama Wilt disease is caused by a phytoplasma. It is characterized by the debilitating nature
of palms. Symptoms include leaf flaccidity, yellowing and finally succumbing to an infection with
other fungal diseases like leaf rot. Occurring in Sri Lanka, the disease is transmitted by insect vectors
which are multi-host species.
Root wilt disease (RWD) is caused by phytoplasma. It exhibits major symptoms like leaves wilting,
drooping and flaccidity; as well as ribbing, yellowing and necrosis of leaflets. These are typical of
foliar diseases.
Cadang-cadang is a common viroid disease affecting coconut plantation in the Philippines. The
symptoms include the production of rounded nuts with equatorial scarifications, as well as smaller,
occasionally distorted nuts. As a result, nut production ends after four years or less.
Spots are also found on the lamina of the third or fourth leaf below the spear.
The bacterial leaf stripe disease gives coconut palm the symptoms of a pale, yellowish streak on the
outer edges of both the leaf blades which develops into stripes. If virulent, the disease can infect the
whole tree in five days with abundant bacterial ooze on the under surface of leaflets.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
50
METHODS COMMONLY USED TO PREVENT AND TREAT PESTS AND DISEASES
Chemical sprays to Mechanical methods, Quarantine regulations

reduce the severity such as light traps, introduced for all plant
of attack to capture pests materials
Biocontrol agents like Natural predators are Removal of plant materials

parasites and parasitoid introduced into the which provide a habitat
under controlled plantation grounds and breeding
conditions ground for pests in
the plantation
Figure 4.12 Methods commonly used to prevent and treat pests and diseases
CHAPTER 5
HARVESTING AND
POST-HARVEST
MANAGEMENT
Coconut palms are productive throughout
the year. However, the yield may vary from
season to season. Almost on a monthly basis,
a normal bearing coconut palm usually
produces one harvestable bunch.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
52
HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST

MANAGEMENT
Coconuts are harvested for HARVESTING
different consumptions. For Coconut palms are productive throughout the year. However, the
the sweetest and tastiest yield may vary from season to season. Almost on a monthly basis,
coconut water, seed nuts a normal bearing coconut palm usually produces one harvestable
usually take seven to nine bunch. On an annual basis, the number of bunches harvested per
months to grow from the palm reaches about 14 from Tall varieties and 16 from Dwarf trees.
flower opening before it
matures. For copra, coconut However, due to practical economic reasons, harvesting for
milk and other derived food copra production usually takes place every 45-90 days. Instead of
products, seed nuts take 10- harvesting on a monthly basis, this allows them to collect a few
13 months to mature from bunches, ranging from 10-13 months old, all at one go.
the flower opening, so that
the kernel is thick enough for FREQUENCY AND AMOUNT
commercial use. A bunch of coconuts from each tree has five to 15 nuts. It can be
harvested every month from a coconut palm. To economise, farmers
usually yield two to three bunches from each tree. This occurs
every harvest cycle, which ranges between 45-60, or 75-90 days.
On average, 10-45 nuts can be collected from each coconut tree at
various maturity stages every harvest cycle. In order to yield a good
number of mature nuts with high copra and oil recovery, the Asian
and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC) recommends that each
harvest takes place in 45-day harvest cycles.
METHODS
The methods of harvesting coconuts vary from country to country,
sometimes even among provinces within the same country.
Nevertheless, the two most common methods of harvesting coconuts
are the pole and climbing methods. In some countries like Thailand,
Malaysia and Indonesia, coconuts are also harvested by trained
monkeys. In others like Papua New Guinea, the coconuts are left to
fall to the ground and collected thereafter.
For the pole method, farmers use a harvesting scythe at the end of
a long bamboo pole to cut the coconut bunch, which is left to drop
from the palm. The advantage of this method is that it is generally
faster, more efficient, less tedious and dangerous compared to the
climbing method. This way, the harvester can harvest more nuts per
unit time from a larger number of trees. In some coconut plantations,
drains are dug out in between the rows of coconut palms,
so the coconuts drop into the body of water which cushions
Figure 5.1 Harvesting with a pole the falling impact.
CHAPTER 5 | HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST HANDLING
53
Using the climbing method (Figure 5.2 and 5.3), the farmer, worker
or trained monkey is engaged to climb up the coconut tree, with or
without a climbing device. For easy climbing, some coconut trees
have grooves carved into their sides. Although this is dangerous, it is
very commonly done to harvest coconuts. Palm climbing devices, like
the ones adopted in India in Figures 5.4 and 5.5, lowers the danger
imposed on the harvesters.
Figure 5.2 Harvesting by climbing Figure 5.3 Harvesting by trained monkey where
labour are scarce
Figure 5.4 Palm climbing device1 Figure 5.5 Harvesting by climbing with Palm
climbing device1
The advantage of climbing is that the harvester can clean and inspect
the crown of the palm for pest and disease attacks. However, the
grooves which are carved to construct steps in the coconut trunk
make the coconut trees less suitable for timber purposes. These
fractures could also be potential entry sites for pests.
1
COCONUT HANDBOOK
54
POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT
YOUNG COCONUTS
Bunches of young coconuts are harvested for coconut water. They
are transported as whole coconuts to the processing site, where each
coconut is cut from bunches in a process called de-fruiting.
Trimming
Trimming decreases the weight of the coconuts, resulting in
substantial savings in transportation. It takes most of the husks away,
so it is easier for consumers to drink water straight from the coconut.
If coconuts are meant for the local market, they are distributed
among the sellers in bunches or individual fruits. If the coconuts are
meant for the export market, the husks are first trimmed with sharp
knives. They are then trimmed again into different cut styles as seen
in Figure 5.6.
Trimmed Part of exocarp is Part of exocarp is Polished

coconut with all cut; trimmed into cut; top is trimmed coconut with
green exocarp tapered-cylindrical into cone-cover cone cover
removal form with cone shape stem end
cover-top
Figure 5.6 Some trimming styles of young coconuts
Packing and pre-cooling

After trimming, the coconuts are dipped into 1-2% sodium
metabisulphite solution for up to three minutes. This prevents
browning and mould infection of the white husks. It can be partially
substituted by using oxalic acid or a blanching process to minimize
mould formation. Thereafter, young coconuts are individually packed
in polypropylene or HDPE bags and then repackaged into boxes for
easy transportation. These boxes are then pre-cooled to less than
4C and stored in refrigerated conditions before transportation.
Transportation
The trimmed young coconuts are transported chilled via sea or land,
and the cold chain is kept constant throughout. They are then sold in
the refrigerated segments of retail channels, such as supermarkets,
cafs and restaurants.
CHAPTER 5 | HARVESTING AND POST-HARVEST HANDLING
55
MATURE COCONUTS
After 10-13 months, mature nuts are harvested for coconut milk and
other coconut derived food products. Usually, they are gathered
together on a single layer on the ground.
Some farmers practise seasoning, in which the coconuts are placed

on dry ground and left to mature for another three weeks to a month,
so that it is easier to dehusk, deshell and pare the testa (skin) off
from the seasoned coconuts. They are also placed on dry ground as
coconuts tend to germinate under damp conditions.
Dehusking
Coconuts are first dehusked before being transported by trucks,
carts or boats to the processing site. Otherwise, they can be bulky.
Dehusking can be done manually or by semi-automated procedures,
but the former is more commonly used.
In manual dehusking, a sharp-pointed shard of steel is used. It is

positioned vertically with the point up and the broader part firmly
placed on the ground. The worker is trained to impale the coconut
on the sharp point with a strong, determined downward movement.
A few impaling strokes loosen the husk, which comes off in one or
a few pieces. As this is a dangerous method of dehusking, some
mechanical coconut dehuskers have been developed which are
Figure 5.7 Mechanical coconut dehuskers
Photo courtesy of Asian and Pacific Coconut
capable of dehusking 300-1200 coconuts per hour (Figure 5.7).
Community
Deshelling and paring

Dehusked coconuts are then transported to processing sites to
remove their shell and optionally, the skin. Next, they are further
processed into coconut milk, cream or other coconut derived food
products like desiccated coconut.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
56
Copra
Ripening for copra processing

For coconuts which are For copra, it is recommended that the harvested nuts undergo a
specifically used for copra, they further ripening stage on dry ground for a month. This promotes
have to undergo a seasoning desirable changes in the greener or somewhat less mature nuts,
stage in order to increase copra which is said to improve the quality of the coconut kernel, thereby
recovery and quality. reducing the tendency to produce rubbery copra, making dehusking
a much easier process.
Kernel drying for copra processing

After seasoning, the coconuts are dehusked and split so the coconut
water is thrown away and lost to the soil. Alternative uses for coconut
water like biogas generation, or processing and packaging for ready-
to-drink purposes, can also help to reduce pollution. The coconut
kernel is then dried under the sun or in a kiln, hot air dryer. This
improves oil yield and reduces aflatoxin incidence.
Harmful to humans and animals, aflatoxin occurs when mould,

such as Aspergillus flavus, grows on improperly dried copra.
Drying the kernel reduces the moisture content from 50% down
to 6%, resulting in copra. It is then sent to the processing site for
oil extraction.
CHAPTER 6
COCONUT FOOD
PRODUCTION
It is popular among Indonesians to say that
there is a use for the coconut palm in every day
of the year. Indeed, coconuts can be processed
into many products. The coconut kernel
and water are two edible parts which
form the basic ingredient for a
variety of coconut products.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
58
COCONUT FOOD PRODUCTION

It is popular among Indonesians to say that there is a use for the
coconut palm in every day of the year. Indeed, coconuts can be
processed into many products. The coconut kernel and water are two
edible parts which form the basic ingredient for a variety of coconut
products. Figure 6.1 in the next page shows how these products are
made through a combination of processes and sometimes, a by-
product of each other.
COCONUT WATER
Coconut water is a refreshing and cooling drink. Its sodium and
potassium content makes it an ideal drink for rehydration. In a
healthy, undamaged coconut, the water is even sterile. During
World War II, coconut water was used intravenously to treat patients
suffering from blood loss when blood plasma was not available.
It is also a ready source of clean drinking water, especially after a
natural disaster.
There was little need to develop scientific knowledge on coconut

water processing as it was typically consumed fresh from the nut.
The science behind coconut water and its characteristics was only
required when there was exponential demand from various markets
which did not produce enough coconuts. As such, coconut water
was extracted, processed, packaged and transported across long
distances. This presented new challenges as coconut water reacts
quickly once the nut is opened. With the advances in aseptic
packaging technology, the shelf life of coconut water can be
extended for up to a year. Please refer to Chapter 11 for more details.
Coconut water is harvested from young and mature coconuts. Due to

different characteristics of the husk, shell and interior of the coconut,
the extraction methods for both types are slightly different.
Nevertheless, both types of coconut water can be extracted and
processed for packaging. They are drilled into the cavity to obtain
the coconut water. Normally, the drilling of a hole occurs at or near
one of the three eyes of the coconuts where the shell and flesh is the
thinnest or weakest.
CHAPTER 6 | COCONUT FOOD PRODUCTION
59
PRODUCTION OF COCONUT FOODS
Coconuts for
Dip in Shrink Store at
1st Trim 2nd Trim local/export
SMB wrap & box 4 oC
market
Defruit & quality check:

Transport to Coconuts
Young - Size, Weight
processing in
Coconut - Cracks in husk
site bunches
- Foul Smell
Manual
Cutting
Coconut Nata de
Wash Ferment
Water coco
Automated
cutting
Nata de Coconut Coconut Water

Ferment Concentrate
coco Water Concentrate
Coconut
Beverage
Drill Deshell
Coconut
Spray Milk Powder
Dry (full fat)
Quality check:
Mature - Size
Dehusk - Cracks in husk, teary
Coconut Skim
eyes, bloated eyes Coconut
Coconut
Milk/Cream
Milk
Cut,
Brown Skin Grind &
Season Deshell Halve Fresh-wet
Kernel Press extraction
Virgin
Coconut Oil
Dehusk Pare
(VCO)
Low Fat
Desiccated
Coconut
Coconut White
Animal (from white
Halve water as Meat
Feed meat residue)
waste Kernel
White/Brown
Dry
Dry Grate meat residue
Dry Copra
Extraction & Dry
White/Brown Animal
meat residue Feed (from
Crude Refine, brown meat
Desiccated Fresh-dry
Coconut Bleach & residue)
Coconut extraction
Oil Deodorize Virgin
Coconut Oil
(VCO)
RBD Legend:
Coconut
Raw materials from young coconut
Oil
Raw materials from mature coconut
Production stages
Products
Waste/by-products
Further Mixing and Processing
Figure 1 Integrated Processing of Coconut Products (Flowchart)

COCONUT HANDBOOK
60
Coconut water is also considered a by-product of desiccated coconut

or coconut milk production, where the mature coconuts are collected
and halved. As consumers increasingly demand the best quality
coconut water, manufacturers prefer to drill the mature coconuts
instead. This drains the coconut water out by minimizing the
contamination of coconut water from the loose soil and fibres from
the mature coconut shell.
After extraction, coconut water is filtered. Filtration can be done

using a cheese cloth, fine filter or a scrap surface filter. This is
especially important for mature coconut water, as dry husk fibres
and dirt from the shell of mature nuts can easily get into the coconut
water during extraction. After filtration, the coconut water is quickly
cooled to retard any deterioration reactions. Then, it is sent for de-
oiling (separation), subsequent pasteurization and aseptic packaging.
If coconut water is extracted at a location away from the aseptic
packaging site, the filtered coconut water can be packed into food
grade plastic bags, quickly cooled and transported to downstream
processing. Please refer to Chapters 7, 11 and 12 for more details.
Often, it is not commercially viable to transport large amounts of

single strength coconut water (92-95% water content) in bulk
to markets where coconuts are not readily available. As such,
technological advances can concentrate coconut water to higher
soluble solid levels of 60-65 Brix (or 35-40% water content), saving
considerable resources on transportation.
To produce coconut water concentrate, fresh coconut water is

first passed through a pre-concentration stage of reverse osmosis
to increase the total solids. Then, it goes into a multiple effect
evaporation stage to increase Brix levels. Usually, the product is
concentrated to 60-65 Brix and packed into 200 kg plastic bags in
drums for bulk transportation under ambient conditions. At this high
Brix level, the concentration of coconut water is somewhat self-
preserving. Upon arrival, it is recommended that the concentrate be
stored at -18C for use up to two years. To reconstitute the coconut
water concentrate to single strength coconut water for further aseptic
processing and packaging, concentrate is blended with water at
appropriate proportions to get the desired Brix level.
61
Coconut water is a good rehydration

drink that is cholesterol free, low in
fat, and high in electrolytes.
It provides an alternative to carbohydrate based sports
drink, providing the same rehydration benefits with
lower calorie count. Coconut water is also used as a
base for coconut-flavoured beverages. Usually, taste can
be further enhanced and diversified by adding other
ingredients such as fruit juice, tea, coffee, chocolate
and more.
Besides drinking, coconut water can also be used for

cooking. For example, it is commonly used to cook rice
and other grains, braise meats like pork and beef, make
clear soups and salad dressings.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
62
COCONUT MILK AND CREAM

Coconut milk and cream is produced from 10-13 months old mature
When the kernel is hard and
coconuts when the kernel is hard and thick. They are natural
thick, it is full of carbohydrates,
oil-in-water emulsions extracted from the mature coconut kernel.
oil (mainly medium chain
triglycerides, MCTs) and
The difference between coconut milk and cream is the amount of fat
aromatic compounds. This
in the products. It is important to categorize coconut milk products
is suitable for coconut milk
according to fat content. The Codex Standards for Aqueous coconut
extraction, imparting a unique
products states that coconut milk should contain at least 10% fat,
flavour profile and creamy
2.7% non-fat solids, and 12.7-25.3% total solids. While coconut
texture to coconut milk and
cream should contain at least 20% fat, 5.4% non-fat solids and
cream.
25.4-37.3% fat (Table 6.1).
TOTAL NON-FAT
FAT MOISTURE
SOLIDS SOLIDS pH
(%m/m) (%m/m)
PRODUCT (%m/m) (%m/m)
MIN. - MAX. MIN. MIN. MAX. MIN.
Light coconut
6.6-12.6 1.6 5 93.4 5.9
milk
Coconut milk 12.7-25.3 2.7 10 87.3 5.9
Coconut cream 25.4-37.3 5.4 20 74.6 5.9
Coconut cream
37.4 min. 8.4 29 62.6 5.9
concentrate
Table 6.1 Classification of coconut milk and cream
Source: CODEX STAN 240-2003
To extract coconut milk and cream, mature coconuts must first be

dehusked and deshelled. The layer of brown skin is also pared off
to get a layer of white kernel, as the skin can impart a brown colour
and slightly bitter taste to extracted coconut milk. The kernel is then
washed, drained and grated by machine into kernel flakes. Thereafter,
it is mechanically pressed to extract the coconut milk.
?
To extract coconut milk at home, consumers usually buy grated kernel
and mix with water, as water is especially helpful in manual extraction.
The mixture is then poured into a sieve or a muslin cloth where it is
The fat and oil levels
in coconut milk and squeezed by hand. This extraction can be repeated a few times by
cream is dependent on adding water to maximize the soluble material extracted from the
the amount of water kernel. With each subsequent extraction, the oil level of the resulting
added during the extraction
coconut milk decreases, which varies according to the amount of
process. As more water
is added, fat levels water added to the mixture. Extracted coconut milk can either be
are lowered in the used immediately, or left to stand. Upon standing, it separates into
resulting product. two distinct layers the oil-rich phase (cream) on top, and the water-
rich (whey) below.
63
To extract coconut milk for industrial manufacturing purposes, mature

coconuts go through deshelling and paring. Pieces of kernels are
then sent into industrial scale cutters and grinders. In integrated
plants, the by-product coconut water is also collected by drilling the
coconut before deshelling, or halving the coconuts after deshelling.
Next, grated coconut kernel then goes into a series of screw presses
to extract coconut milk. The residual kernel from this first press is then
mixed with water before it is pressed again to increase extraction
yield. Extraction yield can be represented by oil recovery yield.
Used widely in South and WHERE:

X = amount of coconut
Southeast Asia, coconut milk cream
Oil Amount of oil extracted XY Y = fat content (%) in
lends a creamy texture and
Recovery = = coconut cream
coconut flavoured aroma to yield Amount of oil in feed wc w = average weight of
kernel
various cuisines. In Bahasa, c = fat content (%) in
kernel
this is commonly referred to
as lemak. In general, the fat
levels in packaged coconut
After extraction, coconut milk is filtered to remove large
milk and cream ranges from
contaminants. It can then be standardized to a pre-determined level
17-25% in ASEAN countries.
of fat and blended with other ingredients. Finally, coconut milk is
pasteurized and aseptically filled into packages for transportation to
global markets.
The composition of coconut milk can be found in Table 6.2.
The composition of coconut PHYSICAL PROPERTIES RANGE
milk is dependent on factors Specific gravity 1.0029-1.0080
affecting extraction yield and Surface tension (dyne cm-2) 97.76-125.43

the type of coconut kernel Viscosity, (mPa.s) 1.61-2.02
used. It also depends on Refractive index 1.3412-1.3446
the maturity and growing
pH 5.95-6.30
conditions, as well as whether
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (%) RANGE
or not the brown skin has been
Moisture 73.47-76.84
pared off.
Fat 18.83-21.09
Protein 2.14-2.97
Ash 0.63-0.96
Total sugars 0.82-1.62

Table 6.2 Physical properties and chemical composition of coconut milk
Source: Gonzalez, 1990; Tangsuphoom, 2008.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
64
EXTRACTION YIELD DEPENDS ON A FEW FACTORS
When particle sizes are smaller,
1 2 3 4 there is more surface area for better

extraction. As pressure increases,
the yield also increases. Hand
Size of the Pressure Temperature Amount of
pressing yields about 50% recovery
particles applied during water added
of coconut milk while pressurized
pressing for extraction extraction increases the recovery of
coconut milk up to 80%.
COCONUT MILK BEVERAGES

Coconut milk drinks are healthy beverages. Unless it contains spray-
dried coconut powder and skim milk, it is naturally cholesterol
free and contains healthy medium chain fatty acids. Coconut milk
beverages also provide an alternative to dairy products for lactose
intolerant consumers.
In general, coconut milk beverages are not readily available in many

countries where there is little or no coconut production of their own.
As a perishable product, coconut milk beverage has limited shelf life
and is easily attacked by microorganisms and bacterial enzymes when
exposed to the environment.
To prevent this, recombination is an alternative method of supplying

a product that closely resembles fresh coconut milk to markets
where the genuine article is not available. Through recombination,
coconut milk beverages can be produced from coconut milk,
coconut milk powder or coconut water. It can also be produced from
a combination of the three, with additional ingredients like juices,
flavourings and fortifications.
Production methods and factors affecting coconut milk beverages are

discussed in Chapters 8, 9, 11 and 12.
COCONUT OIL
Coconut oil is one of the main products traditionally derived from
the coconut kernel. It is a mixture of chemical compounds called
triglycerides that are compounds made up of fatty acids and glycerol.
Coconut oil is rich in saturated fatty acids and low in unsaturated fatty
acids. The different fatty acids present in coconut can range from
C6-C18 carbon atom chains.
Coconut oil processing methods or technologies are classified into

two major types based on copra or fresh coconut kernel used. The
oil extraction technology, which starts with copra as the raw material,
is commonly known as the dry process. While the method that uses
fresh coconuts as starting material is generally called the fresh-wet or
65
fresh-dry process. Based on different separation methods, coconut oil

can be classified into two types RBD coconut oil and virgin coconut
oil (VCO). The former is refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD)
from dry extraction, while the latter is produced by fresh-wet and
fresh-dry extractions.
Fatty acids composition between RBD coconut oil and VCO are
similar, with the VCO regulation largely falling within the Codex
specifications for coconut oil (see Table 6.3 and 6.4).
PARAMETER APCC STANDARD FOR VCO

Moisture (%) max 0.1
Matters volatile at 120C (%) max 0.2
Free fatty acids (%) max 0.2
Peroxide value (meq/kg) max 3
Relative density 0.915-0.920
Refractive index at 40C 1.4480-1.4492
Insoluble impurities % by mass max 0.05
Saponification value 250-260 min.
Iodine value 4.1-11
Unsaponifiable matter % by mass, max. 0.2-0.5
Specific gravity at 30C 0.915-0.920
Polenske value, min. 13
Total plate count < 0.5
Colour water clear
Natural fresh coconut scent, free of

Odour and taste
sediment, rancid odour and taste
Table 6.3 Essential composition and quality factors of virgin coconut oil (VCO) by APCC
Source: APCC Standards for Virgin Coconut Oil
CODEX STANDARD FOR APCC STANDARD

FATTY ACID
RBD COCONUT OIL FOR VCO
C6 nd-0.70 0.40-0.60
C8 4.60-10.00 5.00-10.00
C10 5.0-8.0 4.50-8.00
C12 45.10-53.20 43.00-53.00
C14 16.80-21.00 16.00-21.00
C16 7.50-10.20 7.50-10.00
C18:0 2.00-4.00 2.00-4.00
C18:1 5.00-10.00 5.00-10.00
C18:2 1.00-2.50 1.00-2.50
C18:3 nd-0.20 <0.5

Table 6.4 Fatty acid composition of RBD coconut oil and virgin coconut oil
Source: Marina et al., 2009 and APCC Standards for Virgin Coconut Oil.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
66
RBD COCONUT OIL

Oil extracted from smoked or Coconut kernel is converted into copra before it is expelled and
sun-dried copra is classified refined for oil production. This is done by first drying the kernel
as crude coconut oil. It has under the sun in an oil mill. To extract coconut oil for extensive
high free fatty acid (FFA) food and industrial purposes, dry processing is used. Clean, ground
values, carries a rancid odour and steamed copra is first pressed by wedge press, screw press or
and spots a dark colour. The hydraulic press to obtain coconut oil, which then goes through the
crude oil is first refined by refining, bleaching, and deodorizing (RBD) processes. During the
neutralization, bleaching, and RBD process, heat is applied to deodorization, which is carried out at
deodorization (RBD) processes, high temperatures between 204-245C.
then packaged for sale.
During dry processing, oil is extracted by two methods
mechanically pressing or using solvents. For copra with high oil
content, mechanical extraction is efficient and economical. For
oil seed that requires further oil extraction from copra cake, the
solvent extraction method is more suitable as it uses sophisticated
equipment in large-scale operations.
When oil is extracted with the mechanical method, low-pressure

expellers are used. The pre-treated copra is continuously moved
under increasing pressure by a worm screw in a horizontal cage of
barrel made of metal bars to expel out the crude coconut oil. What
is left behind is the copra cake, which can then undergo solvent
extraction to extract higher oil yields. By combining both methods,
oil yields are more efficient and economical than just using either one
of them.
When oil is extracted with the solvent method, hexane is used to

dissolve the oil in copra or copra cake. The copra is steeped in
hexane and allowed to percolate continuously through a bed of
copra. In general, the copra moves in one direction while the solvent-
oil mixture moves in the opposite direction.
67
VIRGIN COCONUT OIL (VCO)

To extract VCO on an industrial When fresh-wet extraction is used, VCO is obtained from coconut
scale, fresh-wet extraction is milk. It can be consumed in its natural state without further
done via a concentration stage processing (e.g. RBD process). VCO mainly consists of medium chain
of the coconut milk. It then triglycerides which are resistant to peroxidation. The fatty acids in
goes into a phase inversion VCO are distinct from animal fats which contain mainly long chain
stage, followed by purification saturated fatty acids. As such, it is colourless, free of sediment and a
where separators are used rancid odour. It also spots a naturally fresh coconut scent.
to extract oil. Thereafter, the
coconut milk undergoes drying To extract VCO on a small scale, the biochemical method is used.
and polishing to bring down the This is based on the action of microorganisms on coconut milk, which
moisture content to 0.1-0.2%. results in the liberation of coconut oil from coconut milk emulsion. It
Finally, it is packaged into is a simple and economical process that requires only 48-72 hours to
bottles for consumption. separate the oil from the whey and protein portion of coconut milk.
The enzymes and acids produced by the microorganisms trigger the
separation of oil from the coconut milk. Water-white, rancid-resistant,
and sweet smelling oil is produced by the action of Leuconostoc
citrovorum, Streptococcus lactis, and Bacilus subtilis. A pure culture
of Lactobacillus plantarum can also be used. Finally, the VCO
extracted is about 90.2% oil.
Through fresh-dry extraction, VCO is produced from fresh coconut

kernel. This is first dehydrated to form desiccated coconut, which
then goes into high pressure expellers to extract the oil. The oil then
goes through a stage of setting and filtration to polish the oil into
water-like clarity.
In terms of physicochemical properties, VCO does not vary

much from RBD coconut oil. Nevertheless, Table 6.5 shows some
comparisons between VCO and RBD coconut oil.
VIRGIN COCONUT OIL RBD COCONUT

PARAMETER
(VCO) OIL
Colour Colourless Yellow
Aroma Similar to fresh coconut No perceptible aroma
Acid, cocojam (aroma

associated with roasted
coconut), latik (aroma of cooked
coconut with sweet sensation),
nutty and rancid aromas
Flavour Sweet taste and nutty flavour No perceptible flavour
Phenolic content Higher Lower
Antioxidant activity (%) 71 56

Table 6.5 Comparison between Virgin Coconut Oil and RBD Coconut Oil
COCONUT HANDBOOK
68
COCONUT FLOUR
Coconut flour is a screened food grade product obtained after
drying, expelling and extracting most of the oil or milk from sound
coconut meat. It is cream coloured and less white than all-purpose
flour. With a slightly nutty odour, it tastes almost bland, due to its
reduced fat content. It is classified according to fat (low, medium and
high), protein (high protein) and fibre (high fibre) (see Table 6.6).
In general, coconut flour CLASSIFICATION OF

DESCRIPTION
COCONUT FLOUR
can either be processed
From unpared, dehydrated and edible coconut
from fresh coconut kernel, Whole, full fat
kernels by pre-pressing and solvent extraction.
or obtained as a by-product
From pared coconut meat From pared, dehydrated and edible coconut kernel.
after milk extraction.
Defatted Obtained from food grade copra, defatted by solvent
or mechanical extraction. Brownish in colour.
Low fat 10-15% fat content

Medium fat 16-25% fat content
High fat 25-48% fat content
From finely grounded coconut flour residue called

sapal. Fat content of the resulting flour ranges from
Low-fat, high fibre
10-15%, and has a total dietary fibre content of more
than 60%.
Prepared from dehydrated, finely grounded coconut

High-protein, high fibre
meat.
Paring flour Prepared from the paring or testa of the coconut.
Copra meal Obtained after extracting oil for granulated copra.

