Karl Marx

For other people named Karl Marx, see Karl Marx organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism and
(disambiguation). bring about socio-economic change.[12]
Marx redirects here. For other uses, see Marx (disam-
Both lauded and criticised, Marx has been described as
biguation). one of the most inuential gures in human history.[13]
Many intellectuals, labour unions and political parties
Karl Marx[note 1] (/mrks/;[4] German pronunciation: worldwide have been inuenced by Marxs ideas, with
[kal maks]; 5 May 1818 14 March 1883) was many variations on his groundwork. Marx is typically
a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, journal- cited, with mile Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of
ist and revolutionary socialist. Born in Prussia (now the three principal architects of modern social science.[14]
Rhineland-Palatinate), he later became stateless and spent
much of his life in London. Marxs work in economics
laid the basis for much of the current understanding of
labour and its relation to capital, and subsequent eco- 1 Early life
nomic thought.[5][6][7][8] He published numerous books
during his lifetime, the most notable being The Commu-
1.1 Childhood and early education: 1818
nist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (18671894).
1835
Born into a wealthy middle-class family in Trier in the
Prussian Rhineland, Marx studied at the universities of Karl Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx
Bonn and Berlin where he became interested in the philo- and Henrietta Pressburg (17881863). He was born
sophical ideas of the Young Hegelians. After his stud- at 664 Brckergasse in Trier, a town then part of the
ies he wrote for the Rheinische Zeitung, a radical news- Kingdom of Prussia's Province of the Lower Rhine.[15]
paper in Cologne, and began to work out the theory of Ancestrally Jewish, his maternal grandfather was a Dutch
the materialist conception of history. He moved to Paris rabbi, while his paternal line had supplied Triers rabbis
in 1843, where he began writing for other radical news- since 1723, a role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi
papers and met Friedrich Engels, who would become his Marx.[16] Karls father, as a child known as Herschel,
lifelong friend and collaborator. In 1849 he was exiled was the rst in the line to receive a secular education;
and moved to London together with his wife and chil- he became a lawyer and lived a relatively wealthy and
dren, where he continued writing and formulating his the- middle-class existence, with his family owning a num-
ories about social and economic activity. He also cam- ber of Moselle vineyards. Prior to his sons birth, and
paigned for socialism and became a signicant gure in to escape the constraints of anti-semitic legislation, Her-
the International Workingmens Association. schel converted from Judaism to Lutheranism, the main
Marxs theories about society, economics and politics Protestant denomination in Germany and Prussia at the
the collective understanding of which is known as time, taking on the German forename of Heinrich over
[17]
Marxismhold that human societies progress through the Yiddish Herschel.
class struggle: a conict between an ownership class that Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the
controls production and a dispossessed labouring class Enlightenment, interested in the ideas of the philosophers
that provides the labour for production. States, Marx Immanuel Kant and Voltaire. A classical liberal, he took
believed, were run on behalf of the ruling class and in part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prus-
their interest while representing it as the common inter- sia, then governed by an absolute monarchy.[19] In 1815
est of all;[9] and he predicted that, like previous socioe- Heinrich Marx began work as an attorney, in 1819 mov-
conomic systems, capitalism produced internal tensions ing his family to a ten-room property near the Porta Ni-
which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement gra.[20] His wife, a Dutch Jewish woman, Henrietta Press-
by a new system: socialism. He argued that class antago- burg, was semi-literate and was said to suer from ex-
nisms under capitalism between the bourgeoisie and pro- cessive mother love, devoting much time to her fam-
letariat would eventuate in the working class conquest of ily and insisting on cleanliness within her home.[21] She
political power and eventually establish a classless soci- was from a prosperous business family that later founded
ety, communism, a society governed by a free association the company Philips Electronics: she was great-aunt to
of producers.[10][11] Marx actively fought for its imple- Anton and Gerard Philips, and great-great-aunt to Frits
mentation, arguing that the working class should carry out Philips. Her sister Sophie Presburg (17971854), was

1
2 1 EARLY LIFE

in certain disputes, some of which became serious: in

August 1836 he took part in a duel with a member of the
universitys Borussian Korps.[32] Although his grades in
the rst term were good, they soon deteriorated, leading
his father to force a transfer to the more serious and aca-
demic University of Berlin.[33]

1.2 Hegelianism and early activism: 1836

1843

Spending summer and autumn 1836 in Trier, Marx be-

came more serious about his studies and his life. He
became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, an educated
baroness of the Prussian ruling class who had known
Marx since childhood. Having broken o her engage-
ment with a young aristocrat to be with Marx, their re-
Marxs birthplace in Trier. It was purchased by the Social Demo-
cratic Party of Germany in 1928 and now houses a museum de-
lationship was socially controversial due to the dier-
voted to him. [18] ences between their religious and class origins, but Marx
befriended her father, a liberal aristocrat, Ludwig von
Westphalen, and later dedicated his doctoral thesis to
Marxs aunt and was married to Lion Philips (1794 him.[34] Seven years after their engagement, on 19 June
1866) Marxs uncle through this marriage, and was the 1843, Marx married Jenny in a Protestant church in
grandfather of both Gerald and Anton Philips. Lion Kreuznach.[35]
Philips was a wealthy Dutch tobacco manufacturer and In October 1836 Marx arrived in Berlin, matriculating
industrialist, upon whom Karl and Jenny Marx would in the universitys faculty of law and renting a room in
later often come to rely for loans while they were exiled in the Mittelstrasse.[36] Although studying law, he was fas-
London.[22] In contrast to her husband, Henrietta retained cinated by philosophy, and looked for a way to com-
her Jewish faith.[23] bine the two, believing that without philosophy noth-
Little is known of Karl Marxs childhood.[24] The third ofing could be accomplished.[37] Marx became interested
nine children, he became the oldest son when his brother in the recently deceased German philosopher G. W. F.
Moritz died in 1819.[25] Young Karl was baptised into Hegel, whose ideas were then widely debated among
the Lutheran Church in August 1824. His surviving sib- European philosophical circles.[38] During a convales-
lings, Sophie, Hermann, Henriette, Louise, Emilie and cence in Stralau, he joined the Doctors Club (Doktork-
Karoline, were also baptised as Lutherans.[26] Young Karl lub), a student group which discussed Hegelian ideas, and
was privately educated, by Heinrich Marx, until 1830, through them became involved with a group of radical
when he entered Trier High School, whose headmaster, thinkers known as the Young Hegelians in 1837; they
Hugo Wyttenbach, was a friend of his father. By em- gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer,
ploying many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach with Marx developing a particularly close friendship with
incurred the anger of the local conservative government. Adolf Rutenberg. Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were
Subsequently, police raided the school in 1832, and dis- critical of Hegels metaphysical assumptions, but adopted
covered that literature espousing political liberalism washis dialectical method in order to criticise established so-
being distributed among the students. Considering the ciety, politics, and religion from a leftist perspective.[39]
distribution of such material a seditious act, the author-Marxs father died in May 1838, resulting in a dimin-
ities instituted reforms and replaced several sta during ished income for the family.[40] Marx had been emotion-
Marxs attendance.[27] ally close to his father, and treasured his memory after
[41]
In October 1835 at the age of 17, Marx travelled to the his death.
University of Bonn wishing to study philosophy and lit- By 1837, Marx was writing both ction and non-ction,
erature; however, his father insisted on law as a more having completed a short novel, Scorpion and Felix, a
practical eld.[28] Due to a condition referred to as a drama, Oulanem, and a number of love poems dedicated
weak chest,[29] Karl was excused from military duty to Jenny von Westphalen, though none of this early work
when he turned 18. While at the University at Bonn, was published during his lifetime.[42] Marx soon aban-
Marx joined the Poets Club, a group containing politi- doned ction for other pursuits, including the study of
cal radicals that was being monitored by the police.[30] both English and Italian, art history and the translation
Marx also joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society of Latin classics.[43] He began co-operating with Bruno
(Landsmannschaft der Treveraner), at one point serving Bauer on editing Hegels Philosophy of Religion in 1840.
as club co-president.[31] Additionally, Marx was involved Marx was also engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, The

Jenny von Westphalen in the 1830s
Dierence Between the Democritean and Epicurean Phi-
losophy of Nature,[44] which he completed in 1841. It was
described as a daring and original piece of work in which
Marx set out to show that theology must yield to the supe-
rior wisdom of philosophy":[45] the essay was controver-
sial, particularly among the conservative professors at the
University of Berlin. Marx decided, instead, to submit
his thesis to the more liberal University of Jena, whose
faculty awarded him his PhD in April 1841.[46] As Marx
and Bauer were both atheists, in March 1841 they began
plans for a journal entitled Archiv des Atheismus (Atheistic
Archives), but it never came to fruition. In July, Marx and
Bauer took a trip to Bonn from Berlin. There they scan-
dalised their class by getting drunk, laughing in church,
and galloping through the streets on donkeys.[47]
Marx was considering an academic career, but this path
was barred by the governments growing opposition to
classical liberalism and the Young Hegelians.[48] Marx
moved to Cologne in 1842, where he became a journal-
ist, writing for the radical newspaper Rheinische Zeitung
("Rhineland News"), expressing his early views on social-
ism and his developing interest in economics. He criti-
cised both right-wing European governments as well as
gures in the liberal and socialist movements whom he
thought ineective or counter-productive.[49] The news-
paper attracted the attention of the Prussian government
censors, who checked every issue for seditious material
3
before printing; Marx lamented that Our newspaper has
to be presented to the police to be snied at, and if the
police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian,
the newspaper is not allowed to appear.[50] After the
Rheinische Zeitung published an article strongly criticis-
ing the Russian monarchy, Tsar Nicholas I requested it
be banned; Prussias government complied in 1843.[51]
2 Communist agitation
2.1 Paris: 18431845
In 1843, Marx became co-editor of a new, radi-
cal leftist Parisian newspaper, the Deutsch-Franzsische
Jahrbcher (German-French Annals), then being set up
by the German socialist Arnold Ruge to bring together
German and French radicals,[52] and thus Marx and his
wife moved to Paris in October 1843. Initially living
with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue Vaneau,
they found the living conditions dicult, so moved out
following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844.[53]
Although intended to attract writers from both France
and the German states, the Jahrbcher was dominated
by the latter; the only non-German writer was the ex-
iled Russian anarchist collectivist Mikhail Bakunin.[54]
Marx contributed two essays to the paper, "Introduction
to a Contribution to the Critique of Hegels Philosophy of
Right"[55] and "On the Jewish Question,[56] the latter in-
troducing his belief that the proletariat were a revolution-
ary force and marking his embrace of communism.[57]
Only one issue was published, but it was relatively suc-
cessful, largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine's
satirical odes on King Ludwig of Bavaria, leading the
German states to ban it and seize imported copies; Ruge
nevertheless refused to fund the publication of further
issues, and his friendship with Marx broke down.[58]
After the papers collapse, Marx began writing for the
only uncensored German-language radical newspaper
left, Vorwrts! (Forward!). Based in Paris, the paper
was connected to the League of the Just, a utopian social-
ist secret society of workers and artisans. Marx attended
some of their meetings, but did not join.[59] In Vorwrts!,
Marx rened his views on socialism based upon Hegelian
and Feuerbachian ideas of dialectical materialism, at the
same time criticising liberals and other socialists operat-
ing in Europe.[60]
On 28 August 1844, Marx met the German socialist
Friedrich Engels at the Caf de la Rgence, beginning a
lifelong friendship.[61] Engels showed Marx his recently
published The Condition of the Working Class in England
in 1844,[62][63] convincing Marx that the working class
would be the agent and instrument of the nal revolution
in history.[64][65] Soon Marx and Engels were collaborat-
ing on a criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marxs
former friend, Bruno Bauer. This work was published
in 1845 as The Holy Family.[66][67] Although critical of
4 2
Friedrich Engels, whom Marx met in 1844; they became lifelong
friends and collaborators.
Bauer, Marx was increasingly inuenced by the ideas of
the Young Hegelians Max Stirner and Ludwig Feuerbach,
but eventually Marx and Engels abandoned Feuerbachian
materialism as well.[68]
During the time that he lived at 38 Rue Vanneau in Paris
(from October 1843 until January 1845),[69] Marx en-
gaged in an intensive study of political economy (Adam
Smith, David Ricardo, James Mill etc.[70] ), the French so-
cialists (especially Claude Henri St. Simon and Charles
Fourier)[71] and the history of France.[72] The study of
political economy is a study that Marx would pursue
for the rest of his life[73] and would result in his ma-
jor economic workthe three-volume series called Cap-
ital.[74] Marxism is based in large part on three inuences:
Hegel's dialectics, French utopian socialism and English
economics. Together with his earlier study of Hegels di-
alectics, the studying that Marx did during this time in
Paris meant that all major components of Marxism (or
political economy as Marx called it) were in place by the
autumn of 1844.[75] Although Marx was constantly being
pulled away from his study of political economy by the
usual daily demands on his time that everyone faces, and
the additional special demands of editing a radical news-
paper and later by the demands of organising and direct-
ing the eorts of a political party during years in which
popular uprisings of the citizenry might at any moment
become a revolution, Marx was always drawn back to his
economic studies. Marx sought to understand the inner
In mid-July 1845, Marx and Engels left Brussels for Eng-
workings of capitalism.[76] land to visit the leaders of the Chartists, a socialist move-
An outline of Marxism had denitely formed in the ment in Britain. This was Marxs rst trip to England
mind of Karl Marx by late 1844. Indeed, many fea- and Engels was an ideal guide for the trip. Engels had al-
COMMUNIST AGITATION
tures of the Marxist view of the worlds political econ-
omy had been worked out in great detail. However,
Marx needed to write down all of the details of his eco-
nomic world view to further clarify the new economic
theory in his own mind.[77] Accordingly, Marx wrote
The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts.[78] These
manuscripts covered numerous topics, detailing Marxs
concept of alienated labour.[79] However, by the spring
of 1845 his continued study of political economy, capital
and capitalism had led Marx to the belief that the new po-
litical economic theory that he was espousingscientic
socialismneeded to be built on the base of a thoroughly
developed materialistic view of the world.[80]
The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 had
been written between April and August 1844. Soon,
though, Marx recognised that the Manuscripts had been
inuenced by some inconsistent ideas of Ludwig Feuer-
bach. Accordingly, Marx recognised the need to break
with Feuerbachs philosophy in favour of historical ma-
terialism. Thus, a year later, in April 1845, after moving
from Paris to Brussels, Marx wrote his eleven Theses on
Feuerbach,[81] The Theses on Feuerbach are best known
for Thesis 11, which states that philosophers have only
interpreted the world in various ways, the point is to
change it.[79][82] This work contains Marxs criticism of
materialism (for being contemplative), idealism (for re-
ducing practice to theory) overall, criticising philosophy
for putting abstract reality above the physical world.[79]
It thus introduced the rst glimpse at Marxs historical
materialism, an argument that the world is changed not
by ideas but by actual, physical, material activity and
practice.[79][83] In 1845, after receiving a request from
the Prussian king, the French government shut down Vor-
wrts!, with the interior minister, Franois Guizot, ex-
pelling Marx from France.[84] At this point, Marx moved
from Paris to Brussels, where Marx hoped to, once again,
continue his study of capitalism and political economy.
2.2 Brussels: 18451847
Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany,
Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Belgium in
February 1845. However, to stay in Belgium, Marx
had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject
of contemporary politics.[84] In Brussels, he associated
with other exiled socialists from across Europe, includ-
ing Moses Hess, Karl Heinzen, and Joseph Weydemeyer,
and soon, in April 1845, Engels moved from Barmen in
Germany to Brussels to join Marx and the growing cadre
of members of the League of the Just now seeking home
in Brussels.[84][85] Later, Mary Burns, Engels long-time
companion, left Manchester, England, to join Engels in
Brussels.[86]
2.2 Brussels: 18451847 5

