Research Development & Standard Organisation

1. INTRODUCTION
Research Directorate is one of the important directorates of RDSO. This directorate performs the
following activities:

Conducting Governing Council Meeting (GCM).

Conducting Central Board of Railways Research (CBRR) Meeting.
Coordinating for MOU with IITs and different Directorate of RDSO for R&D projects of
multidisciplinary nature.
Coordinating with IIT/Kharagpur is establishment of Centre for Railways Research.
Other consultancy project with IITs/foreign institutions.
Instrumentation support for field trails to various RDSO directorates.

1.1 Indian Railways Vision 2020

Indian Railways Vision- 2020 aims to transform IR from a net technology importer to technology
exporter. In order to develop a long-term frame work for research collaboration, MOU with IIT
Kharagpur has been signed by Railway Board on 13/2/2010 for setting up a state of art Centre for
Railway Research (CRR) at IIT/ Kharagpur.

1.2 Current Project/Activities

As per mandate defined in MOU signed, the Centre for Railway Research (CRR) shall carryout
Research related to the following areas:

Heavy haul Technology

Vehicle Dynamics
High Speed Technologies
Energy efficient traction power supply system
Track research
Use of artificial intelligence for predictive maintenance and management
Material sciences for railway related composites including rubber, polymers and insulation
materials
Development of integrated/ embedded processors for railway application
Application for access control, security and safety including biometrics
Open platform population control system for rail vehicle
Non-conventional drives and technology including maglev, L.I.M

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Remote sensing and measurement of OHE track and signals.

Railway board vide letter no. - 2010 / E&R / 3400 / 1 dated 11.05.2010 has suggested following
areas for Research for CRR to begin with. -

Heavy haul Technology

High Speed Technologies
Material sciences for railway related composites including rubber, polymers and insulation
materials
Use of artificial intelligence for predictive maintenance and management.
Accordingly fourteen projects on above nominated four areas have been identified and submitted to
railway board for sanction.

1.3 Test Facilities/Expert Available

There are following laboratories under Research Directorate having facilities for various trials &
tests Electronic Laboratory.

The main activities of this lab include:

Development of various types of transducers required for trails and testing.

Providing full instrumentation support to various directories of RDSO with qualified
Engineers for conduction various trials for improvement of tracks & running vehicles and for
running high-speed trains.
Repairs of Signal Conditioners, Oscillograph Recorders and various types of Transducers used
for various trials by directorates of RDSO.
Repairing & maintenance of Oscillation Monitoring systems (OMS 2000) of Indian Railways.
Maintenance and Adjustment of Oscillograph Recorder Transducers.
Development of Oscillation Monitoring system.
Vehicle Characterization Laboratory:

Following test facilities are available in this lab:

Rotational Resistance Test with non-metallic CP liner in BOXN Wagon

Evaluation of coefficient of friction at vehicle /rail contact surface
Crash test on rolling stock at speeds upto 40 KMPH

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2. QUALITY POLICY

Quality Assurance (Mech) Directorate was formed in RDSO as per Railway Boards directives in
Sept 02, with an objective to segregate R&D activities from those of purchase inspection, vendor
development etc. The three groups of QA comprising QA(Mech), QA(Civil) & QA(S&T) were
created. Whereas Civil and S&T wing are new, Mech wing has been functioning as I&L Dte which
was renamed as QA(Mech) Dte. QA(Mech) Dte., headed by ED, deals with vendor development
(Multisourcing), Inspection of items for wagon, carriage & locomotives and inspection of wagons
manufactured at Wagon builders premises. Wagons manufactured by Railway workshops are not
inspected by QA(Mech) Dte. Quality Audit of Railway units such as workshops, depots etc. is also
being done on regular basis. The field offices at New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai are assisting Hqs
office. Field offices are headed by Directors/Jt.Director. The sub-office at Hyderabad is headed by
SIO, who is under administrative & technical control of Mumbai office.
2.1 Main Objectives
Inspection of wagons against orders by Railway Board & private organisations.
Inspection of safety items for Indian Railways & also for private organisations having bearing on
safety of train running
Facilitating Indian Railways by making available Vendor Directory for critical & safety
items/subassemblies
Biannual issuance of Vendor Directory, covering items dealt by QA, Motive Power, Wagon,
carriage & M&C Dtes
Quality audit of Railway Units. QA(Mech) Dte. activities are covered under ISO:9001 (2008)
certificate.

