Pressurized Irrigation System-DRAFT CWC - March 2017

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION

DESIGNS (N&W) UNIT
DESIGN
OF
PRESSURIZED PIPE IRRIGATION SYSTEM
( DRAFT )
NEW DELHI
MARCH 2017
Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. III

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... IV
CHAPTER -1 INTRODUCTION......................................................... 1
1.1) CONVEYANCE METHODS ....................................................................................... 1
1.2) NECESSITY OF PIPE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ...................................................... 2
1.3) PRESSURIZED PIPED IRRIGATION SYSTEM ......................................................... 2
CHAPTER-2 PLANNING &DESIGN .......................................................... 5
2.1) LAYOUT PLANNING ........................................................................................ 5
2.2 ) CRITERIA FOR ROUTE SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR LINE ...................................... 5
2.3) FACTORS TAKEN INTO CONSIDERATION FOR HYDRAULIC DESIGN........................... 6
CHAPTER-3 INTAKES .................................................................. 16
3.1) INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 16
3.2) TYPES OF INTAKES .............................................................................................. 16
3.3) INTAKE IN CONCRETE OR MASONRY DAMS ............................................................ 25
3.4) INTAKE IN EARTHEN DAMS .................................................................................. 29
3.5) INTAKE IN RESERVOIR INDEPENDENT OF DAM...................................................... 29
3.6) LAYOUT OF INTAKE STRUCTURE .......................................................................... 30
3.7) CONDITIONS FOR LOCATION AND LAYOUT OF INTAKE STRUCTURE ...................... 31
3.8) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AS PER IS 11570-1985 ............................................... 32
3.9) HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF COMPONENTS OF INTAKE AS PER IS 11570-1989 ........... 33
3.9) TRASH RACK STRUCTURE .................................................................................... 36
3.10) BELL MOUTH OPENING AND TRANSITION ......................................................... 36
3.11) INTAKE GATES AND AIR VENT ........................................................................... 41
CHAPTER-4 DESILTING ARRANGMENT ......................................... 45
4.1) INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 45
4.2) TUBE SETTLERS .................................................................................................. 45
4.3) SUMMARY............................................................................................................ 51
CHAPTER 5 PIPE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK ..................................... 52
5.1) HYDRAULICS OF CONDUITS .................................................................................. 52
5.2) PIPE MATERIALS (AS PER CPHEEO MANUAL ON WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT)
................................................................................................................................... 61
5.3) WATER HAMMER ................................................................................................. 92
I
5.4) APPURTENCES ..................................................................................................... 98
5.5) DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF UNDERGROUND PIPELINE IRRIGATION
SYSTEM ................................................................................................................. 106
CHAPTER-6 PUMPING STATIONS .................................................. 109
6.1) REQUIREMENTS................................................................................................. 109
6.2) SELECTION OF PUMPS ....................................................................................... 109
CHAPTER 6 DELIVERY SYSTEM.......................................................... 124
CHAPTER - 7 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................. 125
PRESSURIED PIPE IRRIGATION SYSTEM -PROJECTS DETAIL SUMMARY
(ACROSS INDIA) ................................................................................................... 126
A. NADAUN INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT, NADAUN,
HAMIRPUR, HIMACHAL PRADESH .................................................................. 126
B. RAMTHAL INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT, HUNGUND,
BAGALKOT, KARNATAKA .................................................................................. 127
C. SAMPATRAO DESHMUKH SAHKARI PANI PURVATHA SANSTHA
INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT, RAIGAON, SANGLI,
MAHARASHTRA ................................................................................................... 128
D. KANDI INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT, KANDI BELT,
TALWARA AND HAJIPUR BLOCKS, HOSHIARPUR DISTRICT, PUNJAB .... 129
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 131
ANNEXURE-1 ............................................................................................................. I
ANNEXURE-2 ........................................................................................................... II
ANNEXURE-3 .......................................................................................................... III
ANNEXURE-4 .......................................................................................................... IV
II
List of figures
Fig 1.1.Flow Diagram of Typical Piped Irrigation System .......................................... 4