his, German Ideology would not be published in Marxs

lifetime and would be published only in 1932.[79][93][94]
After completing German Ideology, Marx turned to a
work that was intended to clarify his own position re-
garding the theory and tactics of a truly revolutionary
proletarian movement operating from the standpoint of
a truly scientic materialist philosophy.[95] This work
was intended to draw a distinction between the utopian
socialists and Marxs own scientic socialist philosophy.
Whereas the utopians believed that people must be per-
suaded one person at a time to join the socialist move-
ment, the way a person must be persuaded to adopt any
dierent belief, Marx knew that people would tend on
most occasions to act in accordance with their own eco-
nomic interests. Thus, appealing to an entire class (the
working class in this case) with a broad appeal to the
classs best material interest would be the best way to mo-
bilise the broad mass of that class to make a revolution
and change society. This was the intent of the new book
that Marx was planning. However, to get the manuscript
past the government censors, Marx called the book The
Poverty of Philosophy (1847)[96] and oered it as a re-
sponse to the petty bourgeois philosophy of the French
anarchist socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as expressed
in his book The Philosophy of Poverty (1840).[97]

The rst edition of The Manifesto of the Communist Party, pub-

lished in German in 1848

ready spent two years living in Manchester, from Novem-

ber 1842[87] to August 1844.[88] Not only did Engels al-
ready know the English language,[89] he had developed
a close relationship with many Chartist leaders.[89] In-
deed, Engels was serving as a reporter for many Chartist
and socialist English newspapers.[89] Marx used the trip
as an opportunity to examine the economic resources
available for study in various libraries in London and
Manchester.[90]
In collaboration with Engels, Marx also set about writ-
ing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of
the concept of historical materialism, The German Ide-
Marx, Engels and Marxs daughters
ology.[91] In this work, Marx broke with Ludwig Feuer-
bach, Bruno Bauer, Max Stirner and the rest of the Young These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engelss
Hegelians, and also broke with Karl Grun and other true most famous work, a political pamphlet that has since
socialists whose philosophies were still based in part on
come to be commonly known as The Communist Mani-
idealism. In German Ideology Marx and Engels nally festo. While residing in Brussels in 1846, Marx contin-
completed their philosophy, which was based solely on ued his association with the secret radical organisation
materialism as the sole motor force in history.[92] League of the Just.[98] As noted above, Marx thought
German Ideology is written in a humorously satirical the League to be just the sort of radical organisation
form. But even this satirical form did not save the work that was needed to spur the working class of Europe to-
from censorship. Like so many other early writings of ward the mass movement that would bring about a work-
6 3 LIFE IN LONDON

ing class revolution.[99] However, to organise the work- to Cologne where he began issuing a handbill entitled
ing class into a mass movement, the League had to cease the Demands of the Communist Party in Germany,[115] in
its secret or underground orientation and operate in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the
the open as a political party.[100] Members of the League Communist Manifesto, believing that in Germany at that
eventually became persuaded in this regard. Accordingly, time, the bourgeoisie must overthrow the feudal monar-
in June 1847 the League of the Just was reorganised by chy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow
its membership into a new open above ground political the bourgeoisie.[116] On 1 June, Marx started publication
society that appealed directly to the working classes.[101] of a daily newspaper, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, which
This new open political society was called the Commu- he helped to nance through his recent inheritance from
nist League.[102] Both Marx and Engels participated in his father. Designed to put forward news from across Eu-
drawing the programme and organisational principles of rope with his own Marxist interpretation of events, the
the new Communist League.[103] newspaper featured Marx as a primary writer and the
dominant editorial inuence. Despite contributions by
In late 1847, Marx and Engels began writing what was to
become their most famous work a programme of ac- fellow members of the Communist League, it remained,
according to Friedrich Engels, a simple dictatorship by
tion for the Communist League. Written jointly by Marx [117][118][119]
and Engels from December 1847 to January 1848, The Marx.
Communist Manifesto was rst published on 21 February Whilst editor of the paper, Marx and the other rev-
1848.[104] The Communist Manifesto laid out the beliefs olutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the
of the new Communist League. No longer a secret so- police, and Marx was brought to trial on several
ciety, the Communist League wanted to make aims and occasions, facing various allegations including insult-
intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding ing the Chief Public Prosecutor, committing a press
its beliefs as the League of the Just had been doing.[105] misdemeanor, and inciting armed rebellion through
The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal tax boycotting,[120][121][121][122][123] although each time
basis of Marxism, that The history of all hitherto exist- he was acquitted.[121][123][124] Meanwhile, the demo-
ing society is the history of class struggles.[106] It goes on cratic parliament in Prussia collapsed, and the king,
to examine the antagonisms that Marx claimed were aris- Frederick William IV, introduced a new cabinet of
ing in the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie (the his reactionary supporters, who implemented counter-
wealthy capitalist class) and the proletariat (the industrial revolutionary measures to expunge leftist and other
working class). Proceeding on from this, the Manifesto revolutionary elements from the country.[120] Conse-
presents the argument for why the Communist League, quently, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung was soon sup-
as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties pressed and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16
and groups at the time, was truly acting in the interests May.[119][125] Marx returned to Paris, which was then un-
of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and to der the grip of both a reactionary counter-revolution and
replace it with socialism.[107] a cholera epidemic, and was soon expelled by the city au-
Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, thorities, who considered him a political threat. With his
wife, Jenny, expecting their fourth child, and not able to
rebellions, and often violent upheavals that became
known as the Revolution of 1848. [108]
In France, a revo- move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he
[126][127]
lution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the es- sought refuge in London.
tablishment of the French Second Republic.[108] Marx
was supportive of such activity, and having recently re-
ceived a substantial inheritance from his father of either 3 Life in London
6,000[109] or 5,000 francs,[110][111] allegedly used a third
of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolu-
tionary action.[111] Although the veracity of these allega- Marx moved to London in early June 1849 and would
tions is disputed,[109][112] the Belgian Ministry of Justice remain based in the city for the rest of his life. The head-
accused him of it, subsequently arresting him, and he was quarters of the Communist League also moved to Lon-
forced to ee back to France, where, with a new repub- don. However, in the winter of 18491850, a split within
lican government in power, he believed that he would be the ranks of the Communist League occurred when a fac-
safe.[111][113] tion within it led by August Willich and Karl Schapper
began agitating for an immediate uprising. Willich and
Schapper believed that once the Communist League had
2.3 Cologne: 18481849 initiated the uprising, the entire working class from across
Europe would rise spontaneously to join it, thus, creat-
Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the ing revolution across Europe. Marx and Engels protested
Communist League executive headquarters to the city that such an unplanned uprising on the part of the Com-
and also set up a German Workers Club with various munist League was adventuristic and would be suicide
German socialists living there.[114] Hoping to see the rev- for the Communist League.[128] Such an uprising as that
olution spread to Germany, in 1848 Marx moved back recommended by the Schapper/Willich group would eas-

