Ity C

Ecological
footprint, climate
change and cities
Innovation of ecological footprint
calculation and presentation of
opportunities to mitigate adverse
impacts of climate change
in cities
Bratislava
Authors:
Ing. Zuzana Hudekov
Ing. Arch. Lorant Krajcsovics
Ing. Arch. Patrik Martin
RNDr. Eva Pauditov, PhD.
Ing. Tamara Rehkov, PhD.
Editor:
Vladimr Hudek, PhD.
REC Slovakia is grateful to

RNDr. Peter Mederly
Graphic design:
Areco, s.r.o., Bratislava
Bratislava
May 2007
ISBN 978-80-969436-7-8
The brochure has been compiled in the framework of the LIFE III project
URBECO Sustainable Urban Development and Mitigating Adverse Impacts
of Climate Change on Quality of Life and the Environment in Cities which was
implemented by the Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern
Europe (REC Slovakia) in 2005 2007 with financial support provided by the
European Commission LIFE Programme and Ministry of the Environment
of the Slovak Republic.
Content:
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1. Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 Basic reasons and interlinkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Potential consequences of greenhouse effect climate change . . . . . . . . . . 8
2. Climate change and cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1 Problems in current cities introduction into the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Relationship of a city and surrounding landscape in spatial plan concepts . . . 11
2.3 Sustainable urban development, EU policy and quality of life in cities . . . 12
2.4 Characteristics of changed environment in cities when compared
to surrounding landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Climate change consequences in cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3. Possibilities to mitigate impact preparing for climate change in cities . . . 17
3.1 Architecture and climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2 Building materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4. Ecological footprint and biocapacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.1 Basic terms introduction into the issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2 Use of biocapacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5. Calculation of ecological footprint of a city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1 Currently known procedures in calculation of ecological footprint of cities . . . . 32
5.2 Standards for calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national
level - (SGA EF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3 Standards for calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national
level - (SGA EF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Questionnaire survey methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6. Innovative calculation of ecological footprint using a new partial
indicator ecological stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.1 Review of current procedures in calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2 Innovation of ecological footprint calculation for cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.3 Calculation procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7. Proposals to reduce ecological footprint in relation to reducing
negative impacts of climate change in cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Summary in German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Summary in French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
List of Used Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Map of Karlova Ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Ecological Footprint, Climate Chnges and Cities
Innovation of Ecological Footprint Calculation and presentation of opportunities to mitigate adverse impacts of climate change in cities

Introduction
In accordance with the latest estimates by scientists, the warming and related
climate changes proceed more rapidly than generally expected before. Weather
extremes can cause unsustainable summer heat along with lack of water or risk
of transferable new diseases. In this area important role is played by vegetation.
Unfortunately, vegetation management is in spatial planning often neglected.
Use of appropriate building materials is also an important issue.
Our publication tries to outline theoretical assumptions of climate change
consequences in cities, describe potential of mitigating adverse impacts of
climate change and provide information for general and professional public on
theoretical assumptions in calculating ecological footprint. Our intention was to
present innovation of ecological footprint calculation, taking into consideration
ecological stability of a city (with a specific focus on micro-climate functions of
green areas). Finally, we have decided to present possibilities to reduce ecological
footprint and simultaneously to contribute to mitigating the climate change
threats.

1. Climate change
1.1 Basic reasons and interlinkages
There is a lot of discussion on climate change today. Although the public
receives from time to time ambiguous information, the Fourth Report on
climate change prepared by more than 600 scientists from the whole world
(1) is unambiguous in its conclusions. Major part of global increase of average
temperatures in the second half of the 20th century is very likely (2) caused by
monitored increase of anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations.
The following facts confirm alarming trend:
In the 20th century the temperatures grew approximately by 0.7 C and the
records since 1850 show ten warmest years after 1994.
Global rainfall over the land increased roughly by 1 %. The year 2002 was the
year of unprecedented floods in Central Europe.
Ice cap in Greenland is melting still faster. During the recent century the sea
level increased by 15 to 20 centimetres. Increase by 5 centimetres is attributed
to glacier melting and increase by further 2 to 7 centimetres is due to expan-
sion of water in oceans due to increased temperature of water.
Basic causes of global warming and climate change are described in Boxes 1 and 2
Box 1: Climate change
It is generally known that there would be no life without solar energy. Solar
energy warms the Earth surface when reaching it. The Earth is not only refle-
cting this energy but is changing it to infrared radiation (heat) as well. Due
to presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere which cover the Earth
the part of this energy is caught and never leaves the Earth. As distinct from
other planets without atmosphere, the Earth is still warm.
Huge volumes of gases (nitrogen and sulphur oxides, freon, methane, and
other gases) and water vapour began to be released into the atmosphere
after the industrial revolution accompanied by expansion of human activities.
Increased concentration of greenhouse gases leads to increasing amount of
caught solar energy and so to increasing temperature of the Earths atmo-
sphere. This phenomenon is called greenhouse effect.
1
IPPC report, February 2006 (IPCC involves 2,500 scientists from more than 130 countries and has operated
at the UN since 1988).
2
The term of very likely means more than 90 % probability.
Box 2: Greenhouse gases
Basic greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide and methane (both are
present in the atmosphere naturally, without them the temperature would
be cooler by 30 to 40oC than today). Other greenhouse gases are freon 11
and freon 12 (CFC-12) as well as other freons.
Carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas. In the course of millions years
plant have taken trillions tonnes of carbon and have conserved it in sediments
which have finally become resources of coal, oil and mineral gas. During
recent two centuries people started to withdraw and combust these resources
much more rapidly. At present, approximately 5.5 billion tonnes of carbon is
released annually into the atmosphere through combustion of fossil fuels.
Further 1.5 billion tonnes are released annually due to changes in land use,
such as deforestation. As compared to pre-industrial times, concentration
of atmospheric carbon has increased by 30 %.
Use of fossil fuels for energy production and in transport is the main sou-
rce of global emissions.
Forests (vegetation) and oceans constitute carbon-sinking areas which
absorb carbon from the atmosphere. In this way they create a balance in
relation to greenhouse gas emissions3.
1.2 Potential consequences of greenhouse effect climate change

Increasing amount of greenhouse gases is likely to speed up climate changes.
The scientists expect that the average global temperature of the Earth surface could
increase by 1.8 4.5 C by 2100 (however with considerable regional differences in
temperature growth), which corresponds to expected growth by 1.1 to 6.4 C, as
referred to in the 2004 report4. Climate warming will however lead to increasing
evaporation and subsequently to growth of average global rainfall. The IPPC Fourth
Report also expects the growth of world sea levels by 18 to 59 centimetres by
2100. Increase by additional 10 to 20 centimetres cannot be excluded in case of
continuing melting of polar glaciers, as recorded recently, which would result in
catastrophic effects in coastal zones (the 2001 report expected growth of sea level
by 89 centimetres). Along with melting of glaciers, long periods of drought, frequent
floods and lack of drinking water, the scientists point out also at other negative
3
Green Pack, REC 2004.
4
The IPPC Fourth Report (February 2006).
5
Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change, 2006.

effects, such as millions of climate refugees (200 million people will have to re-settle
by the middle of this century)5, strong winds, hurricanes and typhoons.
Increasing global temperatures can have other negative impacts on human health
and lives (decreased yields of crops in particular in Africa will cause huge famine, vast
areas of the world will face to modest or strong droughts). Increased temperatures
can cause expansion of mosquitos transferring diseases in new geographical areas
with subsequent spread of infectious diseases, such as encephalitis, malaria and
dengue fever. Moreover, higher temperatures in summers will cause increased death
incidence due to heat, especially in urban agglomerations, where temperatures are
higher by 3C when compared to surrounding landscape.
Alteration of temperatures and rainfall will probably lead to changes in
ecosystems and forest composition. Some forest ecosystems are likely to disappear
with subsequent extinction of some species. Many plant and animal species, which
will not be able to adapt to changed conditions, will be threatened and or will
extinct.
Box 3: Climate change and Slovakia
In the course of recent 100 years, climate change in Slovakia were demon-
strated by increase of average annual air temperature by 1.1C. This was
accompanied by decrease of annual sum of atmospheric precipitation by
5.6 % as average. Regional differences were recorded between the nor-
thern and southern parts of the territory. In the south this decrease was
10 % while in the north and north-east of Slovakia a growth by 3 % was
occasionally recorded during the whole century. Other climate change phe-
nomena include considerable decrease of relative air humidity (up to 5 %).
Snow cap has been also decreased on the whole territory of Slovakia. There
is gradual drying, in particular due to growing potential evapotranspiration
and decreasing soil humidity.
The 1996 2000 period was a period with the vastest floods. These flo-
ods affected relatively small territories. This increased aquosity was accom-
panied by low aquosity in areas which were not affected by extreme total
rainfall. There is a decreasing tendency in long-term flow rates of Slovak
rivers since 1990, except for the Danube river.
Bio-climatic conditions, altered due to climate change, adversely affect
forest ecosystems. This leads to appearance of appropriate conditions
for deciduous wooden plants (beech, maple, ash) at costs of spruce.
Modifications in time cycles of plants are expected due to climate changes.
Changes in vegetation periods can also be expected, such as sums of daily
temperatures, sums of photosynthetically active radiation, growth of eva-
potranspiration, etc.
10 Ecological Footprint, Climate Chnges and Cities
2. Climate changes and cities