Quality Policy To develop safe, modern and cost effective railway technology complying with
statutory and regulatory requirements, through excellence in research, designs and standards and
continual improvements in quality management system to cater to growing demand of passenger
and freight traffic on the railways.

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3.INFRASTRUCTURE AND RDSO LABS

RDSO has a number of laboratories which are well equipped with research and testing facilities for
development, testing and design evaluation of various railway related equipments and material.
Some of these are :

Air Brake Laboratory is equipped with facilities for simulating operation of air brakes on freight
trains up to 192 wagons and 3 locomotives as also for simulation of passenger trains upto 30
coaches.

Brake Dynamometer Laboratory has facilities to develop and test brake friction materials for
locomotives, coaches and wagons. A unique facility in India , this laboratory has also been used by
R&D organisations of Ministry of Defence like DMRL, DRDL and HAL for indegnisation of brake
pads for defence aircrafts.

B&S Laboratory has a 6mx14m heavy/testing floor on which full scale models of beam (spans up to
10 m, slabs, columns, towers, shells and other components made of concrete, steel, brick etc can be
tested under static, dynamic or pulsating loads. A high frequency ranging 250-700 cycles/min
pulsator for the application of a pulsating loads varying from 2 to 20 tones and a maximum static
load of 40 tonnnes on heavy duty testing floor. The Laboratory is equipped with? analogue strain
indicator, multi channel dynamic strain recording system, switching & balancing units, acoustic
emission equipment, data acquisition system etc. for recording various parameters.

Diesel Engine Development Laboratory has four test beds capable of testing diesel engines from 100
to 6000 HP with fully computerized systems for recording of over 128 test parameters at a time. This
facility has already enabled RDSO to develop technologies for improving fuel efficiency, reliability
and availability of diesel engines as well as to extract higher output from existing diesel engines.
Fatigue Testing Laboratory for testing prototype locomotive and rolling stock bogies, springs and
other railway equipments subjected to stress and fatigue so as to ascertain their expected life in
service. Geo-technical Engineering Laboratoryis equipped with facilities for determining strength
parameters of soil in lab and field condition. The State-of-art Sub-surface Interface Radar (SIR)
system, Laser based soil particle analyser, and computerized consolidation test apparatus have been
installed in the lab. The lab also has computerised Static Tri axial Shear apparatus for determining the
strength of soil as well as the design of embankment. Metallurgical & Chemical Laboratory is
capable of destructive and non-destructive testing of metals, polymers, composites, petroleum

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products and paints for providing information to be used in design and also for monitoring.

The M&C laboratory include Scanning Electron Microscope, Direct reading spectrometer, Ultrasonic
Flaw Detector and other non destructive examination equipment, polymer and composite evaluation
facilities, thermal analyser, corrosion engineering evaluation facilities including weather meter, static
760 hour AR test rig for grease testing. V2F dynamic test rig for grease testing, lube oil filter
evaluation rig Cetane rating machine & 50t machine for rubber deflection characteristics.

Psycho-Technical Laboratory for assessment of critical psycho-physical attributes of operational staff

such as drivers, switchmen and station masters for efficient operation. The ergonomic laboratory of
psycho-technical Dte is also equipped with bio-feedback system for assessment of EMG, GSR
(Galvanic Skin Resistance) temperature, pulse and respiration rate and is used for stress management
exercise.