ily be crushed by the police and the armed forces of the
reactionary governments of Europe. This, Marx main-
tained, would spell doom for the Communist League it-
self. Changes in society, Marx argued, are not achieved
overnight through the eorts and will power of a hand-
ful of men.[128] Instead, they are brought about through a
scientic analysis of economic conditions of society and
by moving toward revolution through dierent stages of
social development. In the present stage of development
(circa 1850), following the defeat of the uprisings across
Europe in 1848, Marx felt that the Communist League
should encourage the working class to unite with pro-
gressive elements of the rising bourgeoisie to defeat the
feudal aristocracy on issues involving demands for gov-
ernmental reforms, such as a constitutional republic with
freely elected assemblies and universal (male) surage.
In other words, the working class must join with bour-
geois and democratic forces to bring about the success-
ful conclusion of the bourgeois revolution before stressing
the working class agenda and a working class revolution.
After a long struggle which threatened to ruin the Com-
munist League, Marxs opinion prevailed and, eventually,
the Willich/Schapper group left the Communist League.
Meanwhile, Marx also became heavily involved with the
socialist German Workers Educational Society.[129] The
Society held their meetings in Great Windmill Street,
Soho, central Londons entertainment district.[130][131]
This organisation was also racked by an internal strug-
gle between its members, some of whom followed Marx
while others followed the Schapper/Willich faction. The
issues in this internal split were the same issues raised in
the internal split within the Communist League. Marx,
however, lost the ght with the Schapper/Willich faction
within the German Workers Educational Society and, on
17 September 1850, resigned from the Society.[132]
4 Writing for the New York Tribune
While in London, Marx devoted himself to the task
of revolutionary organising of the working class. For
the rst few years, he and his family lived in extreme
poverty.[133][134] His main source of income was his col-
league, Engels, who derived much of his income from his
familys business.[134] Later Marx and Engels both began
writing for six dierent newspapers around the world, in
England, the United States, Prussia, Austria and South
Africa.[135] Most of Marxs journalistic writing, however,
was as a European correspondent for the New York Daily
Tribune.[136] In earlier years, Marx had been able to com-
municate with the broad masses of the working class
by editing his own newspaper or editing a newspaper -
nanced by others sympathetic to his philosophy. Now,
in London, Marx was unable to nance his own news-
paper and unable to put together nancing from others.
Thus, Marx sought to communicate with the public by
writing articles for the New York Tribune and other bour-
7
geois newspapers. At rst Marxs English-language ar-
ticles were translated from German by Wilhelm Pieper;
eventually, however, Marx learned English well enough
to write without translation.[137]
The New York Daily Tribune had been founded in New
York City in the United States of America by Horace
Greeley in April 1841.[138] Marxs main contact on the
Tribune was Charles Dana. Later, in 1868, Charles Dana
would leave the Tribune to become the owner and editor-
in-chief of the New York Sun, a competing newspaper in
New York City.[139] However, at this time Charles Dana
served on the editorial board of the Tribune.
Several characteristics about the Tribune made the news-
paper an excellent vehicle for Marx to reach a sympa-
thetic public across the Atlantic Ocean. Since its found-
ing, the Tribune had been an inexpensive newspaper
two cents per copy.[140] Accordingly, it was popular with
the broad masses of the working class of the United
States. With a run of about 50,000 issues, the Tribune
was the most widely circulated journal in the United
States.[141] Editorially, the Tribune reected Greeleys
anti-slavery opinions.[142] Not only did the Tribune have
wide readership with the United States and not only did
that readership come from the working classes, but the
readers seemed to be from the progressive wing of the
working class. Marxs rst article for the New York Tri-
bune was on the British elections to Parliament and was
published in the Tribune on 21 August 1852.[143]
Marx was just one of the reporters in Europe that the
New York Tribune employed. However, with the slavery
crisis in the United States coming to a head in the late
1850s and with the outbreak of the American Civil War
in 1861, the American publics interest in European af-
fairs declined.[144] Thus Marx very early began to write
on issues aecting the United States particularly the
slavery crisis and the War Between the States.
Marx continued to write articles for the New York Daily
Tribune as long as he was sure that the Tribunes edito-
rial policy was still progressive. However, the departure
of Charles Dana from the paper in late 1861 and the re-
sultant change in the editorial board brought about a new
editorial policy.[145] No longer was the Tribune to be a
strong abolitionist paper dedicated to a complete Union
victory. The new editorial board supported an immedi-
ate peace between the Union and the Confederacy in the
Civil War in the United States with slavery left intact in
the Confederacy. Marx strongly disagreed with this new
political position and, in 1863, was forced to withdraw as
a writer for the Tribune.[146]
From December 1851 to March 1852, Marx wrote The
Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon,[147] a work on
the French Revolution of 1848, in which he expanded
upon his concepts of historical materialism, class strug-
gle and the dictatorship of the proletariat, advancing the
argument that victorious proletariat has to smash the
bourgeois state.[148]
8 5 THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL

The 1850s and 1860s also mark the line between what Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx
some scholars see as the idealistic, Hegelian young Marx supported, led to the decline of the International.[156] The
from the more scientically minded mature Marx writ- most important political event during the existence of the
ings of the later period.[149][150][151][152] This distinc- International was the Paris Commune of 1871, when the
tion is usually associated with the structural Marxism citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and
school,[152] and not all scholars agree that it exists.[151][153] held the city for two months. In response to the bloody
The years of revolution from 1848 to 1849 had been a suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most
grand experience for both Marx and Engels. They both famous pamphlets, The Civil War in France, a defence of
became sure that their economic view of the course of the Commune.[157][158]
history was the only valid way that historic events like Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers
the revolutionary upsurge of 1848 could be adequately
revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to under-
explained. For some time after 1848, Marx and Engels stand capitalism, and spent a great deal of time in the
wondered if the entire revolutionary upsurge had com-
reading room of the British Museum studying and reect-
pletely played out. As time passed, they began to think ing on the works of political economists and on economic
that a new revolutionary upsurge would not occur until
data.[159] By 1857 he had accumulated over 800 pages of
there was another economic downturn. The question of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage
whether a recession would be necessary to create a new labour, the state, and foreign trade and the world mar-
revolutionary situation in society became a point of con- ket; this work did not appear in print until 1939, un-
tention between Marx and certain other revolutionaries. der the title Outlines of the Critique of Political Econ-
Marx accused these other revolutionaries of being ad- omy.[160][161][162]
venturists because of their belief that a revolutionary sit-
uation could be created out of thin air by the sheer will
power of the revolutionaries without regard to the eco-
nomic realities of the current situation.
The downturn in the United States economy in 1852 led
Marx and Engels to wonder if a revolutionary upsurge
would soon occur. However, the United States econ-
omy was too new to play host to a classical revolution.
The western frontier in America always provided a relief
valve for the pent-up forces that might in other countries
cause social unrest. Any economic crisis which began
in the United States would not lead to revolution unless
one of the older economies of Europe caught the conta-
gion from the United States. In other words, economies
of the world were still seen as individual national systems
which were contiguous with the national borders of each
country. The Panic of 1857 broke the mould of all prior
thinking on the world economy. Beginning in the United
States, the Panic spread across the globe.[154] Indeed, the
Panic of 1857 was the rst truly global economic crisis.
Marx longed to return to his economic studies. He had
left these studies in 1844 and had been preoccupied with
other projects over the last thirteen years. By returning
to his study of economics, he felt he would be able to
understand more thoroughly what was occurring in the
world.

5 The First International

In 1864, Marx became involved in the International
Workingmens Association (also known as First Interna-
tional),[121] to whose General Council he was elected at
its inception in 1864.[155] In that organisation, Marx was
involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred
on Mikhail Bakunin (18141876).[134] Although Marx
won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General
The rst volume of Das Kapital
Finally in 1859 Marx published A Contribution to the Cri-
tique of Political Economy,[163] his rst serious economic
work. This work was intended merely as a preview of his
three-volume Das Kapital (English title: Capital: Critique
 9

of Political Economy) on which he intended to publish at which comprise Volumes 30, 31 32 and 33 of the Col-
a later date. In A Contribution to the Critique of Politi- lected Works of Marx and Engels and from the Economic
cal Economy, Marx accepts the labour theory of value as Manuscripts of 18611864 which comprises Volume 34
advocated by David Ricardo, but whereas Ricardo drew of the Collected Works of Marx and Engels. The exact
a distinction between use value and value in commodi- part of the Economic Manuscripts of 18611863 which
ties, Ricardo always had been unable to dene the real makes up the Theories of Surplus Value are the last part
relationship between use value and value. The reasoning of Volume 30 of the Collected Works,[174] the whole of
Marx laid out in his book clearly delineated the true re- Volume 31 of the Collected Works,[175] and the whole of
lationship between use value and value.[164] He also pro- Volume 32 of the Collected Works.[176] A German lan-
duced a truly scientic theory of money and money circu- guage abridged edition of Theories of Surplus Value was
lation in the capitalist economy.[165] Thus, A Contribution published in 1905 and in 1910. This abridged edition was
to the Critique of Political Economy created a storm of en- translated into English and published in 1951 in London.
thusiasm when it appeared in public. The entire edition However, the complete unabridged edition of Theories of
of the book was sold out quickly.[166] Surplus Value was published as the fourth volume of
Capital in 1963 and 1971 in Moscow.[177]
The successful sales of A Contribution to the Critique of
Political Economy stimulated Marx in the early 1860s to
nish work on the three large volumes that would com-
pose his major lifes workDas Kapital and the Theories
of Surplus Value, which discussed the theoreticians of
political economy, particularly Adam Smith and David
Ricardo.[134] Theories of Surplus Value is often referred
to as the fourth volume book of Das Kapital and con-
stitutes one of the rst comprehensive treatises on the
history of economic thought.[167] In 1867 the rst vol-
ume of Das Kapital was published, a work which anal-
ysed the capitalist process of production.[168] Here Marx
elaborated his labour theory of value, which had been
inuenced by Thomas Hodgskin. Marx acknowledged
Hodgskins admirable work Labour Defended against
the Claims of Capital at more than one point in Capi-
tal.[169] Indeed, Marx quoted Hodgskin as recognising the
alienation of labour that occurred under modern capitalist
production. No longer was there any natural reward of
individual labour. Each labourer produces only some part
of a whole, and each part having no value or utility of it-
self, there is nothing on which the labourer can seize, and
say: 'This is my product, this will I keep to myself.'"[170]
In this rst volume of Capital, Marx outlined his concep-
tion of surplus value and exploitation, which he argued
would ultimately lead to a falling rate of prot and the
collapse of industrial capitalism.[171] Demand for a Rus- Marx in 1882
sian language edition of Capital soon led to the printing of
3,000 copies of the book in the Russian language, which During the last decade of his life, Marxs health declined
was published on 27 March 1872. By the autumn of 1871 and he became incapable of the sustained eort that
the entire rst edition of the German language edition of had characterised his previous work.[134] He did man-
Capital had been sold out and a second edition was pub- age to comment substantially on contemporary politics,
lished. particularly in Germany and Russia. His Critique of the
Gotha Programme opposed the tendency of his followers
Volumes II and III of Capital remained mere manuscripts Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel to compromise
upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his with the state socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle in the in-
life. Both volumes were published by Engels after Marxs terests of a united socialist party.[134] This work is also
death.[134] Volume II of Capital was prepared and pub- notable for another famous Marxs quote: "From each ac-
lished by Engels in July 1893 under the name Capital II: cording to his ability, to each according to his need.[178]
The Process of Circulation of Capital.[172] Volume III of
Capital was published a year later in October 1894 under In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881, Marx
the name Capital III: The Process of Capitalist Produc- contemplated the possibility of Russias bypassing the
tion as a Whole.[173] Theories of Surplus Value was de- capitalist stage of development and building communism
veloped from the Economic Manuscripts of 18611863 on the basis of the common ownership of land charac-
teristic of the village mir.[134][179] While admitting that
10 6 PERSONAL LIFE

Russias rural commune is the fulcrum of social regen-

eration in Russia, Marx also warned that, in order for
the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to
the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage,
it would rst be necessary to eliminate the deleterious
inuences which are assailing it (the rural commune)
from all sides.[180] Given the elimination of these perni-
cious inuences, Marx allowed that normal conditions of
spontaneous development of the rural commune could
exist.[180] However, in the same letter to Vera Zasulich,
Marx points out that at the core of the capitalist sys-
tem ... lies the complete separation of the producer from
the means of production.[180] In one of the drafts of
this letter, Marx reveals his growing passion for anthro-
pology, motivated by his belief that future communism
would be a return on a higher level to the communism of
our prehistoric past. He wrote that the historical trend
of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production
has undergone in the European and American countries
where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will
end in its destruction, in the return of modern society to
a higher form of the most archaic typecollective pro-
duction and appropriation. He added that the vitality
of primitive communities was incomparably greater than
that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc. societies, and, a for-
tiori, that of modern capitalist societies.[181] Before he Jenny Carolina and Jenny Laura Marx (1869). All the Marx
died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which daughters were named in honour of their mother, Jenny von
were published in 1884 under the title The Origin of the Westphalen.
Family, Private Property and the State.
ters, Jennychen, was referred to as Qui Qui, Emperor
of China and another, Laura, was known as Kakadou
6 Personal life or the Hottentot".[185]
According to Sylvia Nasar, Marx never learned to prop-
Marx and von Westphalen had seven children together, erly speak English and never visited an English factory
but partly owing to the poor conditions in which they lived despite living in England during his last thirty years.[186]
whilst in London, only three survived to adulthood.[182]
The children were: Jenny Caroline (m. Longuet; 1844
1883); Jenny Laura (m. Lafargue; 18451911); Edgar 6.1 Death
(18471855); Henry Edward Guy (Guido"; 1849
1850); Jenny Eveline Frances (Franziska"; 18511852); Following the death of his wife, Jenny, in December
Jenny Julia Eleanor (18551898) and one more who died 1881, Marx developed a catarrh that kept him in ill health
before being named (July 1857). There are allegations for the last 15 months of his life. It eventually brought on
that Marx also fathered a son, Freddy,[183] out of wed- the bronchitis and pleurisy that killed him in London on
lock by his housekeeper, Helene Demuth.[184] 14 March 1883 (age 64). He died a stateless person;[187]
family and friends in London buried his body in Highgate
Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when rent- Cemetery, London, on 17 March 1883. There were be-
ing a house or at, apparently to make it harder for tween nine and eleven mourners at his funeral.[188][189]
the authorities to track him down. While in Paris, he
used that of Monsieur Ramboz, whilst in London he Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, includ-
signed o his letters as A. Williams. His friends re- ing Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels. Engels
ferred to him as Moor, owing to his dark complex- speech included the passage:
ion and black curly hair, something which they believed
made him resemble the historical Moors of North Africa, On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three
whilst he encouraged his children to call him Old Nick in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker
and Charley.[185] He also bestowed nicknames and ceased to think. He had been left alone for
pseudonyms on his friends and family as well, referring scarcely two minutes, and when we came back
to Friedrich Engels as General, his housekeeper He- we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone
lene as Lenchen or Nym, while one of his daugh- to sleepbut forever.[190]
 11

however is to change it.[192] The Communist Party of

Great Britain had the monument with a portrait bust by
Laurence Bradshaw erected; Marxs original tomb had
only humble adornment.[192] In 1970 there was an unsuc-
cessful attempt to destroy the monument using a home-
made bomb.[193]
The late Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm remarked that
One cannot say Marx died a failure because, although
he had not achieved a large following of disciples in
Britain, his writings had already begun to make an impact
on the leftist movements in Germany and Russia. Within
25 years of his death, the continental European socialist
parties that acknowledged Marxs inuence on their poli-
tics were each gaining between 15 and 47 per cent in those
countries with representative democratic elections.[194]