2.1. Problems in current cities - introduction into the issue
At present, 75 % of Europeans live in cities6 (in Slovakia this figure is 56.5 %, see
Box 4). Cities are perceived as engines of regional development as they offer a broad
spectrum of functions and services (jobs, education, other services). Concentration
of inhabitants in cities brings a number of problems7. Permanent and excessive
growth of cities in landscape removes previously clear borders between the city and
its surrounding landscape, nature background of the city disappears under pressure
of economic activities. In many cities the core centre is surrounded by physically
separated new districts (new cities), these are however functionally connected to the
city core. This leads to permanently increasing demand for transport, in particular
road transport, loss of biodiversity and fragmentation of natural environment. On
one hand, the city consumes a lot of resources in the form of mineral resources, water
and food, on the other hand it produces wastes, polluted air and water. Apart from
resources, the city could not develop without its hinterland, since its development
would be hampered for example by lack of labour forces. But cities would not have
so many services if demand for them were generated solely by city inhabitants.
Negative trends, along with excessive growth of cities, can be monitored within
the structure of cities. Preferring economic and other interests causes the decrease
of natural components green areas. Social polarisation and exclusion leads to
increased level of cultural and political conflicts, violence and criminality.
When compared to neighbouring countries, Slovakia has a unique settlement structure
with prevalence of small municipalities (see Box 4). Despite this, the above-mentioned
negative phenomena are equally manifested in large cities and centres of Slovak regions.
Box 4: Development of settlement structure in Slovakia during the recent period
Current situation in settlement structure is considerably affected by admi-

nistrative division of Slovakia (1996). Urban inhabitants prevail in Slovakia
(56.5 %). The 1980s were characteristic by a moderate growth of urban
population. In the 1990s this trend has slowed down considerably and the
size of urban population remains relatively stable.
Small and medium towns constitute the largest part of settlement.
Medium-large and large cities (more than 50 thousand inhabitants) are
the most important from the point of view of the number of inhabitants,
as they are inhabited by approximately 25 % of population. Large cities
are represented by Bratislava (428,672 inhabitants), Koice (236,093 inha-
bitants) and Preov (92,786 inhabitants).
11
2.2 Relationship of a city and surrounding landscape in spatial

plan concepts
The urban development has to be understood in a broader context, not only in
relation to nature hinterland of a city but also from the point of view of surrounding
landscape of which the city is an integral part.
Opposite to Middle Age towns, which were separated from surrounding landscape
by fortress, there is barrier-free connection between the city and its surroundings (so
called urban-rural continuum). According to a number of authors and works in the
area of spatial planning (e.g. O. Bounsted, 1953)8 the city can be divided to individual
parts on the basis of a concentric circles model with a clear gradient from the city core
to its peripheral parts. In accordance with this model the city can be divided to:
core of city,
urbanised parts of city,
peripheral parts of city.
This division of city can be monitored on the basis of a number of indicators,
such as population density, number of inhabitants commuting to work to the centre,
share of non-agricultural economic activities in the framework of overall economic
structure of population. Based on evaluation of these indicators it is possible to more
clearly define the border between urban and rural environment.
A number of works and studies deal with relations between the city and rural
areas. Together with other two areas they create basic thesis of the European Spatial
Development Perspective (see Box 5).
Box 5: Basic objectives and policy in the area of the European spatial planning9
The European Spatial Development Perspective deals with three main objectives:
economic and social cohesion,
maintaining natural resources and cultural heritage,
and balanced competitiveness in the European space.
These objectives are to be achieved through three basic policy guidelines in
spatial planning:
ensuring fair access to infrastructure and knowledge,
developing polycentric urban system and new urban-rural relationships,
sustainable development, sound management and protection of natural
resources and cultural heritage.
6
Towards Thematic Strategy on Urban Environment (COM 2004) 60 final.
7
Compiled according to The city as living Environment and driving force for development discussion Paper
for conference, the 10th Conference on urban and regional research, UNECE, Bratislava 2006.
8
Published in Selected Method and Models for Analysing Processes in Urban Regions, Vienna 2002.
9
ESDP - European Spatial Development Perspective, Towards Balanced and Sustainable Development
of the Territory of the European Union, European Communities, May 1999, pages 10 a 11.
The issue of new urban-rural relationships has been included also in the ESPON
Programme10. Functional urban areas, interesting also from our point of view, have
been investigated in the framework of the ESPON Programme. Functional urban areas
constitute a nodal region where cities offer goods, services and infrastructure (social,
educational and financial infrastructure) and in particular job opportunities for their
rural hinterland. Commuting to work is therefor the most often criterion to define a
nodal region as it relates to accessibility from the time point of view and depends not
only on distance but on transport connection among settlements as well (see Box 6).
Box 6: Assessment of functional urban areas in Slovakia
When assessing 119 urban centres in Slovakia which should have become
urban centres in so called functional urban areas (Hrdina, 2006)11 mainly eco-
nomic functions and services were taken into account. Territory of functional
urban areas has been defined as territory where 20 % of economically active
population work or commute to work in an urban centre of this functional
urban centre. Within Slovakia 92 functional urban areas have been created
since a number of originally assessed urban centres have been merged into
one functional urban area (e.g. Prievidza-Bojnice-Handlov).
2.3 Sustainable urban development, EU policy and quality of life

in cities
Environmental, social and economic aspects in cities are strongly interlinked.
The environment together with economic and social areas constitute basic pillars of
sustainable development.
One of the basic definitions of sustainable development in city and its surrounding
landscape has been formulated at the conference Sustainable Cities in Rio (2000)
see Box 7.
Box 7
Application of sustainability concept in a city means ability of an urban

area and surrounding region to continue in functioning at level of quality
of life required by local community without compromising the current
and future generations and without adverse impacts within and out of
the city .
10
ESPON Programme (European Spatial Planning Observation Network) has been established based on the
needs of the EU member states and the European Commission to broaden knowledge and extent of
research in the area of spatial planning from the European perspective.
11
Polycentric Concept of settlement development and urban development in the Slovak Republic, 2006, p. 10.
13
Sustainability of urban development is addressed by a number of documents

and initiatives12. Also the new cohesion policy of the European Union for the 2007
2013 period13 deals with cities and stresses the urban renewal, in particular in
former industrial areas. It states that quality urban environment contributes to
the priorities of Lisbon strategy which is aimed at making Europe more attractive
for labour, housing and investment. Moreover, it contributes also to alleviation of
pressures on peripheral urban areas which are otherwise growing without control
as urban inhabitants look for better quality of life.
Quality of life of urban inhabitants (and not only urban) closely relates to
quality of the environment. Threat of adverse effects of climate change will be
manifested strongly in the urban environment. Innovative calculation of ecological
footprint of city constitutes a certain link between the area of sustainable urban
development and reduction of adverse impacts of climate change. This innovative
calculation includes also importance of ecological stability of territory (with
specific focus on micro-climatic function of green areas).
2.4 Characteristics of changed environment in cities when

compared to surrounding landscape
Already today the urban environment differs from surrounding landscape in a
number of characteristics (temperature, humidity, air quality, etc.). It can be logically
expected that climate change will deepen these negative trends (see Chapter 1.2).
Temperature characteristics in cities, precipitation, air quality, etc.

Air temperature is the most important characteristic of climate. In urban settlements
there is high concentration of surfaces with large thermal capacity which are strongly
warmed up. This causes considerable heat accumulation in cities. Temperature grow-
th is also affected by the heat released from industrial processes, combusting engi-
nes in transport and the heating of residential houses. Common influence of these
factors leads to creation of so called heat islands. Literature describes a lot of data
on temperature deviations in cities from surrounding landscape reaching up to 2.5
to 3C (e.g. differences in temperature between Bratislava centre and surrounding
landscape in Zhorsk Bystrica or at the airport).
According to data from literature, temperature difference between city and its
surroundings is approximately 0.5 to 1.5oC. This, at the first glance negligible, dif-
ference in temperatures means relative change of altitude by 100 to 300 metres and
12
Hudekov, Mederly: Sustainable urban development in Slovakia, REC Slovakia 2005, pages 7- 8,
ISBN 80-969436-1-8.
13
Cohesion policy for growth and employment, Community strategic guidelines for 2007-2013,
ISBN 92-79-03489-8, page 29.
a shift by one vegetation level. Therefor species from Mediterranean and continental
areas are more appropriate in dry urban biotopes. Increased friction on rangy terrain
worsens movement of air up to the altitude of 1,000 metres over the city. Over the
city the air layers warm up and together with presence of condensation nuclei (dust
and aerosol) help to increase cloudiness over cities as compared to surrounding land-
scape. Annually this difference is 5 to 10 %. Increased cloudiness leads to increased
rainfall, but impermeable surfaces in cities and sewerage systems rapidly take the
water away from the territory.
Table 1: Basic climatic characteristics of the urban environment and comparison

with surrounding landscape 14, 15
climate characteristic difference between city volume of difference
and surroundings
air temperature + 0,5 to 3 C14 , 2-6 C15
cloudiness + 5 to 10 %
rainfall total + 5 to 20 %
fog incidence + 30 to 100 %
average air humidity - 20-60%
duration of snow cap - 2 to 18 dn
solar radiation - 10 to 30 %
Polluted air over city reduces amount of solar radiation and an average city receives
less solar radiation by 15 % when compared to open country. In winter months this
decrease is even 30 %. Table 1 shows the most important climate characteristics of
the urban environment and difference from surrounding landscape.
Air quality in cities is diverse, depending on density of activities, used fuels and
industrial technologies. Various technological processes, transport and housing
emit various gaseous chemical compounds, such as carbon oxides, sulphur oxides,
nitrogen oxides, fluorides, ammonia compounds, hydrocarbons, etc. When compared
the urban air to open country, the urban air contains 10 times more dust particles,
SO2 concentration is 5 times higher, CO2 concentration is 10 times higher and CO
concentration is 25 times higher. In 70-80 % of monitored cities the permitted value
of pollutants according to the WHO was exceeded at least once, e.g. there were
different developments in Eastern and Western Europe in case of SO2, positive trends
relate to strict emission standards and industrial restructuring.
14
Supuka J. et al.: Ecological principles of green area management. VEDA, Bratislava 1991.
15
EEA: Europes Environment: Dobr Assesment (modified), 1995.
15
Soil
Soils localised in urbanised areas and to some extent affected by urbanisation are
usually addressed as urban soils. Level of impacts on soils in the urban environment
is a sign of anthropogenic activity which can finally lead to creation of artificial soils
created by the man.
Degradation factors of urban soils include:

mixing soil layers and adding various soil types during construction of buildings
and infrastructure,
soil compaction caused by building machinery and automobile transport,
high content of big stones decreasing the space for water and nutrients,
soil degradation by pollutants in particular sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides,
heavy metals, halogens, arsenic, ash, whole-area worsening of soil properties
caused by pollutants imported by atmospheric precipitation,
soils in vicinity of transport corridors and pavements are degraded by salts in
form of chlorides,
exhaust gases are also sources of worsening of soil conditions,
gas discharges from pipelines (methane, ethane, propane) also deteriorate soil in
the urban environment as they replace the air in soil up to distance of 15 metres
with subsequent reduction processes, decrease of bioactivity and increase of soil
acidity. Discharge of oil substances constitutes a serious hazard and critical value
of total pollution of soil by oil is 0.5 kg.m-2.
Water
Surface water is an important visual phenomenon determining the nature of
many European cities. Importance of water is evident when assessing functions
provided to city by water. Many cities have been established near a water bodies or
rivers or at sea coast. In these cities water represents an important economic source
in relation to its role in water transport and recreation. Threatening water resources
in cities is visible, drinking water supply and supply of water for recreation are often
threatened. Cities affect and are affected by changes in hydrological regime caused
by urbanisation.
Water bodies are important also as habitats for wild plant and animal species
(wildlife) and also from the point of view of their impact on climate as they help to
cool air and stimulate air circulation.
Water bodies in cities are today under strong pressure due to expansion of built-
up areas, uncontrolled land and water use and pollutant discharge.
Rivers are polluted in particular by waste water and agricultural activities. In such
a way river receive organic compounds, nitrates, phosphorus, NH4, etc. Groundwater
is also threatened by excessive use and contamination.
2.5 Climate change consequences in cities

In accordance with Chapter 1.2 all negative phenomena will be apparent in
cities in a multiplied form (e.g. in 2020, London expects temperatures similar to
summer temperatures in southern France). The most apparent problems related
to climate change in cities will include:
Increased temperature (in case of heat waves the heat in cities will be multiplied
by heat island effect. According to the study worked out by the British and
American universities the temperature in cities can grow by 6 7 degrees when
compared to surrounding landscape)16;
Considerable decrease of relative air humidity;
Rainfall decrease aridisation (gradual drying, in particular due to increased
potential evaporation and decreased soil humidity);
Rainfall of storm nature potential local floods;
These negative trends will have a direct impact of vegetation in cities which
already today, depending on quality and quantity, plays an important role in
balancing temperature and other differences in climate and micro-climate of
cities.
16
Source: http://www.sme.sk/c/2873845/Viac-sa-otepli-vo-velkomestach.html
17
3. Possibilities to mitigate impact

preparing for climate change in cities
The time gap between reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and reduction of their
real concentration is large. It is likely that, if we do not manage to reduce emissions to
acceptable level, we will not avoid a certain degree of climate change which will occur
due to greenhouse gases incorporated already in the atmosphere. Therefore we need to
identify and implement measures to adapt to the climate change consequences.
The studies bring a number of areas where measures are necessary

a) in planning cities and new construction activities,
considering climate conditions in cities and supporting construction of new
parks, green areas (including green roofs)
using building materials allowing to reduce temperatures in cities,
proposing constructions ensuring proper thermal conditions both in winters
and summers,
increasing retention capacity of city territory, ensuring water supply and
protection against floods
b) in existing urban structure
- to re-construct buildings, energy and transport systems and infrastructure, to
renew and extend green areas in cities so that they are well adapted to extreme
weather phenomena17;
Picture 1 Supporting ventilation through proper city structure
17
Source: 6EAP (Environmental Action Plan for Europe)
3.1. Architecture and climate change
The most important factors affecting urban climate:

size and structure of the city,
thermal and hydrological properties of surfaces,
manner and nature of construction,
ratio of fixed and green areas,
extent of human activities (share of transport, industry in city, etc.).
Planning a new built-up area should take into consideration the increase of
temperatures in cities. Basic principles of ecologically oriented urbanism include
respecting climate factors of territory by correctly designed construction with
computer simulation for verification. Buildings and green areas should be designed
so as to allow better air circulation and ventilation at nights.
Based on comparison of heat inertia of various areas of a city it is apparent that

more intensively built-up areas are cooled much more slowly than surrounding
landscape. This is affected mainly by large heat inertia of building materials, less
green areas and slow movement of air due to dense and high buildings. The situation
in peripheral areas with more green areas and less dense construction is better.
Table 2 Differences in temperatures between various surfaces during days and

nights in city in Koln.
Surface T(20.00)/K T(3.00)/K DT(20.00-3.00)/K
Main road (in centre) 22 17 5

Main road (in landscape) 20 13 7
Building (in centre) 21 17 4
Building, periphery 21 13 8
Rail 21 12 9
Cemetery 19 12 7
Rhine 18 18 0
Forest 17 11 6
Field 14 9 5
Water constitutes a potential for improvement of micro-climate. Fountains and

water bodies have always been a part of historic squares and parks. Through drops
of aerosol and natural evaporation they increase air humidity and decrease its
temperature. Due to high accumulation capacity the water temperature increases
more slowly than surrounding surfaces and gradually evaporates.
19
Catching rainfall water plays an important role in ecological stability of landscape.

This water cools the environment, penetrates into soil and maintains natural ground-
water level. If we drain this water we increase the flood risk and dry housing envi-
ronment.
There is a number of possibilities how to catch rainfall water in residential areas.

Green roofs partly retain water and slow down run-off. Water from roofs and ter-
races can be collected in collection reservoirs. Pavements and fixed surfaces can be
built so as to allow water to flow to green areas. Using asphalt and other imper-
meable surfaces should be maximally avoided in favour of permeable materials (e.g.
paving directly in terrain).
Water courses help in air movement over water level and support ventilation and
cooling in surrounding areas. Some buildings use this cooler air and take it into their
air-condition systems (Danube House in Prague near Vltava).
The architecture will have to gradually adapt to increased temperatures in cities.
Air condition used so far is not a good solution for warmed-up buildings! Traditional
air-conditioning leads to electricity consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
which finally means global warming.
Room cooling is still more and more demanded, however this is very energy
intensive what we do not always realise. We can often listen about collapse of the
American energy network in summers which is during summer heats overloaded
by air-conditioning. There is a large disadvantage that electric energy due to losses
in transmission systems requires much more primary energy produced in power
plants which has adverse impacts on the environment. Therefor it is much more
appropriate to protect buildings against heats by passive technologies and avoid
the usage of future potential electric appliance.
Sufficient heat insulation constitutes a great contribution to ensure optimal

climate. It protects buildings both in winters and summers. Buildings with massive
inner constructions with accumulation capacities, which are therefore resistant to
strong temperature fluctuation, hold an advantage.
Measures oriented to shading transparent parts of buildings are also important.

Shading parts of buildings (marquises, lamellas, jalousie, roller-blinds, curtains)
are a simple but very important and effective components to maintain optimal
temperature of a building.
From the point of view cooling a building the internal shading is less efficient
than external shading as the solar radiation is blocked inside the room where a part
of thermal radiation has already been absorbed. When external shading facility is not
available, the internal shading is necessary.
Reflecting films and coatings, which are applied on glass and are often used on
administrative buildings, are capable to reflect as much as 85 % of radiation rea-
ching the surface. Such a coating however block radiation during the whole year
and is therefor unsuitable for low-energy or energy-passive houses, especially in
case of windows oriented to south. It can be efficient in case of unshaded win-
dows on administrative buildings oriented to east and west18. One of financially
most proper method how to cool a building is to use night cooler air for intensive
ventilation. This requires design and construction of windows.
The most efficient way for cooling is to use relatively stable temperature of soil
under terrain surface:
Groundwater
Groundwater has a big potential in this respect. Groundwater has relatively
stable temperature during the whole year (in winter it is warmer and in summer
cooler). Water used in winters for heat pumps can be used in summers in sys-
tems in ceilings or walls of buildings to efficiently and cost-effectively cool the
building.
Active ventilation with recuperation

Using a system for active cooling of a building with ventilation system is
another opportunity. Incoming external warm air is being cooled in summer in an
underground register and can be then used to air the rooms. This solution is used
mainly in energy-passive houses. These houses have a unit with recovery of heat.
In winters we are able to use as much as 80 % of heat from outgoing air which
would be otherwise discharged through windows.
Underground localisation of a building

Localisation of a part of a building under ground is able for some typological
kinds of constructions. Ground offers more balanced internal temperature which
18
These films are recommended for windows with partial shading as they absorb solar radiation and warm
the glass unevenly. Uneven warming of glass can cause its breaking or damage of insulation between glass
tables.
Source: http://www.inforse.dk/europe/fae/OEZ/slnko/slnko.html#TOP
21
helps in heating and in particular in cooling. However, such a situation is very

difficult from the point of view of costs and we can see it mainly in the sub-tropic
zones with low rainfall.
Results of studies showed that houses with sufficient accumulation mass and
passive solar and ventilation systems can better face the climate change, while
current buildings with large windows start suffering from heat.
3.2. Building materials

