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Physics 104.1 Manual: A Compilation of Laboratory Protocols and Worksheets of Fundamental Physics Lab III Experiments
Compiled by: Carlisle Aurabelle M. Casuga
This manual is not for sale and is for the sole purpose of Physics 103 laboratory classes.
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................................................. 40
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................................................. 41
References .............................................................................................................................................................. 42
Experiment 1. Michelson Interferometry
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
OBJECTIVES:
PRINCIPLES:
The wave behavior of light can be observed through the interference of two waves that are composed of
oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Two or more waves meet according to the principle of superposition.
When the beams of lights originate from the same source and when at one point they are in phase, the combined
field will be a maximum; hence, a constructive interference. Otherwise, if the combine fields are completely out of
phase, a destructive interference is produced.
Thomas Young was one the first people to design an experiment that produces an interference pattern by
allowing light to pass through two closely spaced narrow slits. A pattern of dark and bright bands appeared at a
viewing screen opposite the slits.
A.A Michelson designed an interferometer using the same principle. By splitting a beam of light into two
and making these split beams meet, a fringe pattern is produced. If the path length of the two beams are equal,
they will be in phase when they meet. By moving one mirror, the path lengths can be varied. The beam traverses
the path between the mirror and beam splitter twice; therefore, moving the mirror wavelength, the total optical
path of that beam changes by wavelength. The maxima and minima will trade positions in the new interference
pattern. By moving the mirror another wavelength, the total optical path has changed by 1 wavelength. The
new interference pattern will go back to its original form. The wavelength can therefore be found
2
= (4.1)
where is the distance the mirror has moved and m is the number of times the fringe pattern is returned
to its original form.
Another way to change the phase relationships of the meeting beams is to change the medium through
which one of beams pass.
0
= (4.2)
Where n is the index of refraction for the material in which light is propagating. By slowly varying the
length of the material (through rotating it to its side) and counting the number of fringe transitions, the index of
refraction of the material can be obtained and is given by
(2 0 )(1 cos )
= (4.3)
2(1 cos ) 0
Where N is the number of transitions, is the angle of the glass plate with respect to the beam, t is the
thickness of the glass plate, and 0 is the wavelength of the beam.
5
Experiment 1. Michelson Interferometry
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
MATERIALS:
PROCEDURE:
6
Experiment 1. Michelson Interferometry
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
III. Wavelength
1. Align the laser and interferometer in the Michelson mode so an interference pattern is clearly visible on
your viewing screen.
2. Adjust the micrometer knob to a medium reading (approximately 50 m). In this position, the relationship
between the micrometer reading and the mirror movement is most nearly linear.
3. Turn the micrometer knob one full turn counterclockwise. Continue turning counterclockwise until the zero
on the knob is aligned with the index mark. Record the micrometer reading.
NOTE: When you reverse the direction in which you turn the micrometer knob, there is a small amount of give
before the mirror begins to move. This is called mechanical backlash, and is present in all mechanical
systems involving reversals in direction of movement. By beginning with a full counterclockwise turn, and then
turning only counterclockwise when counting fringes, you can eliminate errors due to backlash.
4. Rotate the micrometer knob slowly counterclockwise. Continue until you count 20 fringe transitions.
5. Record , the distance that the movable mirror moved toward the beam-splitter according to your
readings of the micrometer knob.
NOTE: Each small division on the micrometer knob corresponds to one m (106 meters) of mirror movement
(One revolution of the micrometer knob is 25 microns).
1. Align the laser and interferometer in the Michelson mode. See Figure 1.1.
2. Place the rotating table between the beam-splitter and movable mirror, perpendicular to the optical path.
See Figure 1.2.
NOTE: If the movable mirror is too far forward, the rotating table
won't fit. You may need to loosen the thumbscrew and slide the
mirror farther back.
7
Experiment 1. Michelson Interferometry
WORKSHEET
I. WAVELENGTH
No. of Fringe
Trial Distance, Experimental Theoretical % error
Transitions (m)
1
2
3
Table 1.1 Data for Obtaining Wavelength of Glass
No of Fringe Thickness of
Trial 0
Transitions (N) glass plate (m)
1
2
3
Table 1.2 Raw Data for Obtaining Index of Refraction of Glass
8
Experiment 1. Michelson Interferometry
WORKSHEET
GUIDE QUESTIONS:
2. Will there be a difference if the experiment was performed in a vacuum? How and why?
3. Michelson designed the experiment to confirm the existence of ether. Describe his objective and how
the experiment failed to confirm this existence. Cite your references.
4. How and why does the experiment produce a circular interference pattern.
9
Experiment 2. Electron Charge to Mass Ratio
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
OBJECTIVES
PRINCIPLES
= (2.1)
Where is the charge of the electron, is the velocity of the electron, and represents the magnetic field.