7 Thought

7.1 Inuences
Main article: Inuences on Karl Marx

Memorial to Karl Marx, East Highgate Cemetery, London Marxs thought demonstrates inuences from many
thinkers, including but not limited to:

Marxs daughters Eleanor and Laura, as well as Charles
Longuet and Paul Lafargue, Marxs two French social-
ist sons-in-law, were also in attendance.[189] Liebknecht,
a founder and leader of the German Social-Democratic
Party, gave a speech in German, and Longuet, a promi-
nent gure in the French working-class movement, made
a short statement in French.[189] Two telegrams from
workers parties in France and Spain were also read
out.[189] Together with Engelss speech, this constituted
the entire programme of the funeral.[189] Non-relatives at-
tending the funeral included three communist associates
of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years
after the Cologne communist trial of 1852; G. Lochner,
whom Engels described as an old member of the Com-
munist League"; and Carl Schorlemmer, a professor of
chemistry in Manchester, a member of the Royal Soci-
ety, and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden
revolution.[189] Another attendee of the funeral was Ray
Lankester, a British zoologist who would later become a
prominent academic.[189]
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's philosophy;[195]
the classical political economy (economics) of
Adam Smith and David Ricardo;[196]
French socialist thought,[196] in particular the
thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Henri de
Saint-Simon, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, and Charles
Fourier.[197][198]
earlier German philosophical materialism among
the Young Hegelians, particularly that of Ludwig
Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer;[68] as well as the
French materialism of the late 18th Century, in-
cluding Diderot, Claude Adrien Helvtius, and
d'Holbach.
the working class analysis by Friedrich Engels.[64]
As well as the early descriptions of class provided
by French liberals and Saint-Simonians such as
Franois Guizot and Augustin Thierry.

Upon his own death in 1895, Engels left Marxs two sur- Marxs view of history, which came to be called historical
viving daughters a signicant portion of his $4.8 mil- materialism (controversially adapted as the philosophy
lion estate.[183] of dialectical materialism by Engels and Lenin) cer-
Marx and his family were reburied on a new site nearby tainly shows the inuence of Hegels claim that one
in November 1954. The memorial at the new site, un- should view reality (and history) dialectically.[195] How-
veiled on 14 March 1956,[191] bears the carved message: ever, Hegel had thought in idealist terms, putting ideas in
"WORKERS OF ALL LANDS UNITE", the nal line the forefront, whereas Marx sought to rewrite dialectics
of The Communist Manifesto, and from the 11th Thesis in materialist terms, arguing for the primacy of matter
on Feuerbach (edited by Engels): The philosophers have over idea.[79][195] Where Hegel saw the spirit as driving
only interpreted the world in various waysthe point history, Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystication,
12 7 THOUGHT

obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions
shaping the world.[195] He wrote that Hegelianism stood
the movement of reality on its head, and that one needed
to set it upon its feet.[195] Despite his dislike of mystical
terms Marx used Gothic language in several of his works.
In Das Kapital he refers to capital as "necromancy that
surrounds the products of labour.[199]
Though inspired by French socialist and sociological
thought,[196] Marx criticised utopian socialists, arguing
that their favoured small-scale socialistic communities
would be bound to marginalisation and poverty, and that
only a large-scale change in the economic system can
bring about real change.[198]
The other important contribution to Marxs revision of
Hegelianism came from Engelss book, The Condition of
the Working Class in England in 1844, which led Marx
to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of class
conict and to see the modern working class as the most
progressive force for revolution.[64]
Marx believed that he could study history and society sci-
entically and discern tendencies of history and the re-
sulting outcome of social conicts. Some followers of
Marx concluded, therefore, that a communist revolution
would inevitably occur. However, Marx famously as-
serted in the eleventh of his Theses on Feuerbach that
philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various
7.2.2 Labour, class struggle, and false conscious-
ways; the point however is to change it, and he clearly
dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.[12][192]
7.2 Philosophy and social thought
internal alienation stemming from this recognition, fol-
lowed by a realisation that the actual self, as a subjective
agent, renders its potential counterpart an object to be
apprehended.[205] Marx further argues that, by moulding
nature[206] in desired ways,[207] the subject takes the ob-
ject as its own, and thus permits the individual to be ac-
tualised as fully human. For Marx, then, human nature
Gattungswesen, or species-beingexists as a function of
human labour.[204][205][207] Fundamental to Marxs idea
of meaningful labour is the proposition that, in order for
a subject to come to terms with its alienated object, it
must rst exert inuence upon literal, material objects in
the subjects world.[208] Marx acknowledges that Hegel
grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective
man, authentic because actual, as the result of his own
work",[209] but characterises Hegelian self-development
as unduly spiritual and abstract.[210] Marx thus departs
from Hegel by insisting that the fact that man is a cor-
poreal, actual, sentient, objective being with natural ca-
pacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his
nature as objects of his life-expression, or that he can
only express his life in actual sensuous objects.[208] Con-
sequently, Marx revises Hegelian work into material
"labour", and in the context of human capacity to trans-
form nature the term "labour power".[79]
ness
Further information: Labour theory of value

Marxs polemic with other thinkers often occurred The history of all hitherto existing society
through critique, and thus he has been called is the history of class struggles.
the rst great user of critical method in social Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto[211]
[195][196]
sciences. He criticised speculative philosophy,
equating metaphysics with ideology.[200] By adopting this
approach, Marx attempted to separate key ndings from Marx had a special concern with how people relate to
[212]
ideological biases.[196] This set him apart from many their own labour power. He wrote extensively about
contemporary philosophers. [12] this in terms of the problem of alienation.[213] As with the
dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alien-
ation but developed a more materialist conception.[212]
7.2.1 Human nature Capitalism mediates social relationships of production
(such as among workers or between workers and capi-
Further information: Marxs theory of human nature talists) through commodities, including labour, that are
bought and sold on the market.[212] For Marx, the pos-
Like Tocqueville, who described a faceless and bureau- sibility that one may give up ownership of ones own
cratic despotism with no identiable despot,[201] Marx labourones capacity to transform the worldis tan-
also broke with classical thinkers who spoke of a single tamount to being [212]
alienated from ones own nature; it is a
tyrant and with Montesquieu, who discussed the nature spiritual loss. Marx described this loss as commodity
of the single despot. Instead, Marx set out to analyse fetishism, in which the things that people produce, com-
the despotism of capital. [202]
Fundamentally, Marx as- modities, appear to have a life and movement of their own
sumed that human history involves transforming human to which humans and their behaviour merely adapt.[214]
nature, which encompasses both human beings and mate- Commodity fetishism provides an example of what
rial objects.[203] Humans recognise that they possess both Engels called "false consciousness",[215] which relates
actual and potential selves.[204][205] For both Marx and closely to the understanding of ideology. By ideology,
Hegel, self-development begins with an experience of Marx and Engels meant ideas that reect the interests of
7.2 Philosophy and social thought
a particular class at a particular time in history, but which
contemporaries see as universal and eternal.[216] Marx
and Engelss point was not only that such beliefs are at
best half-truths; they serve an important political func-
tion. Put another way, the control that one class exercises
over the means of production includes not only the pro-
duction of food or manufactured goods; it includes the
production of ideas as well (this provides one possible
explanation for why members of a subordinate class may
hold ideas contrary to their own interests).[79][217] An ex-
ample of this sort of analysis is Marxs understanding of
religion, summed up in a passage from the preface[218] to
his 1843 Contribution to the Critique of Hegels Philosophy
of Right:
Religious suering is, at one and the same
time, the expression of real suering and a
protest against real suering. Religion is the
sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a
heartless world, and the soul of soulless condi-
tions. It is the opium of the people. The aboli-
tion of religion as the illusory happiness of the
people is the demand for their real happiness.
To call on them to give up their illusions about
their condition is to call on them to give up a
condition that requires illusions.[219]
Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis argued that re-
ligion had as its primary social aim the promotion of
solidarity, here Marx sees the social function of reli-
gion in terms of highlighting/preserving political and eco-
nomic status quo and inequality.[220]
7.2.3 Economy, history, and society
Further information: Marxian economics
Marxs thoughts on labour were related to the primacy
he gave to the economic relation in determining the so-
cietys past, present and future (see also economic de-
terminism).[195][198][221] Accumulation of capital shapes
the social system.[198] Social change, for Marx, was about
conict between opposing interests, driven, in the back-
ground, by economic forces.[195] This became the inspi-
ration for the body of works known as the conict the-
ory.[221] In his evolutionary model of history, he argued
that human history began with free, productive and cre-
ative work that was over time coerced and dehumanised,
a trend most apparent under capitalism.[195] Marx noted
that this was not an intentional process; rather, no individ-
ual or even state can go against the forces of economy.[198]
The organisation of society depends on means of pro-
duction. Literally those things, like land, natural re-
sources, and technology, necessary for the production of
material goods and the relations of production, in other
words, the social relationships people enter into as they
acquire and use the means of production.[221] Together
13
these compose the mode of production, and Marx dis-
tinguished historical eras in terms of distinct modes of
production. Marx dierentiated between base and su-
perstructure, with the base (or substructure) referring to
the economic system, and superstructure, to the cultural
and political system.[221] Marx regarded this mismatch
between (economic) base and (social) superstructure as
a major source of social disruption and conict.[221]
Despite Marxs stress on critique of capitalism and dis-
cussion of the new communist society that should re-
place it, his explicit critique of capitalism is guarded, as
he saw it as an improved society compared to the past
ones (slavery and feudal).[79] Marx also never clearly dis-
cusses issues of morality and justice, although scholars
agree that his work contained implicit discussion of those
concepts.[79]
Memorial to Karl Marx in Moscow. The inscription reads
"Proletarians of all countries, unite!"
Marxs view of capitalism was two-sided.[79][150] On one
hand, Marx, in the 19th centurys deepest critique of the
dehumanising aspects of this system, noted that den-
ing features of capitalism include alienation, exploitation,
and recurring, cyclical depressions leading to mass un-
employment; on the other hand capitalism is also char-
acterised by revolutionising, industrialising and univer-
salising qualities of development, growth and progressiv-
ity (by which Marx meant industrialisation, urbanisa-
tion, technological progress, increased productivity and
growth, rationality and scientic revolution), that are re-
sponsible for progress.[79][150][195] Marx considered the
capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in his-
tory, because it constantly improved the means of pro-
duction, more so than any other class in history, and was
responsible for the overthrow of feudalism and its transi-
14 7 THOUGHT