Fig. 2.1 Optimization of Pump/Pipeline System ........................................................ 15
Fig 3.1. Simple Concrete block-Submerged Intake .................................................... 17
Fig.3.2. Wet Intake tower standing in the river or reservoir................................... 18
Fig 3.3. Dry Intake tower standing in the river or reservoir .................................... 19
Fig.3.4. Section of a typical twin well type of river intake ......................................... 20
Fig.3.5.Detailed section and plan of a twin well type of river intake structure
constructed on Krishna River (below) ......................................................................... 21
Fig 3.6. Single Well Type of a River Intake to be located across an off-take channel
or an approach channel ............................................................................................... 21
Fig.3.7. Canal Intake Well .......................................................................................... 22
Fig.3.8.Valve tower situated at the upstream toe of an earthen dam ....................... 23
Fig.3.9. Intake Well or Valve tower for concrete gravity or masonry dams .............. 24
Fig.3.10.Valve tower situated within an earthen dam .............................................. 24
Fig 3.11. Approach Geometry- Semicircular Type Intake Structure......................... 25
Fig 3.12. Semicircular Type Intake Structure ............................................................ 26
Fig 3.13. Typical Installation in a Concrete/Masonry dams ...................................... 27
Fig 3.14.Typical Installation in an Earth dam-sloping Intake .................................. 28
Fig 3.15. Typical Installation in an Earth dam-Tower Type Intake ......................... 28
Fig.3.16 Typical Installation in an Earth dam-Tower Type Intake (Type II) ........... 29
Fig 3.17.Vertical Intakes-for determining submergence ........................................... 35
Fig 3.18. Horizontal Intakes- for determining submergence ..................................... 36
Fig 3.19. Bell-Mouth Details of Rectangular Opening ............................................... 41
Fig 3.20. Bell-Mouth Details of Rectangular Opening ............................................... 41
Fig 3.21.Air Demand Curves for spray, Free and Foamy flow .................................. 43
Fig 4.1.Tube Settler ..................................................................................................... 46
Fig 4.2.Lamella Clarifier ............................................................................................. 47
Fig 4.3. Flow distribution from a conventional inlet in a tube settler ...................... 48
Fig 4.4.Tube settler type desilting arrangement in Nadaun Medium Irrigation
Project, HP. .................................................................................................................. 49
Fig 5.1.Thrust at a bend & Thrust block .................................................................... 94
Fig.6.1.Speed and Efficiency Characteristics ........................................................... 112
Fig.6.2. Schematic Representation of NPSHr .......................................................... 113
Fig.6.3. System Head Curve ...................................................................................... 117
Fig.6.4 Operating Point of the Pump ........................................................................ 121
III
List of Tables
Table 3.1.Coefficients of Discharge and loss coefficients for Conduit Entrances ..... 37
Table 5.1.Hazen William Coefficients ......................................................................... 53
Table 5.2.Mannings Coefficients of roughness .......................................................... 55
Table 5.3. Friction Factors In Darcy-Weisbach Formula ........................................... 56
Table 5.4. Values of Roughness Projection ................................................................. 57
Table 5.5.Recommended Values in Modified Hazen-Williams Formula (At 20o C)
...................................................................................................................................... 58
Table 5.6. K-Values for Different Types of Fittings ................................................... 60
Table 5.7. Equivalent Length of Pipe for Different sizes of Pipe Fittings with K=1 60
Table 5.8. Working pressure for different classes of pipes ........................................ 71
Table 5.9 modulus of elasticity of different pipe material ......................................... 95
Table 5.10.Summary of the methods of water hammer protection ........................... 98
Table 6.1.Vapour Pressure of Water ......................................................................... 114
Table 6.2.Atmosheric Pressure in mWC at different Altitudes above MSL ........... 116
Table 6.3 Application of Pumps ................................................................................ 119
IV
Chapter -1 INTRODUCTION
1.1) Conveyance Methods
Water is conveyed from the water source to cropped areas of the farm in
networks of open channels and/or pipelines. Open channels may be lined or unlined
and pipelines partially open to the atmosphere or pressurized.
1.1.1) Open Channels