Increasing temperatures in cities are affected by construction materials, paving
and facing, which are being warmed by solar radiation, depending on colour,
structure and orientation. They have very low content of water (concrete only 4 %)
which results in weak reflection of heat and its accumulation in built surfaces (roads,
parking areas, roofs, walls, etc.). Large fixed surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation
can heat up to 50C and radiate this heat for many hours, contributing so to the
heating of air during nights.
It is therefor very important to create green areas and water bodies in cities (e.g.
through planting trees on parking areas) so as to alleviate the heating of spaces and
make the micro-climate more comfortable (see also Chapter 3.3).
Graph 1
Problem of summer overheating of vertical surfaces has not been taken into
consideration so far19. Building materials in our geographical zone are designed so as
to prevent thermal losses in winters and so to save energy resources needed to heat
the buildings.
Paints, ability of a material to accumulate heat and absorb water also affect the
heating. Water, when changing from liquid to gaseous state, absorbs a lot of heat
and cools the surface. Simultaneously, it increases the air humidity and makes the
surrounding environment more comfortable.
Graph 2
19
Glass-concrete is an exemption as it has to be separated from other parts of construction due to changes
of external temperature. Glass material changes its dimensions, so proper conditions have to be respected,
otherwise the glass material could be damaged (broken).
23
Bright colours and glittering surfaces should be used on facades as they reflect
radiation generally better than dark colours. In case of dark colours there is larger
absorption and radiation in infrared spectrum which is perceived as heat. Heat is
strongly absorbed mainly by dark asphalt surfaces under which there is often concrete
and after warming it has a capacity to radiate for a long time. Speed of heat transfer
depends on temperature difference between the heat source and the area where the
heat is being released.
Some studies have shown that cities could save electric energy for air-conditioning
in summers if the facades of buildings were painted with bright colours.
Roof coverings are designed primarily to protect against water and solar
radiation. Using green roofs constitutes a great potential. These roofs retain rain
water and release it in form of water vapour. Retained water does not constitute
a burden for sewerage and reduces the flood risk. Climbing plants can also play a
positive role. Walls of a house are exposed during the whole year to solar radiation
and face to large changes in temperature. Unshaded faade can be heated during a
warm day up to 40oC, while temperature of the wall under the green cover is lower
even by 15oC with positive effect on temperature inside the building. Climbing
plants alleviate extremes between interior and exterior. Leaves of climbing plants
catch solar radiation and produce water steam due to transpiration which makes
the space cooler. Layer of leaves also alleviates impacts of winds and catches rainfall
water. The air layer between the wall and plants creates a thermal bumper between
interior and exterior. Some studies have shown that this bumper can reduce losses
of energy in winter by 3 5 %.
Climbing plants are divided according to manner how they climb the wall:
winding, with tendrils and with sticking roots. Plants with tendrils grow on trellages
and are rooted in soil. They do not constitute any risk for a building. These plants
include Virginia creeper, clematis, wine tree. Planting species with sticking roots is not
recommended as these plants could damage the faade (hydrangea, English ivy).
Properly designed and applied greening of the wall prolongs life of the faade.
Graph 3
3.3 Vegetation
Green areas are starting to play an important role especially in urban settlements
in relation to global warming and climate change, in particular as regards:
increasing temperature (first of all summer heats),
decreasing relative air humidity.
It is generally known that green areas fulfil a number of functions, some of which
are directly connected to quality of the environment (brief survey in Box 8):
25
Box 8
Micro-climate function is understood as ability of green areas to affect

by their transpiration activities the air humidity, to provide shade, to
decrease changes in temperatures, etc. For example a large birch can
evaporate as much as 7,000 litres of water during vegetation period,
city parks reduce temperature by 1C when compared to temperature on
streets (on average). Green areas increase air humidity (by 5 to 7 % on
average).
Insulation function is understood as ability of green areas to reduce
noise, catch dust, absorb xenobiotic substances, etc. E.g. 50-year old
maple (Acer platanoides) absorbs 0.0295 kg of sulphur, 0.0860 kg of
chlorine and 0.0039 kg of fluorine during vegetation period. Woods
and bushes have positive impacts on air quality, serve as filter for dust
(studies present data on 20 g of dust particles per square metre of leaf
surface). Reducing noise in urban areas and reducing wind speed are also
important functions of vegetation
Other functions of green areas relating to quality of the environment in cities are
also important (brief survey in Box 9):
Box 9
Recreational function of urban green areas is important mainly in urbanised

environment where it provides an opportunity of a short-term recreation for
inhabitants. Recreational function is affected also by non-living components,
such as availability of benches, playing grounds for children, etc.
Psychological / esthetical function of green areas means its ability to increase
attractiveness of the urban environment. Esthetical function of green areas
is irreplaceable, though its importance is often underestimated. Beauty of
wooden plants is very diverse depending on year season and it esthetically
positively affects the psychic of human beings. Esthetical function is largely
affected by composition of planting and its maintenance.
Refugial function of green areas creation of refugees for plants and
animals which are pushed away from intensively used landscape.
Topical function of green areas ability to provide animals with refugee,
nesting, etc. Coniferous woods as nesting place, resting and sleeping place
for birds.
Trophical function of green areas plants as sources of food for various
animals.
Due to these reasons it is necessary to monitor in cities:

share of green areas on territory of settlement structures,
availability of green areas for inhabitants,
amount (size) of green areas per one inhabitant,
continuity of green areas in the structure of a municipality in connection to
surrounding landscape.
Availability of green areas and public spaces for inhabitants reaches in some
European cities the value of 100 % (Brussels, Copenhagen, Paris, Milan, Madrid), while
in Bratislava the availability of green areas for inhabitants was 63 % according to 1995
data20, and some of these areas have already been built-up during recent years.
In summer 2005, measurements in the modelled territory of Bratislava (city
part Karlova Ves) and Pieany were carried out in order to get first knowledge
on relationship between air temperature, humidity in dependence on a type
of environment. Climate data were gained with the use of thermometers and
hygrometer GFTH200 HYGRO-Thermometer Greisinger electronic, which measures
humidity in the range of 0 to 100 % and temperature from 20C up to +70C with
accuracy of 0.1 % or 0.1C respectively. Temperature and humidity were measured
at various sites and data were registered in prepared forms. Based on these
measurements, the temperature measured in selected anthropogenic and natural
biotopes and in other components of landscape structure in the modelled territory
of Bratislava - Karlova Ves differed by 14C on the average (the lowest temperature
was measured in an oak horn-beam forest). Survey presented in table ???.
Table 3: Differences in measured temperature from the temperature in the oak

horn-beam forest in the modelled territory of Bratislava Karlova Ves
Item No. Category Measured temperature Difference
1 Parks 29,1 0,9

2 Gardens at family houses 31,2 3,05
3 Cultural vegetation in residential structures 31,9 3,75
(high share of fixed surfaces)
4 Cultural vegetation in residential structures 30,8 2,65
(low share of fixed surfaces)
5 Cemeteries 28,2 0,05
6 Carpathian oak horn-beam forests 28,15 0
7 Built-up areas, industrial and trade 42,8 10,35
premises almost without vegetation
20
EEA: Europes Environment: Dobr Assessment (modified), 1995
27
Measurements in terrain in 200621 confirmed that vegetation cover with

various structure had strong micro-climate effect. Differences in measured values
of temperature and relative humidity of air confirmed that the use of various
vegetation formations to improve micro-climate in the urban environment
was justified. Considerable differences have been recorded between selected
indicators, e.g. maximal difference in temperature was as much as 14.6oC
between temperature of air on grass and under a solitaire tree (measuring on the
level of terrain). Cooling effect was apparent on all surfaces with wooden plants.
Surprisingly, high air temperatures were recorded on grass which were sometimes
comparable to temperatures on asphalt surfaces (road, parking area).
The highest relative air humidity was under a solitaire tree which corresponds to
assumption that older and larger trees create more stable climate.
Even larger difference in temperature was detected depending on ratio of
impermeable built-up surfaces to green areas with high representation of wooden
plants, where maximal temperature difference was 17C (temperature 48C
measured in technical and transport premises compared to 27C measured in parks
with prevailing trees and bushes) and even 22C difference between watercourse
and parking area without vegetation.
When planting the wooden plants it is necessary to take into consideration not
only the current state of the environment in a city (see Chapter 2.4 - Characteristics
of changed environment in cities when compared to surrounding landscape) but
future warming in urban areas as well. When planting new vegetation the following
aspects should be taken into account:
introduction of new species (taxons) which have not been so far suitable for our
current conditions (e.g. due to increased requirements for temperature)22,
introduction of wooden species resistant to high summer droughts (e.g. with
narrow leaves),
preparation to the shift of altitudinal vegetation zones and related selection of
skeleton wooden plants for planting in urban areas in accordance with expected
increase of temperature23,
avoiding to plant some invasive wooden species (Ailanthus altissima, Negudno
aceroides), spread of which is supported by increased temperature.
21
Rehkov, Pauditsov: Practical experience with evaluation of micro-climate function of vegetation in the
urban environment, 2006
22
Jaroslav Machovec: Dusledky globlnch klimatickch zmen na sadovnicku tvorbu ve mestech in Sdlo, park krajina
(Consequences of global climate change to gardens management in Sdlo, park, landscape), abstracts, 2002 ISBN
80-8069-170-3
23
Jaroslav Machovec: Garden dendrology, SPN Prague, p. 107
3.4. Conclusions
In general to design composition of buildings and green areas in a city so as to
enable better air circulation supporting ventilation during nights, replacing warm
air with cooler air from surrounding landscape;
To increase share of vegetation, especially in built-up city centres (planting trees in
rows, on parking places, between road lanes, alternative use of vegetation e.g.
on roofs where vegetation slow down water run-off, climbing plants, etc.);
Ratio of wooden plants (trees) to grass should be more than 60 %;
Taking into consideration the species composition in relation to the shift of
vegetation zones under the climate change conditions;
Using a water component fountains, watercourses, retaining rainfall water -
water from roofs and terraces can be collected in collection reservoirs. Pavements
and fixed surfaces can be built so as to allow water to flow to green areas;
To increase a retention capacity of the territory using permeable materials
and constructions and avoiding the use of impermeable materials (asphalt,
concrete);
Looking after sufficient thermal insulation of buildings;
Shading of transparent parts of buildings. Parts of buildings providing shade are
a simple but very important element to maintain optimal internal temperature in
a building;
Bright colours and glittering surfaces should be used on facades which reflect
radiation better than dark colours.
29
4. Ecological footprint and biocapacity
4.1 Basic terms introduction into the issue
Today we all realise that our planets resources are limited. In the recent decade
the ratio between available resources and their global consumption began to
be expressed in a so called ecological footprint (hereinafter referred to as FP).
Ecological footprint determines how much natural resources is consumed by an
individual, city, region, state or all inhabitants of our planet in order to ensure their
requirements and needs. It includes all activities, from food consumption, housing,
transport to waste produced and allows us to compare particular activities and their
impacts on the environment and natural resources. Ecological footprint is important
for making sustainable development issue more popular, using simplifications which
provide the public with basic information on situation on our planet.
Ecological footprint is measured in so called global hectares (gha). Global
hectare is 1 hectare of biologically productive space with average world
productivity. In 2001, the biosphere had 11.2 billion hectares of biologically active
areas which corresponded approximately to one fourth of the planets surface. This
area of 11.2 billion hectares covers 2.3 billion hectares of waters (ocean shelves
and inland waters) and 9 billion hectares of dry land. The dry land consists of 1.5
billion hectares of crop land, 3.5 billion hectares of pastures, 3.9 billion hectares of
forests and 0.2 billion hectares of built-up areas24.
Bio-productivity (biological productivity) is identical with biological productivity
per hectare and per year. Biological productivity is normally measured as
accumulation of biomass per year.
Biocapacity is usable capacity of biological production during given year on a
biologically productive area, expressed also in global hectares.
Based on known and available data, ecological footprint and biocapacity can be
calculated for an individual, municipality, state, etc. The WWF publishes annually
a report on ecological footprint of world states. On the basis of this report, total
ecological footprint of our planet is 2.2 gha, while biocapacity is only 1.8 gha25.
Recalculation of various land and sea types ha/gha uses so called equivalence
factors which express relative (world, i.e. global) bioproductivity. Yields factors
are used to make a more precise specification at country level, determining
bioproductivity of particular countries.
Equivalence factors (see table 4) constitutes the amount of global hectares
contained in an average hectare of crop land, built-up territory, forests, pastures
24
Mathis Wackernagel et all.,2005
25
WWF Report, National Footprint 2005
or fisheries area. Equivalence factors are derived from sustainability index and
expressed according to so called global agri-ecological zones (GAEZ, 2000)26.
Equivalence factors describe potential yield which can be achieved under expected
use of irrigation, fertilisers, etc. It should be noted that this expression of potential
production is different from the perception of ecosystem productivity known as a
net primary productivity (Wackernagel, 2005).
Table 4: Equivalence factor (amount of global hectares contained in average hectare)
Land type Equivalence factor
Main crop lands 2.19