tion to capitalism.[198][222] Capitalism can stimulate con- which they are fettered, and so soon as they
siderable growth because the capitalist can, and has an in- overcome these fetters, they bring order into
centive to, reinvest prots in new technologies and capital the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the
equipment.[212] existence of bourgeois property.[223]
According to Marx, capitalists take advantage of the dif-
ference between the labour market and the market for
whatever commodity the capitalist can produce. Marx
observed that in practically every successful industry, in-
put unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx
called the dierence "surplus value" and argued that this
surplus value had its source in surplus labour, the dif-
ference between what it costs to keep workers alive and
what they can produce.[79] Marxs dual view of capital-
ism can be seen in his description of the capitalists: he
refers to them as to vampires sucking workers blood, but
at the same time,[195] he notes that drawing prot is by
no means an injustice[79] and that capitalists simply can-
not go against the system.[198] The true problem lies with
the cancerous cell of capital, understood not as prop-
erty or equipment, but the relations between workers and
ownersthe economic system in general.[198] Marx believed that industrial workers (the proletariat) would rise
up around the world.
At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was un-
stable, and prone to periodic crises.[93] He suggested that Marx believed that those structural contradictions within
over time, capitalists would invest more and more in new capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or
technologies, and less and less in labour.[79] Since Marx a post-capitalistic, communist society:
believed that surplus value appropriated from labour is
the source of prots, he concluded that the rate of prot
would fall even as the economy grew.[171] Marx believed The development of Modern Industry,
that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this cycle therefore, cuts from under its feet the very
of growth, collapse, and more growth.[171] Moreover, he foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces
believed that in the long-term, this process would neces- and appropriates products. What the bour-
sarily enrich and empower the capitalist class and impov- geoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its
erish the proletariat.[171][198] In section one of The Com- own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of
munist Manifesto, Marx describes feudalism, capitalism, the proletariat are equally inevitable.[223]
and the role internal social contradictions play in the his-
torical process: Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such
as urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should
grow in numbers and develop class consciousness, in
We see then: the means of production and time realising that they have to and can change the
of exchange, on whose foundation the bour- system.[195][198] Marx believed that if the proletariat were
geoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal to seize the means of production, they would encourage
society. At a certain stage in the development social relations that would benet everyone equally, abol-
of these means of production and of exchange, ishing exploiting class, and introduce a system of produc-
the conditions under which feudal society pro- tion less vulnerable to cyclical crises.[195] Marx argued in
duced and exchanged ... the feudal relations The German Ideology that capitalism will end through the
of property became no longer compatible with organised actions of an international working class:
the already developed productive forces; they
became so many fetters. They had to be burst
asunder; they were burst asunder. Into their Communism is for us not a state of aairs
place stepped free competition, accompanied which is to be established, an ideal to which
by a social and political constitution adapted reality will have to adjust itself. We call com-
in it, and the economic and political sway of munism the real movement which abolishes
the bourgeois class. A similar movement is go- the present state of things. The conditions of
ing on before our own eyes ... The productive this movement result from the premises now in
forces at the disposal of society no longer tend existence.[224]
to further the development of the conditions of
bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have In this new society, the self-alienation would end, and hu-
become too powerful for these conditions, by mans would be free to act without being bound by the

labour market.[171] It would be a democratic society, en-
franchising the entire population.[198] In such a utopian
world there would also be little if any need for a state,
which goal was to enforce the alienation.[171] He theorised
that between capitalism and the establishment of a social-
ist/communist system, a dictatorship of the proletariat
a period where the working class holds political power
and forcibly socialises the means of productionwould
exist.[198] As he wrote in his "Critique of the Gotha Pro-
gram", between capitalist and communist society there
lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the
one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political
transition period in which the state can be nothing but the
revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat.[225] While
he allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in
some countries with strong democratic institutional struc-
tures (such as Britain, the US and the Netherlands), he
suggested that in other countries with strong centralised
state-oriented traditions, like France and Germany, the
lever of our revolution must be force.[226]
8 Legacy
Main article: Marxism
Marxs ideas have had a profound impact on world
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels monument in Marx-Engels-
Forum, Berlin-Mitte
politics and intellectual thought.[12][13][227][228] Follow-
ers of Marx have frequently debated amongst themselves
over how to interpret Marxs writings and apply his con-
cepts to the modern world.[229] The legacy of Marxs
thought has become contested between numerous tenden-
cies, each of which sees itself as Marxs most accurate in-
terpreter. In the political realm, these tendencies include
Leninism, MarxismLeninism, Trotskyism, Maoism,
Luxemburgism, and libertarian Marxism.[229] Various
currents have also developed in academic Marxism, often
under inuence of other views, resulting in structuralist
Marxism, historical Marxism, phenomenological Marx-
ism, Analytical Marxism and Hegelian Marxism.[229]
From an academic perspective, Marxs work contributed Politically, Marxs legacy is more complex. Through-
to the birth of modern sociology. He has been cited as one out the twentieth century, revolutions in dozens of
15
of the nineteenth centurys three masters of the school of
suspicion, alongside Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund
Freud,[230] and as one of the three principal architects
of modern social science along with mile Durkheim
and Max Weber.[14] In contrast to other philosophers,
Marx oered theories that could often be tested with
the scientic method.[12] Both Marx and Auguste Comte
set out to develop scientically justied ideologies in
the wake of European secularisation and new develop-
ments in the philosophies of history and science. Work-
ing in the Hegelian tradition, Marx rejected Comtean
sociological positivism in attempt to develop a science
of society.[231] Karl Lwith considered Marx and Sren
Kierkegaard to be the two greatest Hegelian philosophical
successors.[232] In modern sociological theory, Marxist
sociology is recognised as one of the main classical per-
spectives. Isaiah Berlin considers Marx the true founder
of modern sociology, in so far as anyone can claim
the title.[233] Beyond social science, he has also had a
lasting legacy in philosophy, literature, the arts, and the
humanities.[234][235][236][237]
Map of countries that declared themselves to be socialist states
under the MarxistLeninist or Maoist denition - that is to say,
Communist states - between 1979 and 1983. This period
marked the greatest territorial extent of Communist states.
In social theory, twentieth- and twenty-rst-century
thinkers have pursued two main strategies in response to
Marx. One move has been to reduce it to its analyti-
cal core, known as Analytical Marxism, which came at
the cost of sacricing its most interesting and perplex-
ing ideas. Another, more common move has been to di-
lute the explanatory claims of Marxs social theory and
to emphasise the relative autonomy of aspects of social
and economic life not directly related to Marxs central
narrative of interaction between the development of the
forces of production and the succession of modes of
production. Such has been, for example, the neo-marxist
theorising adopted by historians inspired by Marxs social
theory, such as E. P. Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm. It
has also been a line of thinking pursued by thinkers and
activists like Antonio Gramsci who have sought to under-
stand the opportunities and the diculties of transforma-
tive political practice, seen in the light of Marxist social
theory.[238][239][240][241]
16
countries labelled themselves 'Marxist', most notably
the Russian Revolution, which led to the founding of
the USSR.[242] Major world leaders including Vladimir
Lenin,[242] Mao Zedong,[243] Fidel Castro,[244] Salvador
Allende,[245] Josip Tito,[246] and Kwame Nkrumah [247]
all cited Marx as an inuence, and his ideas informed
political parties worldwide beyond those where 'Marxist
revolutions took place.[248] The brutal dictatorships as-
sociated with some Marxist nations have led political op-
ponents to blame Marx for millions of deaths,[249] but the
delity of these varied revolutionaries, leaders and par-
ties to Marxs work is highly contested, and rejected by
many Marxists.[250] It is now common to distinguish be-
tween the legacy and inuence of Marx specically, and
the legacy and inuence of those who shaped his ideas for
political purposes.[251]
9 Selected bibliography
The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School
of Law, 1842
Critique of Hegels Philosophy of Right, 1843
On the Jewish Question, 1843
Notes on James Mill, 1844
Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844,
1844
The Holy Family, 1845
Theses on Feuerbach, 1845
The German Ideology, 1845
The Poverty of Philosophy, 1847
Wage Labour and Capital, 1847
Manifesto of the Communist Party, 1848
The Class Struggles in France, 1850
The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, 1852
Grundrisse, 1857
A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy,
1859
Writings on the U.S. Civil War, 1861
Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes, 1862
Value, Price and Prot, 1865
Capital, Volume I (Das Kapital), 1867
The Civil War in France, 1871
Critique of the Gotha Program, 1875
12 REFERENCES
Notes on Adolph Wagner, 1883
Capital, Volume II (posthumously published by En-
gels), 1885
Capital, Volume III (posthumously published by En-
gels), 1894
Marx and Engels on the United States (posthu-
mously published by Progress Publishers, Moscow),
1979
10 See also
Marxian Class Theory
Marx Memorial Library
Karl Marx House
Marxs method
Marxs notebooks on the history of technology
Marxs Mathematical Manuscripts
Karl Marx in lm
Marx Reloaded
Pre-Marx socialists
Criticism of Marxism
11 Notes
[1] The name Karl Heinrich Marx, used in various lexi-
cons, is based on an error. His birth certicate says Carl
Marx, and elsewhere Karl Marx is used. K. H. Marx
is used only in his poetry collections and the transcript of
his dissertation; because Marx wanted to honour his fa-
ther, who had died in 1838, he called himself Karl Hein-
rich in three documents. The article by Friedrich Engels
Marx, Karl Heinrich in Handwrterbuch der Staatswis-
senschaften (Jena, 1892, column 1130 to 1133 see MECW
Volume 22, pp. 337345) does not justify assigning Marx
a middle name. See Heinz Monz: Karl Marx. Grundlagen
zu Leben und Werk. NCO-Verlag, Trier 1973, p. 214 and
354, respectively.
12 References
[1] Mehring, Franz, Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (Rout-
ledge, 2003) pg. 75
[2] John Bellamy Foster. Marxs Theory of Metabolic
Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociol-
ogy, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 105, No. 2
(September 1999), pp. 366405.