Table 6.6 Sub-classifications of coconut flour
Source: Philippine Coconut Authority, 2010
COCONUT MILK POWDER

Coconut milk powder is spray-dried coconut milk. Similar to instant
milk powder, it is white in colour, free flowing and easily dispersed in
water. It also has an acceptable coconut flavour.
Powdered coconut milk contains about 61% oil, 27% carbohydrates,

7% protein, 1.8% ash, 0.2-0.8% moisture and 0.02% crude fibre. It
can be easily reconstituted into coconut milk by adding water and
used directly in food recipes.
For coconut milk to be spray-dried into powder, it must first be mixed

with maltodextrin and casein (sodium caseinate or skim milk). This is
because maltodextrin is required in the spray drying operation, while
casein prevents lumping of the coconut milk powder due to its high
fat content reaching up to 79%. With casein, the protein encapsulates
the small oil droplets which prevents them from lumping together,
forming a powdery product.
69
DESICCATED COCONUT
Desiccated coconut is produced from the kernel of fully matured
coconuts. Rich in oil and taste, it is a commonly found ingredient in
the confectionary industry for many baked foods, chocolates, candies
and even ice cream. For over 70 years, it is a traditionally exported
commodity, and is one of the most important commercial products
from coconut. As it is made directly from coconut meat, desiccated
coconut retains the original oil and protein of a fresh mature coconut.
To produce desiccated coconut, fresh mature coconut kernel is

first pared down to remove the brown skin and any infected meat.
The white kernel is then rinsed and sterilized to eliminate bacteria,
including Salmonella which cases food poisoning.
To sterilize, the meat can be pasteurized at 80-90C in 2% sodium

metabisulphite solution for 20 minutes. It can also be passed through
a large tank containing boiling water or subjecting the pieces of meat
to live steam in stainless steel blanchers at 80C for five minutes. The
pasteurized kernel is then sent to the disintegrators or cutters where
it is cut and then shredded into a fine, wet meal. The cutters have
adjustable provisions so that shredded coconut meat of different
sizes can be obtained.
The wet meal is then dried by spreading it out on trays which are
then mounted in tiers in a hot-air drier. It can also be dried in a
continuous dryer with two stages where the material is turned over
from the first to the second stage. This is done until it reaches a low
moisture content of about 2.5-3.5%. Different sizes of desiccated
coconut is then mixed and conveyed to a sieving machine, where
different particle sizes are separated and bagged into 50kg bags.
Alternatively, desiccated coconut is produced from the by-product of

coconut milk production. The wet meal that is left after coconut milk
has been extracted from the wet kernel is still a good source of fibre,
protein, and oil. It can go through further shredding, or go straight
into the dryer and dried until it reaches a low moisture content. As
a result, such desiccated coconut has lower fat levels and can be
classified as defatted desiccated coconut.
In general, there are four different grades of desiccated coconut

classified according to coarse, medium, fine and superfine sizes.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
70
The required specifications for desiccated coconut are not uniform

across all markets. Each exporter or importer has his own standards
and requirements. The Codex definition on desiccated coconut is
seen in Table 6.7.
In some markets where sulphite treatment is carried out, it is specified

by some buyers that the residual level of sulphite is no more than
15-100ppm, or sulphite-free.
PARAMETERS REQUIREMENTS
Total acidity of the extracted oil 0.3% m/m
measured as lauric acid
Moisture 4% m/m
Oil content 60% m/m

for desiccated coconut from coconuts
without oil extraction
35 and < 60% m/m

for desiccated coconut from coconuts
which have had partial oil extraction
Ash 2.5% m/m
Extraneous vegetable material: 15 fragments per 100g

Harmless vegetable matter associated
with the product
Foreign matter: Any visible and/or Absence in 100 g

apparent matter or material not usually
associated with the product
Table 6.7 Chemical and physical characteristics of desiccated coconut
NATA DE COCO
71
Ingredients for culturing 1 kg of nata Mother liquor, containing Acetobacter
12 cups (3 kg) of coconut water xylinum, is obtained from a previous
(or milk of one coconut in 12 cups of water) culture. Stocks of freeze-dried mother
2 cups of mother liquor liquor are usually held at government
institutions engaged in industrial
1/4 cups of glacial acetic acid development or research.
NATA DE COCO
Nata de coco is a gelatinous dessert with a clear, smooth and chewy
texture. It is composed of cellulose produced by the action of an
acidic medium called Acetobacter xylinum on coconut water or
diluted coconut milk. Nata, when formed, is sweetened by cooking
in thick sugar syrup. After production, nata de coco is bottled
for local consumption and exported to the Philippines, Thailand,
Indonesia, and Sri Lanka.
First, coconut water or diluted coconut milk is filtered and boiled to

kill off contaminants. Next, the filtered mixture is cooled. Then, a cup
of sugar is dissolved and added into the mixture along with mother
liquor and acetic acid. Finally, the mixture is poured into culture
jars to a height of 60 mm, covered with clean paper and incubated
between 23-32C, optimally at 28C. The jars are left undisturbed, so
that the nata formed at the surface will sink to the bottom.
After eight to 10 days, nata is picked out with a clean fork when it
is about 25 mm thick. Care should be taken not to contaminate the
mother liquid below the nata formation, as it will be used again as a
culture in the next production of nata. It is then cleaned by removing
the creamy, acid formation at the bottom and cut into squares of
about 20 mm. It is then washed and boiled for one minute in an open
pan, drained, and soaked in water that is changed constantly. This is
repeated until the acidic taste is removed.
Finally, the nata is drained over a two hour period. Sugar syrup is
prepared using two cups of sugar with one cup of water. Last but not
least, the product is kept overnight when the nata and colouring are
added. The next day, the nata is cooked until the gummy texture is
removed and becomes relatively transparent. Flavouring is added
and nata bottles are filled with 75% nata and 25% sugar syrup.
For packaging, the bottles are tightly sealed with seal caps and
processed in boiling water for 30 minutes, then dried and cooled
before storage.
When produced on an industrial scale, large, 200 litre drums are used
to mix the acid, coconut water or diluted coconut milk with mother
liquor and sugar. Nata is also set in moulding containers about
2-3 cm thick.
RECIPES
COCONUT HANDBOOK
72
Coconut water and milk can be combined with other ingredients

in cooking. Here are some delicious in-home recipes for reference.
BEVERAGES (2 SERVINGS)
COCONUT MILK BEVERAGE COCONUT SOY BEVERAGE
Delicious alternative to dairy milk Delicious alternative to dairy milk
1-2 tablespoon coconut milk or cream 1-2 tablespoon of coconut milk

1 cup coconut water 1 cup of soy milk
Sugar and 1 teaspoon chocolate powder to taste Sugar or honey to taste
Stir all ingredients well. Best served chilled. Blend all and serve chilled immediately.
HANGOVER CURE COCONUT AND CRANBERRY FLUSH

Hydrates the body quickly and safely Maintains good urinary health
1 green tea bag 2 cups coconut water

2 cups coconut water 2 cups cranberry juice
Bring coconut water to boil in a saucepan. Take off Blend well and serve immediately.
heat.
Steep the green tea bag in hot coconut water for
3-4 minutes. STRAWBERRIES AND
Blend well and serve immediately. PINEAPPLE SMOOTHIE
Healthy liquid breakfast packed with antioxidants and other
immune-boosting properties
GREEN HELPER 1 cup coconut water
Balances an over-acidic body
1 cup pineapple chunks
1 medium cucumber
1 teaspoon honey (more to taste)
1 large red apple
2 cups halved strawberries
2 cups coconut water
2 cups crushed ice
6 carrots
Some cubed coconut kernel
6 stalks celery
Combine all ingredients in blender and process until
Handful of ice cubes smooth.
Run the cucumber, red apple, carrots and celery stalks Divide smoothie between 2 glasses and serve chilled.
through the juicer.
Mix fresh juices well with coconut water.
Add ice and serve immediately.
COCONUT WATER AND

WATERMELON COOLER
Rehydrates and cools on a hot day
1 cup coconut water
1 fresh lime, juiced
1 tablespoon honey
2 cups fresh watermelon chunks without seeds
Blend until smooth and serve immediately.
MEALS (4 TO 6 SERVINGS)
CHICKEN AND BARLEY SOUP
Nourishes the soul
cup pearl barley
1 chicken, cut into large pieces
1 onion, chopped
2 large carrots, chopped
2 stalks leek, chopped
Powdered chicken stock, to taste
Sea salt flakes and freshly ground pepper, to taste
Chopped parsley for garnishing
Fill a large pot with coconut water and add the chicken
pieces. Cook on low heat until chicken is tender.
Remove chicken from broth and set aside until cool
enough to handle.
CHICKEN CURRY
Cool broth and skim off chicken fat. Remove meat Satisfies a hearty appetite
from bones; discard bones and shred meat. Set aside.
cup coconut milk
Add vegetables and barley to the broth and bring to a
onion, diced
boil.
Reduce heat; cover and simmer for 1 hour or until 1 oz (25 g) curry powder for meat
vegetables and barley are tender. 1 big tomato, cut into wedges, optional
Add shredded chicken to broth during the last 10
1 lbs chicken, chopped into pieces
minutes of cooking.
2 small potatoes, peeled and cut
Season with salt and pepper to taste. Serve hot with into wedges
chopped parsley as garnish.
2 tablespoon oil
3 cups water
4 hard-boiled eggs, optional
Salt to taste
Heat oil in a pot. Stir-fry onions until aromatic, add
curry powder.
Stir a few times, then add the chicken, stir to combine
for about 1 minute. Add the water into the pot and
bring it to boil.
Lower the heat, add tomatoes, potatoes and eggs.
Cover the pot, simmer for 30-45 minutes or until
chicken is tender.
Add coconut milk and salt to taste, simmer for another
5 minutes.
Dish out and serve immediately with steamed rice.
DESSERTS (2 SERVINGS)
COCONUT JELLY
Healthy, low-fat sweet indulgence

3 tablespoon gelatine
1 cup sugar
1 tablespoon lemon juice
cup coconut milk to coat
cup melted coconut palm sugar (Gula Melaka)
to coat
1 teaspoon of toasted grated coconut
Dissolve sugar in 2 cups of coconut water

Heat 1 cup coconut water over low heat, add in
gelatine and mix until fully dissolved
Strain coconut water-gelatine blend into coconut
water sugar blend.
KAYA
Add in lemon juice and gently mix. Coconut egg jam
Pour into individual moulds and chill it with the cup coconut cream
required time.
cup coconut milk
Serve with freshly squeezed coconut milk and melted
palm sugar (or Gula Melaka) drizzled over 1 tablespoons corn starch
Garnish with toasted grated coconut to own 1 tablespoons water
preference.
3 pandan leaves, tied into a knot
Alternatively, substitute the liquid used to make your
favourite jelly recipe with coconut water. 4-5 eggs
50-75g sugar, dissolved to make caramel
200g sugar
Crack the eggs into a big bowl, whisk well with
coconut cream, coconut milk, and sugar.
Filter the mixture with a strainer and transfer the egg
mixture into a sauce pan.
Add pandan leaves into egg mixture and turn on the
heat to medium low.
Using a wood spatula or a pair of wooden chopsticks
to stir the mixture until they are cooked for about 20
minutes.
To thicken the kaya, add corn starch mixture and stir.
At the same time, heat the sugar in a sauce pan until it
melts into caramel.
Add the caramel into the kaya, stir to combine. The
colour of the kaya should be golden brown.
Let the kaya cool and discard pandan leaves.
Blend the mixture until a silky smooth consistency is
reached.
Keep refrigerated and use within a week.
CHAPTER 7
THE CHEMISTRY OF
COCONUT WATER
Coconut water is a natural, fat-free drink.
Low in sugars and calories, it is rich in
essential electrolytes and vitamins.
Dubbed the fluid of life,
coconut is safe for everyone to
drink fresh from the nut.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
76
THE CHEMISTRY OF COCONUT WATER

Coconut water is a natural, fat-free drink. Low in sugars and calories,
it is rich in essential electrolytes and vitamins. Dubbed the fluid of
life, coconut is safe for everyone to drink fresh from the nut. As the
Hawaiians say, coconut water is dew from the heavens.
Once the coconut is opened, coconut water begins to lose its

nutrients and flavours. This is partly due to naturally occurring
enzymes found in coconut water. When peroxidase (POD) and
polyphenol oxidase (PPO) come into contact with oxygen, reactions
cause nutritional and flavour losses. This section covers the reactions
that happen when coconut water is extracted and loses protection of
the coconuts sterile environment.
COMPOSITION OF COCONUT WATER

Analytical studies have shown that coconut water contains nutrients
such as glucose, amino acids and electrolytes such as potassium,
calcium and magnesium (Table 7.1). While the composition of
coconut water was covered in Chapter 3, it is important to recall the
differences in the composition of coconut water obtained from young
(7-9 months) and mature (10-13 months) coconuts.
The composition, physicochemical, PPO and POD enzyme activities

are influenced by factors such as geographical location and variety.
The compositional differences relate to the effects deterioration
reactions have as well as the quality aspects of coconut water.
In general, young coconuts have higher sugar levels and total

phenolic contents than mature coconuts. While mature coconuts have
higher protein levels and pH values than young coconuts, the amount
of minerals can also vary between young and mature coconuts. For
example, the amount of potassium in coconut water increases as the
coconut matures.
CHAPTER 7 | THE CHEMISTRY OF COCONUT WATER
77
COCONUT MATURITY STAGE

PHYSICOCHEMICAL (MONTHS)
PROPERTIES
5-6 8-9 12
Volume of water (mL) 684 518 332
Total soluble solids (Brix) 5.6 6.15 4.85
Titratable acidity (%)

1
0.089 0.076 0.061
pH 4.78 5.34 5.71
Turbidity2
0.031 0.337 4.051
SUGAR CONTENT
Fructose (mg/mL) 39.04 32.52 21.48
Glucose (mg/mL) 35.43 29.96 19.06
Sucrose (mg/mL) 0.85 6.36 14.37
MINERALS
Potassium (mg/100 mL) 220.94 274.32 351.10
Sodium (mg/100 mL) 7.61 5.6 36.51
Magnesium (mg/100 mL) 22.03 20.87 31.65
Calcium (mg/100 mL) 8.75 15.19 23.98
Iron (mg/L) 0.294 0.308 0.322
Protein (mg/mL) 0.041 0.042 0.217
Total phenolic content3 (mg/L) 54.00 42.59 25.7

Table 7.1 Physicochemical properties of coconut water
1
Titratable acidity expressed as malic acid percentage
2
Turbidity expressed as absorbance reading at 600 nm
3
Total phenolic content expressed as mg GAE/L
PROPERTIES AND REACTIONS OF COCONUT WATER
FLAVOUR
Flavour is the complex experience of smell, taste and mouthfeel.
The flavour profile of coconut water is built from acids, sugar,
phenolic compounds and mineral content. Coconut water extraction,
formulation, processing and storage can also affect the flavour.
Between 7-9 months, the sweetness of coconut water increases to

its maximum when sugar content increases. From 10-13 months, the
sugar levels decrease and coconut water tastes less sweet. This is
represented by total soluble solids (Brix).
Left at a room temperature of 25C, fresh coconut water turns sour, as

various oxidative and fermentative reactions occur. This forms acids
as products. To maintain the acceptability of fresh coconut water, it
should be kept under chilled condition at all times.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
78
In general, acidity of coconut water decreases with maturity, and this

contributes to the increasing sweetness of coconut water between
seven to nine months. The phenolic content also contributes to the
overall flavour profile of coconut water. It decreases with maturity,
hence mature and young coconut water tastes significantly different.
When oxidized, the polyphenols can also lead to a complex reaction,

resulting in the undesired discolouration of coconut water.
Rancidity
Rancidity refers to developing off-flavours when the hydrolysis,
oxidation or microbial degradation of lipids form free fatty acids
(FFA), which subsequently undergoes further reactions and yield off-
flavoured ketones.
While coconut water does not contain much oil content, the lipids
present may cause rancidity. Depending on the number of carbons,
these ketonic compounds give different off-flavours. For example,
heptan-2-one gives a rancid almond flavour while nonan-2-one gives
a turpentine flavour (Kellard et al., 1985). For more details, please
refer to Chapter 8 on lipid oxidation and lipolysis.
APPEARANCE
Coconut water is a relatively clear, colourless liquid. Its appearance is
affected by coconut maturity and environmental exposure.
Turbidity
Turbidity refers to the extent which coconut water appears to be
unclear. Naturally, it increases as coconuts mature. In addition,
turbidity is influenced by the total dissolved sugars, proteins, and
other matters. It is also affected by the count of microorganisms
when coconut water is exposed to the environment upon extraction.
When this happens, microorganisms multiply and contribute to the
increasing turbidity of coconut water. Hence, if a young coconut
water is left exposed with no control measures like cooling, it can turn
as turbid as mature coconut water in a matter of hours.
Colour
Browning
Due to high oxidation and heat, coconut water can turn from clear or
slight white turbidity to brown. This is brought by complex reactions
in its components. Typically, it is caused by phenolic oxidation,
Maillard reaction and caramelization. These browning reactions are
also found in other beverages like green tea, apple and sugar cane
juices. The quality of coconut water is preserved when these reactions
can be retarded or stopped completely.
79
Enzymatic phenolic oxidation

Enzymatic browning is one of the most important colour reactions
that affect fruits, vegetables, and seafood. When coconut water is
extracted, its exposure to air initiates reactions like oxidation. This
is promoted by enzymes polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase
(POD) which are naturally present in coconut water. When enzymes
catalyse, the oxidation of phenolic compounds present in coconut
water form brown pigments. In Table 7.2, the assessment shows that
the enzyme activity of PPO is higher than POD. PPO is also more heat
resistant than POD. In the case of coconut water, PPO is used as the
indicator for enzyme deactivation treatments.
1 COCONUT MATURITY STAGE

ENZYME ACTIVITY (MONTHS)
(U mL-1 Brix-1 min-1)
5-6 8-9 12
Peroxidase (POD) 0.052 0.117 0.129
Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) 0.543 0.160 0.056
Table 7.2 Enzyme activity according to coconut maturity
1
A unit of enzyme activity refers to the amount of enzymatic extract necessary to produce an increase
of absorbance at rates of 0.001 unit per millilitre of sample per soluble solids content per minute
(U mL-1 Brix-1 min-1 ).
Non-enzymatic phenolic oxidation

Without PPO and POD enzymes, phenolic browning can still occur
when oxygen is present. This takes place at a reduced rate in
coconut water.
Maillard reaction
Maillard reaction causes proteins to deteriorate when food is
processed and stored. This reaction can promote the loss of
nutritional quality when essential amino acids are destroyed. It also
reduces protein digestibility and amino acid availability. Maillard
reaction covers a whole range of complex transformations. Starting
with a reaction between a reducing sugar like glucose and an amino
acid, it ends with the formation of melanoidins which are brown, high
molecular weight heterogeneous polymers.
OTHER TYPES OF BROWNING
1 Vitamin C browning is caused by its degradation products from both aerobic and
anaerobic pathways of Vitamin C.
Gallic acid browning can occur as coconut water contains a considerable amount of
2 gallic acids, which can serve as a substrate in enzymatic browning reaction (Maciel
et al., 1992). Oxygen is required to forward the reaction. (Jangchud et al., 2007).
COCONUT HANDBOOK
80
Caramelization
Caramelization of carbohydrates occurs when surfaces are heated
strongly, such as baking and roasting. It also occurs when foods
with high sugar content, such as jams and certain fruit juices, are
processed. Browning in caramelization is due to the formation
of caramels, a complex mixture of various high molecular weight
components. They can be classified into three groups:
Due to its low sugar

content, a very small extent
1 CARAMELANS
C24H36O18 2 CARAMELENS
C36H50O25 3 CARAMELINS
C125H188O80
of caramelization takes
Pinking of coconut water
place when coconut water
Pinking is a phenomenon that happens only in young coconut water.
undergoes heat treatment.
Pinking is due to the intermediate compounds formed from the
enzymatic phenolic oxidation of coconut water. Compared to mature
coconut water, young coconut water consists of a higher phenolic
content, PPO and POD enzyme activity (refer to Table 7.2 for the
differences between these enzyme activities).
In the primary process, PPO catalyses the oxidation of phenolic

compounds to form brown polymers (Villamiel et al., 2006). The
substance which causes pinking is an intermediate in this reaction,
i.e. o-quinone (Mathew et al., 1971).
In the secondary process, this pink or red compound can further react
with amino acids to form more compounds like p-amino-o-quinone
(Mathew et al., 1971).
NUTRIENTS
Coconut water contains many water-soluble vitamins (see Chapter 3,
Table 3.4). In particular, Vitamin C is a sensitive compound in coconut
water. It reacts with oxygen, and its loss is consequently closely
related to the availability of oxygen in packages. In general,
Vitamin C is lost through anaerobic and aerobic degradations.
Anaerobic and aerobic degradations

Both anaerobic and aerobic degradations take place simultaneously.
Which one predominates the other depends on storage temperature
and the availability of oxygen.
Losses caused by aerobic

As the name implies, the anaerobic pathway does not need oxygen.
degradation pathway cannot
It is mainly driven by storage temperature.
be prevented by packaging,
which is consistent for all types
For aerobic degradation, the pathway needs oxygen. This is strictly
of package. The only possible
related to the presence of headspace oxygen, the dissolved oxygen
countermeasure is to reduce
in coconut water, and the oxygen barrier properties of the package.
the storage temperature.
81
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

AND ADDITIVES ON QUALITY
Raw, natural, unprocessed coconut water affects the final quality of
the packaged product. While there are ways to preserve and maintain
the quality of the raw material, it is not possible to improve it.
POST-HARVEST STORAGE
To increase shelf life, tender and mature coconuts should be
harvested carefully. The perianth should remain intact, and the nuts
should not be broken or cracked. Compared to partially dehusked
nuts, the quality of coconut water from non-dehusked nuts can be
maintained for an extended period of time.
After harvesting, the husk of the coconut helps to minimize the above
changes in the coconut water over the storage period. The husk
also acts as added protection from cracks that would lead to the
contamination and eventually spoilage of coconut water. As the husk
helps to preserve nut quality and increase the storage life of coconut
water, the taste of stored dehusked nuts can subsequently become less
desirable than non-dehusked nuts.
Over a period of storage:
1 2 3
Volumes of Sugar content Acidity
coconut water (Brix) of decreases
in the intact coconut water and turbidity
nuts decline increases increases
EXTRACTION METHODS
Different extraction methods, like drilling or halving the nuts, vary the
effect on coconut water extraction. This is because young and mature
coconuts have different husks and shells.
In drilling, there is generally less contamination by coconut fibres,

soil and enzymes from the other parts of the coconut. However, the
likelihood of contamination increases for mature coconuts. As the
fibres are drier and shells are harder, it is easier for them to fall into
extracted coconut water. This is why right after extraction, filtration is
an important step to remove the contaminants.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
82
HEAT
To balance between both Heat has positive and negative effects on coconut water, depending
heat effects on coconut water, on the range of temperature and the parameter under observation. In
factors across the whole general, an increase in temperature results in an increase in reaction
chain like raw material quality, rates. At certain temperature ranges, this may lead to negative effects
hygienic handling and even such as browning and microbial multiplication. Hence, coconut water
governmental regulations need should be cooled down to below 4C after coconut water extraction
to be taken into account when and filtration.
processing and packaging
coconut water. On the other hand, proper application of heat treatment results in
positive effects on coconut water. For example, heat can be used
for enzyme deactivation, pasteurization or sterilization to kill off
pathogens and spoilage microorganisms. Specifically, in direct heat
treatment like steam injection, the temperature quickly rises and
falls at the start and the end. Thus, there is less thermal impact than
indirect heat treatment. As a result, coconut water that undergoes
indirect heat treatment becomes browner at the start of their
packaged shelf life. Based on its browning index, it also has a shorter
shelf life. For more information on direct and indirect heat treatments,
please refer to Chapter 11.
MATURITY AND STORAGE TEMPERATURE