Marginal crop lands 1.80
Forests 1.38
Pastures - meadows 0.48
Water areas 0.36
Built-up area 2.19
Yield factor determines to what extent a biologically productive area in a given

country is more or less productive in comparison to a global average of the same area
of a bioproductive space. It reflects technology level and fertility in a given country.
Graph 4: shows FT of continents (from the WWF report: National Footprint 2005)
26
http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/GAEZ/index.htm
31
4.2 Use of biocapacity

In accordance with the above-mentioned each inhabitant of our planet should
use not more than 1.8 global hectares in order to assure environmental sustainability.
In practice it means a substantial reduction of resource consumption on one hand
(developed countries of the North) and increasing use of the Earths biocapacity on
other hand (developing countries). A number of highly developed countries with a
high level of welfare measured as human development index27 (hereinafter referred to
as HDI) have relatively low ecological footprint. Human development index includes
average life expectancy, education level and gross domestic product per capita. If we
would like to evaluate countries oriented really towards sustainable development,
such countries would be located on an intersection point of two axes: axe of the
planets biocapacity available and axe of HDI index equal to 0.8 or higher.
Ecological footprint and biocapacity are used to clearly and understandably
demonstrate:
extent of requirements of human population to ensure its existence under current
needs and technology,
whether average consumption per capita is sustainable and fair in comparison to
the global, worldwide consumption and biocapacity available.
Today we know calculations of global (worldwide), national and local ecological
footprints. As this publication deals with issues of cities we will not present a
methodological basis for calculation of national or global ecological footprint, but
we will concentrate on calculation of citys ecological footprint.
27
http://hdr.undp.org/hg
5. Calculation of ecological footprint

of city
5.1 Currently known procedures in calculation of ecological
footprint of cities
A number of calculations are available today. The Redefining Progress

organisation belongs to the pioneers in this area28. This organisation has created
a methodology for calculation of a citys ecological footprint on the basis of
determining the amount of renewable and non-renewable ecologically productive
area which is required to ensure all resources for urban inhabitants and to absorb
wastes. The following data are used in calculation (table 5 29):
Table 5 Redefining Progress offers calculation

of EF by a number of manners (for pay-
number of inhabitants
ment according to difficulty level)30:
total citys area
consumption of energy by origin 1. A basic footprint calculation
consumption of natural gas based on available data (usually from
consumption of petrol national statistics) about energy use,
number of vehicles housing, consumption of goods and
number of miles driven services, transportation and waste
sort, age and number of housing units recycling together with available
recycling database which would allow potential
biocapacity (area of various landscape types)
reduction of citys EF under application
food consumption*
of some environmental friendly activities
purchase of goods*
(increasing share of waste separation,
services used
reducing car transportation, etc.) or its
* If local data is not available these calculations are
increase.
usually estimated by national average.
2. Calculation of EF based on more precise local data which can be gained

through local surveys, from local tax offices and local waste disposal enterprises,
etc.
28
http://www.redefiningprogress.org/
29
Redefining Progress: Sustainable Indicators Program, Reducing a Citys Ecological Footprint: The Case of
Santa Monica , Jason Venetoulis, May 2004
30
The use of Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity Analyses as Sustainability Indicators for Subnational
Geographical Areas: A Recommended Way Forward, Final Report 27th August 2001
33
3. A footprint adapted to particular planning needs and further development

of a city, such as improving a citys storm water management planning process.
This EF calculation would allow demonstrating both the ecological and economic
benefits of adopting measures to increase retention capacity of a surrounding
landscape and to simulate volume of EF for a number of variants of solution.
Under this framework, Redefining Progress would measure both the ecological
footprint and the environmental deficit a measure of the externalized economic
costs generated by natural resource degradation or depletion such as the costs
associated with increases in the frequency and severity of urban flood events.
Following tables show values of ecological footprint for the city of Santa
Monica in 1990 and 2000 (expressed in acres). The data in tables show reduction
of ecological footprint in Santa Monica (e.g. also due to increasing recycling
rate). Ecological footprint is presented in acres. However, as already mentioned in
Chapter 4, ecological footprint is usually presented in global hectares with the use
of equivalence factors:
Table 6
1990 Built-up Pastures Fisheries Forests Agricultural Energy Total eco-
areas areas areas areas logical
footprint
Energy 0 0 0 0 0 412,937 412,937
Households 3,929 0 0 46,133 0 19,104 69,166
Food 0 38,335 55,127 0 293,846 148,404 535,712
Goods and 3,439 4,902 0 138,226 34,563 414,684 595,815
services
Transport 3,070 0 0 0 0 264,749 267,819
Recycling 0 0 0 0 0 -16,403 -16,403
10,438 43,237 55,127 184,359 238,409 1,243,475 1,865,045
Tab..7
2000 Built-up Pastures Fisheries Forests Agricultural Energy Total eco-
areas areas areas areas logical
footprint
Energy 0 0 0 0 0 400,851 400,851
Households 3,929 0 0 48,394 0 19,958 72,281
Food 0 37,091 53,337 0 284,308 143,587 518,323
Goods and 3,598 4,743 0 122,037 33,441 366,116 529,935
services
Transport 3,070 0 0 0 0 266,705 269,775
Recycling 0 0 0 0 0 -32,806 -32,806
10,597 41,834 53,337 170,431 317,749 1,164,411 1,758,359
5.2 Calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national level

(SGA EF)
A tool for calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national level (SGA sub-
national geographical area) was worked out in 2001 2003 within the framework
of the European Common Indicators Project (ECIP). Data based on international
trade analyses and on methodology of known EF calculation at global level were
taken into account in calculation. A number of stakeholders were participating in
creating this tool which adopted the following criteria31:
A responsibility principle was taken into account in creating SGA EF (there
is a fundamental difference between calculating EF for a given territory and
calculating consumption of inhabitants living in this territory. This difference is
quite apparent in case of smaller city with an important airport on its territory.
When airport impact is taken as a part of EF, we speak of a geographical
principle. When only impact attributable to inhabitants is taken into account,
we speak of responsibility principle).
Equivalence factor for built-up territory was set as 1.
Data known at national level are modified to local level in case of SGA EF (e.g.
although the inhabitants of Scotland constitute only 8.6 % of UKs population,
they consume 12 % of energy, that means that EF of energy equal to 12 % will
be taken into calculation)
It was recommended to compare EF and biocapacity only at global and
national levels. Comparison at local level is not recommended as it is absolutely
clear that cities cannot exist only within limits of biocapacity of their own
territory.
The following table provides a demonstration of SGA EF (according to Craig
Simmons) for the Czech Republic. Data for regional/local level have not been modified
yet (in this example regional level means national level see line 2). This is
modified in accordance with a concrete situation in a particular region or city.
Table 8
Energy Cereals Pastures Forests Built-up Fisheries Total
territory
Czech Republic (2004) 2,95 0,92 0,14 0,69 0,15 0,14 4,99
Regional EF 2,95 0,92 0,14 0,69 0,15 0,14 4,99
Food 0,17 0,68 0,14 0,14 1,13
Housing 0,27 0,02 0,05 0,33
Mobility 0,42 0,01 0,43
Goods and services 2,09 0,11 0,00 0,28 0,09 0,00 2,57
Construction 0,14 0,39 0,53
31
The use of Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity Analyses as Sustainability Indicators for Subnational
Geographical Areas: A Recommended Way Forward, Final Report 27th August 2001
35
5.3 Standards for calculation of ecological footprint at sub-nati-

onal level - (SGA EF) 32
Global Footprint Network33 started dealing with standards for calculation of
ecological footprint since it can be seen that various approaches are applied in
calculations. This inconsistency reduces the value of calculation and possibility to
compare particular calculations and can led even to a false interpretation. Based
on the standards, consumption shall be expressed for particular kinds of land use.
Results of standards should be available after approving and commenting in a
short time.
5.4 Questionnaire survey methodology