[3] Allen Oakley, Marxs Critique of Political Economy: 1844
to 1860, Routledge, 1984, p. 51.
[4] Marx. Random House Websters Unabridged Dictio-
nary.
[5] Roberto Mangabeira Unger. Free Trade Reimagined: The
World Division of Labor and the Method of Economics.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007.
[6] John Hicks, Capital Controversies: Ancient and Mod-
ern. The American Economic Review 64.2 (May 1974) p.
307: The greatest economists, Smith or Marx or Keynes,
have changed the course of history...
[7] Joseph Schumpeter Ten Great Economists: From Marx
to Keynes. Volume 26 of Unwin University books. Edi-
tion 4, Taylor & Francis Group, 1952 ISBN 0415110785,
9780415110785
[8] Karl Marx to John Maynard Keynes: Ten of the greatest
economists by Vince Cable. Daily Mail. 16 July 2007.
Retrieved 7 December 2012.
[9] ". For each new class which puts itself in the place of
one ruling before it is compelled, merely in order to carry
through its aim, to represent its interest as the common
interest of all the members of society, that is, expressed
in ideal form: it has to give its ideas the form of uni-
versality, and represent them as the only rational, univer-
sally valid ones. See: https://www.marxists.org/archive/
marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01b.htm
[10] Karl Marx: Critique of the Gotha Program (Marx/Engels
Selected Works, Volume Three, pp. 1330;)
[11] In Letter from Karl Marx to Joseph Weydemeyer (MECW
Volume 39, p. 58; )
[12] Calhoun 2002, pp. 2324
[13] Marx the millenniums 'greatest thinker'". BBC News
World Online. 1 October 1999. Retrieved 23 November
2010.
[14] Max Weber Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
[15] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 7; Wheen
2001, pp. 8, 12; McLellan 2006, p. 1.
[16] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 45; Wheen
2001, pp. 79, 12; McLellan 2006, pp. 23.
[17] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 46;
McLellan 2006, pp. 24.
[18] Wheen 2001. pp. 1213.
[19] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 5, 812;
Wheen 2001, p. 11; McLellan 2006, pp. 56.
[20] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 7; Wheen
2001, p. 10; McLellan 2006, p. 7.
[21] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 67; Wheen
2001, p. 12; McLellan 2006, p. 4.
[22] Francis Wheen, Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate, 1999),
ISBN 1-85702-637-3
17
[23] McLellan 2006, p. 4
[24] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 12; Wheen
2001, p. 13.
[25] McLellan 2006, p. 7.
[26] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 6; McLellan
2006, p. 4.
[27] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 1215;
Wheen 2001, p. 13; McLellan 2006, pp. 711.
[28] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 1516;
Wheen 2001, p. 14; McLellan 2006, p. 13.
[29] Wheen 2001, p. 15.
[30] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 20; McLellan
2006, p. 14.
[31] Wheen 2001, p. 16; McLellan 2006, p. 14.
[32] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 2122;
McLellan 2006, p. 14.
[33] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 22; Wheen
2001, pp. 1617; McLellan 2006, p. 14.
[34] Fedoseyev 1973, p. 23; Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen
1976, pp. 2330; Wheen 2001, pp. 1621, 33; McLellan
2006, pp. 15, 20.
[35] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 7071;
Wheen 2001, pp. 5253; McLellan 2006, pp. 6162.
[36] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 31; McLellan
2006, p. 15.
[37] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 33; McLellan
2006, p. 21.
[38] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 3234;
Wheen 2001, pp. 2122; McLellan 2006, pp. 2122.
[39] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 3438;
Wheen 2001, p. 34; McLellan 2006, pp. 2527.
[40] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 44,6970;
McLellan 2006, pp. 1718.
[41] Sperber 2013, pp. 5556.
[42] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 33; McLellan
2006, pp. 1819. These love poems would be published
posthumously in the Collected Works of Karl Marx and
Frederick Engels: Volume 1 (New York: International
Publishers, 1975) pp. 531632.
[43] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 33; Wheen
2001, pp. 2526.
[44] Marxs thesis was posthumously published in the Collected
Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 1 (New
York: International Publishers, 1975) pp. 25107.
[45] Wheen 2001. p. 32.
[46] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 45; Wheen
2001, p. 33; McLellan 2006, pp. 2829, 33.
18
[47] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 3845;
Wheen 2001, p. 34; McLellan 2006, pp. 3233, 37.
[48] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 49; McLellan
2006, p. 33.
[49] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 5051;
Wheen 2001, pp. 3436, 4244; McLellan 2006, pp. 35 [69] Taken from the caption of a picture of the house in a group
47.
[50] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 57; Wheen
2001, p. 47; McLellan 2006, pp. 4850.
[51] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 6061;
Wheen 2001, pp. 4748; McLellan 2006, pp. 5051.
[52] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 6869, 72;
Wheen 2001, p. 48; McLellan 2006, pp. 5961
[53] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 7779;
Wheen 2001, pp. 6266; McLellan 2006, pp. 7374,
94.
[54] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, p. 72; Wheen
2001, pp. 6465; McLellan 2006, pp. 7172.
[55] Marx, Karl, Contribution to the Critique of Hegels Phi-
losophy of Law, contained in the Collected Works of Karl
Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3 (International Pub-
lishers: New York, 1975) p. 3.
[56] Marx, Karl, On the Jewish Question, contained in the
Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Vol-
ume 3, p. 146.
[57] McLellan 2006, pp. 6570, 7480.
[58] Nicolaievsky & Maenchen-Helfen 1976, pp. 72, 7576;
Wheen 2001, p. 65; McLellan 2006, pp. 8890.
[59] Wheen 2001, pp. 6667, 112; McLellan 2006, pp. 79
80.
[60] Wheen 2001, p. 90.
[61] Wheen 2001. p. 75.
[62] Mansel, Philip: Paris Between Empires, p. 390 (St. Martin
Press, NY) 2001
[63] Frederick Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in
England, contained in the Collected Works of Karl Marx
and Frederick Engels: Volume 4 (International Publishers:
New York, 1975) pp. 295596.
[64] T. B. Bottomore (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist thought.
Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 108. ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1.
Retrieved 5 March 2011.
[65] P. N. Fedoseyev, Karl Marx: A Biography (Progress Pub-
lishers: Moscow, 1973) p. 82.
[66] Wheen 2001. pp. 8586.
[67] Karl Marx, The Holy Family, contained in the Collected
Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 4, pp.
3211.
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[68] Several authors elucidated this for long neglected cru-
cial turn in Marxs theoretical development, such as Ernie
Thomson in The Discovery of the Materialist Conception
of History in the Writings of the Young Karl Marx, New
York, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004; for a short account
see Max Stirner, a durable dissident
of pictures located between pages 160 and 161 in the book
Karl Marx: A Biography, written by a team of historians
and writers headed by P. N. Fedoseyev (Progress Publish-
ers: Moscow, 1973).
[70] P. N. Fedoseyev, et al. Karl Marx: A Biography, p. 63.
[71] Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment (Ox-
ford University Press: London, 1963) pp. 9094.
[72] P. N. Fedoseyev et al., Karl Marx: A Biography (Progress
Publishers: Moscow, 1973) p. 62.
[73] Larisa Miskievich, Preface to Volume 28 of the Col-
lected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels (Interna-
tional Publishers: New York, 1986) p. XII
[74] Karl Marx, Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick
Engels: Volume 35, Volume 36 and Volume 37 (Interna-
tional Publishers: New York, 1996, 1997 and 1987).
[75] Isaiah Berlin, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment, pp.
3561.
[76] P. N. Fedoseyev, et al., Karl Marx: A Biography, p. 62.
[77] Note 54 contained on page 598 in the Collected Works of
Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3.
[78] Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of
1844 Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels:
Volume 3 (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp.
229346.
[79] Karl Marx Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy..
First published Tue 26 August 2003; substantive revision
Mon 14 June 2010. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
[80] P. N. Fedoseyev, Karl Marx: A Biography, p. 83.
[81] Karl Marx, Theses on Feuerbach, contained in the Col-
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5 (International Publishers: New York, 1976) pp. 314.
[82] Karl Marx Theses on Feuerbach, contained in the Collected
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[83] Doug Lorimer, in Friedrich Engels (1999). Socialism:
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[85] Heinrich Gemkow et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography
(Verlag Zeit im Bild ["New Book Publishing House"]:
Dresden, 1972) p. 101
[86] Heinrich Gemkow, et al., Frederick Engels: A Biography,
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[240] Anderson, Perry. Considerations on Western Marxism. Schwarzschild, Leopold (1986)

London: NLB, 1976. [1948]. The Red Prussian:
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[241] Hobsbawm, E. J. How to Change the World : Marx and
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[243] Glossary of People - Ma. Marxists.org. Retrieved 8 Sperber, Jonathan (2013). Karl
January 2015. Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life.
[244] Savioli, Arminio. L'Unita Interview with Fidel Castro: W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-
The Nature of Cuban Socialism. Marxists. Retrieved 8 0871404671.
January 2015. Stokes, Philip (2004). Philosophy:
100 Essential Thinkers. Kettering:
[245] Allende, Salvador. First speech to the Chilean parlia-
Index Books. ISBN 978-0-572-
ment after his election. Marxists.org. Retrieved 8 Jan-
uary 2015. 02935-7.
Vygodsky, Vitaly (1973). The
[246] Tito, Josef. Historical Development in the World Will Story of a Great Discovery: How
Move Towards the Strengthening of Socialism. Marx-
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ists.org. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
Die Wirtschaft.
[247] Nkrumah, Kwame. African Socialism Revisited. Wheen, Francis (2001). Karl Marx.
Marxists.org. Retrieved 8 January 2015. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-
[248] Jeries, Stuart. Why Marxism is on the rise again. The 1-85702-637-5.
Guardian. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[249] Stanley, Tim. The Left is trying to rehabilitate Karl

Marx. Lets remind them of the millions who died in his 13 Further reading
name. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[250] Phillips, Ben. USSR: Capitalist or Socialist?". Marx- 13.1 Biographies

ists.org. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
Barnett, Vincent. Marx (Routledge, 2009)
[251] Elbe, Indigo. Between Marx, Marxism, and Marxisms
Ways of Reading Marxs Theory. Viewpoint Magazine. Berlin, Isaiah. Karl Marx: His Life and Environ-
Retrieved 8 January 2015. ment (Oxford University Press, 1963) ISBN 0-19-
520052-7
12.1 Bibliography McLellan, David. Karl Marx: his Life and Thought
Harper & Row, 1973 ISBN 978-0-06-012829-6
Calhoun, Craig J. (2002). Classical
Sociological Theory. Oxford: Mehring, Franz. Karl Marx: The Story of His Life
Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0- (Routledge, 2003)
631-21348-2.
Hobsbawm, Eric (2011). How to McLellan, David. Marx before Marxism (1980),
Change the World: Tales of Marx Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-27882-6
and Marxism. London: Little,
Brown. ISBN 978-1-4087-0287-1. Rubel, Maximilien. Marx Without Myth: A Chrono-
McLellan, David (2006). Karl logical Study of his Life and Work (Blackwell, 1975)
Marx: A Biography (fourth ISBN 0-631-15780-8
edition). Hampshire: Pal-
Sperber, Jonathan. Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-
grave MacMillan. ISBN 978-
Century Life (W.W. Norton & Company; 2013) 648
1403997302.
pages; by a leading academic scholar
Nicolaievsky, Boris; Maenchen-
Helfen, Otto (1976) [1936]. Karl Walker, Frank Thomas. 'Karl Marx: a Biblio-
Marx: Man and Fighter. trans. graphic and Political Biography. (bj.publications),
Gwenda David and Eric Mos- 2009.
bacher. Harmondsworth and New
York: Pelican. ISBN 978-1-4067- Wheen, Francis. Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate,
2703-6. 1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3
24
13.2 Commentaries on Marx
Althusser, Louis. For Marx. London: Verso, 2005.
Althusser, Louis and Balibar, tienne. Reading
Capital. London: Verso, 2009.
Attali, Jacques. Karl Marx or the thought of the
world. 2005
Avineri, Shlomo. The Social and Political Thought
of Karl Marx (Cambridge University Press, 1968)
ISBN 0-521-09619-7
Axelos, Kostas. Alienation, Praxis, and Techne in
the Thought of Karl Marx (translated by Ronald
Bruzina, University of Texas Press, 1976).
Blackledge, Paul. Reections on the Marxist Theory
of History (Manchester University Press, 2006)
Blackledge, Paul. Marxism and Ethics (SUNY
Press, 2012)
Bottomore, Tom, ed. A Dictionary of Marxist
Thought. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
Callinicos, Alex (2010) [1983]. The Revolutionary
Ideas of Karl Marx. Bloomsbury, London: Book-
marks. ISBN 978-1-905192-68-7.
Cleaver, Harry. Reading Capital Politically (AK
Press, 2000)
G. A. Cohen. Karl Marxs Theory of History: A De-
fence (Princeton University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-
691-07068-7
Collier, Andrew. Marx (Oneworld, 2004)
Draper, Hal, Karl Marxs Theory of Revolution (4
volumes) Monthly Review Press
Duncan, Ronald and Wilson, Colin. (editors) Marx
Refuted, (Bath, UK, 1987) ISBN 0-906798-71-X
Eagleton, Terry. Why Marx Was Right (New Haven
& London: Yale University Press, 2011).
Fine, Ben. Marxs Capital. 5th ed. London: Pluto,
2010.
Foster, John Bellamy. Marxs Ecology: Material-
ism and Nature. New York: Monthly Review Press,
2000.
Gould, Stephen Jay. A Darwinian Gentleman at
Marxs Funeral E. Ray Lankester, Page 1, Find Ar-
ticles.com (1999)
Harvey, David. A Companion to Marxs Capital.
London: Verso, 2010.
Harvey, David. The Limits of Capital. London:
Verso, 2006.
13 FURTHER READING
Henry, Michel. Marx I and Marx II. 1976
Iggers, Georg G. Historiography: From Sci-
entic Objectivity to the Postmodern Chal-
lenge."(Wesleyan University Press, 1997, 2005)
Koakowski, Leszek. Main Currents of Marxism
Oxford: Clarendon Press, OUP, 1978
Little, Daniel. The Scientic Marx, (University of
Minnesota Press, 1986) ISBN 0-8166-1505-5
Mandel, Ernest. Marxist Economic Theory. New
York: Monthly Review Press, 1970.
Mandel, Ernest. The Formation of the Economic
Thought of Karl Marx. New York: Monthly Review
Press, 1977.
Mszros, Istvn. Marxs Theory of Alienation (The
Merlin Press, 1970)
Miller, Richard W. Analyzing Marx: Morality,
Power, and History. Princeton, N.J: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 1984.
Postone, Moishe. Time, Labour, and Social Domi-
nation: A Reinterpretation of Marxs Critical Theory.
Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press,
1993.
Rothbard, Murray. An Austrian Perspective on the
History of Economic Thought Volume II: Classical
Economics (Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 1995)
ISBN 0-945466-48-X
Saad-Filho, Alfredo. The Value of Marx: Politi-
cal Economy for Contemporary Capitalism. London:
Routledge, 2002.
Schmidt, Alfred. The Concept of Nature in Marx.
London: NLB, 1971.
Seigel, Jerrold. Marxs fate: the shape of a life
(Princeton University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-271-
00935-7
Strathern, Paul. Marx in 90 Minutes, (Ivan R.
Dee, 2001)
Thomas, Paul. Karl Marx and the Anarchists. Lon-
don: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
Vianello, F. [1989], Eective Demand and the
Rate of Prots: Some Thoughts on Marx, Kalecki
and Sraa, in: Sebastiani, M. (ed.), Kaleckis Rel-
evance Today, London, Macmillan, ISBN 978-03-
12-02411-6.
Wendling, Amy. Karl Marx on Technology and
Alienation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
Wheen, Francis. Marxs Das Kapital, (Atlantic
Books, 2006) ISBN 1-84354-400-8
14.1 Articles and entries 25