Signal Testing Laboratory for testing of all types of signalling equipments such as safety signalling
relays, block instruments, power supply equipments, point machines, signalling cables, electro-
mechanical signalling equipments/ components etc. There is an exclusive environmental testing
section equipped with environmental testing facilities as per ISO:9000. These include, programmable
heat, humidity & cold chambers, mould growth, dust, rain chambers. Signalling Equipment
Development Centre has been set up in the Signaling Lab. In this Centre, working signaling
equipment & systems have been set up. The working systems include SSI, universal axle counter,
VLSI axle counter, AFTCs, block instruments etc. In addition, equipment developed by RDSO, such
as signalling relays, poly-carbonate lenses, LED signal lamps, triple pole double filament lamps,
power supply equipment etc., have also been displayed. This centre will be used for testing minor
improvements in designs of SSI, axle counters etc., as well as for imparting training to newly
inducted Inspectors. Track Laboratory for testing full scale track panel under dynamic load patterns
similar to those encountered in service Stresses at the various locations of track components under
simulated load conditions are measured and recorded for analysis. This has helped in rationalising
and optimising design of track structures for Indian conditions. The facility of fatigue testing of
welded rail joints is also available. n connection with joint research project of UIC on rail defect
management, RDSO has been entrusted with lab testing of rail samples from various world railways
under simulated loading conditions. Special rail tensioning system for application of longitudinal
forces on rail samples to simulate the thermal forces of the field has indigenously been developed,
installed and commissioned in track lab. This system, with capacity of up to 150 tonne in static
condition, is being used for testing of different rail samples.

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Mobile Test Facilities for recording of track parameters, locomotive power and conducting
oscillograph trials for evaluating vehicle-track interaction as also for monitoring track conditions.
For condition monitoring of OHE under live line and to facilitate directed maintenance of
electrification, a Network of testing and recording apparatus (NETRA) car, first of its kind,
developed by RDSO is actively in Service for scanning OHE in Railway.

Vehicle Characterisation Laboratory for conducting vehicle characterisation tests on railway vehicles
to study the behaviour of suspension systems and to determine natural frequencies Centre for
Advanced Maintenance Technology at Gwalior for upgrading maintenance technologies, and
methodologies. Also to achieve improvements in productivity and performance of all railway assets
and manpower. This covers reliability, availability, utilisation and efficiency.

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4. SIGNAL TESTING LABORATORY

4.1 AN OVERVIEW

RDSO, an ISO:9001 certified organisation, is the sole R&D organisation of Indian Railways and
performs the following important functions:-
Adoption, absorption and development of new technologies for use on Indian Railways.
Development of new and improved designs.
Development of standards of materials and products specially needed by Indian Railways.
Technical investigation, statutory clearances, testing and providing consultancy services.
Inspection of rolling stock, locomotive, signalling and telecommunication equipments, track
components etc. for ensuring quality.
Quality audit of Railway workshops & production units.
RDSO has a number of laboratories, which are well equipped with research and testing facilities for
development, testing, and design evaluation of various railway related equipments and materials.
Signal Testing Laboratory are fully equipped for development, testing and investigations of most of
the signalling equipments.

Signal Testing Laboratory undertake testing of all types of signalling equipments involving safety
such as Signalling Relays, Block Instruments, Power Supply Equipments, Point Machines, Signalling
Cables, Electromechanical Signalling Equipments/Components, Modern Signaling equipments, etc.
There is an exclusive section for environmental testing equipped with range of climatic test facilities
as per IS: 9000. These include programmable environmental (heat & humidity), dry heat, cold,
mould growth, salt mist spray, dust, rain chambers etc.

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The laboratory is equipped with full testing facilities for Power Supply Equipment (Battery Charger,
DC-DC Converter, Transformer etc.), Signal lamps & Lenses, Relays (Metal to Carbon & Metal to
Metal contact type). The laboratory is also equipped fortesting of electronic and microprocessor
based equipments like Electronic Interlocking, Data Loggers, Axle Counters,Block Interface for
optic fibre cable, LED Signals, Audio Frequency Track Circuits, Electronic Timers, Electronic
Flashers, etc.

FIGURE 1. Environmental Section

The laboratory is equipped with full testing facilities for Power Supply Equipment (Battery Charger,
DC-DC Converter, Transformer etc.), Signal lamps & Lenses, Relays (Metal to Carbon & Metal to
Metal contact type). The laboratory is also equipped for testing of electronic and microprocessor
based equipments like Electronic Interlocking, Data Loggers, Axle Counters, Block Interface for
optic fibre cable, LED Signals, Audio Frequency Track Circuits, Electronic Timers, Electronic
Flashers, etc.