Open channels are usually graded (have a slope) in the direction of flow and
may be either lined or unlined. They are used with all surface and ground water
sources and farm application systems. Open channels are lined with hard surface
linings such as concrete and asphalt, exposed or covered membranes, and soil
sealants to reduce maintenance costs, channel size, and seepage losses through the
channel bed and walls. Unlined ditches are used because of their low capital costs
and ease of construction and relocation.
1.1.2) Pipelines
On-farm pipe networks are classified as open (low head) or closed
(pressurized) depending on whether the system is open to the atmosphere. Both
types of pipelines can be laid on the ground surface or buried.
Surface pipes have the advantage (over buried pipes) of portability, while
buried lines can be placed below the tillage zone where damage by farm machinery,
vehicles, vandals, etc., is minimized. When buried above the frost depth, provisions
for draining buried pipelines are required.
Pipelines have several advantages over open channels. Well-constructed

pipelines eliminate seepage and evaporative losses, avoid weed problems, and are
normally safer than open channels (since humans and equipment cannot fall into
the water stream).
Pipelines also permit the conveyance of water uphill against the normal slope
of the land and, unlike open channels, can be installed on non-uniform grades. The
use of buried pipe eliminates pad construction for open channels, allows use of the
most direct routes from the water source to fields, and minimizes the loss of
productive land (since crops can be planted up to or over the pipelines).
Open channels may, however, be more economical than pipelines when land
is flat and flows are large.
1
1.1.2.1) Open (low Head) Pipelines
Because low head pipelines are open to the atmosphere, heads in these
pipelines seldom exceed 15 m (50 ft). The stand pipe provides head regulation,
water release, vacuum relief, and air release. Open pipelines are not generally used
with application systems that require more than 6 m (20 ft) of head.
1.1.2.2) Closed (Pressurized) Pipelines

Pressurized pipelines normally supply application systems that require more
than 6 m (20 ft) of head. Pressurized pipelines are not open to the atmosphere and
do not contain structures such as standpipes. Pressure regulating, check, air
release, and vacuum relief valves are used instead of standpipes and pump stands
to provide flow and pressure control as well as to protect the pipeline. This manual
deals with the design aspects of closed (pressurized) pipelines for irrigation.
1.2) Necessity of Pipe Distribution System
With the increasingly greater demand on a limited water supply in many parts
of country, there is an urgent need for its efficient utilization by reducing losses at
various points in the irrigation system. Within the farm area, water losses can be
greatly reduced by having proper system for distribution of irrigation water. A
pipeline distribution system offers such a possibility.
In the context of improving irrigation water management below the outlet a well
designed and carefully laid distribution network of field channels is very important.
In India, open field channels are generally in use in the canal command area. Both
lined and unlined channels are used to deliver water to the farmers' fields.
If the water distribution system is well operated, many other important

management objectives can be satisfactorily realised and high returns obtained. In
the case of conventional irrigation methods i.e., open channel distribution system,
the evaporation losses, seepage losses and malpractices cannot be totally eliminated
even with full control and efficient management of the system. However, with pipe
distribution system, these parameters can be substantially controlled and
minimised to reduce the adverse effect on irrigation efficiency.
1.3) Pressurized Piped Irrigation System
A pressure piped irrigation system is a network installation consisting of pipes,

fittings and other devices properly designed and installed to supply water under
pressure from the source of the water to the irrigable area.
2
The engineering design is the second stage in irrigation planning. The first stage
is the consideration of the crop water requirements, the type of soil, the climate, the
water quality and the irrigation scheduling. The water supply conditions, the
availability of electricity and the field topography also need to be considered. The
economic considerations, the labor and the know-how also need to be taken into
account. The irrigation system is selected after a thorough evaluation of the above
data and the computation of the systems flow, the irrigation dose, the duration of
application and the irrigation interval. Once the design has been completed, a
detailed list of all the equipment needed for the installation of the system must be
prepared with full descriptions, standards and specifications for every item.
This document contains the design principles covering the portion from intake to
delivery tank/outlet.
The flow diagram shown in fig 1.1 explains typical overall arrangement of
pressurized pipe irrigation system. It can be varied according to their planning
arrangement which is subjected to multiple factors like topography, accessibility,
siltation etc.
Typical layout (system configuration) of medium irrigation project in Hamipur

District of Himachal Pradesh is shown in Annexure-1.
3
RIVER OR OTHER INTAKE DESILTING
SOURCE STRUCTURE ARRANGEMENT **
OUTLET / PIPE DISTRIBUTION PUMPING