Between young and mature coconut water, the latter spoils faster. As
compared to the former, the quality parameters like pH and turbidity
are sub-par. There is also likely to be more contamination in mature
coconuts, as more husk and shell pieces fall into the extracted water
during drilling. In addition, mature coconut water is typically more
turbid than young coconut water at any stage of storage.
As temperature increases from 4-35C during storage, there is a

faster change in the total soluble solids content, pH, and titratable
acidity of untreated coconut water. There are also noticeable visual
changes for mature coconut water. For example, turbidity increases,
browning occurs and pH decreases.
OXYGEN EXPOSURE
With oxygen exposure, aeration accelerates pinking and browning.
This is due to oxidation of polyphenols which are catalysed or
otherwise. Thus manufacturers often add antioxidants like ascorbic
acid and sodium metabisulphite to scavenge oxygen, making it
unavailable for other reactions.
Alternatively, nitrogen blanketing may be used in storage and aseptic

tanks, where sterile air is replaced with nitrogen. As a result, the air
in the headspace contains 99.9% nitrogen, an increase from an initial
content of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen.
83
ANTIOXIDANTS
Antioxidants are often added L-ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

to control discolouration. It Ascorbic acid, otherwise known as Vitamin C, plays an important
also helps to extend coconut role in food processing. Vital for human nutrition as well, its key
waters shelf life. They work antioxidant effect acts as an inhibitor of enzymatic browning. This has
by scavenging oxygen or free been widely used in the food industry. However, with high ascorbic
radicals. Commonly used, acid levels and the presence of oxygen, browning may also occur.
the two effective antioxidants This is due to the thermal decomposition of ascorbic acid.
for coconut water are
ascorbic acid and sodium By its very nature, coconut water does not contain much ascorbic
metabisulphite. acid. However, when ascorbic acid is added as an antioxidant,
close attention must be paid so its level does not get so high that it
promotes ascorbic acid browning instead. In general, ascorbic acid
levels of 20-50 ppm can help to minimize enzymatic browning.
Sodium metabisulphite (SMB)

When oxygen reacts with SMB, it becomes unavailable for other
browning reactions. Sulphite also reduces o-quinone, which is
produced by PPO catalysis, to a less reactive diphenol. This prevents
later condensation of complex brown melanins.
While most countries regulate the presence of SMB in coconut water

at 30 ppm maximum, it is advisable to check with local authorities on
the most recent permissible levels of this antioxidant.
MICROBIOLOGY OF COCONUT WATER

A specific microorganisms Microorganisms are frequently used in producing food products like
activity is governed by the cheese and yoghurt. However, certain microorganisms can cause
enzymes it possesses, as these food poisoning, human disease, and spoilage.
determine what it can feed
on, break down, and also what In microorganisms, there are many biochemical and enzymatic
end-products it produces. systems concerned with coconut water and its products. These can
be subdivided into which constituents they break down into and their
respective effects.
BREAKDOWN OF OIL
During the extraction of Fat is broken down by enzymes (mainly lipase) in a process called
coconut water from mature lipolysis into free fatty acids. Through normal processing routines like
coconuts, oil from the kernel pumping, stirring and splashing, there is a higher chance for lipase to
can enter the coconut water. work on the oils. While some of the fatty acids produced are volatile,
These minute amounts of oil, give off strong smells, or contribute to a sour taste, many bacteria
if broken down, can result in a and moulds that break down proteins also break down oil through
rancid taste profile. oxidation. Lipolysis is covered in more detail in Chapter 8.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
84
BREAKDOWN OF CARBOHYDRATES
The microorganisms enzymes determine which carbohydrates they
can break down into, and to what extent. While fermentation occurs
in most cases, carbohydrates can be completely degraded to carbon
dioxide and water through oxidative metabolism.
Usually, fermentation produces organic acids (e.g. lactic and butyric

acids), alcohols (e.g. ethyl and butyl) and gases (e.g. carbon dioxide
and hydrogen). In general, carbohydrate fermentation results in the
production of acid (souring, pH drop) and gases, depending on the
organisms (Table 7.3).
CONDITION PRODUCTS
Presence of oxygen CO2 + water + energy
Absence of oxygen
- Alcoholic fermentation Ethanol + CO2
- Butyric acid fermentation Butyric acid + CO2 +H2
- Lactic acid fermentation
i) Homofermentative Lactic Acid
ii) Heterofermentative Lactic acid + ethanol + acetic acid + CO2
Table 7.3 Microbiological carbohydrate metabolism products
Source: Tetra Pak International S.A., Dairy Processing Handbook 2015
When carbohydrates breakdown in coconut water, it turns sour and

have an unacceptable odour.
BREAKDOWN OF PROTEIN
Proteins break down in a process called proteolysis, which involves
the enzymes called proteases. When they degrade proteins into
peptides, they are further degraded by various peptidases to smaller
peptides and amino free acids. While amino acids can be reused
again for protein synthesis to grow or multiply microorganisms, they
can also be broken down by oxidation or fermentation processes.
Proteins and their constituent amino acids have a wide combination

of chemical elements. They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorus. Therefore, the breakdown of
protein results in a much larger range of acids, alcohols, gases like
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, and other
compounds. In particular, ammonia, which is alkaline and has a strong
odour, is always produced. For more information on proteolysis,
please refer to Chapter 8.
As coconut water contains trace amounts of sulphur-containing

amino acids (e.g. methionine and cysteine), the breakdown of these
amino acids may produce hydrogen sulphide, which gives off a rotten
egg smell.
CHAPTER 8
THE CHEMISTRY OF
COCONUT MILK
AND CREAM
Coconut milk and cream is a white, opaque
protein-oil-water emulsion used in many
traditional Asian cuisines. It is a milky fluid
obtained by manually or mechanically
extracting fresh kernel.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
86
THE CHEMISTRY OF COCONUT MILK

Coconut milk and cream is a white, opaque protein-oil-water
emulsion used in many traditional Asian cuisines. It is a milky fluid
obtained by manually or mechanically extracting fresh kernel.
The quality attributes are affected by many factors, such as the

variety of nuts, water quality and volume used for coconut milk
extraction. Due to its high oil content, coconut milk products
are highly susceptible to chemical and biochemical spoilage,
like lipid oxidation.
For coconut milk and cream products, fat content is the important
criteria for categorization. According to Codex Standards for
Aqueous coconut products (CODEX STAN 240-2003), coconut milk
should contain at least 10% fat, 2.7% non-fat solids, and 12.7-25.3%
total solids. For coconut cream, it should contain at least 20% fat,
5.4% non-fat solids and 25.4-37.3% total solids (Table 8.1).
In general, the fat content in TOTAL NON-FAT

FAT MOISTURE
SOLIDS SOLIDS pH
packaged coconut milk and (%m/m) (%m/m)
PRODUCT (%m/m) (%m/m)
cream products from ASEAN
MIN. - MAX. MIN. MIN. MAX. MIN.
ranges from 17-25%.
Light coconut
6.6-12.6 1.6 5 93.4 5.9
milk
Coconut milk 12.7-25.3 2.7 10 87.3 5.9
Coconut
25.4-37.3 5.4 20 74.6 5.9
cream
Coconut
cream 37.4 min. 8.4 29 62.6 5.9
concentrate
Table 8.1 Classification of coconut milk and cream
CHAPTER 8 | THE CHEMISTRY OF COCONUT MILK AND CREAM
87
COMPOSITION OF COCONUT MILK

For the ease of understanding, The composition of coconut milk is affected by the composition of
coconut milk refers to both coconut kernel. It is important to highlight that the difference in oil
coconut milk and cream content at various ages of the coconut kernel relates to the yield and
products. quality of coconut milk obtained (see Chapter 3, Table 3.6).
While a young coconut at eight to nine months old has only about
18-26% oil content, a mature coconut at 10-13 months has up to 43%
oil content. As a result, these mature coconuts are typically harvested
for coconut milk production.
Other than the age and type of the coconut, the composition of
coconut milk (Table 8.2) is also dependent on the extraction
process (refer to Chapter 6).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES RANGE

Specific gravity 1.0029-1.0080
Surface tension (dyne.cm-2) 97.76-125.43
Viscosity, (mPa.s) 1.61-2.02
Refractive index 1.3412-1.3446
pH 5.95-6.30
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (%) RANGE

Moisture 73.47-76.84
Fat 18.83-21.09
Protein 2.14-2.97
Ash 0.63-0.96
Total sugars 0.82-1.62

Table 8.2 Physical properties and chemical composition of coconut milk
Source: Gonzalez, 1990; Tangsuphoom, 2008.
Coconut milk is a very rich medium that supports the growth

of common spoilage microorganisms, usually introduced via
contaminated shells, utensils, processing equipment and handlers.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
88
PROPERTIES AND REACTIONS OF COCONUT MILK

Like coconut water, the properties of coconut milk are affected by
extraction, formulation, processing and storage. Its flavour profile is
built up from acids, protein, sugars, phenolic compounds, mineral
content and oil content. Its appearance is mainly affected by colour
reactions and the amounts and size of the oil globules.
Chemical deterioration (mainly lipid autoxidation and lipolysis) and

microbiological degradation are the two major reactions that affect
the quality of coconut milk. Similar to coconut water, coconut milk
is also affected by browning reactions. As a result, the white milky
colour turns slightly greyish.
CHEMICAL DETERIORATION (LIPID OXIDATION AND LIPOLYSIS)

When chemical deterioration occurs, lipid oxidation and lipolysis
of unsaturated and saturated fatty acids in coconut milk results in
objectionable taste and odours. The hydrolysis of triglycerides can be
particularly rapid when catalysed by the lipase enzyme. The release
of short-chain fatty acids, specifically butyric, caproic, caprylic, and
capric acids, can give rise to strong off odours. Medium-chain fatty
acids, such as lauric and myristic acids that are typical of coconut
oil also produce a distinctive soapy taste. Lastly, oxidative rancidity
occurs when unsaturated fatty acids are oxidized.
The oil content of coconut milk is characteristically made up of

medium chain triglycerides of saturated fat. About 5.5% of the
oil content is monounsaturated fatty acids and another 2% is
polyunsaturated fatty acids. These triglycerides are susceptible to
hydrolysis into free fatty acids by lipoxygenase and lipase enzymes,
which are naturally present in coconut milk.
DISCOLOURATION
Similar to coconut water, discolouration reactions in coconut meat
are caused by enzymatic (polyphenol oxidase, PPO and peroxidase,
POD) reactions (Siriwongwilaichat et al., 2004). This results in
discolouration of the coconut milk. Discolouration reactions in
coconut milk are also non-enzymatic browning. The colour, turbidity,
and opaque appearance of coconut milk is also affected by the size
of the dispersed oil globules which have light scattering properties.
In general, when oil globules are smaller, the reflectance increases,
imparting a whiter colour to coconut milk.
89
SEPARATION
Depending on consumer perception, the separation of coconut milk
into two layers is quite subjective. When left to stand, coconut milk
tends to separate into an oil-rich top and a water-rich bottom.
When used to cook traditional Asian cuisine, coconut milk can also
contribute to the final taste and look of the dish. In most ASEAN
countries, consumers perceive dishes to be of good quality when it
comes with a layer of oil at the top (Figure 8.1). However in Sri Lanka,
the same dishes are perceived to be of bad quality (Figure 8.2).
Figure 8.1 Spicy chicken curry Figure 8.2 Anchovy fish curry
Coconut milk is an oil-in-water emulsion (Figure 8.3). This means

that coconut milk is insoluble or miscible in water, and has a fine
dispersion of minute droplets of coconut oil in water. In addition, the
emulsion may also contain emulsifiers and thickening agents that
hold these two phases together. Coconut milk has naturally occurring
proteins like globulins and albumins, as well as phospholipids like
lecithin and cephalin to act as natural emulsifiers. To some extent,
these help to stabilize the emulsion, serving as the surface between
oil and water.
Figure 8.3 An oil in water emulsion.

Tetra Pak International S.A., Dairy Processing Handbook 2015
COCONUT HANDBOOK
90
As with all emulsions, coconut milk is physically unstable and prone

to phase separation as the protein content and quality in coconut
milk is not enough to stabilize fat globules (Figure 8.4).
Emulsion stability is quantified by the creaming index of coconut

milk samples, which results from the action of gravitational force on
phases with different densities. A higher creaming index indicates the
tendency to aggregate oil droplets, which destabilizes and separates
the emulsion (Figure 8.4).
Flocculation is another destabilizing mechanism for emulsions, as fat

globules move as groups rather than as individuals. This increases
the chances of creaming. Contrary to flocculation, coalescence
involves the rupture of interfacial film, a joining of globules, and a
reduction in the interfacial area (Figure 8.5). Contact of globules
must preclude coalescence, and this can occur through flocculation,
creaming (Figure 8.4), or Brownian movements when particles
move randomly.
Typically, the use of emulsifiers and thickening agents (stabilizers)

at levels less than 2% with homogenization can improve emulsion
stability of coconut milk.
Figure 8.4 Separation of oil in water through creaming, coalescence and flocculation
Figure 8.5 Coalescence of oil particles

91
Emulsifiers are amphiphilic, surface-active substances that help to

retard the phase separation. This is done by absorbing to the oil-
water interface, thereby lowering the interfacial tension. Proteins
that naturally occur in coconut can act as emulsifiers. For commercial
production, emulsifiers can be added to improve the stability for
longer product shelf life.
Thickening agents or stabilizers are hydrocolloid materials that

provide stabilization for emulsions, suspensions and general
thickening properties. They are used widely for their unique textural,
structural, and functional characteristics in food. Many do not function
as true emulsifiers as they lack the necessary combination of strong
hydrophilic and lipophilic properties in a single molecule. Instead,
they stabilize the emulsions by thickening or increasing the viscosity
of the product. This lowers the rate of separation between the oil and
water layers.
PROTEIN INTERACTIONS
Small amounts of protein in coconut milk act as natural emulsifiers.
As charged and surface-active molecules, they can help formulate
and improve the stability of oil-in-water emulsion. Absorbing at the
surface of the droplets, protein provides repulsive interactions like
electrostatic and steric effects to prevent droplet aggregation. On
dry basis, coconut milk consists of 5-10% protein, 80% of which are
albumin and globulins. Only 30% is dissolved in aqueous phase, and
the undissolved proteins act as emulsifying agents closely associated
with oil globules.
pH, ionic strength and temperature affects the emulsifying properties

of coconut protein. Coconut protein is ineffective at creating
small droplets within the homogenizer, and preventing oil droplet
aggregation during or after homogenization. As such, coconut
protein can only help to stabilize the oil-in-water emulsion to a certain
extent. This is why when left to stand, the physical separation of
coconut milk into oil-rich and water-rich layers cannot be avoided.
This is also true during processing and storage. As such, emulsifier or
stabilizers, coupled with the use of homogenization, can help retard
coconut milks instability, prolonging its shelf life.
FACTORS AFFECTING PROTEIN INTERACTIONS
Due to a loss of electrostatic repulsion between droplets, protein is generally

poorly soluble at pH values close to their isoelectric point (pH 3.5-4)
Coconut albumin and globulins appear to be most stable over pH 5-9
Coconut protein denature and coagulate when heated to 80C

COCONUT HANDBOOK
92
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

AND ADDITIVES ON QUALITY
HARVESTING AND PRE-TREATMENT OF COCONUT KERNEL

For maximum yield of coconut milk, the nut should be 10-13 months
mature, as oil content is at its highest. After the coconut is dehusked,
deshelled and pared (optional), cleaning is done to minimize
microbiological degradation. Coconut kernels are washed with
diluted anti-microbial solutions and rinsed with potable water.
HOMOGENIZATION
Homogenization is a means of stabilizing the coconut milk oil-in-
water against gravity separation into two phases a water-rich
bottom and fat-rich top. It causes the disruption of oil globules into
much smaller ones (Figure 8.6) and also separates the globules that
are attached together (Figure 8.7).
In addition, homogenization is
carried out at slightly elevated
temperatures with liquid
coconut oil. It is ineffective
when cold coconut milk is
used, because coconut oil is
Figure 8.6 Disruption of fat globules in the first stage of homogenization1
solidified.
Figure 8.7 Disruption of fat globules in the second stage of homogenization1
Normally, this is coupled with emulsifiers that serve as surfactants that

keep the globules apart. Sometimes, homogenization is also coupled
with stabilizers. This increases the viscosity of coconut milk to hold
the oil globules within its colloidal network.
OXYGEN
Oxygen exposure can lead to the rancidity of coconut milk. This is
accelerated by microbiological degradation, or the enzyme called
lipase. As such, it is important to minimize oxygen exposure to
prevent rancidity.
1
Figures 8.6 and 8.7 Tetra Pak International S.A., Dairy Processing Handbook 2015
93
ADDITIVES
Adding stabilizers and emulsifiers
To prevent instability in coconut milk, stabilizers can be used to retard
phase separation during prolonged standing. It can also thicken at
the continuous phase. Alternatively, emulsifiers can be added to
absorb at the oil interface.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are added to extend the shelf life of coconut milk
products. This is done by scavenging oxygen or free radicals which
minimize browning reactions or lipid oxidation. In particular, sodium
metabisulphite is commonly used to help retard the non-enzymatic
browning of coconut milk.
MICROBIOLOGY OF COCONUT MILK

Like coconut water, coconut milk is also prone to microbiological
damage. Water activity, pH, temperature, oxygen availability, and
light affects the growth rate of microorganisms. In particular, water
activity is defined as the ratio of water vapour pressure in food to that
of pure water, at the same temperature. When a solution becomes
more concentrated, vapour pressure decreases. Water activity also
drops from a maximum value of one for pure water.
The following systems are the major ones concerned with coconut
milk and its products.
BREAKDOWN OF CARBOHYDRATES
The breakdown of carbohydrates in coconut milk results in the
production of lactic and acetic acids leading to a drop in the pH
levels. This is especially so through fermentation pathways
(Table 8.3). As a result, a sour taste develops in coconut milk.
CONDITION PRODUCTS
Presence of oxygen CO2 + water + energy
Absence of oxygen
- Alcoholic fermentation Ethanol + CO2
- Butyric acid fermentation Butyric acid + CO2 +H2
- Lactic acid fermentation
i) Homofermentative Lactic Acid
ii) Heterofermentative Lactic acid + ethanol + acetic acid + CO2
Table 8.3 Microbiological carbohydrate metabolism products

Source: Tetra Pak International S.A., Dairy Processing Handbook 2015
COCONUT HANDBOOK
94
BREAKDOWN OF OILS
According to the Codex definition (CODEX STAN 240-2003),
coconut milk and cream must contain at least 10% and 20% oil
content respectively. With such a significant proportion of oil, it is
very important to minimize microbial damage caused by lipolysis,
also known as oil breakdown (Figure 8.9). As a result, rancidity occurs,
which give rise to an off-flavour formation.
Figure 8.9 Lipid is broken down to free fatty acids and glyverol by the lipase enzyme1
While pure oil cannot be broken down by microorganisms, oil in

water emulsions or in contact with water can be easily broken down
by microorganisms (Figure 8.10). This is because water is essential for
microbial enzymatic split.
Figure 8.10 When fat globule membranes are
damaged, lipolysis can release fatty acids BREAKDOWN OF PROTEIN
Protein denaturation is affected by the pH level of the system. The
pH drop is caused by a breakdown of carbohydrates into acids. When
the pH approaches the isoelectric point of the protein, it curdles as
they lose their repulsive charges.
The breakdown of protein, otherwise known as proteolysis in coconut

milk, can also be catalysed by proteases produced by microorganisms
(Figure 8.8). Proteins and their constituent amino acids have a wide
combination of chemical elements. They contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, and phosphorus. As a result, there is
a much larger range of acids, alcohols, gases (hydrogen, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia) and other compounds.
Figure 8.8 Protein is broken down to amino acid by the enzymes protease and peptidase1
1
Figures 8.8-8.10 Tetra Pak International S.A., Dairy Processing Handbook 2015
CHAPTER 9
RECOMBINED
COCONUT
BEVERAGES
Recombination is a good method for supplying
a close alternative to fresh coconut beverages
by combining the coconut with water and other
ingredients. Over the years, recombination
processes have been refined to become
more efficient and sophisticated
high capacity systems.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
96
RECOMBINED COCONUT BEVERAGES

Recombination is a good method for supplying a close alternative
to fresh coconut beverages by combining the coconut with water
and other ingredients. Over the years, recombination processes
have been refined to become more efficient and sophisticated, high
capacity systems. Recombined coconut products can be supplied to
markets where fresh raw material and coconut beverages are not
easily supplied.
For recombined coconut milk based products, a coconut milk

source is the key ingredient used in recombined beverages. It can
range from powders like spray-dried coconut milk powder, to bulk
liquids like coconut milk or cream. In general, these products are
consumed in the United States, Europe and Oceania markets as dairy
alternatives. As such, extra care must be taken to ensure that other
ingredients are dairy free as well.
For recombined coconut water based products, coconut water

concentrate is the key ingredient used in recombined beverages.
Usually, coconut milk, cream and water are combined with other
ingredients like juices, purees, cocoa, coffee, soymilk and more,
forming endless possibilities of recombined coconut based
beverages. These ingredients can vary, depending on the drinking
quality and target cost of producing the final product.
CHAPTER 9 | RECOMBINED COCONUT BEVERAGES
97
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF COCONUT BEVERAGES

The major ingredients used for recombined coconut beverages are
water, additives, coconut source, fats and oils.
WATER
Water is the major ingredient in recombined coconut beverages.
It is essential that the water component fulfils the WHO standards
for drinking water. These include the sensory properties, physical,
chemical and microbiological considerations of water. The following
requirements for water quality are based on WHO guideline values
and Tetra Pak specifications (Table 9.1).
PARAMETER RANGE
Taste None
Smell None
Turbidity, SiO2 Max 1 mg/L
Colour, Pt. Max 20 mg/L
Organic matter Very low
pH 7-8.5
Total hardness 47dH
Iron, Fe Max 0.2 mg/L
Manganese, Mn Max 0.03-0.1 mg/L
Nitrate, NO3 Max 30 mg/L
Nitrite, NO2 Max 0.02 mg/L
Sulphate, SO4 Max 100 mg/L
Chloride, Cl Max 50 mg/L
Aggressive carbon acid, CO2 Max 2 mg/L
Total count of bacteria Max 100 CFU/mL
Total cound of coliform bacteria 0 per 100 mL
Ammonium, NH4 Traces
Ammonia, NH3 Max 0.5 mg/L
Phosphate, PO4 Max 0.2 mg/L
Magnesium, Mg Max 50 mg/L
Calcium, Ca Max 100 mg/L
Sodium, Na Max 200 mg/L
Total solids Max 500 mg/L
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Max 20 mg/L

KMnO4
Copper, Cu Max 0.05 mg/L
Zinc, Zn Max 1.0 mg/L

Table 9.1 Water quality parameters
COCONUT HANDBOOK
98
ADDITIVES
Additives serve several functions in recombined coconut beverages.
For instance, the addition of minerals like calcium and fortification
with fat- and water-soluble vitamins can improve the nutritional value
of these products. In addition, dry additives like sugars, stabilizers
and emulsifiers can be added directly into the mixing system for the
desired mouthfeel and taste profile.
COCONUT SOURCE
The chosen coconut source can be dry or liquid, depending on the
needs of the recombined product.
FATS AND OILS Dry coconut sources, such as spray-dried coconut milk powder,
Occasionally, fats and makes shipping, warehousing and handling easy. It is important
oils are added to improve to get the specifications of the coconut powder used, as some of
the texture and mouthfeel
of the recombined these powders are not suitable for dairy-free coconut beverages. For
coconut beverage. example, coconut powders commonly contain the milk protein casein
to prevent lumping of the fats during the spray drying process.
Liquid forms of concentrated coconut sources are available as

coconut milk, cream or water concentrate. These can easily turn into
a beverage by diluting the liquid concentrate.
Wettability
Factors to consider are The degree of wettability is very much a function of the particle
wettability, dispersability, volume. Agglomerated powders have improved wettability because
solubility, dairy content and of their increased particle size. This improves capillarity where more
suspendability of the chosen water is drawn into the powder particles. This causes the powders to
coconut source. disperse and dissolve faster in water.
Dispersibility
Good dispersibility is obtained when powders are distributed in water
as single particles without lumps. This is determined by the structure
of powder particles, as well as the configuration of protein and
oil molecules.
Solubility
Solubility is defined by how well the powder dissolves or forms a
stable suspension. For coconut milk products, this depends a great
deal on how the product is being processed.
Suspendability
Suspendability refers to the protein sources ability to stay in
suspension. It is a function of specific volume and particle size. For
beverages, maintaining the suspension of protein and fortification
like calcium is important.
99
RECOMBINATION TECHNOLOGY
RECOMBINATION PROCESS
OF COCONUT MILK BASED BEVERAGES
During the recombination process, a specified amount of water is first
measured and heated to a warm temperature in the tank. This allows
the powder to dissolve more easily. Then, stabilizers, emulsifiers and
coconut powder, milk, cream or concentrate are steadily added to the
tank. Agitation is applied until all the powder is dissolved, and the
resulting solution stands for a period of time. Thereafter, oil can be
added into the mixture before it is reheated.
Legend:
Ingredient Powder
Water
Fat
Recombined Product
Heating Medium
Cooling Water
Figure 9.1 Mixing tank for recombination