FIGURE 2. (a) Modern Signalling Hall (b) Axle Counter Testing Setup

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Signal laboratory is also equipped for testing of all types of electromechanical signalling equipment
like Point Machines, Signal Machines, Electric Point Detector, Electric Key Transmitters, SMs Slide
Frames, Primary Cells, all types of signalling cables and track fittings related to signalling gears.
There is a small signalling yard adjacent to laboratory having four turnouts including thick-web
high-speed turnout. The laboratory is provided with requisite facilities of conducting type tests
including performance, endurance tests on all above types of signaling equipment.

FIGURE 3. (a) Block Instrument Testing Setup (b) Cable Testing Equipments

In addition to above, regular type tests and investigations are conducted on all the above types of
signal equipment

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5. SIGNALLING EQUIPMENT DEVELOPMENT CENTRE

A Signalling Equipment Development Centre has been set up in the Signalling Testing Laboratory.
Here working systems including EI, Digital Axle Counter, Data Logger, AFTCs, Block Instruments,
LED signal lamps etc. are available. In addition, equipments developed by RDSO, such as signaling
relay, polycarbonate lenses, triple pole double filament lamps, power supply equipment etc. have
also been displayed. This centre is being used for various testing at developmental stages and for
further improvements in the designs of various signalling systems. Training for newly inducted
inspectors is also imparted in this center.

FIGURE 4. (a) Electronic Interlocking (b) Signalling Development Equipment Centre

5.1 FACILITIES
5.1.1 Environmental Section
The following test chambers are available to carry out testing as per requirement of IS: 9000: -
Programmable Environmental Test Chamber
Dry heat chamber
Cold chamber
Rain chamber
Salt mist spray chamber
Dust chamber
Mould growth chamber
Recovery chamber

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5.1.2 Test and Measuring instruments

Important test and measuring instrument used for testing of various signalling items available in the
lab are as under:-
Spectrometer
Chromameter
Power Harmonics analyzer
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
Automatic Relay Testing Jig
Electrical & electronic load
High voltage tester
Insulation resistance meter
Cable testing equipments
High Precision Digital Multimeters
Power supplies
Tensile Strength testing machines

5.1.3 LED Signals

Testing facilities are available for measurement of colour coordinates and luminance by using
spectrometer setup of all aspects of LED signals.

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5.1.4 Relay Performance and Endurance Testing

Facilities for testing of all types of signaling relays including line relays, track relay, lamp proving
relays and point contactor relays area available. Test benches for measurement of all operating
parameters like pickup, drop-away, voltage/time, contact resistance, contact pressure, contact bounce
time etc. are provided for expeditious completion of type tests. Endurance test set-ups for testing of
relay for 10 lakh operations are also available for all types of plug-in type relays.

5.1.5 Computerised Relay Testing

The testing of all electrical parameter and timing characteristics is being carried out with the help of
Computerised Automatic Test Equipment. By this faster testing system, human errors are eliminated
& test results are very accurate.

5.1.6 Power Supply Equipment Testing

Facilities for High voltage test, induced high voltage test, performance test, endurance test are
available for all types of power supply equipment like Battery Charger, DC-DC Converter,
Transformer etc. used in Railway Signalling.

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5.1.7 Cable Testing

The following test facilities for underground Signalling cables (including axle counter cables) and
indoor PVC cables/wires are available: -
i) Elongation and tensile strength testing,
ii) Thermal stability test.
iii) Ageing test.
iv) Melt flow index test.
v) AC/DC High voltage water immersion test.
vi) Measurement of insulation resistance (dry & wet), conductor resistance, specific gravity etc.
5.1.8 Electro-Mechanical Equipment Testing
The type test facilities including set up for endurance/performance test for
the following electromechanical safety signalling equipment are available:-
i) Point machine
ii) Signal machine
iii) Electrical point detector
iv) SMs slide frame endurance
v) Lever locks
vi) Circuit controllers
vii) Block instruments
viii) Electric signal reversers
ix) Electric key transmitter

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6. INTRODUCTION ORGANIC LED

An organic light-emitting diode (OLED) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive
electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound that emits light in response to an electric
current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes; typically, at least
one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as
television screens, computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game
consoles and PDAs. A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for use in
solid-state lighting applications.