Along with the above-mentioned examples it is possible to use a methodology
of survey questionnaire which is derived from the original methodology of the
Redefining Progress organisation34, modified according to RNDr. Viktor Tebick
from the Czech Ecopolicy Institute35.
Inhabitants fill in questionnaires with a series of questions which are based on
consumption, transport, housing (see below). When carrying out a questionnaire
survey it is necessary to maintain representativeness laid down in accordance with
a concrete demographic situation in a concrete city. Following aspects are taken
into account in calculation of EF for a city (source Best food forwards):
- Foods foods based on plant and animal sources and related energy;
- Shelter consumption of energy in households, lands for housing, use of
building and heating wood by households and energy for building purposes;
- Mobility energy used for transport purposes by transport modes and built-up
areas needed for these transport modes;
- Goods and services impact of energy related to industrial production, export/
import, providing services and using plant and animal products from wood
and paper.
Table 9 presents a brief evaluation of ecological footprint of selected Slovak cities
and related comparison (research and calculation of ecological footprint were car-
ried out in 2005)
32
http://www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=standards
33
34
http://www.redefiningprogress.org/programs/sustainabilityindicators/ef/
35
more information at www.hraozemi.cz
Table 9 and graph 5 Average ecological footprint of model cities (gha per capita)
Dubnica Levice Pieany Prievidza Trnava Zvolen
Shelter 0,87 0,99 0,83 0,92 0,90 1,35

Transport 0,19 0,17 0,19 0,18 0,21 0,18
Food 0,96 0,94 0,87 0,93 0,96 0,94
Goods and services 1,56 1,78 1,43 1,77 1,79 2,53
Total EF 3,58 3,88 3,32 3,80 3,86 5,00
37
6. Innovation of ecological footprint

calculation using a new partial
indicator ecological stability
6.1 Review of current procedures in calculation
Currently, there are several drawbacks in calculation of ecological footprint,
though the calculation methodology is still improving. Ecological footprint
calculation includes, for example, current consumption and availability of
resources, however without negative impact on the environment (e.g. destruction
of ecosystems, deforestation, acid rain effects) which will be manifested in the
future in the form of biocapacity reduction. Similarly, other sustainability areas are
ignored too, such as social and environmental areas.
Built-up areas are perceived with a certain hesitation in calculations. Areas

needed for housing infrastructure, transport, industrial production and hydropower
plants cover a substantial part of the world bioproductivity. Based on the WWF
report, assessing the global ecological footprint, this area is the least documented
as the satellite pictures with low resolution are not able to reproduce dispersed
infrastructure and roads36. The best estimates say that from global point of view
the built-up areas cover 0.2 billion hectares. Since from historical point of view
cities were localised in fertile agricultural areas with suitable climate and access to
fresh water, calculations are determined by an assumption that the built-up areas
cover medium cultivated areas. It is assumed that the built-up areas have replaced
the crop lands since human settlements are usually situated in the most fertile
landscape areas. In 2001, the footprint of built-up areas was 0.44 billion global
hectares, but preciseness of this calculation is limited by the above mentioned
uncertainties in background data.
Moreover, a number of elements can be distinguished within the built-up

territory of a city: really built-up areas (areas covered by impermeable surface,
such as roads, buildings, parking areas, trade and industrial premises), but also
various types of anthropogenic and natural biotopes. Green areas play important
role not only from the point of view of city climate with considerable climate
change consequences but for assessing the stability of urban environment as
well.
35
(using data from CORINE (EEA 1999), GAEZ (FAO/IIASA 2000) and GLC (JRC/GVM 2000)
Ecological stability indirectly affects also other components of ecological

footprint. Suburbanisation with growth of transport needs (moving to suburbs
due to inappropriate environment in city centres leads to excessive urban growth
and increasing transport demands), growth of energy consumption, etc. Defining
the term of ecological stability and its evaluation is relatively complicated
methodological process. With a certain simplification we can say that ecological
stability of urban territory is increasing with growing green areas in a city. When
calculating ecological footprint this partial indicator is not taken into account. This
situation is caused also by the fact that it is impossible to distinguish various types
of surfaces by satellite pictures (see paragraph above, e.g. in urban areas gardens
are not distinguished from paved surfaces, cultural vegetation from large parking
area at shopping centre, etc.).
6.2 Innovation of ecological footprint calculation for cities

If we perceive ecological footprint as numeral expression of human impacts on
landscape, we can assume that there is direct relationship between the value of
ecological footprint, level of ecological stability of landscape and level of impact
caused by human activities.
Intensive use of territory is accompanied by changes in landscape structure
characteristic in particular by loss of natural and seminatural components (forests,
meadows, gardens) and also by simultaneous growth of negative impacts, such
as water and air pollution, etc. Globally we speak of climate change, at the level
of urban agglomerations we speak of urban heat island.
Green areas play irreplaceable role in alleviating heat island effects and climate
change. Research results in the area of impact of green areas on the urban micro-
climate are clear (various authors). Based on these results, we can assume that
the most efficient components are forests and large trees and the least efficient
components in mitigating climate change are grass areas.
This led to an idea to take into account the level of ecological stability of
territory when calculating ecological footprint. The stability is growing with
increasing share of natural components. It also reflects the size and number of
surfaces which are active in mitigating climate extremes. This active impact on
micro-climate will be expressed by so called micro-climate function coefficient and
will serve to express ecological footprint in taking account of the share of micro-
climate functions of vegetation in territory.
39
Innovativation of ecological footprint calculation when micro-

climate function of green areas is taken into account
In the light with the above mentioned, currently known methodologies of
footprint calculation at local/urban level do not include quality of the urban
environment, which can be expressed also with the help of sufficient size of green
areas, as one of basic indicators of ecological stability of territory. Therefor, we are
proposing that the known calculation procedures, based on resource consumption
in the areas of:
Shelter
Transport
Food
Goods and services
take into account micro-climate function of ecological stability of citys
territory.
Micro-climate function coefficient (KMF) will be denominator in the innovative
ecological footprint calculation. That means that the higher micro-climate function
coefficient (e.g. high share of forests in territory), the lower ecological footprint
value:
EF = (EF food+EFshelter+EFtransport+EFgoods)/ KMF)
The coefficient will be in the range of values of 0.8 1.2 which are set so that
micro-climate function is not overestimated.
Micro-climate function coefficient for a given territory will be calculated based
on formula:
where Kmf micro-climate function coefficient of territorial units

p - area of a given / model territory
pi - area of territorial units determined based on cover rate by wood
vegetation
kmfi micro-climate function coefficient of territorial units of a given
territory
n - number of territorial units in a given territory.
Table 10 presents draft classifications of a territory to smaller territorial units,

the column of occurrence in Karlova Ves provides concrete sites from the
territory as examples.
Table 10: Examples of territorial units and their micro-climate function coefficient (Kmf)
Territorial unit Occurrence in Karlova % of cover by kmf
Ves micro-climatically
active surfaces
(based on cover by
wood vegetation)
built-up areas with Dlh Diely, new deve- 0-20 0,8
prevailing beaded surfaces lopment in Karlova Ves,
residential areas with low social infrastructure,
share of wood vegetation and industrial and trade faci-
high share of built-up and lities almost without
impermeable surfaces vegetation
built-up areas with a share Premises of the Slovak
of wood vegetation Academy of Sciences, pri- 21-40 0,9
mary schools in Karlova
residential areas with high Ves, colleges, etc.
share of wood vegetation
and low share of built-up and Other residential areas in
impermeable surfaces Karlova Ves
family houses with Lie dolie, Dlh Diely, 41-60 1,0
gardens Rivira, etc.
garden colonies and Lie dolie slopes, slo- 61-80 1,1
cottages, abandoned surfaces pes over Devnska cesta
road, etc.
forests Siho, Sitina, cemetery in 81-100 1,2
botanic garden Karlova Ves, etc.
zoo garden
Tables 11 and 12 present examples of innovative calculation of ecological

footprint for two types of territory: with high and with low share of micro-
climatically active surfaces.
Table 11: Example of calculation for the territory with low share of micro-climatically
active surfaces
Micro-climate function Area Micro-climate function
Territorial unit coefficient of territorial in ha coefficient territorial units
unit = Kmf of a given territory = kmfi
built-up areas with prevailing fixed 1,20 50 0,09
surfaces
built-up areas with a share of wood 0,80 300 0,37
vegetation
Family houses with gardens 0,90 100 0,14
Garden colonies and cottages, 1,00 100 0,15
abandoned surfaces
Forests, botanic garden, zoo garden 1,10 100 0,17
Total 650 0,92
41
Average ecological footprint in Slovakia is 3.6 gha. Under application of

micro-climate function coefficient its value is 3,91 gha (3,60/0,92) which reflects
intensive use of territory and low share of natural components.
Tab. . 12: Example of calculation for the territory with high share of micro-
climatically active surfaces
Micro-climate function Area Micro-climate function
Territorial unit coefficient of territorial in ha coefficient territorial units
unit = Kmf of a given territory = kmfi
built-up areas with prevailing fixed 1,20 400 0,74
surfaces
built-up areas with a share of wood 0,80 50 0,06
vegetation
Family houses with gardens 0,90 50 0,07
Garden colonies and cottages, 1,00 50 0,08
abandoned surfaces
Forests, botanic garden, zoo garden 1,10 100 0,17
Total 650 1,12
After application of micro-climate function coefficient in the territory with high

share of natural components and low land use rate we can see that the average
value of ecological footprint was reduced from 3.6 to 3.23 gha (3,60/1,12).
6.3 Calculation procedure

Under innovative calculation of ecological footprint it is necessary to consider
the city boundaries as this will have a substantial impact on calculation itself. We
propose to calculate the micro-climate function of a city based on the zoning
of territory. That means that calculation of Kmf would alternatively take into
account:
Administrative boundaries / cadastre
Logical natural territory, e.g. 5 km around the built-up area.
Step 1: Getting input data Elaborating a map according to territorial

units of the current landscape structure
In order to get needed input data for calculation it is possible to use a map
of current landscape structure with resolution of landscape components or with
vectorisation of purchased orthophotomap. Particular components of landscape
structure are identified. A simplified procedure allows us to gain data from culture
records at the Cadastre Office and a detailed structure of built-up territory from
records of the City Council, from spatial planning documentation, etc.
Step 2: Mapping territorial units, creation of geodatabase