If processing continues in the tank, the agitator is switched to

high speed for some minutes to disperse the fat and oil. Next,
pasteurization takes place. A homogenization step is usually
incorporated in the pasteurizer to break up fat and oil globules
to minimize creaming in the product. Finally, cooling to packing
temperature occurs.
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100
In large scale production, recombination plants are built for capacities

as large as 20 000 L/h. In larger plants, parallel lines are installed
to meet higher capacity requirements. The production sequence in
a large plant is essentially the same as in a small one, except that
the larger facility requires more tanks for larger volumes of storage,
melting of fats and oils, mixing, and buffer storage of the finished
product. The degree of mechanisation may also differ.
For instance, in large plants, weighing tanks are used to accurately

measure the ingredient dosage required. On the contrary, the
weighing tank can often be replaced by a dosing pump or pre-
weighed dry ingredients in smaller plants.
Large scale production

In large scale production, a high-speed blender is used to mix dry
ingredients first. The dry blend is then dispersed into the water
through a hopper that operates at a rate of up to 45 kg per minute.
When all the powder has been added, the contents of the tank are
left to stand for hydration of the powders. Meanwhile, the blender
is fed with the next batch of dry ingredients for recombination. If
the production requires the addition of oil, it is first measured in the
weighing funnel, then store in the oil storage tank before it is added
into the mixture. The agitator, specially designed for optimum oil
dispersion, runs for several minutes and finely disperses the oil in
the coconut blend. When all the ingredients have been mixed in one
tank, the process is repeated in the next tank. The coconut blend and
oil mixture is drawn from the full mixing tank by a pump which moves
the mixture through duplex filters. This removes foreign objects such
as pieces of string or sacking.
After pre-heating in the heat exchanger, the product is pumped

to the homogenizer, where the dispersion of oil globules is
completed. During the powder-mixing operation, it may pick up
large volumes of air, which can cause fouling in the pasteurizer and
homogenization problems. To eliminate this, a vacuum deaerator
vessel can be installed in the production line before the homogenizer.
Alternatively, a high shear vacuum mixer can be used for the
recombination process.
Before the product is flashed in the deaerator, it is preheated to

78C above homogenization temperature, with the vacuum adjusted
so that the outgoing product has the correct homogenization
temperature. Next, the homogenized coconut beverage is
pasteurized and chilled in the plate heat exchanger then pumped to
storage tanks for further processing or directed to packaging.
101
For further processing, three methods are commonly used

pasteurization, in-container sterilization of coconut beverages and
UHT treatment by direct or indirect heating. As such, the design
of the plant is influenced not only by its capacity, but also by the
In smaller plants where the mixing of material in a processing tank is

limited, the product will be naturally and satisfactorily deaerated if a
reconstitution temperature of approximately 40C is maintained. At
this temperature, all the powder has been dissolved and the resultant
solution is allowed to stand for 20 minutes with the agitator switched
off. The same procedure should also be applied to large-scale pro-
duction. In addition, the product is deaerated by vacuum treatment
that is connected to the heating process.
RECOMBINATION PROCESS
OF COCONUT WATER BASED BEVERAGES
In the recombination of coconut water based beverages, the process
is relatively simpler than the recombination of coconut milk based
beverages. However, there is a set of critical factors to take note of.
Normally, coconut water concentrate between the range of

16-65 Brix is used. To reconstitute coconut water, coconut water
concentrate is simply blended with water. Blending is recommended
to be done cold to minimize any degradation reactions, such as
browning and microbiological degradation. At this stage, other
ingredients like juices and additives are also added. After mixing, the
beverage is immediately fed to the heat exchanger for pasteurization,
deaeration and chilling. It is then pumped to storage tanks for further
processing (UHT) or direct to packaging.
For further processing, three methods are commonly used

pasteurization, in-container sterilization of coconut beverages and
UHT treatment by direct or indirect heating. As such, the design
of the plant is influenced not only by its capacity, but also by the
COCONUT HANDBOOK
102
HANDLING COCONUT BEVERAGES

When handling recombined coconut beverages, it is necessary to
ensure that the products reach consumers in mint condition.
Firstly, the products should be packed as soon as possible after

production. UHT treated coconut beverages must flow in a
closed aseptic system to the aseptic carton or can filling machine.
Pasteurized coconut beverages can be packed in paper-based
laminates, plastic packs or glass bottles. For long life products, the
package must always be airtight to protect the coconut beverages
from oxidation. It should also be strong enough for stacking in
crates or boxes. A buffer tank may be needed to compensate for
temporary stoppages in the production or packing lines. In the case
of sterilized coconut beverages, this tank must be of aseptic design
to prevent reinfection.
After packing sterile coconut beverages, they can be stored in

any condition, provided that the packages are intact. Pasteurized
coconut beverages must be kept in cold storage rooms, while
UHT treated and sterilized coconut beverages can stand without a
refrigeration chain. This is because the latter are much more tolerant
of ambient temperature and other conditions than pasteurized
coconut beverages.
Last but not least, recombined coconut beverages are transported

for market distribution. For UHT treated coconut beverages, the
time factor is not too important as they can be transported over
long distances and displayed for sale without refrigeration. On the
other hand, when pasteurized coconut beverages are transported
from place to place, they require a refrigeration chain of insulated
distribution vans, chilled counters in the shops, and preferably,
home refrigerators.
CHAPTER 10
RHEOLOGY
Rheology is one of the most important
considerations in designing food processing
plants for clarified liquid coconut milk extract.
It is defined as the science of dealing
with flow, and the deformations that
result from flow.
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104
RHEOLOGY
Rheology is one of the most important considerations in designing
food processing plants for clarified liquid coconut milk extract. It is
defined as the science of dealing with flow, and the deformations
that result from flow. Specifically, the deformation of flow involves
viscosity the internal friction which occurs when a layer of fluid is
made to move against another layer of fluid.
SHEARING
In rheology, shearing is the key to understanding flow behaviour and
structure. Shearing between parallel planes is normally used for the
basic definition of shear stress and rate, depending on how much and
how quickly the deformation is applied to the material (Figure 10.1).
Figure 10.1 Definition of shear stress and shear rate is based on shearing between parallel planes
To derive viscosity, shearing must induce the stationary flow of

substance. This is achieved by rearranging and deforming particles,
breaking the bonds in the structure of the material. For further
analysis, shearing is done gently to prevent the structure from
destruction. To do so, an oscillating shear, with amplitude low enough
to study an unbroken structure, is applied to the material.
CHAPTER 10 | RHEOLOGY
105
A sheared flow occurs between parallel planes. Other flows include

a rotational flow between stationary and rotating coaxial cylinders;
a telescopic flow through capillaries and pipes and a torsional flow
between parallel planes (Figure 10.2).
Figure 10.2 Different types of shearing
Shear stress (y/x) WHERE

is defined as F = force, N
y/x = F/A [Pa] A = area, m2
Shear rate () as Apparent viscosity (a) as

= d/dt = dv/d [1/s] a = / [Pa.s]
TYPES OF VISCOSITY
TYPE DESCRIPTION
Absolute Absolute viscosity is the viscosity measured by any
system geometry not under the influence of gravity to
obtain measurements.
Kinematic Kinematic viscosity is the viscosity measured by

any system geometry that utilizes gravity to obtain
measurements.
Apparent Apparent viscosity is the viscosity of a non-Newtonian

liquid, or the viscosity that is measured at a single shear
rate or single point.
Table 10.1 Types of viscosity

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106
TYPES OF FLOW
The direct proportionality
Depending on the materials flow behaviour, viscosity is classified as
between shear stress and rate
Newtonian or non-Newtonian.
in laminar flow is specified by
yx = dv/dy =
Newtonian flow is characterized by viscosity that is independent of
the shear rate at which it is measured. There is a constant viscosity
dependent on temperature, but independent of the applied
shear rate.
The proportionality constant is equal to the viscosity of the material.

The flow curve, which plots shear stress against shear rate, is a
straight line with slope for a Newtonian fluid (Figure 10.3).
On the other hand, the viscosity curve, which plots viscosity

against shear rate, will show a straight line at a constant value
equal to (Figure 10.4).
Figure 10.3 Flow curves of Newtonian and non-

Examples of Newtonian fluids are water, mineral oils, liquid
Newtonian fluids
lecithin, prune concentrate, various syrups, and fructose in water,
cottonseed oil, wine and pure sucrose solutions. It also includes low
concentration liquids in general, such as whole milk and skim milk.
Non-Newtonian flow is used to describe materials which cannot

be defined by a single viscosity value at a specified temperature.
As such, the viscosity of these materials must always be stated
together with its corresponding temperature and shear rate. If the
shear rate is changed, the viscosity will also change. In general, high
concentration and low temperature may induce or increase non-
Newtonian behaviour.
Figure 10.4 Viscosity curves for Newtonian and non- Besides the magnitude of the shear rate, the viscosity of
Newtonian fluids
non-Newtonian fluids may also be time dependent. In most
cases, the frequency of successive applications of shear also
determines viscosity.
Examples of non-Newtonian materials which are dependent on time

are yogurt and mayonnaise. Non-Newtonian materials can also be
independent of time. Examples are tomato ketchup and coconut
milk. For time-independent Non-Newtonian materials, flow behaviour
can be classified as shear-thinning, shear-thickening and plastic.
While materials that are time dependent are defined as thixotropic,
rheopectic or anti-thixotropic.
Characterization of rheological properties in foods is important. It ensures the proper 107

sterilization of the slowest heating element in aseptic processing design, which strongly affects
the change in the flow region of non-Newtonian liquid foods. As such, the flow behaviour of
liquid foods has an important role in the residence time distribution and heat transfer rate in
aseptic processing design.
SHEAR-THINNING FLOW BEHAVIOUR

Typical examples of shear Shear thinning flow behaviour is mainly caused by the increased shear
thinning fluids are creams, rate deforming and/or re-arranging particles, resulting in lower flow
juice concentrates and resistance and subsequently, lower viscosity. The viscosity of a shear
salad dressings. thinning or pseudo-plastic fluid decreases as shear rate increases.
While many liquid food systems belong to this category of fluids, the
shear rate dependency of viscosity can vary depending on the type of
products, temperatures and concentrations of a given liquid.
For coconut milk, studies have shown that it exhibits shear thinning
behaviour over 15-30% oil concentrations when mixed with
emulsifiers, pre-heated and homogenized (Tipvarakarnkoon, 2009).
SHEAR-THICKENING FLOW BEHAVIOUR

A typical example
A shear thickening fluid usually exhibits dilatant flow behaviour. This
of shear thickening
is generally found among very high concentration suspensions. The
systems is concentrated
viscosity of a shear thickening fluid increases as shear rate increases.
starch suspensions.
The solvent acts as a lubricant between suspended particles at low
shear rates, but is squeezed out at higher shear rates, resulting in
denser packing of particles.
PLASTIC FLOW BEHAVIOUR

A plastic fluid exhibits yield stress. The result is that a significant
force must be applied before the material starts to flow like a liquid,
which is often referred to as the ketchup effect. If the force applied
is smaller than the yield stress, the material stores the deformation
energy and exhibits elastic properties while behaving like a solid.
The liquid starts to flow like a Newtonian liquid when yield stress is
exceeded. Otherwise known as a Bingham plastic liquid, it can also
flow like a shear thinning, visco-plastic liquid.
Typical plastic fluids are quark, tomato paste, certain ketchups

and greases. For time-dependent Non-Newtonian materials, flow
behaviour can be classified as thixotropic, anti-thixotropic and
rheopectic.
Thixotropic flow behaviour is normally studied in a loop test when the

material is subjected to increasing shear rates, followed by the same
shear rates in decreasing order. A thixotropic fluid is a shear thinning
system where viscosity decreases with a constantly increasing shear
rate. It also decreases with time at a constant shear rate.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
108
Time-dependent thixotropic flow behaviour is observed from the

difference between ascending and descending viscosity and shear
stress curves (Figure 10.5).
Figure 10.5 Flow curves for time-dependent non-Newtonian fluids
To recover its structure, the material must rest for a certain period of
time, which is characteristic of those included in gel-forming systems.
Typical examples are yoghurt, mayonnaise, margarine, ice cream and
brush paint.
RHEOPECTIC FLOW BEHAVIOUR

A rheopectic fluid is a thixotropic fluid with a structure that only
recovers completely if subjected to a small shear rate. This means
that a rheopectic fluid will not rebuild its structure at rest.
ANTI-THIXOTROPIC FLOW BEHAVIOUR

Anti-thixotropic flow behaviour is also illustrated by a loop test, and
is very uncommon among foodstuffs. This is because anti-thixotropic
fluids have a shear thickening system where viscosity increases not
only with increasing shear rate, but also with time at a constant
shear rate.
Several models are available to mathematically describe the flow

behaviour of non-Newtonian systems. Examples are Ostwald,
Herschel-Bulkley, Steiger-Ory, Bingham, Ellis and Eyring. These
models relate the shear stress of a fluid to the shear rate. As always,
the apparent viscosity is calculated as the variable between shear
stress and shear rate.
109
FLOW BEHAVIOUR MODELS
POWER LAW EQUATION

The most general flow behaviour model is the Herschel-Bulkley
model, also known as the power law equation. In principle, it is an
extended Ostwald model. This equation is applicable to a great
number of non-Newtonian fluids over a wide range of shear rates. It
is also applicable to plastic, shear thinning and shear thickening fluids
according to
WHERE
= shear stress, Pa
0 = yield stress, Pa
(-0) = K n K = consistency coefficient, Pas.n
= shear rate, s-1
n = flow behaviour index, dimensionless
The power law equation also lends itself readily to calculating

pressure drop and heat transfer. Thus, it is the most appropriate
rheological model for clarified liquid coconut milk extract. The
apparent viscosity of clarified liquid coconut milk extract decreases
when temperature increases. When concentration of clarified liquid
coconut milk extract increased, the apparent viscosity also increased
(Simuang et al., 2004).
Appropriate modifications of the generalized power law equation

makes it possible to express each type of flow behaviour.
For Newtonian fluids, the power law equation, given K = and n = 1,

is specified as
= K n =
For a plastic fluid, the power law equation is used in the fully
generalized form, with n<1 for visco-plastic behaviour and n = 1 for
Bingham plastic behaviour. For a shear thinning or shear thickening
fluid the power law equation is specified as
= K n (with n<1 and n>1, respectively)
For thixotropic fluids, mathematical models that are more complex

than the models discussed so far are required. Thus, they are
described by time-independent process viscosities normally fitted to
the power law equation.
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110
TAKING VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS

The unit of viscosity is Pas Viscosity measurements are used extensively in the food industry.
(Pascal second), which is It allows technologists to control the quality of raw materials when
equal to 1000 mPas or assessing the effects of changes in formulation, as well as the
1000 cP (centipoise). effect which processing conditions have on products and their
development. When obtained from in-line systems or batch sample
tests, viscosity measurements will help reduce ingredient costs and
ensure batch-to-batch product consistency. General guidelines to
taking viscosity measurements are at the end of this page.
The measuring equipment used is the viscometer. Two main types are
rotational and capillary. Compared to capillary viscometers, rotational
viscometers are more flexible and easier to use. On the other hand,
at low viscosities and high shear rates, capillary viscometers have
more accurate measurements than rotational viscometers.
With technology Rotational viscometers are available as portable and stationary

advancements, portable instruments. Portable types are operated manually, and usually come
viscometers also come with in a shock proof case equipped with all necessary accessories.
software to allow model
fittings to data and provide Usually, stationary installations automate measuring sequences
connections with personal and data evaluation with computer controls. The software includes
computers. This allows for possible fitting to a number of rheological models, plotting of flow
almost the same measurement curves and more.
types as stationary
viscometers. Normally, a rotational viscometer is insufficient for a complete
rheological analysis, which includes determining the structure
breakdown in for instance, coconut milk yoghurt. For such analysis, a
more sophisticated instrument called a rheometer is used. It operates
with torsional vibration or oscillation rather than rotation. The fluid is
also rheologically analysed without destroying its structure.
GUIDELINES TO TAKING VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS

1. The temperature is kept constant during the test period for accurate measurement.
- A temperature change of 3C can cause at least 10% change in viscosity.
- As some products are more temperature sensitive than others, it is even more crucial to keep the
temperature constant.
2. To further increase the accuracy of data evaluation, measurements should be made at as many different
shear rates and temperatures as possible.
3. When utilizing different temperatures, heating effects must also be considered. For example, the
viscosities of warm swelling starch differs significantly before and after heating.
4. Other factors include storage and time. For example, if the purpose is to supply data for process
design, the measurements should be made as near to the actual processing stage as possible.
5. Proper instrumentation and experimental procedure should also be established.

111
VISCOSITY IN COCONUT MILK

Viscosity in coconut milk is affected by added ingredients. For
example, different manufacturers add different ingredients like
starches, stabilizers and emulsifiers to coconut milk. As such, the
viscosity data can vary widely among fluid foodstuffs. In particular,
studies have shown that coconut milk, mixed with emulsifiers and
subsequently pre-heated or homogenized exhibit pseudo-plastic,
shear thinning behaviour over a 15-30% range of oil content
(Tipvarakarnkoon, 2009). Viscosity of coconut milk is also affected by
oil content, heat and homogenization (Table 10.2). Often, emulsifiers
are added to homogenize coconut milk and extend the products
shelf life.
FACTORS DESCRIPTION
Oil content Viscosity increases as oil content increases from 15-30%. At

higher fat concentrations, the presence of a large number of
fat globules increases the resistance to flow which, in turn,
increases the apparent viscosity of the emulsion system
(Simuang et al., 2003).
Homogenization Efficient homogenization increases viscosity of coconut

and Emulsification milk. It is typically used in combination with emulsifiers
of oil globules or stabilizers to increase the emulsion stability, which
minimizes creaming.
When coconut milk is homogenized, oil globules increase in

numbers and become smaller. They have to be kept apart
by coconut protein, emulsifiers and stabilizers, which act
as surfactants or create a fluid gel network. This prevents
flocculation and coalescence, which minimizes creaming.
After homogenization, particle-particle interaction like oil

interface with protein or emulsifiers increases. As a result,
the resistance to the flow of coconut milk also increases.
Heat Heat affects the fluidity of the oil content. For efficient
homogenization to increase coconut emulsion stability,
the oil has to be in liquid form. If the oil is in solid form,
homogenization will be inefficient.
Heat also affects coconut protein stability. At high

temperatures, some heat labile coconut protein molecule
can undergo denaturation and are unable to act as
surfactants at the oil-water interface of the emulsion.
This results in flocculation, where small oil globules form
irregular arrangements of aggregates. Flocculation results
in a lesser number of suspended single oil globules to resist
flow, thereby causing a reduction in viscosity of coconut
milk (Chiewchan et al., 2005).
Table 10.2 Factors affecting the viscosity of coconut milk

COCONUT HANDBOOK
112
Analysis of commercial samples at Tetra Paks in-house rheology lab

(RheoLab) shows that, at a shear rate of 100s-1 between oil content of
17-25.1% at 30C, the viscosity of coconut milk can range from as low
as 8 mPas to as high as 260 mPas.
Increasing homogenization pressures can also increase viscosity. At

higher pressures, the oil globules are broken into smaller and more
numerous numbers, thereby increasing viscosity (Table 10.3).
APPARENT VISCOSITY
HOMOGENIZATION HOMOGENIZATION
(mPa.s) AT SHEAR RATE
PRESSURE (mPa) PRESSURE (bar)
OF 300s-1, 30C
0 0 15.4
15 150 27.1
18 180 28.0
21 210 31.0
24 240 35.5
27 270 45.5
Table 10.3 Apparent viscosity of 35-37% oil content in coconut milk at increasing homogenization pressures
Source: Chiewchan et al., 2005
Our RheoLab in Sweden is also equipped with stationary and portable viscometers
for measurements at customer sites. Viscosity can be measured between 5-140C,
while samples can be stored and shipped at temperature conditions agreed with the
customer. If certain specific analyses are requested, Tetra Pak can in most
cases organize them at an external laboratory, as we have a network of institutes for
food analysis and sensory evaluations.
CHAPTER 11
LONG LIFE
COCONUT LIQUID
PRODUCTS
Long life coconut liquid products are
coconut liquid products sterilized by undergoing
strong heat treatment to inactivate
microorganisms and heat resistant enzymes.
As such, they can be stored for long periods
of time at ambient temperatures
without bacterial growth.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
114
LONG LIFE COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
PROCESSING LONG LIFE COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS

Long life coconut liquid products are coconut liquid products like
coconut milk based or coconut water based beverages, coconut milk
or cream sterilized by undergoing strong heat treatment to inactivate
microorganisms and heat resistant enzymes. As such, they can be
stored for long periods of time at ambient temperatures without
bacterial growth.
Properly processed coconut products are safe and hygienic.

Consumers benefit from a product that can be stored for long
periods of time without refrigeration. It can also be distributed over
long distances and supplied to new markets.
Essentially, there are three heating processes for extending the

shelf life of coconut liquid products pasteurization, sterilization and
ultra-high temperature processing. Each process requires specific
types of packaging in order to maximize its effect (Table 11.1).
The exact shelf life of coconut liquid products depends on the raw
materials, processing conditions and type of packaging used.
TREATMENT TEMPERATURE TIME PACKAGE SHELF LIFE1
Plastic bags,
15-120 1 week,
Pasteurization 75-85C Paper cartons,
seconds Refrigerated
Glass bottles
Cans,
2 years,
In-container 20-30 Retort
121C Non-
sterilization minutes pouches,
refrigerated
Glass bottles
Aseptic
6-8 months,
4-15 packages
UHT 137-145C Non-
seconds e.g. paper
refrigerated
cartons
Table 11.1 Heat treatment and package considerations for coconut beverages and coconut milk
1
Assumption: Shelf life refers to the best before date or predating of the product.
Note: Shelf life is subjected to different products, heat and storage conditions, as well as the type of
packaging used
MICROBIAL LOAD OF RAW MATERIAL

Coconuts have a high microbial load, especially those left on the
ground after harvesting and transported over long distances. In
particular, dehusked mature coconuts contain higher microbial load
as the fibres tend to trap soil and dirt. To reduce microbial load, it
is recommended that coconut processing includes a cleaning stage
during production.
CHAPTER 11 | LONG LIFE COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
115
Cleaning efforts vary for young and mature coconuts. For young
coconuts, the whole fruit is brushed and washed in potable water to
remove soil and dirt. Sanitizing the fruit in a dilute bleach solution
further reduces the number of microorganisms on the surface of the
young coconut. (FAO,2007)
To reduce microbial load for mature coconuts, they are deshelled

and pared down before the white or brown skin kernels are washed.
The pieces of coconut kernels are washed with diluted anti-microbial
solutions, followed by rinsing with potable water before going into
the grinders for coconut milk extraction.
STERILIZING EFFECT ON COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS

When microorganisms and bacterial spores are subjected to heat
treatment or any other kind of sterilizing procedure, not all are killed
at once. Instead, a certain proportion is destroyed in the given
time period, while the remaining portion survives. If the surviving
microorganisms are subjected to the same treatment again over the
given time period, the same proportion will be destroyed and so on.
In other words, a given exposure to sterilizing or disinfectant agents
always kills the same proportion of microorganisms present.
LOGARITHMIC DEATH RATES OF SPORES

Microorganisms are reduced in a semi-logarithmic fashion when
exposed to a lethal effect. As such, the logarithmic function can
never reach zero. Sterility, which implies the total absence of all living
microorganisms, is therefore impossible.
In reality, sterilizing effect or sterilizing efficiency are more

apt descriptions for the number of decimal reductions in counts
of bacterial spores achieved by a sterilization process. When a
sterilization process is performed every time, it can be characterized
by a certain sterilizing effect. An effect factor of 9 here indicates
that out of 109 bacterial spores fed into the process, only 1 (100) will
survive (Figure 11.1).
EFFECT FACTOR 9
109 Bacterial Spores UHT 100 = 1
Figure 11.1 Sterilizing effect of 9

COCONUT HANDBOOK
116
The sterilizing effect is independent of the volume and number of

microorganisms (spores). The function is:
WHERE
K = a constant
t = time of treatment
K x t = log N/Nt N = number of microorganisms (spores) originally present
Nt = number of microorganisms (spores) present after a given
time of treatment
STERILIZING EFFECT ACHIEVED THROUGH UHT