DELIVERY TANK NETWORK ARRANGEMENT**
FIELD IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
** IF REQUIRED
Fig 1.1.Flow Diagram of Typical Piped Irrigation System
4
Chapter-2 PLANNING &DESIGN
2.1) LAYOUT PLANNING
Before attempting for design of a piped irrigation system, for the formation of
chaks and sub chaks, all the principles laid down as in case of open channel
network shall be applied except following points since the alignment of WCs need
not be planned along the survey number boundaries as the system is buried under
ground and should be preferably laid straight across the location of turn outs. This
will result in reduction in length of WC i.e. system can be economized.
a) For the formation of chaks or sub chaks, alignments of Under Ground Pipe
Line (UGPL) system do not provide physical boundaries (as the system is
buried) and as such, the boundaries of chak and sub chaks should be planned
along the survey number boundaries, though falls on the either sides of
UGPL alignments.
b) Alignments of UGPL system should be across the contours to avail sufficient
head loss to overcome frictional losses in pipe flow. Alignments of UGPL
system along the contours should be generally avoided.
c) As far as possible reverse gradients should not be provided to avoid tall
structures, pressure pipes, leakages, strengthener joints, higher
maintenance, etc. in view of economy.
2.2 ) Criteria for Route Selection of Conductor Line
A. Location of water source and area to which water to be supplied are both
known.
B. Determine the location and level of source.
C. Route should be selected such that:
a) Length should be minimized as much as possible.
b) Pumping should be avoided if possible.
c) High water pressure should be avoided.
d) Number of appurtenances (gate valve, check valve, drain,
air release valve, pressure break valve) should be
minimized.
e) Very low or high velocities should be avoided because low
velocities cause sedimentation in pipes and high velocities
cause corrosion of pipe.
5
f) Velocity ranges: 0.5 3 m/sec, preferable range: 1 - 1.5
m/sec.
g) Cost should be minimized.
h) If horizontal pipe sections are used, release of air and
drain the dirt will not be possible. So, in case of horizontal
ground surface, artificial slopes are given to pipes to be
laid.
D. Convenient conduit type and material should be selected.
2.3) Factors taken into consideration for hydraulic design
A. Design discharge.
B. Flow velocities through pipelines
C. Elevation changes across the property.
D. Friction losses through pipelines, fittings and other in-line components.
E. Determining Economic Size of conveyance main and overall System Costs,
which in turn depends upon;
a) Project Period and Longevity (Useful Life) of
all the components.
b) Capital costs of pumps, pipes and other
fittings.
c) Installation costs of pumps, pipes and other
fittings.
d) System operating costs
F. Soil conditions for buried pipelines.
G. Environmental conditions for surface pipelines.
2.3.1) Design Discharge

Design discharge is the main parameter for design of a piped irrigation
scheme. All projects should be designed based on Peak Water Requirement of crops.
Water Requirements should be preferably calculated based on Modified Penman
Method. Wherever crop and canopy factors are available from nearest weather
station, they should be adopted for designing purpose. Otherwise all these along
with other climatic data like evapo-transpiration, dependable rainfall etc may be
adopted from Crop Water Evaluation Manual published by FAO.
Design discharge depends upon the operation procedure which can be:
1) Rotational Water Supply

2) On Demand Water Supply
6
2.3.1.1) Rotational Water Supply
In our country, generally rotation method is followed which include constant
frequency and either constant amount or varied amount.
In rotation method the water is delivered at a fixed time on prearranged

schedule. Rotation may be made between;
a) Two water users

b) Two or more groups of water users
c) Outlets
d) Distributaries and minors
e) Definite sections of main canal.
2.3.1.2 ) On Demand Water Supply

The farmer has to apply for water in advance at least 48 hours. The supply
in the main pipeline and lateral will be fully charged at designed discharge. The
system is designed to complete all irrigation period of 7 days. The demands are
adjusted to suit 7 days working period. For this type of operation the diameter of
pipe and design discharge are required to be kept on higher side. The cost of the
system is also high. Thus the system is not suitable for adoption due to cost
constraints.
2.3.2) Flow velocities through pipelines
2.3.2.1) Maximum Water Velocity