Wilson, Edmund. To the Finland Station: A Study in Marxs Revenge: How Class Struggle Is Shaping the
the Writing and Acting of History, Garden City, NY: World. TIME, 25 March 2013.
Doubleday, 1940
Marx Was Right: Five Surprising Ways Karl Marx
Predicted 2014. Rolling Stone, 30 January 2014.
14 External links Karl Marx Was Right. Chris Hedges for Truthdig,
31 May 2015.
Works by Karl Marx at Project Gutenberg

Works by or about Karl Marx at Internet Archive

Works by Karl Marx at LibriVox (public domain au-

diobooks)

Works by Karl Marx (German) at Zeno.org

Karl Marx entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Phi-

losophy

Marxists.org, homepage of the Marxists Internet

Archive

Lenin, Vladimir (1967) [1913]. Karl Marx: A Brief

Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism.
Peking: Foreign Languages Press.

14.1 Articles and entries

Dead Labour: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered by
Paul Craig Roberts

Hegel, Marx, Engels, and the Origins of Marxism,

by David North

In Praise of Marx Terry Eagleton synopsising his

Why Marx was right chronicle.com 10 April 2011.

Karl Marx: Did he get it all Right? by Philip Collins,

The Times, 21 October 2008

Karl Marx, Ernest Mandel

Liberalism, Marxism and The State, by Ralph Raico

Marx, Mao and mathematics: the politics of in-

nitesimals, by Joseph Dauben

Marxism and Ethics from International Socialism

Paul Blackledge (2008)

Marxmyths.org Various essays on misinterpretations

of Marx

Portraits of Karl Marx (International Institute of So-

cial History)

Paul Dorn, The Paris Commune and Marx' Theory

of Revolution

Karl Marx (18181883). The Concise Encyclopedia

of Economics. Library of Economics and Liberty
(2nd ed.) (Liberty Fund). 2008.
26 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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don, Causa sui, Thuresson, Bobo192, Che y Marijuana, BW, Circeus, Meggar, Sentience, Valve, Smalljim, Jpallan, Christian Kreibich,
John Vandenberg, Flxmghvgvk, Atomique~enwiki, Shenme, Brim, Cwolfsheep, Adrian~enwiki, Jerry cornelius, Rajah, Shorne, Llywe-
lyn, MPerel, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Silverback, Pearle, 198, Dmanning, Mdd, Merope, Ogress, Orangemarlin, Cadriel, Knucmo2,
OoberMick, M5, Storm Rider, Danski14, Michaelk~enwiki, Alansohn, Jlandahl, Philip Cross, Rd232, Mr Adequate, Improv, John Quig-
gin, Mc6809e, Davenbelle, Minority Report, Riana, Wikidea, Ashley Pomeroy, Bz2, Yamla, Tolkny, Hoary, Mattley, Fritzpoll, B3virq3b,
891, Snowolf, AnthonyWS, JK the unwise, Ebz123, Wtmitchell, Bucephalus, Velella, Max rspct, Bbsrock, BaronLarf, Andrew Norman,
Amarao, Helixblue, Saga City, Grenavitar, Sciurin, Mikeo, Kaiser matias, VoluntarySlave, P Ingerson, Kusma, Adsims2001, Arthur War-
rington Thomas, Redvers, Netkinetic, Embryomystic, HenryLi, Michaelm, Aristides, TimMartin, Ultramarine, RyanGerbil10, Mhazard9,
Jackhynes, Zntrip, Bobrayner, Newnoise~enwiki, Velho, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Sandius, FeanorStar7, TigerShark, Master-
jamie, GilHyle, LOL, Guy M, James Kemp, Deeahbz, Madchester, Kzollman, Bratsche, Acidmonkey, Kam Solusar, Ruud Koot, MONGO,
Noisylax, Cybe2001, Kelisi, GurraJG, Kmg90, Adhalanay, Bkwillwm, Tomlillis, Schzmo, Valkyrian Einherjar, JRHorse, Bluemoose, Gre-
gorB, Achim Raschka, Plrk, Wayward, Mandarax, Xcuref1endx, RichardWeiss, Ashmoo, Lawrence King, Graham87, Magister Mathemat-
icae, Cuchullain, BD2412, Galwhaa, Abach, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, TobyJ, GrundyCamellia, RxS, Amorrow, Mendaliv, Colm O'Brien,
Crzrussian, Squideshi, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Koavf, Syndicate, Pleiotrop3, Vary, Ikh, XP1, Amire80, Cuenca, JHMM13,
MZMcBride, HappyCamper, Eoinomahony, ElKevbo, Mobius Soul, Moorlock, R.e.b., Blueskyboris, Boccobrock, Czalex, Brighteror-
ange, Bhadani, Ccarlini, Olessi, MarnetteD, Aaronmz, Aapo Laitinen, GregAsche, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Spblat, Hanshans23,
Strobilomyces, Titoxd, Madcat87, FlaBot, Ageo020, Moskvax, Ian Pitchford, Wikidgood, McPhail, CalJW, Who, MacRusgail, South-
ernNights, John Z, NekoDaemon, Blaster009, RexNL, Gurch, Saketh, Fledgist, ViriiK, Gheorghe Zamr, Imnotminkus, Butros, King of
Hearts, Essaregee, Chobot, Sharkface217, Benlisquare, DVdm, JesseGarrett, Mmx1, Volunteer Marek, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Gwer-
nol, NoMass, Kralahome, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Quentin X, RobotE, Tommyt, Crotalus horridus, Jcam, Eraserhead1,
Blightsoot, Hairy Dude, Gjdk, Peter G Werner, Adam1213, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Sputnikcccp, Jtkiefer, Conscious, Splash, Pigman,
BarbD, GLaDOS, Netscott, SpuriousQ, Raquel Baranow, Hydrargyrum, Akamad, Flo98, CambridgeBayWeather, Trious, Alex Bakharev,
Kadmos, Tompee, Wimt, Thane, MarcK, Big Brother 1984, Absolutadam802, Tehtomi, Akiva Quinn, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Bachrach44,
Nirvana2013, LaszloWalrus, BrainyBroad, NickBush24, Jaxl, Rjensen, Howcheng, Robchurch, DelftUser, Alarichall, Cleared as led, Re-
nata3, Jpbowen, Tribune, Tony1, Bucketsofg, Noah044, Aaron Schulz, Kyle Barbour, Ebralph, PS2pcGAMER, Kander, Tachs, Doncram,
DRosenbach, Maunus, Bronks, Black Falcon, Alexliamw, User27091, Ali1986, Wknight94, Igin, Jkelly, Richardcavell, FF2010, Norvo,
NorsemanII, Paul Magnussen, Wiqi55, Morgan2317, Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot, Imaninjapirate, Roderick Mallia, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth,
Jwissick, Spondoolicks, Baranxtu, Pb30, GraemeL, JoanneB, Mordacil, Whobot, Deane@gooroos.com, ArielGold, Curpsbot-unicodify,
Archer7, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Rickkuhn, NeilN, Innity0, Saboteur~enwiki, DVD R W, Bestlyriccollection, Luk, C mon, Carmeli-
taCharm, Locke Cole, Attilios, Yakudza, Joshbuddy, Scolaire, SmackBot, Nahald, YellowMonkey, Aim Here, Unschool, Jamott, Haza-
w, Reedy, Postbagboy, Prodego, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, Olorin28, Hydrogen Iodide, Bigbluesh, Probert,
Fdt, CRKingston, Pgk, C.Fred, Od Mishehu, Wegesrand, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85, KelticK, ScaldingHotSoup, Midway, WookieIn-
Heat, Delldot, Eskimbot, JagX22, Hardyplants, Monty Cantsin, Frymaster, Sansvoix, Canthusus, Nethency, HeartofaDog, GraemeMcRae,
MelancholieBot, HalfShadow, Francisco Valverde, IstvanWolf, Sebesta, Marktreut, Aksi great, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Buck Mulligan,
Ohnoitsjamie, Oscarthecat, M.Imran, Skizzik, TomTrcy9, Squiddy, Afa86, Qtoktok, The monkeyhate, Chris the speller, Master Jay,
Ekoontz, Kurykh, SSJ 5, Dahn, SlimJim, Persian Poet Gal, Stimpy9337, Persona13, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Onesimos, MidgleyDJ,
Hibernian, Willardo, Dlohcierekims sock, Kungming2, Go for it!, Robth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Methnor, Jamesvenning, KurtFF8, Gramscis
cousin, Slumgum, Darth Panda, Oatmeal batman, Aislar, Reaper X, D-Rock, Xbxg32000, Dr. Dan, Herodoto, Royboycrashfan, For-
mer user 20, RussellMcKenzie, Mike hayes, Xchbla423, Camillus McElhinney, Windmillchaser, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Chile,
Eye.of.the.dragony, Neo139, Robert I, Decompiled, JChris3389, W377!M, Newport, Adoubleplusgood, Rrburke, Mhym, TKD, Tylerb7,
Bolivian Unicyclist, Edivorce, SundarBot, Charlieb63, Calbaer, Anthon.E, Estephan500, Aldaron, Krich, SwitChar, BostonMA, Iapetus,
Andie142105, Nakon, Savidan, Johncmullen1960, Breadandroses, TedE, Cordless Larry, RolandR, SpacemanAfrica, Richard001, Big-
mantonyd, -Ozone-, ShaunES, Starless and bible black, Bora Nesic, Jklin, DMacks, Kefs, Wizardman, Xiutwel, AndyBQ, Salamurai, Ad-
nanmuf, Nmpenguin, Swedenman, Astorian, Pilotguy, Kukini, Emmisa, Wilt, Ohconfucius, Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Confuseddave, Mis-
15.1 Text 27