There are two main families of OLED: those based on small molecules and those employing
polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED creates a light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC) which
has a slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays can use either passive-matrix (PMOLED)
or active-matrix (AMOLED) addressing schemes. Active-matrix OLEDs (AMOLED) require a thin-
film transistor back plane to switch each individual pixel on or off, but allow for higher resolution
and larger display sizes.

An OLED display works without a backlight; thus, it can display deep black levels and can be
thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions (such as a
dark room), an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, regardless of whether
the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or an LED backlight.

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7. WORKING PRINCIPLE
A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated between two electrodes, the
anode and cathode, all deposited on a substrate. The organic molecules are electrically conductive as
a result of delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over part or all of the molecule. These
materials have conductivity levels ranging from insulators to conductors, and are therefore
considered organic semiconductors. The highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals
(HOMO and LUMO) of organic semiconductors are analogous to the valence and conduction bands
of inorganic semiconductors.

Originally, the most basic polymer OLEDs consisted of a single organic layer. One example was the
first light-emitting device synthesised by J. H. Burroughes et al., which involved a single layer of
poly(p-phenylene vinylene). However multilayer OLEDs can be fabricated with two or more layers
in order to improve device efficiency. As well as conductive properties, different materials may be
chosen to aid charge injection at electrodes by providing a more gradual electronic profile, or block a
charge from reaching the opposite electrode and being wasted. Many modern OLEDs incorporate a
simple bilayer structure, consisting of a conductive layer and an emissive layer. More recent
developments in OLED architecture improves quantum efficiency (up to 19%) by using a graded
heterojunction. In the graded heterojunction architecture, the composition of hole and electron-
transport materials varies continuously within the emissive layer with a dopant emitter. The graded
heterojunction architecture combines the benefits of both conventional architectures by improving
charge injection while simultaneously balancing charge transport within the emissive region.

During operation, a voltage is applied across the OLED such that the anode is positive with respect
to the cathode. Anodes are picked based upon the quality of their optical transparency, electrical
conductivity, and chemical stability. A current of electrons flows through the device from cathode to
anode, as electrons are injected into the LUMO of the organic layer at the cathode and withdrawn

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from the HOMO at the anode. This latter process may also be described as the injection of electron
holes into the HOMO. Electrostatic forces bring the electrons and the holes towards each other and
they recombine forming an exciton, a bound state of the electron and hole. This happens closer to the
emissive layer, because in organic semiconductors holes are generally more mobile than electrons.
The decay of this excited state results in a relaxation of the energy levels of the electron,
accompanied by emission of radiation whose frequency is in the visible region. The frequency of this
radiation depends on the band gap of the material, in this case the difference in energy between the
HOMO and LUMO.

As electrons and holes are fermions with half integer spin, an exciton may either be in a singlet state
or a triplet state depending on how the spins of the electron and hole have been combined.
Statistically three triplet excitons will be formed for each singlet exciton. Decay from triplet states
(phosphorescence) is spin forbidden, increasing the timescale of the transition and limiting the
internal efficiency of fluorescent devices. Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes make use of
spinorbit interactions to facilitate intersystem crossing between singlet and triplet states, thus
obtaining emission from both singlet and triplet states and improving the internal efficiency.

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is commonly used as the anode material. It is transparent to visible light and
has a high work function which promotes injection of holes into the HOMO level of the organic
layer. A typical conductive layer may consist of PEDOT: PSS as the HOMO level of this material
generally lies between the work function of ITO and the HOMO of other commonly used polymers,
reducing the energy barriers for hole injection. Metals such as barium and calcium are often used for
the cathode as they have low work functions which promote injection of electrons into the LUMO of
the organic layer. Such metals are reactive, so they require a capping layer of aluminium to avoid
degradation.