The higher the velocity, the greater the risk of damage through surges and
water hammer. This risk particularly applies to pipes subject to uncontrolled
starting and stopping. Using larger pipe results in a smaller water velocity for a
given flow rate, but smaller pipe is often preferred for cost reasons. The designer
should aim to strike a balance between water velocity and pipe cost. This is often
done by designing as close as possible to the following maximum water velocity:
Recommended maximum water velocity 1.52 m/s for PVC, HDPE pipes and
1.83 m/s for metallic pipes.
If the operational water velocity will exceed the Standards, then the designer
must justify why the higher velocity is recommended. The designer must also advise
on what measures are taken to prevent water hammer and surge damage. It is
possible that some pipe types, such as continuously welded polyethylene pipe, may
be able to operate safely at a high water velocity. This is acceptable, provided a
water hammer analysis or manufacturers literature shows that this is acceptable.
7
2.3.2.2 ) Minimum water velocity
Designers must specify pipe diameters and flow rates that allow for a
minimum operational water velocity, especially for irrigation systems that utilize
emitters with small apertures such as drip and micro sprinklers. This will ensure
that any sediment or solids are flushed through the lines.
a) Minimum to flush drip lines 0.3 m/s

b) Minimum to flush pipe lines 0.5 1.5 m/s depending on pipe size and flow
2.3.3 ) Friction losses through pipelines, fittings and other in-line components
For Pipe friction in main and sub main lines the designer must take into
account the possible effect of water quality on pipes as well as the deterioration of
pipes with age during the pipes life time.
The following values for allowable pipe friction in mainline are accepted as
norms: The following applies for pipelines with a diameter of 200 mm or smaller:
Rising pipeline: Maximum friction loss = 1.5% (m/100m pipe length)
Gravity pipeline: Maximum allowable flow velocity of 3.0 m/s
If the above figures are exceeded, then the designer must show that the
chosen pipe diameters total cost (capital and annual running cost) have been
optimized and is the best of the available options. For pipes with larger diameters,
a full life cycle cost analysis (capital and annual running cost) is recommended to
find the most economical pipe sizes. For all pipes, and especially in the case of
diameters larger than 200 mm, the effect of water hammer is critical and must be
investigated and optimized. An adequate number of air valves must be included in
the design.
2.3.3.1) Pressure variation

The irrigation system should be designed to minimize pressure variation
between water outlets. Sizing pipes for appropriate friction losses is the most
common method. If this is not possible, then pressure regulators may need to be
included on outlets, or some form of pressure regulation may be used at pumping
stations (e.g. variable speed drives). It is important to consider operational costs
when designing methods of pressure regulation. Systems that require a lot of
pressure regulation are likely to be less energy efficient. The design should specify a
way to measure the pressure, and if required the flow, at each outlet or block of
outlets.
A. Agricultural spray irrigation pressure variation
8
The design pressure variation at the outlets must not exceed:
a) 20% of the outlet operating pressure at any point in

the system and
b) 15% of the outlet operating pressure over 80% of
the zone outlet positions
B. Micro sprinkler or drip irrigation pressure variation
Pressures must be set so that the maximum variation in emitter flow within a
block or sub-area does not exceed: 5% of the average emitter flow
2.3.4) System Costs

Another important part of irrigation system design is determining the
expected annual cost of owning and operating each feasible alternative design. It is
utilized by banks, government agencies, and other sources of capital to evaluate the
economic soundness of the project and to develop suitable repayment arrangements.
2.3.4.1 ) Fixed Costs

Fixed costs include annual depreciation and interest costs and yearly
expenditures for taxes and insurance.
a) Depreciation
Depreciation is the decrease in system value due to age and obsolescence.

Investments that have an indefinite useful life such as water rights and land are
not depreciated. The depreciation of a system component that, has a finite useful
life is the difference between the item's initial cost and its salvage value. The initial
cost of an item is best determined from actual price quotations. In many situations,
however, initial costs are estimated by adjusting the initial costs of identical or
similar components of previously designed systems to the current date.
A component's salvage value is its value at the end of its useful life and may be
positive, zero, or negative. Salvage values are negative when additional
expenditures are required to inactivate the component at the end of its useful life.
The expected useful life of irrigation system components may vary, since useful life
can vary significantly depending on the level of repair, operation, and maintenance
practices, and the length of time the system is used each year.
b) Interest Costs
Interest is the return from productively invested capital. When money is