Proposal of territorial units on the basis of percentage of cover by micro-
climatically active surfaces (cover by wood vegetation) in the urbanised landscape
(model territory of Bratislava Karlova Ves) is presented in table 10
Based on terrain investigation, the individual territorial units are mapped and
data are recorded in a created geodatabase according to following criteria:
Type of territorial unit
Localisation of territorial unit
Share of roads, built-up areas, artificial impermeable surfaces in %
(additional)
Ratio of grass areas to wood vegetation areas in % (additional):
Total cover by micro-climatically active surfaces in %:
Step 3: Calculation of Kmf

It is possible to start calculation of the coefficient of micro-climate function of
ecological stability according to the methodology based on assigning particular
territorial unit coefficients of interest territory and subsequently to calculate the
coefficient of territory micro-climate function.
Step 4: New calculation of ecological footprint with inclusion of the

new indicator
In accordance with Chapter 6.2 it is relatively simple to calculate the new
indicator of ecological footprint with inclusion of the ecological stability in the
total calculation footprint:
EF = (EF food+EFshelter+EFtransport+EFgoods)/ KMF)
43
7. Proposals to reduce ecological

footprint in relation to reducing
negative impacts of climate change
in cities
Transport
Energy intensity of the transport sector is very high, which means that it is also
a big producer of greenhouse gas emissions.
Transport is responsible for one third of total energy consumption and CO2
emissions from this sector represents almost 25 % of the world emissions.
Transport has also considerable impacts on the environment and health.
Proposals to reduce ecological footprint in the area of transport:
General:
To work out Sustainable Transport Plans in cities;
To effectively transport goods (transport on railway and water transport
produce less CO2 than road transport)
To apply principles of sustainable urbanism and polycentric development in
cities, e.g. to support mixed functions of territory (creating new, primarily
residential, areas brings large demands for transport);
To support public transportation means and their upgrade;
To support alternative (cycling, pedestrian) transport,
Technical improvements in construction of cars, shift to renewable sources
(electric vehicles, fuel cells, hydrogen driven cars), using cars with lower fuel
consumption, higher taxes in transport, reducing maximal allowed speed,
controlling technical state of cars.
Individuals:
To use trains for longer distances (railway transport produces 30 times less CO2
emissions per person than road transport by car);
To use cars more effectively (more passengers), to drive by reasonable speed,
to limit the use of air-condition in car, controlling technical state of cars;
To use cycling or pedestrian transport for shorter distances;
Teleconferences and homework (if possible) can also contribute to reduction of
transport volume;
When buying products it is necessary to prefer products of local production

which supports local producers and reduces transport of goods (especially
foods).
Energy, housing, goods and services, nutrition

Energy is the most important sector influencing greenhouse gas emissions. This
is why it is necessary to concentrate not only on renewable energy resources but
on energy saving as well. As regards housing, this concerns in particular heating,
water heating and air-conditioning.
Proposals to reduce ecological footprint in the above mentioned areas:

To replace the current ineffective system of natural resource use based on fossil
fuel combustion with cleaner renewable resources (biomass, solar, wind or
water energy);
Economy based on energy efficient technologies can also considerably reduce
consumption of fossil fuels (Combined production of electricity and heat is an
alternative to traditional electricity production and production of heat for long-
distance heating systems. Energy transformation efficiency is here as much as
90 %).
To support energy passive and low energy houses and buildings.
Individuals:
Energy efficiency of most of currently used electric appliances is very low new
technologies and appliances, such as energy efficient bulbs (80 % efficiency)
can dramatically reduce energy consumption;
To save energy and water (water treatment plants also consume energy) in
households switching off the light, tap insulation, preferring shower against
bathing, switching off appliances and control lights;
To prefer purchase of energy efficient appliances;
To use solar panels (e.g. for water heating) and other renewable energy
resources;
To use heat insulation of houses and not to overheat rooms;
To buy local products and take into account the packaging (recyclable package
of product);
To prefer healthy food cultivated in the organic agriculture (without use of
harmful substances);
To separate and recycle waste (reducing methane production at landfills).
45
Increasing share of vegetation, planting trees and using water components

in cities, afforestation and increasing retention capacity of a territory
Forest absorbs 500 to 1000 tonnes of carbon on one square km per year37.
Deforestation itself releases a lot of carbon into the atmosphere where it reacts
with oxygen producing carbon dioxide and other two important greenhouse gases
methane and nitrous oxide . Vegetation in cities plays an important role which
indirectly affects also growth of CO2 emissions, e.g. cooling the space (reducing
necessity to use air conditioning), substantial impact on the quality of environment
(moving to suburbs due to inappropriate conditions in city centres with city
growth and excessive demands for transportation), etc.
Proposals to reduce ecological footprint in the above mentioned areas

(see also Chapter 3.3 and 3.4):
Planting trees and adequate tree management in cities;
Increasing share of vegetation (planting trees in rows, on parking places,
between road lanes, alternative use of vegetation e.g. on roofs where
vegetation slow down water run-off, climbing plants, etc.)
Afforestation, protection of nature and nature components in urban areas;
Increasing retention capacity of a territory (retaining rainfall water, collection
systems, reservoirs, wetland protection and integrated water treatment).
37
Climate Change: The IPCC Response Strategies, IPCC, 1990
Summary in German
Der letzten Schtzung von Wissenschaftlern zu Folge schreiten die Erwrmung
und die damit zusammenhngenden Klimavernderungen schneller voran, als
es allgemein erwartet wurde. Witterungsextreme knnen auer Wassermangel,
dem Risiko einer bertragung von neuen Krankheiten u.. in den Stdten auch
unertrglich hohe Sommertemperaturen mit sich bringen. In diesem Bereich
hat die Vegetation eine unersetzbare Funktion, deren Schutz und Schaffung
paradoxerweise bei der Gebietsplanung an den Rand des Interesses rckt, wovon
wir in der letzten Zeit leider oftmals Zeugen werden. Auch die Nutzung von
geeigneten Baumaterialien hat ihre Berechtigung.
In unserer Publikation haben wir uns bemht, theoretische Auswege der

Folgen der Klimavernderungen in Stdten aufzuzeigen, die Mglichkeit einer
Abmilderung der negativen Folgen der Vernderungen, zum Beispiel durch eine
geeignete Architektur, geeignete Baumaterialien und Vegetation nher zu bringen.
Diese knnen wie folgt zusammengefasst werden:
Grnanlagen:
Erhhung des Vegetationsanteils, vor allem in den bebauten Stadtzentren
(Pflanzen von Bumen in Straenalleen, auf Parkpltzen, grne Mittelstreifen,
Nutzung auch von sog. alternativen Arten von Grnanlagen: grne Dcher,
die auch den Wasserabfluss auffangen und verzgern, weiterhin rankende,
vertikale Grnanlagen u.a.)
In der Vegetationsstruktur sollte der Anteil der Gehlzer/Bume an den
Rasenflchen mehr als 60% betragen
Es sind die Artenstrukturen bei den Bepflanzungen in Beziehung zur Verschiebung
der Vegetationsstufen bei der Klimavernderung zu bercksichtigen
Wasser:
Erhhung der Retentionsfhigkeit des Gebietes z.B. sind in max. mglichem
Ma durchlssige Materialien und Konstruktionen zu nutzen und die
undurchlssigen Materialien zu ersetzen (Asfalt, Beton)
Es sind Wasserelemente zu nutzen Springbrunnen, Wasserflsse, Auffangen
von Regenwasser Dach- und Terrasseneinlsse knnen in Sammelgrben
und rinnen eingemndet und das so aufgefangene Wasser in Sammelteiche
abgeleitet werden. Ebenfalls knnen Fuwege und befestigte Flchen mit
solch einem Geflle versehen werden, damit das Wasser in die Grnanlagen
abluft.
47
Bauwerke und Stdteplanung:

Allgemein ist die Komposition der Bauwerke und der Grnanlagen in der
Stadt so zu konzipieren, damit eine bessere Luftzirkulation in der Stadt
ermglicht wird, und damit in den Nachtstunden die Strmung und der
Austausch mit der klteren Luft aus der Umgebung untersttzt wird
Es ist auf eine ausreichende Wrmedmmung von Bauwerken zu achten, es
sind helle Farben und Glanzoberflchen an den Fassaden zu nutzen, die die
Strahlung allgemein besser als dunkle Farbtne reflektieren
die transparenten Ausfachungen der ffnungen sind zu beschatten. Die
Objekte, die Fensterkonstruktionen sind von auen bzw. von innen mit
einfachen, jedoch sehr wichtigen und wirksamen Elementen zum Erhalt der
Gebudeinnentemperatur zu versehen
Im weiteren Teil der Publikation haben wir die Fachwelt und auch die breite
ffentlichkeit ber die theoretischen Auswegmglichkeiten bei der Berechnung
der kologischen Spur (nachfolgend kurz ESt) informiert. Unsere Absicht war es
auch, die innovierte Berechnung der kologischen Spur mit Bercksichtigung
der kologischen Stabilitt der Stadt (mit besonderer Orientierung auf die
Mikroklimafunktion von Grnanlagen) bei der Berechnung vorzustellen.
Bei der innovierten Berechnung der kologischen Spur wird das Niveau der
kologischen Stabilitt des Umfeldes bercksichtigt, die um so hher ist, desto
hher der Anteil an natrlichen Elementen im Gebiet ist, und die gleichzeitig die
Gre und die Menge der Oberflchen wiederspiegelt, die bei der Abmilderung
von klimatischen Klimaextremen aktiv sind. Der aktive Einfluss der Vegetation
auf das Mikroklima wird durch den sog. Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizienten (KMF)
ausgedrckt und dient zur nderung des ESt.-Wertes mit Bercksichtigung des
Anteiles der Mikroklimafunktionen der Vegetation im Gebiet.
Der Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient (KMF) tritt in die innovierte Berechnung