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Experimental research has proven that the properties of the anode, specifically the anode/hole
transport layer (HTL) interface topography plays a major role in the efficiency, performance, and
lifetime of organic light emitting diodes. Imperfections in the surface of the anode decrease anode-
organic film interface adhesion, increase electrical resistance, and allow for more frequent formation
of non-emissive dark spots in the OLED material adversely affecting lifetime. Mechanisms to
decrease anode roughness for IT O/glass substrates include the use of thin films and self-assembled
monolayers. Also, alternative substrates and anode materials are being considered to increase OLED
performance and lifetime. Possible examples include single crystal sapphire substrates treated with
gold (Au) film anodes yielding lower work functions, operating voltages, electrical resistance values,
[30]
and increasing lifetime of OLEDs.

Single carrier devices are typically used to study the kinetics and charge transport mechanisms of an
organic material and can be useful when trying to study energy transfer processes. As current through
the device is composed of only one type of charge carrier, either electrons or holes, recombination
does not occur and no light is emitted. For example, electron only devices can be obtained by
replacing ITO with a lower work function metal which increases the energy barrier of hole injection.
Similarly, hole only devices can be made by using a cathode made solely of aluminium, resulting in
an energy barrier too large for efficient electron injection.

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8. ADVANTAGE

1. Lower cost in the future

OLEDs can be printed onto any suitable substrate by an inkjet printer or even by screen printing,
theoretically making them cheaper to produce than LCD or plasma displays. However, fabrication of
the OLED substrate is currently more costly than that of a TFT LCD, until mass production methods
lower costs through scalability. Roll-to-roll vapor-deposition methods for organic devices do allow
mass production of thousands of devices per minute for minimal cost; however, this technique also
induces problems: devices with multiple layers can be challenging to make because of registration
lining up the different printed layers to the required degree of accuracy.

2. Lightweight and flexible plastic substrates

OLED displays can be fabricated on flexible plastic substrates, leading to the possible fabrication of
flexible organic light-emitting diodes for other new applications, such asroll-up displays embedded
in fabrics or clothing. If a substrate like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) can be used, the displays
may be produced inexpensively. Furthermore, plastic substrates are shatter-resistant, unlike the glass
displays used in LCD devices.

3. Better picture quality

OLEDs enable a greater artificial contrast ratio (both dynamic and static) and wider viewing angle
compared to LCDs, because OLED pixels emit light directly. Furthermore, OLED pixel colors
appear correct and unshifted, even as the viewing angle approaches 90 from the normal.

4. Better power efficiency and thickness

LCDs filter the light emitted from a backlight, allowing a small fraction of light through. Thus, they
cannot show true black. However, an inactive OLED element does not produce light or consume
power, allowing true blacks. Removing the backlight also makes OLEDs lighter because some
substrates are not needed. When looking at top-emitting OLEDs, thickness also plays a role when
talking about index match layers (IMLs). Emission intensity is enhanced when the IML thickness is
1.32.5 nm. The refractive value and the matching of the optical IMLs property, including the device
structure parameters, also enhance the emission intensity at these thicknesses.

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5. Response time
OLEDs also have a much faster response time than an LCD. Using response time compensation
technologies, the fastest modern LCDs can reach response times as low as1 ms for their fastest color
transition, and are capable of refresh frequencies as high as 144 Hz. According to LG, OLED
response times are up to 1,000 times faster than LCD, putting conservative estimates at under 10 s
(0.01 ms), which could theoretically accommodate refresh frequencies approaching 100 kHz
(100,000 Hz). Due to their extremely fast response time, OLED displays can also be easily designed
to be strobed, creating an effect similar to CRT flicker in order to avoid the sample-and-hold
behavior seen on both LCDs and some OLED displays, which creates the perception of motion blur.