samo80, ArglebargleIV, Rory096, Fumbi, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Harryboyles, Giovanni33, Takamaxa, Dbtfz, Kuru, John, AmiDaniel,
Lapaz, Tazmaniacs, Mdquick, Dialecticas, Kipala, Mbralchenko, Loodog, CPMcE, NewTestLeper79, Regan123, JoshuaZ, Edwy, Mgigan-
teus1, Egrue99, Tim.thelion, Maliciousvandal, Deadagblues, IronGargoyle, Syrcatbot, BelindaGong, Ekrub-ntyh, Nutcracker, Random-
Critic, J Crow, Astuishin, Stwalkerster, Mr Stephen, FredrickS, Santa Sangre, Waggers, CUTKD, Kuotsaitan, Midnightblueowl, Eeblesh,
Ryulong, Fluppy, Druworos, MTSbot~enwiki, Roadodie, Timothy Kline, Amitch, Christian Roess, Keith-264, Edvark, OnBeyondZebrax,
SpanishBlood, Fan-1967, Iridescent, Kencf0618, Amifriedman, Thomas.neumark, WGee, Colonel Warden, Joseph Solis in Australia, J
Di, Mrdthree, David Cruise, Monemuno, Rubisco~enwiki, Eru2a, Recomposer, Blehfu, Bobamnertiopsis, Majora4, Adambiswanger1,
Adam sk, BrOnXbOmBr21, Billy Hathorn, Tawkerbot2, Pudeo, TriniSocialist, Fdssdf, Gohanrice, ChrisCork, Randroide, FrFintonStack,
Eastlaw, Sewdonim, JForget, Mrghost~enwiki, CmdrObot, DUden, Yjkogan, Wafulz, How cme tkn4, Van helsing, Iced Kola, Vision
Thing, Rawling, KyraVixen, Jamie fearon, Drinibot, CWY2190, SkylineEvo, ShelfSkewed, Cosy, Radical62, Godardesque, Smoove Z,
Longshot.222, Chicheley, Hemlock Martinis, Gregbard, Funnyfarmofdoom, Phatom87, Klassikal, Logicus, Shanoman, Themightyquill,
Cydebot, Oosoom, MC10, Steel, Mato, Xemoi, Doomed Rasher, Gogo Dodo, Bellerophon5685, Travelbird, Thoughtaudio.com, XLRQ,
Khatru2, Nescio*, Grlrocker777, Pgg7, Jayen466, CMarshall, Dancter, Martin Jensen, Tawkerbot4, Alexnye, Freize1, Doug Weller,
DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Goregan, Starionwolf, DBaba, Pilcrow, ShizuokaSensei, Omicronpersei8, Woland37, Mauroesguerroto, PamD,
Donnachadelong, Mamalujo, Casliber, Hirosho, Andylove89, FrancoGG, BetacommandBot, Rjm656s, Oike, Barnkim, Malleus Fatuo-
rum, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, Qwyrxian, Mohsinwaheed, Knarf-bz~enwiki, TonyTheTiger, Mime, Kablammo, Discostu5, SeNeKa,
N5iln, Andyjsmith, CynicalMe, Mojo Hand, Marek69, John254, NorwegianBlue, Itsmejudith, X201, Sickbits, EdJohnston, Hexslinger,
CharlotteWebb, Paulredfern1, Nick Number, Matthew Proctor, Blathnaid, Benji25, Tocino, Sheas88, Natalie Erin, Escarbot, Danielfol-
som, Xyaigoh, Saschameinrath, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Guy Macon, Sobaka, AndrewJesseBrown, Piedmtbill, Summer-
PhD, Dr. Blofeld, Tangerines, Readro, Jenmorgan, PlatonicIdeas, Dr who1975, KarlStocker1989, Modernist, Dylan Lake, Credema,
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Louise, Fhqwgads, Turgidson, MER-C, Skomorokh, Dsp13, Kurasuke, Avaya1, Ericoides, Instinct, Janejellyroll, MelanieN, Fetchcomms,
Tonyrocks922, Nmcmurdo, Dude Aronomy, BSOz, Leolaursen, Teatotler, Mauricio Malu, LittleOldMe, JonnyDomestik, .anacond-
abot, Acroterion, Yahel Guhan, .:SimoN:., Jleq, Magioladitis, Connormah, Eltri85~enwiki, Pedro, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, MartinDK,
Dannyc77, Dekimasu, Professor marginalia, QuizzicalBee, JNW, Yakushima, Said Shirazi, Tito-, Naragon, RuthieK, Sgrausz09, Num-
ber70, 98smithg, Snowded, Bubba hotep, Vanished user dkjsdfkljeritekk4, Johnbibby, Bellbird, User86654, CheetahMan1, Zepheriah,
Roadworx, Fang 23, Exiledone, Somearemoreequal, Vssun, Just James, Zenshine, Karl Wiki, Glen, DerHexer, JaGa, Grunge6910, Na-
talie West, Pax:Vobiscum, .V., Patstuart, Juliancha, TimidGuy, Otvaltak, Gjd001, DancingPenguin, EtienneDolet, MarxistRevolutionary,
ExplicitImplicity, Kontar, Y.honchar, Sagabot, Aristovoul0s, Arjun01, Flamable Steve, 6418, Ubila, Rettetast, TOMMASO, Titsinmy-
mouth, Keith D, PlinkSilver, Bus stop, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AgarwalSumeet, Frankcarltonjunior, The762x51, EdBever, RJBurkhart3,
Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Trusilver, DandyDan2007, Ali, Numbo3, Hans Dunkelberg, Hohohell, Psycho Kirby, Uncle Dick, HelgeRieder, Eeoam,
Jerry, Nalin35, Laurusnobilis, Gzkn, It Is Me Here, Beatrisio, BrokenSphere, Katalaveno, Johnbod, Ncmvocalist, TheHerminator11, Jon
Ascton, Sens06, Malplaquet, Colchicum, Lsnewton, NewEnglandYankee, Lumendelumine, LiberalViews, Lkaelin, Hevesli, RockerAn-
dRollerRevived, Inbloom2, Axolotl Nr.733, Mufka, Heyitspeter, Globalization, Coolguy8, Token8, Tanaats, Madhava 1947, S139122,
Shoessss, Inline853, Elixerman, Murphscout, Tonytula, 2help, Drdanmcd, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, STBotD, Inomyabcs, Raptornet,
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Popperipopp, Jedravent, Philip Trueman, MI2CU~enwiki, TXiKiBoT, Indolin, Oshwah, Berthold Werner, DUBJAY04, Cosmic Latte,
Tomparkca, Moogwrench, Malinaccier, Bdb484, Jeremy221, Vipinhari, Pwnage8, Tomsega, Miranda, Miguel Chong, Anonymous Dis-
sident, Freakotaku14, Lukejmorrison, Andysoh, Zaza1851983, Kevin Steinhardt, Qxz, RasNehemia, 7yuiyiyiyityit, Harveyjt, C.J. Grif-
n, Absalom89, Mclover08, Anna Lincoln, Kispalgellert, Jackfruitwater, Steven J. Anderson, Lradrama, Markisgreen, Corvus cornix,
Thomas1617, Supertask, Abdullais4u, John noe, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Wassermann~enwiki, GeorgeFormby1, Josephabradshaw, Wiae,
Oilade, Vasishta polisetty, Je suis de, Bahhumbug1234, Bunkomater, Schwalker, Suriel1981, Larklight, Robertsch55, Demigod Ron, Y,
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Victor Chmara, NicDumZ, Boodlesthecat, Pooka77~enwiki, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallows Wraith, Shloimeborukh, Rodhul-
landemu, IceUnshattered, Pionier~enwiki, Sovietskyj pionier, Thanklesshank, Jamesleg, Hult041956, Poor billionaire, Mx3, Mohels knife
cuts, Rabbis juice stinks, Wysprgr2005, Tyler420, Wutsje, CasualObserver'48, Drmies, Der Golem, TheOldJacobite, JTBX, Moorbes,
Erudecorp, Galaxy413, Niceguyedc, Fuzzy uddin, LizardJr8, Parkwells, P. S. Burton, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Neverquick, Cirt, Geo247,
Masterpiece2000, Welham66, DragonBot, Thgoiter, Excirial, Isndez, Jusdafax, Darkmasterjoey, Lartoven, Alejandrocaro35, Spock of Vul-
can, AZatBot~enwiki, NuclearWarfare, Ohmygod1j, Lususromulus, Arjayay, Farkle96, Jotterbot, AleXd, JamieS93, TheRedPenOfDoom,
7&6=thirteen, Hans Adler, VsevolodKrolikov, Redthoreau, Muro Bot, ChrisHodgesUK, Theywhorise, Kakofonous, Truth is relative, un-
derstanding is limited, HarryKG, Calor, Cowmanlightsaber, Bobbytheonlyone, Thingg, DerBorg, Versus22, BlueDevil, Ostinato2, Indopug,
Liberal Humanist, DumZiBoT, Doopdoop, Camboxer, Boleyn, User2102, Fastily, Bilsonius, Stathisparis, Rror, Facepuncher2k, DaL33T,
Little Mountain 5, Avoided, SilvonenBot, NellieBly, MerlinsMagic, Frood, Karpouzi, Badgernet, Alexius08, Yuvn86, Tim010987, JinJian,
Vianello, ZooFari, MichaelsProgramming, Good Olfactory, Gun'eeu, Transparagon, Erikagreenday3, JohnyGoodman, Heartylunch, Ad-
dbot, Proofreader77, Some jerk on the Internet, Simonm223, Littlemarca, Esteban Zissou, Non-dropframe, Elfonre, Captain-tucker, Wig-
gyboard, DougsTech, Bolegash, Mootros, Mia-etol, Marx01, Miramar93, Zachkakl, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluernutter, Nirajdoshi, MrOl-
lie, LaaknorBot, Morning277, Glane23, Michaelwuzthere, Neonorange, Debresser, LinkFA-Bot, Woland1234, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot,
Jasvir04, Tide rolls, Archilles last stand, Luckas Blade, Sindinero, Zorrobot, MuZemike, Richardsidler, LuK3, Suzumebachisecret, Ale66,
Margin1522, Legobot, Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Yobot, EchetusXe, Apollonius 1236, Themfromspace, Kartano, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbot-
gourou, Fraggle81, Legobot II, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, WellsSouth, Ubxer, Mmxx, Pablo323, Jimjilin, Paul Siebert, IW.HG,
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root, Camfordwiki, Mcrbloke, , Kingpin13, Cyanidethistles, Drinkpis rancie, Ulric1313, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist,
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Somchai Sun, Kind Tennis Fan, TCMemoire, Clisaint, Liz, Gravuritas, Izraas, The rolling beetle, Thegreatmuka, Demianlee, Ghilan
al-Dimashqi, Tilly wiki, TreebeardTheEnt, Zozs, Kunalforyou, Monkbot, Horseless Headman, Isbromberg, Vieque, TimIsTimisTimIsTim,
Anon2769, KarlWhitacre, Mahakovich, Basilicershov, Bimuncher23, Vincius94, Ceosad, TheGFishs, C50000, Mundopopular, Infor-
mationswiedergutmachung, Krnkshft, Spumuq, Jordanjlatimer, Eteethan, Spiderman1993, GeneralizationsAreBad, Supdiop, Rohlinae,
Nkkenbuer, KasparBot, Jgj98, K23823, AusLondonder, Aliensyntax, Master of the Baters, Elanchik, Bathtoy2, LiaElbaz, Fawkes3571,
Bludmir6, RaiseTheRoof777, ImJakobe, Domyoche, Tykbasse, Johnscribner086 and Anonymous: 2338

15.2 Images
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Communist-manifesto.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Communist-manifesto.png License:
Public domain Contributors: from www.marxists.org via en.wikipedia Original artist: Friedrich Engels, Karl Marx
File:Communist_countries_1979-1983.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Communist_countries_
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File:Emblem-money.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Emblem-money.svg License: GPL Contribu-
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File:Engels_1856.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Engels_1856.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Engelss56fe1.jpg, uploaded 2006-01-16 by w:User:Bronks Original artist: George Lester,
Manchester photographer
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_Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.hegel.net/en/gwh3.htm Original
artist: Julius Ludwig Sebbers
15.2 Images 29

File:Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Jenny-von-Westphalen.jpg Li-

cense: Public domain Contributors: from book: Gemkow, Karl Marx; eine Biographie. In Zusammenarbeit mit Oskar Ho-
mann [et al.] Published 1972 in Frankfurt am Main . Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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File:KarlMarx_Tomb.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/KarlMarx_Tomb.JPG License: Public do-
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File:Karl_Marx_Signature.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Karl_Marx_Signature.svg License:
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stories/scientists/karlmarx_signature.jpg Original artist: Karl Marx
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File:Ludwig_Andreas_Feuerbach.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Ludwig_Andreas_Feuerbach.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Die Gartenlaube Original artist: Ernst Keil (publisher)
File:MandK_Industrial_Revolution_1900.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/MandK_Industrial_
Revolution_1900.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Marx+Family_and_Engels.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Marx%2BFamily_and_
Engels.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/photo/family/pages/64daug.htm
/ http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagem:Jelem.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
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File:Marx-Engels-Forum01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Marx-Engels-Forum01.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: en.wikipedia.org: 19:54, 3 September 2005 . . Bronks . . 500x335 (36630 bytes) (Statue of Marx and
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Original artist: Bronks
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? Original artist: ?
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License: Public domain Contributors: self-made; based on Image:Hammer and sickle.svg by Zscout370 Original artist: Rocket000
File:Trier_BW_2014-06-21_11-11-49.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Trier_BW_2014-06-21_
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30 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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