In general, the sterilizing effect depends on the time and temperature
combination, as well as the products bacteria content.
Bacteria content exists as easy to kill vegetative cells only, or as

spore-forming bacteria in a vegetative state. While these bacteria
are easily killed in the vegetative state, their spores are difficult
to eliminate.
In turn, the heat resistance of the test spores are influenced by the
Bacillus strain used, which affects the way spores are produced.
Spores of Bacillus subtilis or Bacillus stearothermophilus are generally
used as test organisms to determine the sterilizing effect of UHT
equipment, especially when strains like B.stearothermophilus
form fairly heat-resistant spores. Clostridium botulinum is used to
determine the effect of in-container sterilization.
Products to be sterilized usually contain a mixed flora of both

vegetative cells and bacterial spores. Unfortunately, high spore
counts can be found in products with low total counts, and vice versa.
Therefore, the total count determination cannot serve as a reliable
base for enumeration of spores in food products. To determine this,
Q10 and F0 values serve as a base for the killing of microorganisms.
Q10 value
The Q10 value for all flavour Ranging from 8-30, Q10 values can be used to determine the killing of
and most chemical changes is bacterial spores. The range widely varies because different bacteria
between 2-3. spores react differently to temperature increases.
Q10 values state how many times the speed of a reaction increases if
the temperature of the system is raised by 10C. This is due to the
sterilizing effect of a heat process that increases rapidly with rising
temperature, which is consistent with the chemical reactions that
occur as a consequence of heat treatment.
117
F0 value
F0 value expresses the relationship between time and temperature of
sterilization, where the F-value for a process is the number of minutes
required to kill a known population of microorganisms in a given
amount of food under specified conditions. The F0 value is based on
a z-value of 10C and states the minutes required at a temperature of
121.1C to achieve a sterilizing effect of 12D.
WHERE
t = sterilization time in seconds at temperature T in C
t
T-121.1C
T = sterilization temperature in C
F0 = x 10 z
z = a value expressing the increase in temperature to
60
obtain the same lethal effect in one-tenth of the
time
The value varies with the origin of the spores (10-10.8C) and can
generally be set as 10C.
D-value
Decimal reduction time (D-value) is defined as the time required at
any given temperature for a 90% reduction (= 1 log value) in viability
of microorganism to be effected.
z-value
z-value is defined as the temperature increase required to increase
the death rate by tenfold. In other words, it is the temperature
required to reduce the D value by tenfold (Figure 11.1).
Figure 11.1 The z-value expresses the increase in
temperature to obtain the same lethal effect in a
tenth of the time CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL CHANGES
WITH HIGH HEAT TREATMENT
During coconut beverage processing, high heat treatment causes
multiple chemical and bacteriological changes. It destroys most
microorganisms present in the coconut liquid extract, and increases
the shelf life of the coconut beverage. It is important to remove all
microorganisms during heat sterilization. Due to the effectiveness
of sterilization, vegetative organisms present in coconut liquid
products are more easily killed. On the other hand, resistant spores
are more likely to survive as compared to vegetative organisms in
some sterilization processes. Resistant spores may survive thermal
treatments of temperature and time settings of up to 100C for
30 minutes.
Although high heat treatment has many benefits, extended heating

should be avoided as it leads to the destruction of nutrients, such as
essential amino acids and vitamins. It also causes Maillard browning
and develops a cooked flavour.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
118
When heat treatment is applied to coconut products, it is important

to ensure optimum conditions for sterilizing effectiveness. These
include temperature, time, moisture content and pressure to
maximize the destruction of microbial spoilage agents, while
minimizing the unwanted effects of heat.
The changes in chemical properties and spore destruction are

shown in Figure 11.2. It can be seen that in the range of UHT
temperatures, the bacteriological killing effect increases considerably
with temperature, whereas the chemical changes remain mild.
This clearly illustrates the advantages of UHT treatment against
in-container sterilization operating at low temperatures for a long
time (Figure 11.3). Ultra high temperatures with short holding times
(Figure 11.4) can provide a high sterilization effect while causing
only minimal chemical changes in the treated product. In-container
sterilization operating at low temperatures for a long time leads to
more extensive changes in product quality.
Figure 11.2 Curves representing the speed of changes in chemical properties and of spore destructure with
increasing temparature1
Figure 11.3 Temperature curve for in-container Figure 11.4 Temperature curves for direct, A, and
sterilization1 indirect, B, UHT treatment1
1
119
SHELF LIFE
For long life products, shelf life is defined as the time the product can
be stored before its quality falls below an acceptable, minimum level.
This is determined by the product taste, colour, smell, jellification,
sedimentation, fat separation and viscosity.
During storage, the sensory properties of coconut beverages can

deteriorate. For coconut water, colour may change from colourless
to brown or pink, while turbidity may increase due to flocculation.
For coconut milk and its products, separation between oil and
aqueous phases may occur, which also affects the viscosity properties.
Factors affecting the shelf life of coconut liquid products are shown
in Figure 11.5.
1 Raw product quality
2 Operation and hygiene
3 Processing and storage

conditions
4 Packaging machine system
5 Packaging configuration and

seal quality
6 Distribution conditions and

temperature
7 Consumer handling
Figure 11.5 Factors affecting shelf life of coconut liquid products

COCONUT HANDBOOK
120
PRODUCING LONG LIFE COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS

There are two methods used for the production of long life coconut
beverages in-container sterilization and Ultra High Temperature
(UHT) treatment.
IN-CONTAINER STERILIZATION
There are two processes used for sterilization in bottles or cans
batch processing in autoclaves and continuous processing, using
systems such as vertical hydrostatic towers and horizontal sterilizers.
Batch processing
Batch processing can be operated by three methods:
1 2 3
In stacks of crates in a In a cage which In a rotary
static pressure vessel can be rotated in autoclave
(Figure 11.6) a static autoclave
Figure 11.6 Batch processing in a static pressure vessel1

In a rotary autoclave, it has an advantage over the static methods

due to a quicker uptake of heat from the heating medium, as well
as greater uniformity of treatment for killing bacteria and ensuring
colour uniformity. By batch processing in autoclaves, the product is
usually preheated, then transferred into clean, heated bottles. As
such, heat resistant packaging materials must be used.
The bottles are then capped, placed in a steam chamber and

sterilized. Later, the batch is cooled, and the autoclave is filled with
a new batch. Since sterilization takes place after bottling or canning,
this eliminates the need for aseptic handling. However, heat resistant
packaging materials must be used.
121
Continuous processing
Continuous processing systems are normally preferred when more
than ten thousand units per day are produced. For the smooth
running of operations, the design of such machines depends on the
use of a pressure lock system through which the filled containers
pass from low pressure, low temperature conditions into a relatively
high pressure, high temperature zone, after which they are subjected
to steadily decreasing temperature-pressure conditions, and are
eventually cooled with chilled or cold water.
There are two main types of machines available for continuous

sterilization, depending on the type of pressure lock system used.
The hydrostatic vertical bottle sterilizer
1 First heating stage
Water seal and second

2
heating stage
3 Third heating stage
4 Sterilization section
5 First cooling stage
6 Second cooling stage
7 Third cooling stage
8 Forth cooling stage
9 Final cooling stage
Upper shafts and wheels,

10
individually driven
Legend:
Product
Steam
Cooling Water
Figure 11.7 Hydrostatic vertical continuous bottle sterilizer
Often referred to as the tower sterilizer, the hydrostatic vertical bottle

sterilizer consists of a central chamber maintained at a sterilizing
temperature by steam under pressure, while counterbalanced by the
equivalent pressure of water columns.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
122
Water is heated on the inlet side and cooled on the outlet side,
while temperatures are adjusted to give maximum heat uptake
and abstraction. At the same time, breakage of glass packaging is
avoided by thermal shock.
In the hydrostatic tower, the filled containers are slowly conveyed

through successive heating and cooling zones. These zones are sized
to correspond with the required temperatures and holding times at
various treatment stages.
The horizontal rotary valve-sealed sterilizer
Automatic loading of bottles or

1
cans
Rotating valve simultaneously

2 transport bottles into and out of
pressure chamber
3 Sterilization area
4 Ventilation fan
Legend:
5 Pre-cooling area
Product
Final cooling at atmospheric
6
pressure Steam
7 Unloading from conveyor chain Cooling Water
Figure 11.8 Horizontal sterilizer with rotary valve seal and positive pressurisation (steam/air mixture) facility
The rotary valve sealed sterilizer is a comparatively simple machine

with a mechanically driven valve rotor. The filled containers are
conveyed into a relatively high pressure, high temperature zone
where they are subjected to sterilizing temperatures. The rotary valve
sealed sterilizer can be used for the sterilization of plastic and glass
bottles, as well as flexible containers of plastic film and laminates.
ULTRA HIGH TEMPERATURE (UHT) TREATMENT

Ultra High Temperature (UHT) is a technique used for preserving
liquid food products by exposing them to brief, intensive heating.
This treatment destroys the microorganisms in the product with a
continuous inflow process. It is based on the rapid heating of the
product to the required sterilization temperature, followed by a
short period of holding time at that temperature and rapid cooling.
The purpose of UHT treatment is to achieve commercial sterility of
the product.
123
UHT treatment conditions vary from product to product, depending

on the raw materials used and its microbial load. As such, different
coconut liquid products require different UHT treatments.
For example, coconut water is generally more sensitive to heat, as

compared to coconut milk. Coconut milk requires higher thermal
impact to achieve commercial sterility as it contains fibres and is
higher in viscosity (Table 11.2).
In another example, when dairy milk or soya powder is added

to coconut water, a higher temperature is recommended. If the
microbial load is too high for the UHT treatment to handle, the
coconut liquid products can be subjected to an upstream step of
pasteurization to lower the microbial load before UHT handles the
remaining microorganisms.
Additionally, some countries impose food regulations which have a

requirement for UHT treatment of coconut products. For instance,
long life coconut liquid products in the USA have to undergo UHT
equivalent to F0 of 5 > at 121C = 5 minutes.
PRODUCT pH HEATING TEMPERATURE HOLDING TIME
Low acid coconut

water or milk based >4.6 137-145C 4-15 seconds
beverages
High acid coconut

water or milk based <4.6 110-125C 15-30 seconds
beverages
Coconut milk >4.6 140-145C 8-15 seconds
Table 11.2 UHT conditions for coconut liquid products
In UHT treatments, the product is first heated before aseptic

packaging, which protects the product against light and atmospheric
oxygen. This only applies when the product remains under aseptic
conditions, so it is necessary to prevent re-infection by packaging
the product in previously sterilized packaging materials after heat
treatment. Any intermediate storage between treatment and
packaging must take place under aseptic conditions. This is why
UHT processing is also called aseptic processing.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
124
Indirect UHT system
1 Balance tank
2 Feed pump
3 Plate heat exchanger
4 Non-aseptic homogenizer
5 Holding tube
6 Aseptic tank
7 Aseptic filling
8 CIP
Legend:
Product Hot Water

Steam Diverted Flow Product
Cooling Water
Figure 11.9 UHT process with heating by indirect heating in plate heat exchanger1
With indirect UHT systems (Figures 11.9 and 11.10), a heat exchange
surface separates the product from the heating or cooling media.
The heating medium can be either steam or water in a plate or
tubular heat exchanger (see Figures 11.11, 11.12, 11.13 and 11.14).
Typically, the product enters the sterilizer via a balance inlet tank and
a centrifugal feeding pump at 4-25C. Subsequently, it is heated to
70-75C when the product is homogenized.
1 Balance tank
2 Feed pump
Tubular heat exchanger,

3 regenerative preheater and
cooler
4 Non-aseptic homogenizer
5 Tubular heat exchanger, heater
Tubular heat exchanger, final

6
heater
7 Tubular heat exchanger, cooler
8 Aseptic tank
Legend:
9 Aseptic filling
Product Hot Water
10 CIP
Steam Diverted Flow Product
Cooling Water
Figure 11.10 Indirect UHT system based on tubular heat exchangers1
1
125
For coconut milk based liquid products, a two stage homogenization

of total pressure ranging from 150-200 bar is often used. The product
is then pushed through the remaining equipment for sterilization.
Sterilization temperatures are usually 137-145C. Holding times
between 4-15 seconds at the sterilization temperature are common.
Alternatively, the coconut milk goes through sterilization first before
going into an aseptic downstream homogenizer at 150-200 bar,
70-75C. Often, downstream (aseptic) homogenization is preferred for
coconut milk, as it results in better texture and stability characteristics.
The coconut milk is prone to oxidative damage. In order to lower

the air content of the product, deaeration can be introduced prior to
upstream homogenization. The degree of deaeration depends on the
temperature and vacuum pressure applied in the deaerator.
Indirect systems offer good possibilities for regenerative energy

recovery, as the incoming product is heated by the outgoing
beverage.
For both plate and tubular (single and multiple tube) systems for
commercial production, capacity ranges from 1,000 to 30,000 litres
per hour, or even more.
Figure 11.11 Plate heat exchanger1 Figure 11.13 Tubular heat exchanger1
Figure 11.12 Flow and heat transfer in a plate heat Figure 11.14 Flow and heat transfer in a tubular heat
exchanger1 exchanger1
THE ADVANTAGES OF INDIRECT UHT SYSTEMS COMPARED TO DIRECT UHT SYSTEMS
1 2 3 4
Technical Lower Flexibility with Comparatively low running costs,
simplicity investment cost regards to particles due to better heat recovery
COCONUT HANDBOOK
126
Direct UHT system
1 Balance tank product
2 Feed pump
3 Plate heat exchanger
4 Steam injection head
5 Holding tube
6 Vacuum vessel
7 Vacuum pump
8 Centrifugal pump
9 Aseptic homogenizer
10 Aseptic tank
11 Aseptic filling
12 CIP
Legend:
Product Hot Water

Steam Vacuum and Condensate
Cooling Water Diverted Flow Product
Figure 11.15 UHT process with heating by direct steam injection combined with plate heat exchanger1
Direct UHT systems feature direct contact between the heating

medium and the product. This allows direct steam injection into the
product (Figure 11.15).
At a temperature of about 4-15C, the product enters the sterilizer via

a balance inlet tank and a centrifugal feeding pump. It is heated by
plate or tubular heat exchangers to about 70-80C.
At this stage, steam is injected into the product (Figure 11.16), or

the product is conveyed into a steam chamber. In infusion systems,
the product is infused into a steam chamber so both injection
and infusion systems must operate with culinary steam. Steam
condensation increases the temperature almost instantaneously to
the sterilization temperature, which is typically between 137C and
145C. At the sterialisation temperature, the average holding time
is 4-15 seconds. In both the injection and infusion processes, water
condenses in the product and dilutes it.
Figure 11.16 Steam injection nozzle1
1
127
Subsequently, equal amounts of water must be removed. The

outlet of the holding cell connects to a vacuum chamber. To
prevent boiling in the product-holding cell, a sufficient overpressure
by a suitable restriction device must be introduced. When
exposed to underpressure, the product starts boiling vigorously
and steam is flushed off. Careful adjustment of the injection
or infusion temperature and the underpressure in the vacuum
chamber guarantees a consistent dry matter content of the
incoming and outgoing products. As a result, the pressure drops
and requires an aseptic transfer pump to be installed for further
product transportation.
In order to avoid an accumulation of product in the expansion cooler,

both the product feeding pump and the transfer pump at the outlet
of the expansion cooler must be carefully matched. The capacity of
the transfer extraction pump is often controlled by a sensor immersed
in the product, in the vacuum chamber.
Then, cavitation forces during steam condensation destabilize

protein and fat. To compensate for this effect, direct heating requires
downstream homogenization, which has to be done under aseptic
conditions. Homogenization pressures for coconut liquid products are
usually 150-200 bar. The homogenizer pushes the product through
the final cooling section of the sterilizer, either into an aseptic storage
tank or directly into the aseptic filling machine.
In the expansion cooler, water and other volatile compounds are

removed from the product. In addition, the vacuum chamber
functions as a very effective deaerator removing oxygen and other
dissolved gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2). As a consequence,
the freezing point of the product increases.
THE ADVANTAGES OF INJECTION AND INFUSION HEATING
A lower total heat load, which means fewer chemical changes are inflicted on the product
Less scaling, particularly in the temperature range of 70C and above, resulting in longer
production runs with less frequent cleaning and sterilization required
Low oxygen content in the product increases the stability of some vitamins and reduces
flavour changes caused by oxidation during storage
Suitable for products with low and medium viscosity

COCONUT HANDBOOK
128
Recently, special UHT heat exchangers have been developed to

combine direct and indirect heating processes. In one assembly,
tubular heating and steam injection were combined. The product
enters at around 4-10C and is heated to 95C by tubular heat
exchangers. Steam injection raises the temperature instantaneously
to 140C. The product is held at this temperature for a few seconds
before it is cooled down. Pre-cooling is performed in a tubular heat
exchanger where heat is utilized for regenerative heating and the
injected steam is flushed off as a vapour in a vacuum cooler. When
temperature drops to 80C, aseptic homogenization is needed.
Subsequently, the product is cooled to ambient temperature and
filled aseptically.
Product quality from different UHT systems

Different UHT systems affect the product quality of coconut milk and
coconut water (Tables 11.3 and 11.4).
PRODUCT QUALITY OF COCONUT MILK

DIRECT UHT INDIRECT UHT
Fresher product quality More cooked taste
Generally good for 18% fat content.

Recommended for high viscosity/fat
Need more Tubular Heat Exchangers
content 22-24%
(THE) for heat transfer
Lighter colour Darker colour

Table 11.3 Effects of different UHT systems on coconut milk
PRODUCT QUALITY OF COCONUT WATER

DIRECT UHT INDIRECT UHT
More cooked taste,
Fresher product quality
sometimes coconut aroma is more
Less browning More browning
Generally good if it can be adapted to

Recommended for coconut water
have less THE to lower heat transfer
Table 11.4 Effects of different UHT systems on coconut water
CHAPTER 12
CHILLED COCONUT
LIQUID PRODUCTS
Pasteurization is a mild heat process that destroys
undesirable organisms, including vegetative
disease-causing ones. It effectively extends the
shelf life of the product. In order to ensure product
safety and quality for consumers, there must be an
understanding of the many variables
involved in pasteurization, including
increased hygiene conditions,
packaging and chilled
distribution.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
130
CHILLED COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
PROCESSING CHILLED COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS

Pasteurization is a mild heat process that destroys undesirable
Pasteurization is a commonly
organisms, including vegetative disease-causing ones. The process is
used heat treatment, less
named after the French scientist, Louis Pasteur, who discovered in the
severe than UHT, which is
1860s that undesired fermentation could be prevented in wine and
suitable for the processing of
beer by heating it to 57C for a few minutes.
coconut liquid products.
Pasteurization eliminates vegetative bacteria in coconut liquid

products to ensure food safety, and maintains rigid quality control
over both raw and finished products. It can be categorized as low
temperature long time (LTLT) pasteurization, high temperature
short time (HTST) pasteurization and ultrapasteurization. Each type
of treatment requires a specific type of packaging to maximize its
effect. Table 12.1 shows the characteristics of different types of heat
treatment.
TYPES OF HEAT
Globally, between a quarter and SHELF LIFE PRODUCT TYPE
TREATMENT
half of the worlds food supply
Pasteurized Days Chilled coconut liquid products
is lost after harvesting due to
Ultrapasteurized Weeks Chilled coconut liquid products
spoilage, insect infestation,
UHT Months Ambient coconut liquid products
bacterial and fungal attack.
Table 12.1 Characteristics of pasteurized, ultrapasteurized and UHT treatments
Heat treatment of food
products is one way of reducing
such losses by extending its
Coconut liquid products are ideal media for bacterial growth and
shelf life.
require some form of heat processing for long-term storage.
As such, coconut beverages and coconut milk can be quickly

The typical pasteurization processed using pasteurization. This also maintains a rigid quality
process for coconut liquid control over raw and finished products. The process involves mildly
products is 75-95 C for 15-120 heating coconut liquid products, which results in an increased
seconds. In order to ensure refrigerated shelf life. Pasteurization eliminates vegetative bacteria in
product safety and quality for coconut liquid products. Overall, the harmful impact of pasteurization
consumers, there must be an on coconut liquid product quality is relatively mild. Although bacterial
understanding of the many spores and some heat-resistant, non-disease causing microorganisms
variables involved, including can survive the pasteurization process, the total microbial load is
increased hygiene conditions, substantially reduced.
packaging and chilled
distribution. LOW TEMPERATURE, LONG TIME (LTLT) PASTEURIZATION
The original heat treatment for dairy milk was a batch process in
which dairy milk was heated to 63C in open vats and held at that
temperature for 30 minutes. This method is called the LTLT or holder
method. Today, coconut liquid products are more commonly treated
in continuous processes like HTST pasteurization and UHT treatment.
CHAPTER 12 | CHILLED COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
131
HIGH TEMPERATURE, SHORT TIME (HTST) PASTEURIZATION

The recommended
In HTST method, the actual time and temperature combination varies
temperature and time
according to the quality of the coconut base, the type of product
combinations for HTST
treated, and the required keeping qualities of the product.
pasteurization is 75-95C for
15-20 seconds.
ULTRAPASTEURIZATION
Ultrapasteurization is an extended heat treatment, which aims to
extend the coconut liquid products shelf life beyond that of a typical
pasteurized coconut beverage. Some manufacturers aim to put two
extra days on top of the typical shelf life of a pasteurized coconut
beverage, while others aim for an additional 30-40 days.
Ultrapasteurization conditions fall between the conditions needed

for normal pasteurization and ultra-high temperature treatment.
This treatment can vary in different countries, although generally,
the product is heated to between 125-135C for 0.5-4 seconds.
Ultrapasteurization is frequently used in the United States and the
European Union. In the United States, the common treatment is
138C for two seconds while for Europe, it is 127C for two seconds.
This process is also known as high temperature pasteurization in
some countries.
Extended Shelf Life (ESL) is a general term used for ultrapasteurized

products which have been given improved keeping qualities. Thus,
they are able to retain good quality up to 7C storage temperature.
An ESL coconut beverage has an extended shelf life beyond that of
its traditionally pasteurized counterpart. ESL beverages must still be
kept refrigerated during distribution.
The fundamental principle behind ESL technology is the reduction of

reinfection sources during processing and packaging. This requires
extremely high levels of production hygiene and low distribution
temperature. The lower the temperature, the longer the shelf life.
Ideally, coconut beverages like coconut milk should be transported at
4C, at which the product quality and safety is best maintained (Tan
et al., 2015).
Ultrapasteurization can be carried out through direct or indirect heat

processing. Direct heat processing is most commonly used as it
results in a better sensory quality in the finished product. However,
during processing, high heat load increases the risk of heat-induced
flavour changes in coconut liquid products, which can be reduced
by process and line optimisation. All in all, an ultrapasteurized
coconut beverage tends to be safer and of better quality compared
to a normally pasteurized coconut beverage. This is mainly due to
production in a more hygienic and tightly controlled environment.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
132
Shelf life of ultrapasteurized coconut liquid products

LDPE*
Paperboard
For pasteurized coconut liquid products and most pasteurized low
LDPE
acid products, the limiting factor of shelf life is microbiological
Type 1
Economical non-oxygen barrier
activity. Ultrapasteurization is able to extend product shelf life,
material. Metallized finish is
available on the print side for non-
provided the storage conditions are appropriate. Factors affecting
barrier materials.
the shelf life of ultrapasteurized coconut liquid products include
temperature, time, oxygen and moisture. Excessive quantities of
LDPE
Paperboard
LDPE
these elements cause a loss in nutritional value, producing off-
Barrier (EVOH**/Nylon)
LDPE flavours, odours, and rancidity.
Type 2
Non-foil oxygen barrier material
for oxygen sensitive products.
Metallized finish is available on The packaging material used also determines the shelf life of the
the print side for plastic barrier
materials. coconut liquid products. There are three types of laminated carton
packaging material (Figure 12.1). Due to barrier properties, the
LDPE
Paperboard
LDPE
packaging material is able to protect the contents against the
Aluminium foil
LDPE (modified)
LDPE
transfer of gases, flavour compounds, light and microorganisms
Type 3
into the package. In addition, the packaging material used for
Highest oxygen barrier with
aluminium foil, for longest shelf life
ultrapasteurized coconut beverages is disinfected, unlike that of
of oxygen sensitive material.
pasteurized coconut beverages.
Figure 12.1 Three different types of laminated carton
packaging material
* LDPE: Low Density Polyethylene
** EVOH: Ethylene Vinly Alcohol
SHELF LIFE IS THE LENGTH OF TIME DURING WHICH A FOOD PRODUCT CAN BE RELIED UPON
TO RETAIN CERTAIN MINIMUM QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS. FACTORS AFFECTING SHELF LIFE
OF PASTEURIZED PRODUCTS ARE:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Raw product Operation and Processing Packaging Packaging Distribution Consumer

quality hygiene and storage machine system configuration and conditions and handling
conditions seal quality temperature
In some parts of Central and South America and Asia, Spoilage of the pasteurized coconut liquid products can
both homemade and commercial coconut liquid products be affected by the amount of contamination found in the
are consumed on a daily basis. Commercial coconut liquid coconuts. Minimal contamination from soil, bacteria and other
products are packed in bulk or individual containers of various organisms can be ensured through cleaning. The length of
types. Through treatments which control the microbiology shelf life required determines the pasteurization conditions.
of the product and appropriate packaging, the shelf life and The processing equipment also needs to be clean, free
distribution areas of coconut liquid products can be greatly from dirt, contaminants, and sanitized to prevent further
extended. contamination of the coconut products.
Pasteurization of coconut liquid products, which kills off Minimizing recontamination, along with the cold storage
vegetative bacteria, ensures that the products are safe for of these products, aids in prolonging shelf life. Pasteurized
human consumption as long as they are refrigerated during coconut liquid products are stored, distributed and sold in
their recommended shelf life. The typical shelf life of a cold chain conditions. Cold chain handling ensures that
pasteurized coconut liquid product is about one week at 4C. coconut beverages are stored at a refrigerated temperature
from the time of packaging to arrival at retail outlets.
Quality aspects of pasteurized coconut milk and coconut
beverages are affected by the quality of raw materials,
process parameters, packaging and storage conditions.
133
The quality of ultrapasteurized coconut liquid products depends

on factors like the quality of the raw material, the processing and
storage procedures, packaging, plant hygiene and local distribution
conditions. It is important to consider all factors from the raw material
stage to delivery on the retail shelf and consumption.
The fundamental principle of extended shelf life processing is to

minimize microbial load and recontamination (Figure 12.2). This can
be achieved by careful consideration of:
1 2 3 4
Raw material Processing Strict hygiene Environmental
selection conditions conditions factors
Figure 12.2 Quality considerations for pasteurized and ultrapasteurized coconut beverages
During processing, ultrapasteurization is employed for ESL beverages

as it reduces the microbial load to a much greater degree than
pasteurization.
Strict hygiene conditions are employed in the processing of ESL

beverages. These conditions provide more protection against
recontamination from transfer of the product to the filler and the
filling environment. In effect, the quality of coconut liquid products
fed to the filler is largely maintained through such conditions, and
a reduced microbial load is achieved, compared to pasteurized
coconut liquid products.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
134
The extended shelf life concept does not merely include the
extension of an end product shelf life. The primary advantages
offered by the extended shelf life concept are based on
improvements in hygiene over the entire chain of production from
the extraction of coconut milk and water, processing and filling,
to chilled chain distribution.
Through improved product quality and safety, the possibilities

of geographic expansion, development of larger markets and
production and distribution efficiency are increased. As discussed,
the extended shelf life concept involves many factors. The end
product quality is the composite result of many variable factors
along the entire chain of production, which begins with the quality
of the raw coconut material and ends with the quality of the chilled
distribution chain. In order to quantify the end product quality and
safety, there must be understanding of the many variables that affect
product quality.
The factors affecting ultrapasteurized coconut liquid products quality,

safety and shelf life can be broadly categorized as operational,
environmental and technological factors (Table 12.2).
FACTOR TYPE FACTORS