The trajectory of an electron whose velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field would become circular
experiencing a centripetal force of magnitude 2 /; therefore,
= = (2.2)
= (2/) (2.3)
1
taken through = 2 , where the potential gains kinetic energy equal to the charge times the potential.
2
Also, the magnetic field produced near the axis of a pair of Helmholtz coils is
0
= (2.4)
(5/4)3/2
2(5/4)3 2
= (2.5)
(0 )2
Where
10
Experiment 2. Electron Charge to Mass Ratio
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
MATERIALS
Uchida TG 13 E/M apparatus
3 Power Supplies
DC Ammeter
PROCEDURE
Figure 2.1. Connections (Source: PASCO manual for Model SE 9638), www.pasco.com
9. As current is increased, the beam will be curved by the field from the Helmholtz coils. Read the current to
the Helmholtz coils from the ammeter and the accelerating voltage from the voltmeter.
10. Measure the radius of the electron beam. To avoid parallax errors, move your head to align the electron
beam with the reflection of the beam that you can see on the mirrored scale. Measure the radius of the
beam as you see it on both sides of the scale, then average the results.
11. Record your results Table 2.1. Measure the current and voltage. Measure the current and voltage. Vary the
voltage by 10 volts and toggle the current switch on the apparatus to maintain the same radius. Record the
data on the table for 10 different voltage readings taking care NOT TO EXCEED the CURRENT LIMIT of
2A.
12. If only an uncertainty in r is assumed, compute the e/m value (include uncertainty) for each voltage reading.
13. Choose another radius value and repeat the measurements. Complete Table 2.1 to 2.3 for different radii
values.
11
Experiment 2. Electron Charge to Mass Ratio
WORKSHEET
12
Experiment 2. Electron Charge to Mass Ratio
WORKSHEET
GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. With only an uncertainty in assumed, show sample calculations of how the / (/) values were
obtained.
2. Take only one voltage and radius reading (e.g. = 150 and = 3 cm) and find the uncertainty in e/m if all
the uncertainties in , , and are all considered. Show how the error is propagated and compare this with
the (/) values of Tables 2.1 to 2.3.
13
Experiment 2. Electron Charge to Mass Ratio
WORKSHEET
3. From adjusting the current knob, HOW does the current deflect the electron beam? Sketch a diagram of
the trajectory of the electron while increasing the current.
14
Experiment 3. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
OBJECTIVES:
PRINCIPLES:
From 1909 to 1913, Robert Millikan performed an experiment that determined the elementary charge on
an electron, . His apparatus consisted of two parallel plates. Oil drops are introduced through a small hole at the
upper plate and were exposed to x-rays that gave these drops a negative charge. To view theses droplets, a
scope was used and a light beam, perpendicular to the long axis of the scope, was shined on the drops.
When no electric field is present, the only forces acting on the charged droplet (and influencing its
terminal velocity) are gravitational and drag forces. Otherwise, when the negatively charged drop are exposed to
an electric field directed towards the lower plate, there is an electric force acting on the drops pulling it upward.
The drops then obtain a new terminal speed, that is when the
electric force balances out the sum of the gravitational and drag
(now downward) forces.
Derivation
= (3.1)
Otherwise with an electric field, Figure 3.2. (a) Free body diagram w/o and Electric Field (b)
Free body diagram with the top plate positively charged
[Source: Serway and Jewett]
= + (3.2)
( + )
= (3.3)
To determine the mass of a droplet, we know that the density and volume of the sphere gives us
4
= 3 (3.4)
3
To calculate the radius of the droplet , we use the Stokes Law relating the radius of a spherical body to its fall
velocity in a viscous medium (with coefficient of viscosity, )
15
Experiment 3. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
9
= ( ) (3.5)
2
Stokes Law becomes incorrect for velocities less than 0.1 cm/s, the resulting effective viscosity is
1
= (
) (3.6)
1+
Where is a constant, is the atmospheric pressure, and is the radius of the drop By substituting into Eqn
3.5 and solving for radius , we obtain
2 9
= ( ) + = (3.7)
2 2() 2
9 3 ( + )
= 6 3 (3.8)
2 (1 + )
()
(. . . ) = ( )= (3.9)
300()
To calculate the charge in SI units, as derived from equation (3.10) *as derived by manual,
3
4 2 9 +
= [( ) + ] (3.11)
3 2 2 2
16
Experiment 3. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
MATERIALS:
PROCEDURE:
1. In a dark room, set up the Millikan oil drop apparatus. Select a location free of movement and vibrations.
2. Make sure that the apparatus is leveled. Adjust the apparatus to a desired scope viewing height using a
rod stand and support stands.