der kologischen Spur als Nenner ein. Daraus schliet, dass je hher der
Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient ist (z.B. ein hoher Waldanteil im Gebiet), desto
niedriger der Wert der kologischen Spur sein. Gleichzeitig wird die derzeit
bekannte Berechnungsweise der kologischen Spur der Stadt in Betracht
gezogen, die die Summe der teilweisen kologischen Spuren von Lebensmitteln,
Wohnen, Verkehr und Waren und Dienstleistungen ist:
ESt der Stadt = (EStLebensmittel+EStWohnen+EStVerkehr+EStWaren)/ KMF).
Der Koeffizient wird Werte von 0,8 bis 1,2 erreichen, die zweckmig so
festgelegt sind, damit es bei der Berechnung nicht zu einer unangemessenen
berbewertung der Mikroklimafunktion kommt
Der Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient wird auf Grund dieser Formel berechnet:
KMF - Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient des Zielgebietes

p - Flche des Ziel-/Modellgebietes
pi - Flche der Gebietseinheiten, die auf Grund der Abdeckung mit
Holzvegetation ausgegliedert sind
kmfi - Mikroklimafunktionskoeffizient der Gebietseinheiten des Zielgebietes
n - Anzahl der Gebietseinheiten im Zielgebiet.
Zum Schluss haben wir Mglichkeiten vorgestellt, wie die kologische Spur
verringert werden kann, ab auch wie man seinerseits zu einer Milderung drohender
Klimavernderungen beitragen kann. Es ist nmlich auerordentlich dringend,
nicht nur die negativen Trends bei der Planung und dem Bau von Stdten zu
verndern, sondern auch die tglichen Formeln fr den Verbrauch und das
Verhalten der Stadtbewohner. Im Schlusskapitel bringen wir konkrete Vorschlge
fr die Verringerung der kologischen Spur und gleichzeitig auch fr den Beitrag
zur Senkung der Treibhausgase, die die Klimavernderungen direkt beeinflussen.
49
Summary in French
51
References:
Climate Change, United Nations Environment Programme, World Meteorological
Organization
Environment programme, World Meteorological Organization, http://www.
grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/
ESDP - European Spatial Development Perspective, Towards Balanced and
Sustainable Development of the Territory of the European Union, European
Communities, May 1999, pages 10 and 11
European Common Indicators Project EUROCITIES/Ambiente Italia 27th August
2001
Godalming, United Kingdom, 41 pp.
Green Pack, REC Slovakia (materials used in Chapter 1)
Hrdina, V.: Polycentric Concept of settlement development and urban
development in the Slovak republic, 2006, pp.10
IPCC, 2001: Climate change 2001, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
United Nations
IPCC, 2003: The Regional Impacts of Climate Change, Chapter 5: Europe,
Intergovernmental Panel on
IPPC Report (IPCC associates 2500 scientists from more than 130 countries.
The group working at the UN since 1998 will publish this year next three reports
describing in details the threats and opportunities to combat climate change),
February 2006
Keppl, J.: Ecologically determined creation, STU Publishing House in Bratislava,
2001
Krusche, M., Krusche, P., Althaus, D., Gabriel, I.: Oekologisches Bauen,
Bauverlag, Gmbh, Wiesbaden und Berlin, 1990
Kuttler, W.: Stadtklima, online: [cited 16.9.2006],
Loh, J., Wackernagel, M., 2004: The Living Planet Index, World Wide Fund For
Nature, Panda House,
Mathis Wackernagel et all.: National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts 2004:
The underlying calculation method, October 17, 2004
Mgr. Rudolf Pado: Hot Planet Global Climate Change, TATRY Civic Association,
Liptovsk Mikul, January 2003
Sabo, P. et all: Study and draft methodology of calculation of a new indicator
for ecological footprint of cities in the context of climate change, OZ iv planta,
Pieany 2005
Santa Monica Sustainable City Program, Redefining Progress, March 2004
Santa Monicas Ecological Footprint 1990- 2000 Environmental Programs
Division,
53
Tamara Rehkov, Eva Pauditov: Assessment of biotopes in urbanised

territory
Tamara Rehkov, Eva Pauditov: Practical experience with assessment of the
micro-climate function of vegetation in the urban environment, 2006
The 6th EU Environmental Action Programme
The city as living Environment and driving force for development discussion
Paper for conference, 10th Conference on urban and regional research, UNECE
Bratislava 2006
The use of Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity Analyses as Sustainability
Indicators for Subnational Geographical Areas: A Recommended Way Forward,
Final Report 27th August 2001
The use of Ecological Footprint and Biocapacity Analyses as Sustainability
Indicators for Subnational Geographical Areas: A Recommended Way Forward,
Final Report 27th August 2001
WWF: National Footprint 2005
Information from following web pages:

http://www.uni-duisburg-essen.de/imperia/md/content/geographie/
klimatologie/kuttler2004b.pdf#search=%22Stadtklima%20%2B%20Kuttler%22
www.RedefiningProgress.org
www.footprintnetwork.org
www.bestfoodforward.com
http://www.espon.eu/mmp/online/website/content/projects/259/649/file_
1182/fr-1.1.2_revised-full_31-03-05.pdf
http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/LUC/GAEZ/index.htm
Abbreviations:
WWF World Wild fund

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change
EF ecological footprint
ES ecological stability
Kmf micro-climate function coefficient of territorial units
p - area of a given / model territory
pi - area of territorial units determined based on cover rate by wood vegetation
kmfi - micro-climate function coefficient of territorial units of a given territory
n - number of territorial units in a given territory.
Anexes
Explanations:
1 micro-climate function coefficient 0,8; 2 micro-climate function coefficient 0,9; 3 micro-climate
function coefficient 1,0; 4 micro-climate function coefficient 1,1; 5 micro-climate function coefficient 1,2
55
Brief information on REC

Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC) is an
international non-profit organisation which focuses on supporting activities
oriented towards improvement of the environment in countries of Central and
Eastern Europe.
The mission of REC is to assist the Central and Eastern European countries to
solve environmental problems in particular through promotion of cooperation
among non-governmental organisations, governments and governmental
institutions, academic institutions, self-governments, businesses and other
environmental groups, primarily through strengthening exchange and provision
of information and supporting public participation in decision-making processes
related to the environment and sustainable development.
REC Slovakia as a non-governmental organisation with an international
component, registered according to the Act 116/1985, is a part of the network of
REC offices in 16 Central and Eastern European countries and Turkey. Since 1992,
when it was founded, REC Slovakia has been cooperating successfully with major
groups of society, first of all with environmental non-governmental organisations,
Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic, self-governments and
academic institutions.
REC Slovakia has built gradually its own expertise and cooperates with many
experts in implementation of projects in the area of sustainable development at
national, regional and local levels as well as in the area of nature and biodiversity
conservation in landscape and settlements, sustainable tourism, environmental
education with focus on public participation in assessing and decision-making
processes.
The most important activities of REC
Sustainable development
Nature protection
Landscape and environmental management in settlements

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Box 1: Climate change

Box 2: Greenhouse gases

1.2 Potential consequences of greenhouse effect climate change

2. Climate changes and cities

Box 4: Development of settlement structure in Slovakia during the recent period

Current situation in settlement structure is considerably affected by admi-

2.2 Relationship of a city and surrounding landscape in spatial

2.3 Sustainable urban development, EU policy and quality of life

Application of sustainability concept in a city means ability of an urban

Sustainability of urban development is addressed by a number of documents

2.4 Characteristics of changed environment in cities when

Temperature characteristics in cities, precipitation, air quality, etc.

Table 1: Basic climatic characteristics of the urban environment and comparison

Degradation factors of urban soils include:

2.5 Climate change consequences in cities

3. Possibilities to mitigate impact

The studies bring a number of areas where measures are necessary

3.1. Architecture and climate change

The most important factors affecting urban climate:

Based on comparison of heat inertia of various areas of a city it is apparent that

Table 2 Differences in temperatures between various surfaces during days and

Main road (in centre) 22 17 5

Water constitutes a potential for improvement of micro-climate. Fountains and

Catching rainfall water plays an important role in ecological stability of landscape.

There is a number of possibilities how to catch rainfall water in residential areas.

Sufficient heat insulation constitutes a great contribution to ensure optimal

Measures oriented to shading transparent parts of buildings are also important.

Active ventilation with recuperation

Underground localisation of a building

helps in heating and in particular in cooling. However, such a situation is very

3.2. Building materials

Micro-climate function is understood as ability of green areas to affect

Recreational function of urban green areas is important mainly in urbanised

Due to these reasons it is necessary to monitor in cities:

Table 3: Differences in measured temperature from the temperature in the oak

1 Parks 29,1 0,9

Measurements in terrain in 200621 confirmed that vegetation cover with

4. Ecological footprint and biocapacity

4.1 Basic terms introduction into the issue

Table 4: Equivalence factor (amount of global hectares contained in average hectare)

Land type Equivalence factor

Main crop lands 2.19

Yield factor determines to what extent a biologically productive area in a given

4.2 Use of biocapacity

5. Calculation of ecological footprint

A number of calculations are available today. The Redefining Progress

Table 5 Redefining Progress offers calculation

2. Calculation of EF based on more precise local data which can be gained

3. A footprint adapted to particular planning needs and further development

5.2 Calculation of ecological footprint at sub-national level

5.3 Standards for calculation of ecological footprint at sub-nati-

5.4 Questionnaire survey methodology

Shelter 0,87 0,99 0,83 0,92 0,90 1,35

6. Innovation of ecological footprint

Built-up areas are perceived with a certain hesitation in calculations. Areas

Moreover, a number of elements can be distinguished within the built-up

Ecological stability indirectly affects also other components of ecological

6.2 Innovation of ecological footprint calculation for cities

Innovativation of ecological footprint calculation when micro-

where Kmf micro-climate function coefficient of territorial units

Table 10 presents draft classifications of a territory to smaller territorial units,