9. DISADVANTAGE

Lifespan
The biggest technical problem for OLEDs was the limited lifetime of the organic materials. One
2008 technical report on an OLED TV panel found that "After 1,000 hours the blue luminance
degraded by 12%, the red by 7% and the green by 8%." In particular, blue OLEDs historically have
had a lifetime of around 14,000 hours to half original brightness (five years at 8 hours a day) when
used for flat-panel displays. This is lower than the typical lifetime of LCD, LED or PDP technology.
Each currently is rated for about 25,00040,000 hours to half brightness, depending on manufacturer
and model. Degradation occurs because of the accumulation of nonradiative recombination centers
and luminescence quenchers in the emissive zone. It is said that the chemical breakdown in the
semiconductors occurs in four steps:
1) recombination of charge carriers through the absorption of UV light
2) homolytic dissociation
3) subsequent radical addition reactions that form radicals
4) disproportionation between two radicals resulting in hydrogen-atom transfer reactions.

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However, some manufacturers' displays aim to increase the lifespan of OLED displays, pushing their
expected life past that of LCD displays by improving light outcoupling, thus achieving the same
brightness at a lower drive current. In 2007, experimental OLEDs were created which can sustain
2
400 cd/m of luminance for over 198,000 hours for green OLEDs and 62,000 hours for blue OLEDs.
Colour balance
Additionally, as the OLED material used to produce blue light degrades significantly more rapidly
than the materials that produce other colours, blue light output will decrease relative to the other
colours of light. This variation in the differential colour output will change the colour balance of the
display and is much more noticeable than a decrease in overall luminance. This can be avoided
partially by adjusting colour balance, but this may require advanced control circuits and interaction
with the user, which is unacceptable for users. More commonly, though, manufacturers optimize the
size of the R, G and B subpixels to reduce the current density through the subpixel in order to equalize lifetime at
full luminance. For example, a blue subpixel may be 100% larger than the green subpixel. The red
subpixel may be 10% smaller than the green.

Efficiency of blue OLEDs

Improvements to the efficiency and lifetime of blue OLEDs is vital to the success of OLEDs as
replacements for LCD technology. Considerable research has been invested in developing blue
OLEDs with high external quantum efficiency as well as a deeper blue color. External quantum
efficiency values of 20% and 19% have been reported for red (625 nm) and green (530 nm) diodes,
respectively. However, blue diodes (430 nm) have only been able to achieve maximum external
quantum efficiencies in the range of 4% to 6%.

Water damage
Water can instantly damage the organic materials of the displays. Therefore, improved sealing
processes are important for practical manufacturing. Water damage especially may limit the
longevity of more flexible displays.

Outdoor performance
As an emissive display technology, OLEDs rely completely upon converting electricity to light,
unlike most LCDs which are to some extent reflective. e-paper leads the way in efficiency with ~
33% ambient light reflectivity, enabling the display to be used without any internal light source. The
metallic cathode in an OLED acts as a mirror, with reflectance approaching 80%, leading to poor
readability in bright ambient light such as outdoors. However, with the proper application of a
circular polarizer and antireflective coatings, the diffuse reflectance can be reduced to less than

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0.1%. With 10,000 fc incident illumination (typical test condition for simulating outdoor
illumination), that yields an approximate photopic contrast of 5:1. Recent advances in OLED
technologies, however, enable OLEDs to become actually better than LCDs in bright sunlight. The
Super AMOLED display in the Galaxy S5, for example, was found to outperform all LCD displays
on the market in terms of brightness and reflectance.
Power consumption
While an OLED will consume around 40% of the power of an LCD displaying an image that is
primarily black, for the majority of images it will consume 6080% of the power of an LCD.
However, an OLED can use more than three times as much power to display an image with a white
background, such as a document or web site. This can lead to reduced battery life in mobile devices,
when white backgrounds are used.

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10.APPLICATION

The Sony CLI PEG-VZ90 was released in 2004, being the first PDA to feature an OLED screen.
Other Sony products to feature OLED screens include the MZ-RH1 portable minidisc recorder,
released in 2006 and the Walkman X Series.