Technological1 Preventive Maintenance
Operation Equipment
Pre-Production Equipment Sterilization
Cleaning-in-Place
Environmental2 Hygenic Standard of Operating Environment

Raw Material Quality
Cold Chain/Distribution
Quality of Utilities
Operational3 Package Integrity Performance

Line Installation
Secondary Packaging
Processing & Filling Equipment
Table 12.2 Factors affecting ultrapasteurized coconut liquid products quality, safety and shelf life
1
Relates to help the equipment (including package integrity)
2
Relates to the area where the equipment is situated, operated and the quality of the chill chain
3
Relates to the manner in which the equipment is operated, cleaned and maintained
135
Often only technological factors are considered in shelf life and

food safety issues. While equipment continues to be an important
factor, there is also a need for increased awareness of the role of
the operating environment and the level of skill required by the
equipment operator. A balanced approach will ensure a stable
foundation for the sustained production of safe and high quality
coconut beverages.
DISTRIBUTING AND PACKAGING

CHILLED COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
The primary objective of chilled distribution is to reduce or eliminate
microbial activity and growth when the product is being stored or
distributed. This is done through chilling or reduction of the product
temperature, followed by refrigerated storage. The process also
aims to extend shelf life. Ultrapasteurized or ESL products are clearly
distinguishable from UHT products when it comes to distribution
and merchandizing. From the consumers perspective, ESL coconut
beverages will always be judged by the level of pasteurized coconut
beverages as they are merchandized from the same refrigerated
section in supermarkets.
Both traditionally pasteurized and ultrapasteurized coconut liquid

products are distributed in all types of packages. They must be stored
under refrigeration. Through careful handling, essential nutrients and
original flavours are preserved in the products. Different packaging
materials and containers are used for different products. These are
influenced by processing operations undertaken prior to packaging.
The packaging material is selected to maintain the desirable product

characteristics as established by the manufacturing process, and to
achieve the desired shelf life. Both container type and packaging
material can vary. Packaging material used for packing ESL coconut
beverages is disinfected with hydrogen peroxide to reduce microbial
load. This is unlike the packaging material used for traditionally
pasteurized coconut liquid products. Package integrity and stability
should be reinforced to ensure product quality during an extended
period in a moist and cold environment. General handling and
physical damage of the packaging must also be kept to a minimum
to ensure package integrity.
NOTES
CHAPTER 13
PACKAGING OF
COCONUT LIQUID
PRODUCTS
Packaging is essential for keeping food products
safe for consumption. It primarily aims to contain
the liquid product, prevent leakage and protect
the contents from physical, chemical
and biological hazards, which are
present throughout the
products shelf life.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
138
PACKAGING OF COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS

Packaging is essential for keeping food products safe for
consumption. It primarily aims to contain the liquid product, prevent
leakage and protect the contents from physical, chemical and
biological hazards, which are present throughout the products shelf
life.
In the case of coconut liquid products, the choice of packaging is

important in ensuring product quality and use. The most suitable
packaging material should only be chosen after careful consideration
of the desired shelf life and end condition of the coconut liquid
product.
ROLE OF PACKAGING
Packaging has a major role to play in preserving coconut liquid
products, keeping them in a good and wholesome condition. This
includes protecting coconut liquid products from microbial spoilage
and chemical deterioration, which can be caused by exposure to
moisture and air. More importantly, packaging must be able to
fulfil the two basic aims of containing the beverage and preventing
leakage. It should also protect coconut liquid products from physical
hazards throughout its shelf life.
The life span of packaging starts from the point of production and
packing, to its disposal by the end user. Current consumer trends
show a preference for a wide range of coconut liquid products
available all year round in various package volumes. With increased
urbanisation and busier lifestyles led by todays consumers, packaged
coconut liquid products are fast gaining acceptance. As a means of
extending the product shelf life, packaging has become essential in
ensuring that the product remains safe for consumption.
METHODS OF STERILIZING PACKAGING MATERIAL

There are several methods to sterilize packaging material. Essentially,
there are three major sterilization processes used either individually
or in combination. These processes are heat treatment, chemical
treatment and irradiation.
?
From containers provided by nature to the use of complex materials and processes, packaging
has certainly evolved, due to factors like marketplace competition and changing lifestyles.
In early times, food containers came in the form of leaves, gourds, shells and even animal
organs. When it came to packaging liquids, the first containers were clay jars and wooden
barrels. The coconut itself served to contain coconut water. Today, aseptic packaging allows
beverages like the coconut water to have an extended shelf life of up to six months or more.
It also avoids the need for preservatives or refrigeration by ensuring commercial sterility
during processing and packaging.
CHAPTER 13 | PACKAGING OF COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
139
HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatment comes in two forms dry and moist. Dry heat
treatment involves the use of hot air in the absence of water
molecules. On the other hand, moist heat treatment involves the
use of steam, specifically pure gaseous water with no other gases
present. In comparison, moist heat treatment is more effective than
using dry heat. Nevertheless, both sterilization techniques depend on
time and temperature factors.
For moist heat treatment to reach temperatures high enough for

sterilization to occur within seconds, steam is produced using
pressure in a pressure chamber. Here, any air that enters the chamber
with the packaging material must be removed to ensure that it will
not interfece with heat transfer between the steam and packaging
surface.
?
CHEMICAL TREATMENT
Chemical treatment is often used to sterilize packaging material.
Usually, the chemicals used are hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and
Peracetic acid (PAA) is peracetic acid (PAA). Used in combination with heat to sterilize
produced through the
the surface of carton packaging material, H2O2 is effective against
oxidation of acetic acid by
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). microorganisms and resistant spores. For rapid sterilization, high
It is a frequently used liquid concentrations of H2O2 at high temperatures are required. PAA is a
sterilant that is effective liquid chemical sterilant used for the sterilization of filling machine
against spores.
and plastic packaging material surfaces.
IRRADIATION
Irradiation can be carried out using pulsed light or ionising radiation.
In the case of pulsed light, short high power pulses are emitted by a
capacitor that stores electrical energy. These pulses are intense and
emit broad spectrum white light that sterilizes aseptic packaging
material. A few flashes within a fraction of seconds provide high level
microbial inactivation.
lonising radiation can sterilize the interior of a sealed empty container

with gamma rays. This is suitable for packaging materials which
cannot tolerate thermal sterilization, or is restricted by their shape
and cannot be conveniently sterilized by other methods. A radiation
dose of 25kGy (2.5Mrad) or more is usually applied to ensure
sterilization.
In the case of the bag in box, an empty, sealed bag is irradiated and
placed in a sterile filling chamber. The bag is unsealed, filled and
resealed in a sterile environment to prevent any recontamination.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
140
ELECTRON BEAM TECHNOLOGY

Widely adopted to sterilize food packaging, electron beam
?
technology works by focusing a controlled beam of electrons onto
the surface of the packaging material. As the packaging material
runs through the filling machine, the beam kills any bacteria or
micro-organism present, thereby sterilizing the packaging material.
Electron beam technology Note that the product is not sterilized with the electron beam, only
can also improve the the packaging material is. Compared to chemical treatments, this
environmental performance packaging sterilizing technology allows easier water recycling as there
of the filling equipment
is no need to filter out H202.
by reducing energy
consumption.
SELECTING PACKAGING
FOR COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
Coconut liquid products are packed to maintain quality under various
shelf life conditions. These conditions vary according to raw material
quality, processing parameters, storage conditions and the threshold
of acceptance by the individual consumer. Note that the packaging
can protect the coconut liquid product, but cannot improve its quality
over time.
When selecting the most appropriate packaging for coconut liquid

products, the following factors should be considered.
COMPOSITION
Coconut liquid products might contain potential delaminators like
free fatty acids or other flavours and stabilizers. For example, in some
carton laminates, there may be occasional problems caused by free
fatty acids or other components of the coconut liquid product. This
is true for coconut milk based liquid products which either contain or
will develop free fatty acids that react with some packaging material
and cause delamination. Free fatty acids and other components
found in the coconut liquid product can also attack some laminates
and not others, due to the difference in layer properties.
Referring to two Tetra Pak laminates in Figure 13.1, the free fatty
acids may react with Tetra Brik Aseptic/m polyethylene and
aluminium foil adhesion to create a bag in box. This occurs when
free fatty acids attack the bond between the inside layer of the inner
polyethylene and the aluminium foil.
Carton laminate is a composite of many layers. The combination of traits possessed by each layer
? adds to the strength of the laminate. As such, delamination weakens the laminate. This increases
the risk of product reinfection and degenerating quality. The packaging also becomes difficult
to open for consumption. Choosing the right laminate according to the product is important to
ensure this does not happen.
141
If the package used for the coconut liquid product is Tetra Brik
Aseptic/m, the attack is often rapid and may result in the complete
delamination of the inner polyethylene from the aluminium foil. As
a result, the inner polyethylene may be detached from the package
and look like a bag in box. This significantly increases the oxygen
migration surface.
On the other hand, bag in box does not occur in the other type of
laminate (Tetra Brik Aseptic/j). In the Tetra Brik Aseptic/j material,
the inside polyethylene layer next to the aluminium foil is made
from a modified polyethylene containing a high level of acrylic acid.
The acrylic acid results in stronger binding with the aluminium foil.
However, if free fatty acids are present, they will inevitably migrate
through the polyethylene and, in time, the acrylic acid bond will be
replaced by the free fatty acid molecules. The level of acrylic acid in
the adhesive layer of Tetra Brik Aseptic/j is set to provide reasonable
resistance against delamination by free fatty acids in ambient
conditions over normal shelf life.
Figure 13.1 Cross section of two types of carton laminates
In another example, coconut liquid products may also have a

suspension of very fine powder, especially if it is recombined from
coconut powders. Such powder particles may affect the transversal
seal. Therefore, it is important to understand the biochemistry of the
product and its ingredients, in order to suitably determine the choice
of laminate.
QUALITY PARAMETERS
Quality parameters, such as flavour, colour and microbiological
quality changes may be caused by several factors. Some of these
are subjected to the flavour transfer within the package, as well as
the entry of oxygen, light or microorganisms into the package. As
such, the packaging requires barriers to deter these factors from
entering the coconut liquid product. In the case of carton laminates,
the aluminium foil layer within the laminate can provide most of the
barrier required.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
142
EXPECTED SHELF LIFE

Depending on the length of the shelf life, the packaging material is
required to protect the coconut liquid product for an extended time
period. Note that the expected shelf life is highly dependent upon
the quality of raw material used, processing parameters employed
and the consumers threshold of product acceptance.
STORAGE CONDITIONS
Storage conditions, specifically time and temperature, can affect
the quality of the coconut liquid products. As storage conditions
are subjected to changes, no one packaging system can completely
prevent quality changes from taking place in the product.
CONSUMER COMMUNICATIONS
A packaging with the right Besides protecting the coconut liquid product, packaging also acts
protection for the product, as a communication medium to consumers. It is useful in conveying
coupled with the right price, information to consumers. These information include the date of
design and messaging, can manufacture, expiry dates, nutritional information, ingredients and
appeal to your target market. certifications (e.g. Kosher, Halal, Organic) according to each countrys
This will increase the likelihood food law regulations and requirements. Packaging also helps draw
of consumers reaching out for consumers closer to the product and brand by communicating your
your unique branded product brand personality through the logo, graphics and stories.
through various distribution
channels. PORTION SIZES
Packaging comes in different sizes. Where consumption is in small
volumes, portion packages (less than 600ml) are generally suited for
children and adults to finish coconut beverages in one seating. These
portion sizes are also suitable for packaging coconut milk or cream,
as these products are typically used in small amounts in different
food recipes.
Where consumption is in large volumes, family packages and large

size containers are typically bottled in 1000ml to suit in-home
consumption of coconut beverages, as well as for hotel, restaurant,
caf or catering (HORECA) usage of coconut milk.
143
ASEPTIC PACKAGING
In aseptic packaging, commercially sterile liquid products are filled
into sterile containers under sterile conditions. These containers
are then sealed to prevent re-infection. Compared to non-aseptic
packaging, aseptic packaging allows the use of containers which are
typically unsuitable for in-package sterilization. Through a thermally
efficient high temperature, short time (HTST) sterilization process,
aseptic packaging results in superior quality products, as compared
to those processed at lower temperatures for longer times. This
extends the product shelf life at ambient temperatures.
For coconut liquid products, aseptic packaging can help distribute

and store these perishable goods without refrigeration for more
than six months. The aseptic packaging system achieves room
temperature shelf stability by filling a sterilized package with
sterilized coconut liquid products, all within the confines of a
hygienic environment. This is different from other systems that use
preservatives and refrigeration to prolong the products shelf life.
For storing coconut liquid products at ambient temperatures, it is

important that these products are commercially sterile when packed,
and not re-infected by a contaminated packaging material. Therefore,
it is important that the packaging material is properly sterilized,
providing an effective barrier against external microorganisms.
PACKAGING SYSTEMS FOR COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
? Different packaging systems are used for packaging coconut

beverages, milk and cream. For pasteurized and extended shelf life
coconut liquid products, non-aseptic packaging material and systems
For many decades, are preferred. In the case of long life coconut liquid products, aseptic
aseptic packaging has
packaging is essential. The choice of packaging material used
been widely used in
Europe and Asia. It was is influenced by the product characteristics, the cost of both the
only introduced to the product and the packaging, as well as consumer preferences.
United States in the
early 1980s.
The most commonly used consumer package for aseptic products is
the laminated carton. The aseptic packaging system fills the sterile
product in an aseptic manner, and hermetically seals the package to
ensure that sterility is maintained during handling and distribution
processes. Commercial requirements of less than one faulty package
out of 10,000 packages produced are common. There are five major
categories of aseptic packaging equipment available.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
144
CARTON BASED PACKAGES

In most countries, laminated carton packages are the predominant
form of packaging for coconut liquid products. Most of these are
aseptically packed. Non-aseptically packed coconut liquid products
using chilled distribution can also be found.
The material used in carton based aseptic packages is normally made

up of a barrier layer, and layers of paperboard coated internally and
externally with polyethylene rendering. It is impermeable to liquids.
Today, the most commonly used material for the barrier layer is the
aluminium foil, which acts as a barrier to oxygen, flavour and light.
Other barriers include SiOx on polyester, ethylene vinyl alcohol
(EVOH) and polyamide (PA).
The structure of a typical paperboard carton is shown in Figure 13.2.

The polyethylene coat on the outer layer protects the carton against
environmental moisture, while the paper layer provides stiffness and
strength. Another layer of polyethylene bonds this base paper to the
barrier layer, which protects itself against the entry of light, gas and
other materials. The last inner layer of polyethylene acts as a sealing
(Figure 13.3). For proper functioning, the packaging material should
be stored at the temperature and humidity levels recommended by
Figure 13.3 Carton-based packages the manufacturer.
1 Polyethylene - protects against

outside moisture
2 Paper - for stability and strength
3 Polyethylene - adhesion layer
4 Aluminium foil - oxygen, flavour

and light barrier
5 Polyethylene - adhesion layer
6 Polyethylene - seals in the liquid

Figure 13.2 Structure of packaging material
THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE PACKAGING MATERIAL AND THE STORED PRODUCT
?
IS INEVITABLE. INTERACTIONS CAN COME IN THE FORM OF:
MIGRATION
Compounds from the packaging material, such as polyethylene coating, print and base paper, can
dissolve into the product. The presence of aluminium foil limits migration.
ADSORPTION
Product ingredients adhere to the inner surface of the packaging material
ABSORPTION
Product ingredients are absorbed into the inner surface of the packaging material.
PERMEATION
Product ingredients pass to the outside of the package, or compounds from the outside penetrate into
the container. Gas permeation can take place through the seams of a container through the longitudinal
seam. A multi-layered barrier strip provides better barrier characteristics than a strip with one or more
layers of polyethylene.
145
CARTON-BASED PACKAGES FROM PREFABRICATED BLANKS

A pre-fabricated system produces pre-fabricated cartons such as the
gable top. First, blanks are die cut and creased, while the longitudinal
seal is completed at the packaging material plant by skiving the inner
layer of board and folding it back. These blanks are delivered to the
beverage packaging facility in lay flat form for shaping and bottom
sealing.
In the extended shelf life (ESL) application, the hygiene area of the
filling machine consists of several separate functional zones where
operations are carried out in sequence. Hygiene is maintained in
each zone by a slight overpressure of sterile air. The inside surface
of the carton is disinfected with hydrogen peroxide (H202) solution
delivered either as a fine spray or as peroxide vapour in hot air, so
that the vapour condenses as liquid peroxide on the carton surface.
The peroxide is then removed by a jet of hot air.
After filling, the top seal of the carton is folded and closed.
A prefabricated blank is shown in Figure 13.4.
Figure 13.4 A pre-fabricated carton blank

COCONUT HANDBOOK
146
CARTON-BASED PACKAGES FROM ROLLS

Carton-based packages produced from rolls are pre-printed and
pre-creased. They are respectively known as Tetra Brik and
Tetra Prisma packages from Tetra Pak. First, the packaging
material is sterilized using a wetting system or a deep bath system.
The wetting system involves the application of a thin hydrogen
peroxide film containing a wetting agent. In the deep bath system,
the packaging material is fed through a deep bath containing
hydrogen peroxide.
Next, the sterilized material is fed into a machine where the material
is shaped into a tube and the longitudinal seal is secured by heat
sealing. A strip that had been added prior to sterilization is heat
sealed across the inner surface of the longitudinal seal to prevent
contact between the outside and inside of the carton. It also provides
protection of the aluminium and paperboard layers from the product,
which could corrode or swell the layers if such a strip were absent.
After the longitudinal seal is formed, the coconut liquid product is

then filled into the tube and a transversal seal is made below the
level of the product to ensure that the package is completely filled.
The sterilization, filling and sealing processes are performed inside
a chamber that has undergone sterilization prior to production and
is maintained at an overpressure of 0.5 atm with sterile air. Some
carton-based packages made from rolls are shown in Figure 13.5.
Another type of carton-based package from Tetra Pak is Tetra Top,

which is a carton package with a polyethylene lid. It is usually made
from roll-fed packaging material. The packaging material is folded in
the machine, sealed longitudinally and cut into sleeves. The plastic
Figure 13.5 Roll-fed packages
tops are injection-moulded and applied to the packages. After filling,
the bottoms are sealed by heating elements.
Besides laminated carton packaging, coconut liquid products can

also be packaged using plastic pouches and bottles, glass bottles
and metal cans.
In the case of aseptic filling, the coconut liquid product is UHT treated using a high
? temperature short time (HTST) process. This limits energy use and nutrient loss through flash
heating and cooling. As a result, the final coconut liquid product may also possess a more
natural colour, taste and texture.
147
BOTTLES
Plastic bottles
Different types of plastics can be used to bottle coconut liquid
products. Over recent years, blow moulded plastic bottles made
from high density polyethylene (HDPE) or polypropylene have
been commonly used. Sometimes, pigments are added into these
materials to act as a light barrier. Multi-layer plastics with improved
barrier properties have also been developed.
High-density polyethylene (HDPE)

High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a member of the polyolefin
group produced through an extrusion blow moulding (EBM) process.
As a highly crystalline material, it boasts high impact strength,
chemical resistance and thermal stability.
As HDPE is relatively oxygen-permeable, plain HDPE bottles are

well suited for coconut liquid products with limited shelf lives. As the
material is permeable to gases, other polymers can be introduced
to improve its ability to block oxygen. Such bottles have up to
seven layers for maximum light and gas barrier properties. The
most common barrier layers are ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) and
polyamide (PA), which allow ambient storage of beverages for more
than six months.
HDPE bottles are also fairly opaque and often pigmented. In general,
HDPE provides reasonable barrier properties, a stiff and strong
structure, good resistance to chemicals and moisture, and is easily
processed and shaped.
Polyethylene-terephthalate (PET)
Polyethylene-terephthalate (PET) bottles are made by stretch blow
moulding using a preform. They are colourless and transparent,
although pigments can be introduced. A preform is an injection
moulded PET tube closed at one end while a finished neck is
formed at the open end. When blown, the stretching gives tensile
strength and gas barrier properties to a lightweight bottle that is
relatively low in cost. For coconut liquid products which contain
a high concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids that can be
rapidly oxidized, plastics that are minimally permeable to gases
are highly preferred.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
148
A PET bottle is more robust than glass but is more gas-permeable.

Barrier properties for PET bottles improve with increased crystallinity,
which is in turn, influenced by material thickness and conditions
during stretch blow moulding. Barrier improvement is also possible
through the introduction of new compounds, a barrier coating or
making several material layers using a preform.
For aseptic filling, PET bottles are first sterilized before the coconut
liquid product is added. During sterilization, bottles are treated with
hydrogen peroxide or a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and peracetic
acid, then rinsed with sterile water. They are usually of lower weight
than hot fill bottles and do not require heat setting. As a result, they
are cheaper and more flexible in design.
Glass bottles
Glass bottles can be used to contain coconut liquid products with hot
or aseptic filling techniques. It is produced using the blow and blow,
or press and blow method. Over the years, glass has developed
into a sophisticated form of packaging. Scuff resistance has been
increased through light weighting and surface coating, while plastic
coating materials are also used to coat glass. This plastic coating acts
as a surface protector and pre-label base, helping to absorb impact,
reduce noise and provide insulation. Glass bottles also come in new
wide-mouth versions with easy-to open caps. These are generally
produced by the press and blow method.
To make good glass bottles, attention must be given to the quality

and strength of the glass material during production. These include
raw materials silica sand, soda ash, limestone, dolomite and cullet.
After mixing, the raw materials are charged into a melting furnace
and refined before being forced through an orifice, emerging as a
gob of molten glass. Then, it goes into a forming machine, to be
turned into the shape of a bottle by compressed air.
In 1940, when polyethylene-terephthalate (PET) was discovered by Whinfield and Dickson
? in England, ethylenglycol and terephthalate combinations were jointly poly-condensed to

form a polymer. This was dried into thin rods, cooled and grounded into granules which were
crystallized and heated to form a colourless PET-granulate. This is when the molecule chains
become so flexible that the plastic melts, turning into a slightly fluid material that can be
shaped into practically any form. As the material cools, the molecular chains freeze in position
and the plastic hardens into the desired shape.
149
FLEXIBLE POUCHES
Flexible pouches are categorized as wholly plastic or plastics, fibre
and aluminium combinations. Plastic pouches are usually made up
of five layers, one tie layer connects the printed polypropylene to
a proprietary centre barrier, which acts as a gas and water barrier.
Another tie layer comes before an inner polyethylene sealant layer.
A plastic pouch is light and stands by itself. It also allows direct

printing onto the package. Sometimes, spouts made out of high
Figure 13.6 Tetra Fino is made up of six layers. It has
density polyethylene are also attached. However, as the spout
no rigid geometrical shape and may have openings
like straw holes. can compromise the space inside the pouch, straw holes can be
used instead. Alternatively, a flexible pouch of plastic, fibre and
aluminium combination with no rigid geometrical shape can be
used (Figure 13.6).
CANS
Using either two or three piece Typically, three-piece cans are two parts made of steel while the
metal cans, coconut liquid third part is fitted with an aluminium easy-open end. Both parts in
products can be heat sterilized the three-piece can are soldered, welded or side-seam bonded by
with their beverage contents. adhesive. For two-piece cans, there is an integral body and bottom
fitted with an aluminium easy-open end.
A three-piece can is made by printing and base-lacquering sheets

of tinplate, which are then cut into rectangular shapes of the
appropriate size. These rectangles are first shaped and soldered.
Next, lacquer side-stripes are applied over the internal solder

margins. The cylinders formed are then flanged at both ends.
Depending on the diameter, manufacturers can help to fit the steel
or easy-open end. Finally, the open-topped cylinder is sprayed
with a second coat of lacquer. To reduce the cost of producing the
aluminium end, necking-in the cans body can be adopted to reduce
the diameter of the end.
The production process of a two-piece can consists of a few stages.