borrowed to finance the initial cost of the irrigation system, interest is the money
9
paid for the use of the borrowed money. For landowner financed systems, interest
costs reflect returns that could be earned if the capital expended for the irrigation
system were invested elsewhere.
Interest costs depend on the minimum attractive rate of return (i.e., the interest
rate) and the total initial cost of the irrigation system. A systems cost includes the
initial cost of all depreciable components and items such as water rights and land,
that are not depreciated, Depreciable items include pipes, pumps, accessories ,
buildings for housing or storing pumps and other equipment, farm road and
drainage facility construction, etc.
Annual depreciation and interest costs can be estimated using following

equations;
= PW
Where
= Annual Depreciation and interest Costs
= Capital Recovery Factor
(1+)
=
(1+) 1
= Analysis Period in Years
= Annual Interest Rates, in decimals
PW = Present Worth (of all the components)
The analysis period used for economy studies of on-farm irrigation systems is
typically 20, 25, or 30 years. For large complex projects, periods of 40, 50, and 100
years are commonly used.
Present worth (PW) is the amount that must be invested at the beginning of the
analysis period to return the equivalent of a component's initial cost plus interest by
the end of the analysis period. When the analysis period equals the component's
useful life, PW is computed using

1+
=
1+
10
Where
= present worth of component (Rs);
= initial cost of component (Rs);
= salvage value of component (Rs);
r = expected annual rate of cost escalation (decimal);
= analysis period (years).
is the present worth of the salvage value considering the effect of cost escalation.
When the analysis period is shorter than the components useful life, the component
will not be depreciated at the end of analysis period. In this case, the final salvage
value (at the end of the analysis period) is the sum of the un-depreciated and
salvage values. The following Equation is used to compute the final salvage value
( )
= ( )
Where, is the useful life of the component, in years. The above Equation uses
straight line depreciation over the useful life to estimate the un-depreciated value
at the end of the analysis period. When less than UL, PW is computed by
replacing with
In situations where AP exceeds UL, the component will need to be replaced one or
more times during the analysis period. The following equation shall be used in such
situation
()
1+ 1+
= +
1+ 1+
=1
1
=

()
=

11
The second and third terms are, respectively, the present worth of the component
replacement costs and the final salvage value (including any un-depreciated value).
2.3.4.2) Operating Costs

Annual operating costs include tile cost of water, energy, maintenance and
repair, and labor. The cost of professional services for such things as irrigation
scheduling and fertilizer recommendations should also be included in annual
operating costs. The effect of escalating costs can be included by multiplying
estimated annual operating costs for the initial year of operation by the equivalent
annual cost factor (EACF). EACF is defined by the following:
1 + (1 + )
= ()
1 + 1
a) Annual Water Costs
In many locations (especially in those served by irrigation districts, irrigators

are charged for the water they use. These charges are normally assessed on a
volume basis.
b) Annual Energy Costs
The annual energy cost includes the cost of all energy used to operate the
irrigation system. Energy used for pumping, moving equipment within and between
fields, injecting fertilizers and other chemicals into the system, etc., must be
considered. Energy costs are estimated by calculating the quantity of energy used
annually to irrigate the farm and applying the appropriate prices.
c) Annual Maintenance and Repair Costs
Maintenance and repair costs depend on the number of hours the irrigation
system operates, the operating environment, and the quality of maintenance. In
addition, there is substantial variation in the prices paid for parts and supplies, and
in the wages paid repair and maintenance personnel. Annual maintenance and
repair costs should therefore be based on local data whenever possible. When local
data are not available, annual maintenance and repair costs for an irrigation
system component can be approximated as a percentage of the components initial
cost percent of initial costs that can be used to estimate annual maintenance and
repair costs for several irrigation system components. The total annual
maintenance and repair cost for the system is the sum of the component costs.
d) Annual Labor Costs
12
The labor required to operate an irrigation system depends on many factors,
including the type of application system, the degree of automation, the crop, the
frequency and number of irrigations, and the terrain. Labor requirements are
estimated by careful analysis of operations or obtained from actual irrigation with
similar conditions and systems.
2.3.5) Selecting the Most Suitable System Design
When the source is separated by a long distance from the area of