3. To determine , the plate separation, disassemble the droplet viewing chamber and measure the
thickness of the plastic spacer with a micrometer.
4. Reassemble the droplet viewing chamber without its housing (while keeping the other components
aligned)
5. Insert the focusing wire into the hole in the center of the top capacitor plate.
6. Connect the 12 V DC transformer into the lam power jack in the halogen lamp housing and plug it into a
wall socket.
7. By viewing through the scope, bring the reticle (viewing screen with line separation of 0.5 mm major
divisions, 0.1 mm minor divisions) and focusing wire into sharp focus by turning the reticle focusing ring
and droplet focusing ring, respectively. (The assigned viewer in the group must do this)
8. Adjust the horizontal filament knob until the right edge of the focusing wire is the brightest. (This means
that the beam of light is perpendicular to the long axis of the scope)
9. Turn the vertical filament adjustment knob until the light is brightest on the wire in the reticle.
10. Remove the focusing wire and return it to its storage.
11. Reassemble the droplet viewing chamber by placing the droplet hole cover first, and the housing, then the
lid.
12. Connect the High Voltage DC power Supply to the plate voltage connectors using banana plug patch
cords and adjust to deliver 500 V.
23
Experiment 3. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
13. Measure the voltage, , through connecting a digital multimeter to the plate voltage connectors. (Do not
measure voltage across capacitor plates)
14. Measure the temperature in the chamber by connecting an ohmmeter to the thermistor connectors in the
apparatus. Refer to Appendix A and B to determine .
15. Measure every 15 minutes throughout the experiment as the temperature may change in the chamber
due to exposure to the heat generated by the halogen lamp.
16. Prepare the atomizer by rapidly squeezing the bulb until oil is spraying out.
Figure 3.4. (a) Mounting of Millikan Apparatus; (b) Droplet Housing Chamber; and, (c) Focusing set up
17. Move the ionization source lever to the Spray Droplet Position. This allows air to escape when oil drops
are being introduced to the chamber.
18. Place the nozzle of the atomizer into the hole on the lid of the droplet viewing chamber.
19. While observing through the scope, squeeze the atomizer bulb with one quick squeeze. Force the
droplets through the droplet entry hole by squeezing the atomizer bulb, again, this time slowly.
20. When there is a shower of drops through the viewing screen, move the ionization source lever to OFF.
21. Choose a droplet that falls slowly (0.02 0.05 mm/s) for both cases when plates are grounded (PLATES
GROUND POSITION) and when driven up and down (TOP PLATE or TOP PLATE +)
22. When you have found the one, fine tune the focus of the viewing scope.
23. Measure the rise (plates charged) and fall (plates not charged) velocities of the selected droplet about
10 20 times or until it moves out of view, record in Table (1) and take the average. Maneuver the droplet
as needed using the plate voltage switch.
24. Calculate the charge on that droplet. If charge is more the 5 , select slower droplets.
25. Repeat the procedure, choosing another droplet.
26. Bring the droplet to the top of the field of view and move the ionization lever to the ON position for a few
seconds as the droplet falls.
27. If the rising velocity of the droplet changes, make as many measurements of the new rising velocity as
you can (10 to 20 measurements). Repeat the procedure for 5 more droplets (or different sets of rise and
fall velocities).
POST PROCESSING:
1. At the end of the experiment, you will be able to calculate the charge on each droplet. Expect droplets
consisting of multiples of that of the elementary charge (i.e. 5 ). Discuss among the group how you will
be able to calculate the elementary charge from that set of data. Record the discussed procedure in the
worksheet.
24
Experiment 3. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
WORKSHEET
Drop 2
Drop 3
25
Experiment 3. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
WORKSHEET
Drop 5
Drop 6
26
Experiment 3. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
WORKSHEET
27
Experiment 3. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
WORKSHEET
GUIDE QUESTIONS:
2. How does the experimental charge compare to the theoretical 1.602 1019 charge of the
electron? What are the sources of error?
3. What possible measures could the experimenters take to reduce human error in the experiment?
28
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
OBJECTIVES:
PRINCIPLES:
Electrons are emitted (almost instantaneously) when light is shone on some metallic surfaces. This
phenomenon is called the photoelectric effect.
The light incident on the surface gives its energy, , to one electron in the surface of a metal (where is
the Plancks constant, and is the frequency of the light).
Einsteins model of light represents the radiation as a quanta of light (a photon) with the energy equal to
. This amount of energy is absorbed by one electron. However, if the electron that absorbed the energy is below
the surface, some of its energy is lost as it works toward the surface of the material. This is called the metals work
function, , which also represents the bond of the electrons to the metal.