First, the cup-maker machine converts the coiled feedstock into
circular discs. Then, they are held in a controlled die gap and drawn
or pressed into the required cup shape. Next, cups received from the
cup-maker are redrawn to the basic can diameter and progressively
forced through car-bided ring discs and stretched to the desired can
length. In this process, can wall thickness is reduced by up to 70%.
Last but not least, a doming punch at the end of the stroke produces
a bottom configuration to suit design requirements. Cans are then
necked in and flanged in a special machine, covered with two coats
of lacquer sprayed onto the internal surface of the can.
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150
PACKAGING DESIGN INNOVATION

Innovative packaging designs can help products stand out on the
shelves. Typically, coconut liquid products can be packaged in five
different carton formats. In addition, there are six other formats of
cartons from Tetra Pak to choose from.
TETRA BRIK ASEPTIC

A familiar portfolio to consumers worldwide, Tetra Brik Aseptic is
the worlds best-selling carton package range for liquid food. Easy
to distribute, stack and store, it is available in volumes ranging from
80-2000ml.
TETRA BRIK ASEPTIC TETRA BRIK ASEPTIC

200 BASE 200 SLIM
TETRA CLASSIC ASEPTIC

Available in fun, unique shapes, Tetra Classic Aseptic also appeals
to consumers with its easy to squeeze and drink mechanism. From
the kitchen counter to the school desk, this packaging stably contains
liquids everywhere.
TETRA CLASSIC ASEPTIC 65

151
TETRA PRISMA ASEPTIC

Tetra Prisma Aseptic offers a distinctive prismatic shape that instantly
stands out on the shelves. Its eight-sided shape, with metallized and
non-metallized print options, provides unlimited creative branding
opportunities. In addition, it is designed to naturally fit in your hands,
ensuring a good grip with easy opening and pouring functions made
easy with smart openings and convenient caps.
TETRA PRISMA ASEPTIC 330 TETRA PRISMA ASEPTIC 500 TETRA PRISMA ASEPTIC FAMILY
(1 LITRE)
TETRA FINO ASEPTIC

Tetra Fino Aseptic is made easy for everyone. Retailers will find this
format easy to pack, stack store, promote and replenish. Likewise,
consumers can easily carry and store these products at home. Last
but not least, they are child-friendly, made easy for children to hold.
TETRA FINO ASEPTIC 70 TETRA FINO ASEPTIC 150
TETRA REX
Commonly found in the refrigerated sections of retail channels in the
United States, Europe and Oceania, Tetra Rex is a chilled package
designed to protect fresh products where chilled distribution is
established. Offering a broad portfolio of packages and closures, this
format is also customisable based on the choice of board, barrier and
print.
TETRA REX HALF GALLON
Typically, coconut liquid products can be found in the above
mentioned packaging formats. Shelves can also be refreshed with
newer formats like Tetra Brik Aseptic 200ml Slim Leaf, Tetra Brik
Aseptic 200 Crystal, or made more appealing with convenient
formats that have added caps like Tetra Brik Aseptic 250E Helicap23,
Tetra Gemina Aseptic and Tetra Top.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
152
SOME OTHER PACKAGES FROM TETRA PAK

THAT COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS CAN BE FOUND IN
TETRA GEMINA ASEPTIC 1500 TETRA BRIK ASEPTIC 200 EDGE TETRA BRIK ASEPTIC 250 EDGE
For more packaging varieties and options, please visit www.tetrapak.com

CHAPTER 14
QUALITY
PARAMETERS AND
QUALITY CONTROL
METHODOLOGIES
For any food product, quality is subjected
to consumer perceptions of taste,
mouthfeel and colour. This is also true
for coconut liquid products.
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154
QUALITY PARAMETERS AND

QUALITY CONTROL METHODOLOGIES
For any food product, quality is subjected to consumer perceptions
of taste, mouthfeel and colour. This is also true for coconut liquid
products. As coconut water, milk and cream are increasingly
consumed worldwide, the quality of coconut liquid products can be
better determined by objective assessments.
Several quality parameters, which differ in chemical composition,

can define the makeup of each product. These parameters refer to
the chemical, microbiological, nutritional and physical factors that
make up the coconut liquid products its unique properties, which also
influences the products shelf life. For example, as coconut water and
milk are low-acid and high water activity foods, they become highly
susceptible to microbial spoilage and deterioration.
That said, research studies are still not extensive enough to cover all
Note aspects of coconut liquid products. Therefore, this chapter serves
The suggested range of as a guide by attempting to consolidate and recommend possible
values are not applicable to all quality control methods to objectively define coconut liquid products
coconut types and varieties. and suggest a range of values for each parameter. It is important that
They could be subjected to experienced quality control personnel and statisticians are employed
variations in coconut maturity, to conduct quality checks and shelf life studies for these products.
variety, cultivation practices
and more. In addition, post- The recommended quality control parameters are shown in Table
harvest factors, such as 14.1. All tests should be done before and after aseptic processing
packaging, transportation and and packaging. However, for boxes which are not ticked, it is optional
storage conditions can also or of less importance to do so for the respective products. Analytical
influence the composition of methods for the respective quality parameters are also recommended
coconut liquid products. in CODEX STAN 247-2005, unless otherwise stated.
COCONUT WATER COCONUT MILK

TEST
BASED PRODUCTS BASED PRODUCTS
Flavour/odour
Total soluble solids Brix
Dry matter determination
pH/ titratable acidity
Microbiological content
Sulphite test
Browning index determination
Optical density/ Turbidity test
Free fatty acids determination
Viscosity
Table 14.1 Important quality control tests for liquid coconut products
CHAPTER 14 | QUALITY PARAMETERS AND QUALITY CONTROL METHODOLOGIES
155
Besides flavour, all listed parameters can be determined by standard

methods of analysis to give meaningful and reliable results. This
is because flavour and odour is commonly evaluated by sensory
means, usually by groups of panellists. These analysis methods
were collected and published in books such as Guidelines for
Sensory Analysis in Food Product Development and Quality Control
(Carpenter et al., 2008) and Sensory Evaluation by Quantitative
Descriptive Analysis (Stone et al., 1974).
QUALITY CONTROL METHODOLOGIES

AND SUGGESTED QUALITY PARAMETERS
TOTAL SOLUBLE SOLIDS

Total soluble solids is an important quality parameter in many food
products. Its analysis is also a commonly practiced one. It typically
indicates the amount of dissolved sugars in the product, thus
affecting both safety and hedonic properties. It can be measured
using a refractometer, which calculates the total soluble solids of the
sample in Brix, and is more important for coconut water.
COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCT SUGGESTED BRIX RANGE

Young coconut water (7-9 months) 5.5-8.0
Mature coconut water (10-13 months) 3.5-6.0
DRY MATTER OR TOTAL SOLIDS ANALYSIS

Infrared drying is a fast The analysis for dry matter or total solids can be done by oven or
method of dry matter or infrared drying. In oven drying, direct heating is used to dry the
total solids analysis. It is a sample, followed by manual weighing. These analyses are more so
faster method compared to important for coconut milk and cream, which standards have been
oven drying. defined by CODEX STAN 240-2003.
TEST METHOD PROCEDURE

Oven drying The sample is weighed before and after drying, and drying
takes place in an oven. Knowing the difference in original and
dried weight corresponds with the moisture mass, and the
percentage of dry matter can be calculated.
Infrared drying An infrared or halogen moisture analyser is an automated

machine which gives the moisture or dry content reading of the
sample without a need for further manual calculation.
Table 14.2 Dry matter analysis methods
SUGGESTED PERCENTAGE
COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCT
RANGE OF TOTAL SOLIDS
Light coconut milk 6.6-12.6
Coconut milk 12.7-25.3
Coconut cream 25.4-37.3

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156
pH MEASUREMENT
pH is a crucial parameter for food as it indicates the sourness of a
product and its current shelf life stability. For coconut water and milk,
the pH measurement drops over the course of its shelf life, until it is
exceeded. Using a calibrated pH meter, the pH of a sample may be
measured.
COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCT SUGGESTED pH RANGE

Coconut milk and cream At least 5.9
TITRATABLE ACIDITY (TA)

In coconut water, TA is expressed as the percentage of malic acid
equivalent. More specifically, TA is determined as the malic acid
equivalent by titration of a sample against 0.1N NaOH. The sample is
titrated until pH 8.2. The sample can be diluted where required.
WHERE
N = normality of NaOH used
Titratable acidity (TA)=
M = malic acid factor (67.05)
(N x M x V1 x 100)/V2 V1 = titre volume
V2 = volume of coconut water added
SUGGESTED % OF
COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCT
TITRATABLE ACIDITY
MICROBIOLOGICAL TESTING
Microbiological testing can be measured as the Total Aerobic Count
(APC), as well as Yeast and Mould Plate Count (YMPC). First, samples
are collected and used to prepare serial dilutions of the samples.
Then, diluted samples buffered at pH 7.2 are placed onto agar plates
or petri films with different kinds of nutrient media available to culture
microorganisms for APC and YMPC.
Thereafter, the diluted samples are incubated at 37C for

24-48 hours for APC. For YMPC, they are incubated at 25C for
3-5 days, or as stipulated by regulations (US FDA, 2001). Taking into
account the dilution factor, the colony forming units are calculated
in the original sample and checked against the local authoritys
compliance standards for quality control.
157
SULPHITE TEST
Sulphite test can be used to determine the amount of sulphite
residue in coconut water, milk and beverages. There are many ways
to do so. In this chapter, we will cover two methods, using sulphite
test strips and DTNB test. For a faster and approximated result,
sulphite test strips may be used. For a more accurate result, the
DTNB test may be used.
TEST METHOD PROCEDURE

Sulphite Test Strip First dip the test strip into the sample. Compare
the colour of the strip with the standard printed
on test package after a stipulated amount of
time (e.g. 30 seconds). Depending on the test
strip supplier, the instructions might vary slightly.
DTNB Test For the standard curve construction, first prepare

the DTNB1 solution, diluted in phosphate
buffered saline solution (pH 7.2). Then prepare
the standard solutions of 0.1 to 5 ppm sodium
metabisulfite. For 1 mL of each of these standard
The original solutions, add 1mL of DTNB and top up to
SMB concentration= 10 mL with distilled water. From these standard
(y/m) x DF solutions, record the absorbance at 412 nm
after 5 minutes of reaction at room temperature.
Finally, construct a standard curve of absorbance
WHERE against SMB concentrations.
y = the absorbance
reading (at 412nm) of For sulphite content measurement, mix 0.5 mL
the sample of sample solution with 1mL of DTNB and top
it up to 10 mL with distilled water first. Record
m = the slope obtained
the absorbance at 412 nm after 5 minutes. Using
from the standard
the standard curve, find the concentration of the
curve
diluted sample.
DF= the dilution factor
(10/0.5) Note that the volume of coconut sample used
for the reaction may be adjusted as necessary for
the absorbance result to fall within the range of
the standard curve.
Table 14.3 Sulphite test methods
1
Ellmans reagent - 5,5-Dithiobis-(2-Nitrobenzoic Acid)
The residual levels of sulphite in the coconut liquid products

are regulated by laws and changes between countries. It is
recommended to consult with the regulatory experts in the
respective countries.
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158
Colour
Browning in coconut water
Browning is an especially prevalent problem in coconut water. It is
a visual component of the product that is often used as an indicator
of shelf life acceptability, even though browning by itself may not
be indicative of product spoilage. The browning index reflects the
cumulative browning of all pathways, including enzymatic and non-
enzymatic occurrences in coconut water. Examples are Maillard
reaction and ascorbic acid browning. The standard for acceptable
browning is set by the individual company or customers.
The browning index (BI) is calculated as the difference between the

absorbance at 420 nm and 550 nm (to correct for turbidity). The
absorbance of the samples are first recorded at 420nm (A420) and
550nm (A550), then the Browning index is calculated.
WHERE
Browning Index (BI)= A420 = absorbance at 420 nm
A420 - A550 A550 = absorbance at 550 nm (to correct
for turbidity)
Using samples with different degrees of browning, construct a

browning scale index and establish a standard. For example, Index 9
of BI 0.055 (Figure 14.1).
1 0.000 (Water) 1 2 3
2 0.020
3 0.025
4 0.030 4 5 6
5 0.035
6 0.040
7 0.045 7 8 9
8 0.050
9 0.055
10 0.060 10 11 12
11 0.070
12 0.080
Figure 14.1 Browning index scale for coconut water
159
Pinking in coconut water

Pinking is caused by an intermediate in the polyphenol oxidase-
catalysed browning reaction and is typically found in young coconut
water only. It is an indication of cracks in young coconut, which lead
to the exposure of coconut water to the external environment.
COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCT SUGGESTED COLOUR STANDARD

Should not be pink, if browning occurs
Young coconut water (7-9 months)
less than index 9 of BI 0.055
Mature coconut water (10-13 months) Less than index 9 of BI 0.055
Discolouration in coconut milk

Studies show that for coconut Coconut milk normally appears as creamy white. Due to reactions
milk, the L values can range such as browning, it may be discoloured, forming a brown, greyish
from 70.5-88.0 while b or off-white colour. The colour of coconut milk is also affected by oil
values can range from 4.2-8.6. globules. In general, when there are small and numerous droplets,
The values are affected by the reflectance off the oil globules give a white colour.
homogenization and different
temperatures. For example, The colour of coconut milk can be analysed by measuring the
homogenization has shown an reflectance with a colorimeter to obtain three Hunter parameters,
increase in lightness at 30C namely L lightness, a red or green component and b yellow
when L values in coconut or blue component. L and b can be used to describe the change in
milk increased from 77.92 up colour of coconut milk (Chiewchan, 2005). A two-axis scale can also
to 80.59. (Chiewchan, 2005; be set up for the colour of coconut milk using L and b values.
Waisundara et al., 2006) Although tedious, this scale is valuable to have.
Optical density or turbidity test

Optical density can be used as a measure to indicate the colour
of the product sample. A cut-off point above or below a sample is
deemed to have passed its shelf life. It should be determined by
the specific product requirements. Using an appropriately calibrated
spectrophotometer, absorbance of samples are recorded at 600 nm.
Using a series of samples from various times in its shelf life, set a
standard for quality control of the sample.
Turbidity is an important quality parameter for coconut water, as

customers acceptability may decrease as turbidity increases. Turbidity
can be measured using a turbidimeter to establish a standard. This
is a faster method to measure the clarity levels of coconut liquid
products. This test is more important for coconut water as coconut
milk is naturally opaque.
COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCT SUGGESTED TURBIDITY (NTU)

Young coconut water (7 - 9 months) Less than 50
Mature coconut water (10 - 13 months) Less than 100

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160
Free fatty acids (FFA) measurement

More commonly, free fatty acid FFA is commonly a product of fat hydrolysis. It is therefore an
(FFA) values are specified for indicator of spoilage in foods. The presence of FFA is usually
desiccated coconut and coconut associated with the onset of rancidity and off-flavour development,
cream powder products. which is especially important in foods with significant fat content,
They are a maximum of 0.2 such as coconut milk and cream.
and 0.3% respectively. Some
specificationsfor coconut cream Titration method is used to measure FFA content in a food sample.
show FFA content to be a First, titration of the product is carried out against a standard NaOH
maximum of 0.15%. solution, with phenolphtalein as an indicator. For coconut products,
FFA is usually a reflection of its free lauric acid content which has a
major presence.
WHERE
V = ml of NaOH used
FFA (% lauric acid equivalent)= N = normality of NaOH used= 0.1
G = weight of sample in g
(VNM)/(10G) M = average molecular weight of
the fatty acids (mostly lauric acid
for coconut products)
* Please note that the sample may be diluted as necessary
Note
Viscosity affects the pourability Viscosity measurement
of the product from the Viscosity measurement is used to determine the thickness of the
package. There are no product, thus relating to the filling component in the production run,
suggested ranges for the as well as the products mouthfeel and stability. Using a temperature
viscosity of coconut cream. controlled Brookfield viscometer, the viscosity of a product can be
Analysis of commercial samples measured at different shear rates. These measurements characterize
at Tetra Pak in-house rheology the rheological behaviour of the tested sample and are important
lab (RheoLab) shows that, at in the designing and fine tuning of aseptic line solutions in terms of
a shear rate of 100s-1 with packaging and processing equipment. This measurement is more
temperature of 30C between applicable for coconut milk and cream, where the product can be
17-25.1% of oil content, the very thick, depending on the formulation and process parameters
viscosity of coconut milk can (e.g. homogenization pressure). It is generally observed that coconut
range from as low as 8 mPas milk and cream increases its viscosity with storage time. Please refer
to as high as 260 mPas. to Chapter 10 for more details.
GUIDELINES TO TAKING VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS

1. The temperature is kept constant during the test period for accurate measurement.
- A temperature change of 3C can cause at least 10% change in viscosity.
- As some products are more temperature sensitive than others, it is even more crucial to keep the
temperature constant.
2. To further increase the accuracy of data evaluation, measurements should be made at as many different
shear rates and temperatures as possible.
3. When utilizing different temperatures, heating effects must also be considered. For example, the
viscosities of warm swelling starch differs significantly before and after heating.
4. Other factors include storage and time. For example, if the purpose is to supply data for process
design, the measurements should be made as near to the actual processing stage as possible.
5. Proper instrumentation and experimental procedure should also be established.

161
ACCELERATED SHELF LIFE

Coconut liquid products are packaged to maintain quality during
its defined shelf life conditions. Shelf life depends on several
factors, such as raw material quality, processing parameters, storage
conditions and the threshold of acceptance of the individual
consumer. It cannot be determined in terms of time by the packaging
material supplier. Although processing and packaging can protect the
contents, it cannot improve the quality of the coconut liquid products
if they were produced from bad raw materials.
ACCELERATED SHELF LIFE DETERMINATION (ASLD)

ASLD is used to shorten the time required to estimate a shelf life,
which otherwise can take an unrealistically long time to determine.
As the food trade globalizes and competition in the food market
intensifies at national and international levels, there is a greater
need to quickly determine shelf life within a shorter time period. This
situation becomes more pressing when shelf life is expected to range
from several months to a few years. Therefore, the set up for ASLD
usually involves increasing the products storage temperature to
accelerate time required to reach the end of its shelf life.
The typical storage temperature for ASLD studies are as follows:
FOOD CONTROL ASLD TEMPERATURE

CATEGORY TEMPERATURE (C) RANGE (C)
Refrigerated 2 5-15
Shelf-stable 22 30-45
Table 14.4 Typical storage temperature for ASLD study
As most reaction rates increase exponentially with a rise in

temperature, increasing the temperature by 10C can cause quality
loss to increase by a factor of 2-6. This simplified factor, known as
Q10, depends on the food being evaluated, the mode of failure, and
the temperature range.
To calculate the Q10 factor, the product is stored at three to four

different temperatures within the specified range. Each temperature
is constantly maintained within 1C, and the ASLD temperature range
is usually raised slightly above the control temperature. This helps to
avoid changes in the product failure mode.
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162
Besides elevated temperatures, additional ASLD conditions are

also occasionally employed. These include elevated humidity,
oxygen tension in the headspace and cycling temperature
fluctuations. However, the complexity of these factors require
special mathematical data manipulation, which makes their
application quite cumbersome.
Accelerated shelf life testing requires careful methodology. As such,

a number of test conditions must first be made before the study.
TEST CONDITIONS OF ACCELERATED SHELF LIFE TESTING
1. The appropriate quality factor or index of deterioration

a. For example, the maximum microbial count limit set by the
authority, or maximum browning index as the maximum
acceptable limit
2. Storage temperature
3. Additional ASLD conditions

a. For example, humidity
4. Control and the number of replicates
5. Total storage time
6. Number of variables
a. For example, coconut water with or without antioxidants
7. Kinetic models
*Source: Graf et al.,1991

163
RECOMMENDED EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

FOR COCONUT LIQUID PRODUCTS
After a specified treatment and storage duration, the recommended
experimental set-up for the estimation of shelf life is as follows:
STORAGE TEMPERATURE (C) EQUIPMENT

4
Refrigerated incubator
25
30
40 High temperature incubator
55
Table 14.5 Recommended temperatures for shelf life study
WEEK INTERVALS TEMPERATURE (C)

NO. (NO. OF WEEKS) 4 25 30 40 55
0 -
1 1
2 1
4 2
6 2
8 2
12 4
16 4
20 4
24 4
28 4
Table 14.6 Recommended intervals for the shelf life study of coconut liquid products
In general, it is expected that products stored at higher temperatures

will have a shorter shelf life. Thus, shelf life study for samples stored
at higher temperatures may end sooner. In comparison, samples
stored at 4C can be expected to last at least three months without
any significant change in quality. Tables 14.5 and 14.6 may be
adjusted to fit the conditions where necessary.
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164
The browning index of coconut water as a limiting factor to

determine the shelf life of long life coconut water is illustrated below.
First, packed coconut water samples at four different temperatures
are stored for up to seven months (28 weeks). At each storage
interval, samples are removed and analysed for the browning index.
When stored, there will be a gradual increase in the browning index
of the coconut water throughout the storage period.
A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHELF LIFE AND BROWNING

INDEX CAN BE DETERMINED WITH THE FOLLOWING STEPS:
1. Record absorbance of the samples at 420nm (A420) and 550nm

(A550), and calculate the Browning index.
Browning index (BI) = A420 - A550
2. Determine the rate of reaction at each storage temperature by

plotting a graph of browning index (ln A/A0) against storage
duration.
a. Where A is the browning index of the sample and A0 is initial
browning index
3. From this graph, the reaction rate is obtained as:

a. Slope = -k, where k is the reaction rate for each storage
temperature
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for a minimum of three storage temperatures.

Based on the k values obtained from the different storage
temperatures, plot shelf life against storage temperature on
the graph.
Shelf life is calculated based on the following equation:
WHERE
tS = the shelf life
tS = ln (A0Ac)/k A0 = initial browning index
AC = the maximum acceptable browning index (e.g. AC=0.55)
k = the reaction rate
CHAPTER 15
CLEANING OF
PROCESSING
EQUIPMENTS
Cleaning of processing equipments is an
important step in the manufacturing process,
especially when they come in contact with
food products. Overall, food manufacturers
are obliged in many ways to maintain high
hygienic standards for both their
equipment and staff.
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166
CLEANING OF PROCESSING EQUIPMENTS

Cleaning of processing equipments is an important step in the
manufacturing process, especially when they come in contact with
food products. Overall, food manufacturers are obliged in many
ways to maintain high hygienic standards for both their equipment
and staff.
Cleaning helps the food manufacturing company ensure that good

products are kept well and safe for consumption. This minimizes
the risk of contamination, which can result in very bad publicity.
Companies are also morally obliged to ensure that clean conditions
and well-trained staff are put in place to ensure that production
processes are properly handled.
Lastly, the law protects the health and quality of manufactured

food products. Failure to meet legal guidelines can result in
severe penalties, which is why it is important to meet the stated
requirements accordingly.
COCONUT FOOD SOIL FORMATION

In order to design an efficient Cleaning-In-Place (CIP), knowledge of
how mechanical, thermal and chemical processes work on different
types of soiling is required. It will also depend on knowing how
acids and detergents affect different types of soiling and how their
interaction can be optimized.
In the parallel passages of plate or tubular heat exchangers, different

amounts of deposits are formed on different surfaces. This mainly
consists of protein, fat (oil) and minerals at higher temperatures.
Overall, coconut soil deposit formation is affected by the nature of

the product; quality of the raw materials used to form primary and
intermediate products; actual product temperature; temperature
difference; flow rate of the product (laminar or turbulent);
characteristics of the heat exchange surface (corroded or dirty) and
foam in the product.
Water-insoluble soils can be Soils can initially be divided into two basic types: those that are
divided into organic soils and water-soluble and insoluble in water. Water-soluble soils such
inorganic soils. as sugars and some minerals are easily removed and are rarely
associated with cleaning problems. The water-insoluble soils are
harder to remove.
CHAPTER 15 | CLEANING OF PROCESSING EQUIPMENTS
167
Organic soils include fats, oils, grease, protein, starch and other
Alkaline detergents remove
carbohydrates. If these components were heated during processing,
organic soil, such as protein
the heat may have induced reactions in the soil matrix. This makes
and fats.
them harder to remove. For example, proteins may, denature and
induce further cross-linking reactions with other protein molecules.
They may also react with carbohydrates and cause Maillard reactions
(caramelization) to take place. Organic soil is most often dissolved by
alkaline detergents.
Inorganic soils include mineral and salt deposits. The most common
Acid detergents remove inorganic soil is limescale, formed due to high water hardness.
inorganic soil, such as mineral Inorganic soils are most often dissolved by acid.
deposits.
FOULING
Fouling, in relation to concentrations of proteins, fats (oil) and
minerals, can be classified as physical precipitation or chemical
fouling. Total amount of fouling and distribution between both types
are temperature-dependent.
In general, the amount of fouling increases with temperature. The

proportion of chemical fouling caused by denaturation of protein also
increases with temperature.
At low temperatures between 50-54.5C, flow rate becomes a

determining factor for fouling. As flow rate decreases, there is a
thicker laminar layer indicated by a decrease in the Reynolds number.
This in turn promotes sedimentation, and physical fouling increases.
Physical precipitation can be due to fats (oil) accumulation. In coconut
liquid products, particularly coconut milk, the protein acts as an
emulsifier for fat (oil) molecules in aqueous media. However, coconut
milks naturally low amount of protein content in proportion to its oil
content might not be enough to emulsify all the oil globules. As a
result, the emulsion is destabilized, and flocculation and coalescence
occur. In other words, fat (oil) globules aggregate.
At high temperatures between 60-74.5C or at 90C, chemical fouling

is formed. It consists of denatured protein deposits. This is due to
protein denaturation as coconut protein denatures at about 80C.
With less fat percentage in this deposit, there is also less effect on
flow rates.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
168
CLEANING IN PLACE (CIP)

Cleaning cooking vessels at home is performed by hand. In the food
industry this is called cleaning out of place, or COP. All equipment
is dismantled and cleaned manually. For manual cleaning, industrial
brushes and gloves must be available (see Figure 15.1). Only mild
chemicals with pH values between 4 and 9 are used. It is difficult
to achieve consistent results because staff is involved. Motivation,
training, close supervision and education are required to ensure
consistency and efficiency.
Figure 15.1 Cleaning industrial brush CIP is important in guaranteeing food safety in food processing
Tetra Pak International S.A.,
Dairy Processing Handbook 2015
plants. Successful cleaning between production runs avoids potential
contamination and products that do not meet quality standards.
Carrying out CIP correctly, from design to validation, ensures secure
Today COP, cleaning out of
barriers between food flows and cleaning chemical flows.
place, has been replaced with
CIP, cleaning in place, in most
It is also important that CIP is carried out effectively and efficiently,
parts of the food industry where
and contributes to an overall low total cost of ownership (TCO). From
food is pumped and undergoes
the point of view of food processing, any cleaning time is downtime
continuous processes. Some
the equipment is not productive. Cleaning must also be carried
equipment still needs to be
out safely, because very strong chemicals are involved that can be
dismantled and manually
harmful to people and the equipment. Finally, it should be carried out
cleaned, but wherever possible,
with the least impact on the environment, by using minimal amounts
CIP is the preferred choice.
of water and detergents, and by maximizing the re-use of resources.
There are two ways of performing CIP. Either the cleaning detergents
are put to drain immediately after they have been used. This is called
single-use cleaning and is often used when the object is very dirty,
such as a UHT plant.
The other alternative is when less dirty objects are cleaned, such as
tanks or pipes that have cold surfaces. The cleaning solution is not that
dirty after one cleaning cycle and it can be reused. This is usually
referred to as recovery CIP.
Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. In single-use

the cleaning solution is always fresh when cleaning is started and the
equipment needed to perform single-use CIP is rather inexpensive.
On the other hand, this way of running CIP has a high running cost
and a high environmental load, as the cleaning solutions are always
drained and disposed.
By recovering the cleaning solutions, less cleaning detergent will be

consumed, as well as less water and energy. The equipment needed
to recover the cleaning solutions is, however, more expensive than
the equipment needed for single-use cleaning.
169
CLEANING PARAMETERS
Soil is held on the surfaces by adhesive forces. To get the soil to leave
a surface the forces that hold the impurity on the surface have to
be overcome. There are four parameters that make up cleaning and
should be controlled during cleaning: mechanical force, thermal force
(heat), chemical force and the time the forces act (Figure 15.2).
Figure 15.2 Forces acting on soil during cleaning
Energy is required in a cleaning process in order to remove the soil,

once dissolved keep it in solution and carry it away. The energy
required is kinetic, chemical and thermal energy. These three
factors, together with the contact time are the most important
regarding effectiveness of the cleaning. These four parameters are
interconnected and depend on each other. It is usually called the
Sinners circle and include flow, temperature, concentration and time
(Figure 15.3)
FLOW
ION
RAT
T
EN
NC
CO
TE
MP
E
RA
TU
RE
TIME
Figure 15.3 Sinners circle of four parameters of cleaning