At the 2007 Las Vegas Consumer Electronics Show (CES), Sony showcased 11-inch (28 cm,
resolution 960540) and 27-inch (68.5 cm), full HD resolution at 1920 1080 OLED TV models.
Both claimed 1,000,000:1 contrast ratios and total thicknesses (including bezels) of 5 mm. In April
2007, Sony announced it would manufacture 1000 11-inch (28 cm) OLED TVs per month for market
testing purposes. On October 1, 2007, Sony announced that the 11-inch (28 cm) model, now called
the XEL-1, would be released commercially; the XEL-1 was first released in Japan in December
2007.

In May 2007, Sony publicly unveiled a video of a 2.5-inch flexible OLED screen which is only 0.3
millimeters thick. At the Display 2008 exhibition, Sony demonstrated a 0.2 mm thick 3.5 inch (9 cm)
display with a resolution of 320200 pixels and a 0.3 mm thick 11 inch (28 cm) display with
960540 pixels resolution, one-tenth the thickness of the XEL-1.

In July 2008, a Japanese government body said it would fund a joint project of leading firms, which
is to develop a key technology to produce large, energy-saving organic displays. The project involves
one laboratory and 10 companies including Sony Corp. NEDO said the project was aimed at
developing a core technology to mass-produce 40 inch or larger OLED displays in the late 2010s.

In October 2008, Sony published results of research it carried out with the Max Planck Institute over
the possibility of mass-market bending displays, which could replace rigid LCDs and plasma
screens. Eventually, bendable, see-through displays could be stacked to produce 3D images with
much greater contrast ratios and viewing angles than existing products.

Sony exhibited a 24.5" (62 cm) prototype OLED 3D television during the Consumer Electronics
Show in January 2010.
In January 2011, Sony announced the PlayStation Vita handheld game console (the successor to the
PSP) will feature a 5-inch OLED screen.
On February 17, 2011, Sony announced its 25" (63.5 cm) OLED Professional Reference Monitor
aimed at the Cinema and high end Drama Post Production market.
On June 25, 2012, Sony and Panasonic announced a joint venture for creating low cost mass
production OLED televisions by 2013.

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11.CONCLUSION

OLED micro displays are a new practical application of these recent organic based light-emitting
devices which could be extensively developed after pioneering work which emerged in the late 80s.
In Chapter 1, the basics and fundamentals of these organic-LEDS where explained, together with
their main electrical and electro optical characteristics, the different structures and their specific
issues. OLED micro displays were, in 2001, the first commercially available active matrix OLED
displays, before their conventional-size counterparts made with TFT technologies on large area glass.
Small and medium size active-matrix organic light-emitting diode (AMOLED) displays have reached
a much wider field of application, multibillion markets, which is expected to continue with TV
application, where the competition with liquid crystal display (LCD) will be very hard.

Today, we can summarize the situation of OLED micro displays as follows: They have
demonstrated unprecedented and unrivalled performance, especially in terms of: - image quality
(contrast, colour, etc.); - low power consumption; - compactness. They started to find their place in
at least two applications: - head-mounted displays for professional and consumer markets; -
electronic view-finder for high-end cameras.

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12. REFERENCES

Wu J., Agrawal M., Becerril H. A., Ba Z., Liu Z., Chen Y., Peumansssi P., Acs Nano, 4 (250.
Singh M., Chae H. S., Froehlich J. D., Kondou T., Li S., Mochizuki A., Jabbour G. E., Soft
Matter,IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, volume 3, pp.3002-3008, 5 May,2009.
Berman, S.M., Greenhouse, D.S., Bailey, I.L., Clear, R.D., and Raasch, T.W, Human
electroretinogram responses to video displays, fluorescent lighting, and other high frequency
sources. IEEE Transaction on Light Emitting Diode, volume 4, pp.1506-1521, 6 April, 2012.

J. F. Fuller, E. F. Fuchs, and K. J. Roesler, "Influence of harmonics on power distribution

system protection," IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, volume 3, pp. 549-557, April 1988.
C. Holen and G. Harbers, LCD backlighting with high luminescent colored light emitting
diodes, in Proc. Ninth International Symposium on the Science & Technology of Light
Sources, 2001, pp. 373374.

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