If the quanta energy is greater than the work function, then electrons are emitted with a maximum kinetic
energy of
= 0 . (4.1)
0
= (4.2)
There is zero photocurrent when the emitter and collector plates are
charged to the stopping potential. By increasing the applied voltage, the
photocurrent will increase quickly and reach a saturation point dependent on
the radiations intensity.
29
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
LABORATORY PROTOCOL
MATERIALS:
PROCEDURE
A. SET UP PROCEDURE
1. Cover the window of the Mercury Light Source enclosure with the Lamp Cap.
2. Cover the window of the Photodiode with the Photodiode Cap.
3. Turn on the power supply, mercury lamp, and the photoelectric effect apparatus.
4. Warm up the light source for 20 minutes.
5. Set the Voltage Range Switch to 2 0V and the Current Range switch to 1013 .
6. Disconnect the A, K, and down arrow (ground) cables from the back of the apparatus.
7. Press the Phototube Signal to Calibration and adjust the current calibration knob until the current
is zero.
8. Press the Phototube Signal button to Measure.
9. Reconnect the removed A, K, and down arrow cables.
B. PLANCKS CONSTANT
1. Uncover the Photodiode Enclosure and place the 4-mm diameter aperture and 365 nm filter on
the window of the enclosure.
Note: Never let the light from the Mercury Light Source shine directly (no filters) into the
Photodiode enclosure.
1. Repeat Step A (1 9) to calibrate the Set up. But this time set the Voltage range and the Current
Range on the apparatus to 2 +30 V and 1011 , respectively.
2. Uncover the Photodiode (while the light source is covered) and place the 4-mm diameter aperture
and the 436-nm filter in the window.
3. Uncover the window of the Light Source.
4. Adjust the 2 +30 V voltage adjust knob until the current display is zero. Record the voltage
current in Table 1.4.
5. Increase the voltage by 1 V. Record the new voltage and current.
6. Continue to increase the voltage until 30 V.
7. Cover the window of the Mercury Light Source.
8. Plot the current vs. voltage in Figure 4.3.
9. Repeat Step C (2 7) for 2 mm and 8 mm diameter aperture (using the 436-nm filter constant).
10. Repeat Step C (2 7) for 546 nm and 577 nm filter (using the 4mm diameter aperture).
30
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
WORKSHEET
I. PLANCKS CONSTANT
Table 4.1. Stopping Potential vs. Frequency (Data values) for all
Stopping Potential (V)
Wavelength Frequency (1014 ) 4 mm 2 mm 8 mm
365.0
404.7
435.8
546.1
577.0
31
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
WORKSHEET
32
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
WORKSHEET
33
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
WORKSHEET
Voltage (V)
34
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
WORKSHEET
Table 4.4: Current and voltage values of 436 nm, 546 nm, and 577 nm (4 mm aperture)
Current
Voltage 436 nm 546 nm 577 nm
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
35
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
WORKSHEET
Plot 4.3. Plot of I vs. V of 436 nm, 546 nm, and 577 nm (4 mm aperture)
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
36
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
WORKSHEET
37
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
WORKSHEET
GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. How does your calculated value of h for each different aperture compare to the accepted value, 0 =
6.626 1034 ?
2. What do you think may account for the difference if any between your calculated value of h and the
accepted value?
3. How can you find the value of the Work Function from the graph of Stopping Potential versus Frequency?
38
Experiment 4. Photoelectric Effect
WORKSHEET
5. How do the curves of current versus voltage for the one spectral line at three different intensities
compare? In other words, how are the curves similar to each other?
6. How do the curves of current versus voltage for the one spectral line at three different intensities
contrast? In other words, how do the curves differ from each other.
7. How do the curves of current versus voltage for the three spectral lines at a constant intensity compare?
In other words, how are the curves similar to each other?
8. How do the curves of current versus voltage for the three spectral lines at a constant intensity contrast? In
other words, how do the curves differ from each other.
39
PHYSICS 104.1 MANUAL
APPENDIX A: VISCOSITY OF DRY AIR AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE
40
PHYSICS 104.1 MANUAL
APPENDIX B: THERMISTOR RESISTANCE AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES (EXP 4)
41
References
PASCO Scientific Manuals. (n.d.). Retrieved from PASCO Scientific website: http://www.pasco.com
Giancoli, D. C. (2014). Physics Principles with Applications (7th ed.). United States of America: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Serway, R. A., & Faughn, J. S. (1995). College Physics (4th ed.). United States of America: Harcourt Brace
College Publishers.
Young, H. D., & Freedman, R. A. (2012). University Physics with Modern Physics (13th ed.). San Fransisco, CA:
Pearson Education, Inc.
42