COCONUT HANDBOOK
170
Flow
Flow creates the shear forces that in turn, creates the mechanical
force in cleaning in place. Compare cleaning a car with and without
a nozzle on the water hose. With a nozzle the area through which the
water is passing is restricted. This increases the velocity of the water
and the water jet gets harder.
In a plant, the flow of the cleaning liquids can be increased by

pumping it faster. The CIP flow has several purposes transport the
CIP liquid to the soiled surface, react with the soil and finally remove
the dissolved soil and transfer it out of the equipment being cleaned.
As a general rule it is said that Heat exchangers are designed to create a turbulent flow but
the flow must be turbulent and connecting pipes must also have proper characteristics. Due to
that the flow velocity should be flow restrictions, a bypass and a special cleaning pump may be
a minimum of 1.5 m/s to have necessary to help create the turbulent flow. For cleaning aseptic
an adequate mechanical force tanks, the inner tank surface must be completely covered. A spray
during CIP. device (Figure 15.4) is also required every two metres in horizontal
tanks, and they must be controlled properly and serviced regularly.
Figure 15.4 Spray turbine for tank cleaning

171
Type and concentration of detergents

In formulated detergents Detergents are used to get soil to leave a surface based on chemical
different cleaning aiding force. To clean equipment, chemicals have to be used in combination
components are also added, with the mechanical force, the flow. Most often alkaline detergents
which for instance can take are used first. They dissolve most organic soil like protein, fat and
care of hard water, suspend the sugars. The detergent can be pure sodium hydroxide or it can be a
dissolved dirt better than pure formulated detergent based on NaOH from a detergent company.
NaOH, wet the surfaces more
efficiently and more. After an alkaline cleaning step, an acid step usually takes place.
Acid dissolve minerals like inorganic soil. It has some effect on fat,
sugar and protein as well. Acids commonly used are nitric acid or
phosphoric acid.
Types of detergents
Detergents can range from pure chemicals such as sodium hydroxide
(lye), nitric acid or phosphoric acid to more complex formulated
detergents supplied by detergent companies. A third alternative is
adding additives to a pure chemical, such as sodium hydroxide, at
the food manufacturer. This is a very flexible alternative where you
might use only pure chemical for some cleaning objects and create a
formulated detergent for others. It is important to follow the dosage
recommendations for the detergents and correctly calculate and
dilute the concentrates with water.
DETERGENT ALTERNATIVES:
1 Pure chemicals - Sodium hydroxide, nitric acid, phosphoric acid
2 Formulated detergents - Pure chemicals + additive
FORMULATED DETERGENTS HAVE CERTAIN AGENTS ADDED TO

INCREASE CLEANING EFFECTIVENESS. THE MAIN COMPONENT OF
ALL FORMULATED DETERGENTS IS ALWAYS AN ALKALI OR AN ACID.
ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS CAN INCLUDE:
Surfactants, or wetting agents that lower surface tension, enabling them to wet a
surface more effectively and make cleaning more efficient.
Sequestering agents can bind calcium and magnesium ions to soften water.
Complex-forming agents can only bind one metal ion per molecule in contrast to
sequestering agents, which can bind a number of metal ions.
Oxidation Agents can boost cleaning effects. Examples are sodium hypochlorite
and hydrogen peroxide.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
172 THERE ARE IN PRINCIPLE TWO WAYS OF PREPARING DETERGENT
SOLUTIONS IN PROCESSING EQUIPMENT:
Single-use case (most often for heating units such as sterilizers and pasteurizers)
1 The detergent concentrate is dosed directly into a water-filled processing unit.
Recovery case
2 The detergent solutions are prepared in the correct dilutions in a special cleaning
station. The detergent solutions are prepared in detergent tanks in which the
detergent is recovered after cleaning. When preparing detergent solutions, start with
a fixed volume of water into which a certain volume of concentrate should be dosed.
These liquids are then pumped through the processing equipment while cleaning.
Concentration of detergent
The chemical concentration depends on the kind of soil to be
removed. Heated surfaces often require higher concentrations than
cold ones. Detergent concentrates have to be diluted with water
before they can be used. The final concentration is important,
since too low or too high a concentration may result in inadequate
cleaning. Concentrations that are too high also waste money and
damage the equipment. After preparation of the detergent solutions,
it is important to also measure that the correct concentration has
been achieved. For example, a conductivity measuring device with
a guarding and recording function can be installed for a continuous
inline measurement of the concentrations.
As a general rule a plant Temperature

should be cleaned at the Temperature is controlled in cleaning . Thermal force, heat is
same temperature as it has used to move molecules faster at an elevated temperature
been processing the food. If a and therefore increase the effectiveness of a detergent at an
higher cleaning temperature increased temperature.
is used than the processing
temperature, reactions such as Time
denaturation and cross linking The fourth and last parameter is time. Most surfaces will be cleaned
may be induced by the higher but it will take a longer time if the optimal temperature is not used.
temperature during cleaning Incorrect concentration of detergent and insufficient flow also leads
making the soil harder to a longer time spend cleaning.
to remove.
173
CLEANING PROCEDURE
CIP for coconut liquid product processing plants generally follow

a default programme and cleaning agents. The engineers in
the processing plants can fine tune the programme based on
customers products.
THE PROCEDURE FOR CLEANING A PLANT

OFTEN FOLLOWS THE ORDER BELOW:
1. FLUSHING
The plant is flushed with water to remove any loose soil (if high fat
product, use lukewarm water).
2. PRE-RINSE
The plant is pre-rinsed with water at 40-60C, to remove sugar and
melt any fats. The temperature should not exceed 60C in order
to avoid denaturing any native proteins, which then become much
more difficult to clean.
3. ALKALINE STAGE
Alkaline detergent is circulated in the system to remove organic
soil such as proteins and fats. Alkali is added to the concentration
set-point and the temperature is raised to the temperature
set-point. The flow is kept at a level that gives satisfactory flow
velocity. The alkali step lasts for a pre-set time period.
4. FIRST PURGING
Water is used to purge out the alkaline detergent and the
dissolved soil.
5. ACID STAGE
Acidic detergent is circulated through the plant, to dissolve
mineral deposits caused by hard water, scaling. The frequency of
when an acidic step is applied depends on whether the surfaces
are hot or cold, the type of food and the water quality. During the
acid step concentration, flow and temperature is kept at its set-
point for a pre-set time period.
6. SECOND PURGING AND FINAL RINSE

Water is used to purge the acidic detergent and rinse out
dissolved soil. The final water rinse must also ensure that any
detergent residues are removed and only water is left in the plant.
The plant should now be visibly clean.
7. DISINFECTION OR STERILIZATION
Disinfection or sterilization is applied before production starts to
kill bacteria or other living organisms to a certain level.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
174
WATER QUALITY
WATER HARDNESS
Water hardness is of great importance. This measures the amount of
calcium and magnesium in the water (Table 15.1). When hard water is
heated, calcium carbonate is precipitated. Carbon dioxide and water
is formed as well. If equipment is sterilized with hard water, calcium
carbonate will precipitate throughout the plant. Scaling of CaCO3 is,
however, easily removed with acid cleaning. Calcium salts may also
interfere with detergents and make them less efficient.
Water with a hardness above 7dH needs to be softened to a

hardness between 4-7dH (Table 15.2).
WATER HARDNESS RANGE (dH)

Water hardness can be
expressed in German degrees Soft 0-6
(dH) or mg CaCO3/L (or ppm). Medium hard 6-12
Hard 12-18
1dH = 17.9 mg CaCO3/L Very hard > 18
Table 15.1 Classification of water hardness
CHLORINE CONTENT OF WATER
If chloride (Cl-) and chlorine (Cl2) levels in water are too high, this will
cause corrosion of stainless steel.
In summary
Total hardness: between 4-7dH
Chlorine content: less than 0.2 ppm
Chloride content: less than 30 ppm
pH value higher than 7
175
THE CIP SYSTEM

An entire CIP system consists of a station, distribution lines and the
objects to be cleaned. There are in principle two types of CIP system
centralized or decentralized.
Centralized CIP systems are most efficient in small plants where there
are short distances between the CIP station and the cleaning objects.
Centralized systems are also common in relatively large plants where
all CIP activities are handled from a centralized cleaning room with
one or several CIP stations. Cleaning liquids and water are then
pumped from the central CIP stations to the various cleaning objects.
Decentralized CIP systems are more common in large plants where

the distances from a centrally located CIP station to the cleaning
objects can be extremely long. Instead of using one central CIP
room, the decentralized CIP system utilizes several distributed
stations (Figure 15.5), positioned close to the cleaning objects. In a
decentralized CIP system, it is still common to handle the detergent
concentrates centrally. They are then individually distributed to the
CIP stations.
1 Heat exchanger
2 Pressure pump
3 Dosing pumps
Figure 15.5 CIP station
In a food plant, there are many cleaning objects that should be

grouped into larger clusters based on what types of cleaning they
demand. For example, cold and hot surfaces since several cleaning
stations are often needed. Cleaning of equipment handling non-
heat-treated food like raw products should be separated from the
cleaning of equipment handling heat-treated food. This is to avoid
contaminating surfaces on the processed side with potential surviving
bacteria and spores from the raw side, by using the same cleaning
liquids on both sides.
COCONUT HANDBOOK
176
EFFLUENTS
ORGANIC EFFLUENTS
The presence and quantities of organic substances in sewage
effluents are analysed using chromatography. The usual way to
express the concentration of a pollutant is to specify the total
quantity per unit volume of sewage.
The quantity of organic substances is determined in the form

of biological oxygen demand (BOD). It measures the content of
biologically degradable substances in sewage. Microorganisms
use oxygen to break down these substances, so oxygen demand
is measured by the quantity of the gas consumed by these
organisms, over a period of five days (BOD5) or seven days (BOD7), in
decomposing organic pollutants in waste water, at a temperature
of 20C.
Both COD/BOD ratios indicate BOD is measured in mg oxygen/l or g oxygen/m3. This relationship is
how biologically degradable an assumed for municipal sewage: BOD7 = 1.15 X BOD5.
effluent is. For example, values
less than 2 indicate that the The quantity of organic substances can also be determined by
effluent comprises of relatively chemical oxygen demand (COD). This measures the quantity of
easily degradable substances. pollutants in water, which can be affected by chemical oxidants. The
A typical value of COD/BOD normal reagents used for measurement are highly acidic solutions
for municipal sewage effluent (to ensure complete oxidation) of potassium dichromate or potassium
is less than 2. permanganate at high temperature. The rate of consumption of the
oxidant provides a measure of the organic substance content. It is
converted to a corresponding measure of oxygen such as
mg oxygen/l or g oxygen/m.
INORGANIC EFFLUENTS
Inorganic components of sewage from coconut plants consist of
salts, and are determined by ionic compounds and salt concentration
present in water from the mains. These salts are normally
unimportant, as modern effluent treatment is concerned with the
reduction of nitrogen, phosphorus salts and heavy metals. Nitrogen
and phosphorus salts are nutrients for organisms such as algae, which
can cause secondary processes and form further organic substances.
When these substances decompose, they can cause higher oxygen
demand than that of primary organic pollutants.
177
Waste water can be divided into cooling, sanitary waste and industrial
waste water. Cooling water is normally free from pollutants as it
is usually not mixed with industrial waste water. While sanitary
waste water is normally piped direct into the sewage treatment
plant, whether it has been mixed with industrial wastewater or not.
Lastly, industrial waste water is gathered from product spillage and
cleaning processes.
The concentration and composition of waste products depend on

production, operating methods and plant design. While sewage
treatment plants can handle organic substances, fat represents a
particularly difficult problem. Besides having a high BOD, it sticks
to the walls of the mains and causes sedimentation problems in the
sedimentation tank by rising to the surface of the water. To properly
treat this wastewater, it should pass through a flotation plant where
it is aerated with dispersion water water with finely-dispersed air
bubbles at a pressure of 400-600kPa. The air bubbles stick to the
fat and carry it to the surface where it can be skimmed off, either
manually or mechanically. The defatted effluent can then be mixed
with sanitary wastewater piped to the treatment plant.
Preventing water wastage and controlling its use is essential in every

processing plant. Hidden losses of water in underground or subfloor
piping should be detected by reading the water meter and recording
the quantity used at the end of the day. Daily records of water
consumption should then be compared with the daily quantity of
products processed. Water consumption, expressed as m3 per tonne
of treated product, should be plotted on a graph, kept in an easily
accessible place.
The wastes from the production of coconut liquid products can be

used for different purposes. Here are some examples of how they can
be used for other value-added products (Table15.2).
WASTE FROM THE

PRODUCTION OF COCONUT USAGES
LIQUID PRODUCTS
Coconut flour, low-fat desiccated
Dried press residue
coconut, animal feed
All can be burnt for fuel and energy.

In particular, husk can make rope and
Husk, pairings and shell
mattresses. Shell is used to make
activated carbon
Residual oil Used for fuel and energy

Table 15.2 Different uses of by-products
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Malaysia. 2010. and Emerging Technologies. 2012.
Nwangwa EK, Aloamaka CP. Regenerative Effects of R. Ramjegathesh, G. Karthikeyan, L. Rajendran, I.

coconut water and coconut milk on the pancreatic Johnson, T. Raguchander & R. Samiyappan, Root (wilt)
Cells and cyto architecture in alloxan induced diabetic disease of coconut palms in South Asia an overview.
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Raghavendra SN, Raghavarao KSMS. Effect of different
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Ratanachinakorn B. Postharvest handling of young
Petchpirun C. Young nut development of Nam Hom tender nut. Paper presented at APCC-DOA International
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Philippines Coconut Community. Production of coconut
flour and virgin coconut oil. Santos, G.A., P.A. Batugal, A.Othman, L. Baudouin
and J.P. Labouisse. Manual on standardized research
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Production Status, Growing Zones, Productivity and 1995.
Potential to Increase Nut Supply in Coconut Farms
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INDEX
A Page C (contd) Page
Acidity........................................................... 29, 78, 81 Composition

Titratable acidity .......................................... 156 of coconut ................................................. 24-25
Aerobic reactions ....................................................80 of coconut kernel ..................................... 30-36
Agroecology ............................................................44 of coconut milk and cream ........................... 87
Agronomic characteristics ......................................40 of coconut water........................... 26-29, 76-77
Altitudes for coconut growth .................................45 of coconut water concentrate....................... 60
Amino acids.....................................27, 33-34, 84, 94 of copra ........................................................... 31
Antioxidants Consumer........................................................... 11-12
ascorbic acid ...................................................83 consumer communication .......................... 142
sodium metabisulphite ........................... 83, 93 Copra ..................................................................31, 56
Creaming....................................................89-91, 111
B Page Cytokinins................................................................. 20
Brix ................................................................. 81, 155
D Page
Browning.....................78-80, 88, 128, 158-159, 164
Dehusking of coconut............................................. 55
Deshelling of coconut............................................. 55
C Page
Desiccated coconut ......................................... 69-70
Calcium Discolouration .......................................... 78, 88, 159
in coconut water .............................................26 also see browning and pinking
in coconut kernel ............................................36 Diseases........................................................ 47, 49-50
as an additive ..................................................98 Distribution ..................................................................
for water quality ..................................... 97, 174 ambient ................................................ 102, 143
Caramelization .........................................................80 chilled ................................................... 102, 135
Chemistry Drilling of coconut....................................... 58, 81-82
of changes with high heat treatment ........ 117 Dry matter ............................................................. 155
of coconut milk and cream ...................... 85-94 Drying of copra..................................................56, 66
of coconut water ....................................... 75-84
Chilled products E Page
beverages..................................... 102, 130-135
Electrolytes.........................................................19, 29
coconuts (whole or trimmed)........................54
Emulsifiers ................................................. 91, 93, 111
Chlorine/chloride
Endosperm.................................................. 24, 26, 30
in coconut kernel ............................................36
Enzymes.................................................28, 76, 79, 88
in fertilizer .................................................. 45-46
Enzyme activity ........................................................ 79
water quality content............................. 97, 174
ESL beverages ....................................................... 131
Cleaning
Extraction.................................................................. 59
cleaning in place (CIP) .........................168-170
Also see dehusking, deshelling, paring and
detergents .................................... 167, 171-172
drilling of coconut
effluents .................................................176-177
procedure..................................................... 173
Colour .................................................................... 158 F Page
of coconut milk or cream ............. 88, 128, 159
Fatty acids ..........................................................32, 65
of coconut milk powder.................................68
Free fatty acids ...................................... 94, 141
of coconut water ................... 78, 128, 158-159
Free fatty acids measurement .................... 160
of crude coconut oil .......................................66
Fertilizers ............................................................ 45-46
of flour..............................................................68
Flavour .................................................................... 155
of nata de coco ...............................................71
of coconut milk and cream ........................... 88
of RBD coconut oil..........................................67
of coconut kernel ........................................... 36
of virgin coconut oil................................. 65, 67
of coconut water....................................... 77-78
water quality parameter.................................97
of virgin coconut oil ....................................... 67
also see browning and pinking
of coconut milk powder ................................ 68
Food soil......................................................... 166-167
Fouling.................................................................... 167
INDEX
G Page P Page
Germination ....................................................... 41-42 Packages ................................................................ 143
effects on coconut kernel ....................... 30, 33 Bottles............................................................ 147
Cans ............................................................... 149
H Page Carton based ........................................ 144-146
Flexible pouches .......................................... 149
Harvest ................................................................ 52-53
Packaging
harvesting by climbing ..................................53
Aseptic packaging ....................................... 143
harvesting by monkeys ..................................53
Design innovation ................................ 150-152
harvesting by pole..........................................53
Role of packaging ........................................ 138
Homogenization ............................................111-112
Selection of packaging........................ 140-142
Humidity for coconut growth .................................45
Paring........................................................................ 55
Peroxidase
L Page
see enzymes
Lauric acid............................................... 21-22, 32-33 Pasteurization................................................. 130-131
Life cycle ...................................................................40 Pests ............................................................. 47-48, 50
Lipid oxidation .........................................................88 pH ........................................................... 29, 91, 156
Lipolysis ............................................................. 88, 94 Phenolic content...................................................... 29
Long life products .........................................113-128 of coconut kernel ........................................... 36
of coconut oil .................................................. 67
M Page of coconut water............................................. 77
Physicochemical properties
Magnesium
see chemistry
see composition
in coconut water ...................................... 26, 77
Pinking ............................................................. 80, 159
water quality content............................. 97, 174
Plantation
Maillard reaction ......................................................79
see Agroecology
Maturity .............................................................. 52, 82
see Agronomic characteristics
Medium chain triglycerides (MCTs) .............. 21, 32
see Varieties
Microbiology
Planting systems ...................................................... 46
of coconut milk and cream ...................... 93-94
Polyphenol oxidase
of coconut water ....................................... 83-84
see enzymes
Minerals.............................................................. 29, 36
Polyphenols ..........................................28, 29, 78, 82
also see calcium, chlorine, electrolytes,
also see phenolic content
magnesium and sodium
Post-harvest ....................................................... 54-56
Potassium
N Page
in coconut kernel............................................ 36
Nata de coco ............................................................71 in coconut water................................. 26, 76-77
in fertilizer........................................................ 46
O Page Product quality....................................................... 128
Production of coconut and coconut products .... 59
Oil content
of coconut ................................................ 12-13
of coconut kernel................................30-31, 33
of coconut flour .............................................. 68
of coconut milk and cream ...................... 86-87
of coconut milk and cream ..................... 62-63
of dessicated coconut ....................................70
of coconut milk beverages............................ 64
Optical density
of coconut milk powder ................................ 68
see turbidity
of coconut oil ............................................ 64-65
Oxidation
refined, bleached, deodorized (RBD)
see browning, pinking, lipid oxidation and
coconut oil.................................................. 66
rancidity
virgin coconut oil ....................................... 67
Oxygen exposure ............................................. 82, 92
of coconut water....................................... 58-60
of desiccated coconut ............................ 69-70
of nata de coco ...............................................71
Propagation........................................................ 41-44
Protein
see amino acids
Q Page T Page
Quality control ...............................................154-155 Thermal impact............................................... 82, 123
Quality parameters ............................................... 155 Total solids ............................................................. 155
colour ............................................................ 158 Transportation .......................................... 54, 60, 102
dry matter or total solids............................. 155 Turbidity .................................................... 78, 81, 159
free fatty acids .............................................. 160
microbiological testing ............................... 156 U Page
optical density or turbidity ......................... 159
Ultra-high temperature (UHT)...................... 122-128
pH .............................................................. 156
Ultrapasteurization ........................................ 131-133
sulphite ......................................................... 157
titratable acidity ........................................... 156
total soluble solids....................................... 155 V Page
viscosity.................................................110, 160
Varieties of coconuts................................... 25, 38-39
Virgin coconut oil (VCO)...................................65, 67
R Page
Viscosity .................................................................. 105
Rainfall for coconut growth ....................................44 flow behaviour models ................................ 109
Rancidity ...................................................................78 taking measurements .................................. 110
Recombination ........................................................96 types of flow.................................................. 106
of coconut milk products.......................99-101 Vitamin C
of coconut water .......................................... 101 see Ascorbic acid
Rehydration of the body ................................... 16-19 Vitamins .................................................................... 28
Rheology in coconut kernel............................................ 35
see viscosity in coconut water............................................. 28
S Page W Page
Separation Water quality................................................... 97, 174
of coconut milk and cream...................... 89-91
of coconut water .............................................60 Y Page
to produce coconut oil ..................................67
Yield
Shelf life .................................................. 81, 114, 119
of coconut palms............................................ 46
accelerated shelf life ............................161-164
of extraction
extended shelf life ................................131-135
of coconut milk and cream................. 63-64
role of packaging ........................................ 138
of coconut oil ............................................. 66
Sodium
in coconut water ...................................... 26, 77
in fertilizer .................................................. 45-46
water quality parameter.................................97
Soil for coconut growth...............................44-45, 47
Stabilizers...................................................91, 93, 111
Sterilization
during cleaning of equipment ................... 173
of coconut liquid products .. 115-117,120-128
of packaging .........................................138-140
Storage
of coconut liquid products.. 82, 102, 133, 142
of coconut seed nuts ..................................... 42
of coconuts...................................................... 81
Sulphite test ........................................................... 157
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010 Origins of The Coconut

016 Coconut Water

CHAPTER 3: COMPOSITION CHAPTER 6: COCONUT FOOD CHAPTER 8: THE CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER 14: QUALITY

154 Quality Control

CHAPTER 15: CLEANING OF

166 Coconut Food Soil Formation

More recently, the coconut has become a common visual of dreamy

In 2012 we established a Coconut Knowledge Centre (CKC) in

As a part of our marketing services, CKC is also the key driver

Therefore, this Handbook is the first of its kind that captures

We hope that customers can establish a solid foundation for practical

Brought to you by the Coconut Knowledge Centre

EXTERNAL CONTRIBUTORS TETRA PAK CONTRIBUTORS

Horticulture Research Institute, CoE Beverages

Aseptic Performance Support

ORIGINS OF THE COCONUT

The coconut is a source of food, oil, coconut water, coconut milk,

THE VERSATILE COCONUT

COCONUT MILK AND CREAM

COCONUT MILK BEVERAGE

Increasingly perceived as a suitable dietary substitute for lactose

Like coconut water, established brand owners of packaged coconut

In 2013, it was estimated that the global production of coconuts

Under suitable climate, rainfall and environmental conditions,

3. Philippines 14 Ghana 362,495 73,151

5. Sri Lanka 2,710,000 16 Mozambique 302,108 60,361

17 Jamaica 296,671 59,334

NUTRITIONAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS

The sweet, energy-rich coconut kernel can be enjoyed as a snack.

More importantly, coconut water is an effective rehydration fluid,

REHYDRATING THE BODY

Playing an important role in our bodies, water cushions and lubricates

Quick to respond to water imbalance, the body naturally

However, the bodys natural mechanism causes a water lag. By the

PERCENTAGE OF FLUID LOSS

1-2% 3-4% Above 7%

Figure 2.1 Typical sysptoms of fluid loss

Typically, our bodies experience changing water levels, which

On average, our bodies lose

For example, a rapid and complete restoration of fluid balance is

As such, our bodies require BRF to replenish fluids faster. To

However, these drinks may not be an ideal BRF for ordinary

ELECTROLYTES FOR REHYDRATION

To be compatible with the human body, the BRF should contain

With selective and semi- H

Unlike most varieties of sports drinks, coconut water is low in calories,

While studies have shown that there is no significant difference

HEALTH BENEFITS OF COCONUT WATER

Coconut water is also a natural diuretic. It increases urine flow and

HEALTH BENEFITS OF COCONUT MILK

MEDIUM CHAIN TRIACYLGLYCERIDES (MCTS)

When fatty acids or triglycerides are absorbed into our bodies,

HEALTH BENEFITS OF COCONUT OIL

Containing 65% MCTs, Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) is directly

STRONG ANTIMICROBIAL PROPERTIES

PARTS OF THE COCONUT

Figure 3.1 Parts of the coconut

KELAPA NIYOG MAPHRAW COCO

Aromatic Dwaft Malayan Red Dwaft Malayan Yellow Dwaft

Malayan Tall Tagnanan Tall West African Tall

Figure 3.2 Different varieties of coconuts1