consumption, the conveyance of the water over the distance involves the
provision of a pressure pipeline or a free flow conduit entailing an appreciable
capital outlay and therefore it is important to have the most economical
arrangement for the conveyance.
The available fall from the source to the command and ground profile in
between, should generally help to decide if a free flow conduit is feasible or not.
Once this is decided, the material of the conduit is to be selected keeping in view the
local costs and the nature of the terrain to be traversed. Even when a fall is
available, a pumping or force main, independently or in combination with gravity
main could also be considered. Optimization techniques need to be adopted to help
decisions. The most economical size for the conveyance main will be based on a
proper analysis of the following factors:
A. The period of design considered or the period of loan repayment if it is

greater than the design period for the project and quantities to be
conveyed during different phases of such period.
B. The different pipe sizes against different hydraulic slopes which can be
considered for the quantity to be conveyed.
C. Different pipe materials which can be used for the purpose and their relative
costs as laid in position.
D. The duty, capacity and installed cost of the pump sets required against the
corresponding sizes of the pipelines under consideration.
E. The recurring costs on
a) Energy charges for running the pump sets.
b) Staff for operation of the pump sets.
c) Cost of repairs and renewals of the pump sets.
d) Cost of miscellaneous consumable stores.
e) Cost of replacement of the pump sets installed to
meet the immediate requirements, by new sets at
an intermediate stage of design period. The full
13
design period or the repayment period may be
30 years or more while the pump sets are designed
to serve a period of 15 years.
F. Cost of small pipe differs marginally and hence unnecessary tight designs are
not desirable.
The designer should provide the specifications and a technical and economic
analysis for several alternative systems. The one that best satisfies the needs and is
economical, may be considered.
2.3.5.1) Economic Size of Conveying Main

Consider the optimization of the total cost of a pipeline plus pump designed
to raise water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir.
There are two extremes which might be considered. In an effort to reduce the
resistance to flow in the pipe it would be possible to use a very large diameter pipe
in which case, with little internal resistance, it would be possible to make do with a
relatively small pump and energy costs as well. Pipe costs would be large but pump
costs would be small. To reduce pipe costs it would be possible to use a very small
diameter pipe. However, the resistance to flow would then be significant and a
much larger pump (more energy) would be necessary to push the water through the
smaller pipeline. Although the pipe costs are low the pump costs, in this case, would
be large.
The problem then is to determine the optimum size of pump and pipe which
together give the minimum total cost. This, in fact, is a relatively simple problem
and can be answered by plotting cost against size of pipe as shown in Figure 2.1.
As the pipe diameter increases the cost of the pipeline increases (line A).
However as the pipe diameter increases the resistance to flow decreases making it
possible to use a smaller, cheaper pump. This means that the cost of the pump (line
B) decreases as the pipe diameter increases. Total cost is obtained (line C) by
adding the two original cost curves together. This shows a high total cost at the two
extremes with an optimum solution at the turning point on the total cost curve. The
location of the turning point clearly identifies the 'best' pump and pipe sizes.
14
Fig. 2.1 Optimization of Pump/Pipeline System
In the given example at Annexure 4, the economical diameter of main pipeline is

worked out by comparing of cost of pump plus energy charges v/s cost of pipe
15
Chapter-3 INTAKES
3.1) Introduction
It is a device or structure placed in a surface water source to permit the

withdrawal of water from the source. They are used to draw water from lakes,
reservoirs or rivers in which there is wide fluctuation in water level or when it is
proposed to draw water at most desirable depth.
An intake is provided in an irrigation development to allow water into a

channel or tunnel under controlled conditions. The intake design shall be such as to:
a) give minimum hydraulic losses,
b) provide smooth entry into the water conductor system, and
c) Prevent/minimize ice, floating trash and coarse sediment entering the tunnel
or channel.
3.2) Types of Intakes
a) Wet Intakes;
b) Dry Intakes;
c) Submerged Intakes
d) Moveable and floating Intakes
16
Fig 3.1. Simple Concrete block-Submerged Intake
(Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
17
Fig.3.2. Wet Intake tower standing in the river or reservoir
18
Fig 3.3. Dry Intake tower standing in the river or reservoir
19
Fig.3.4. Section of a typical twin well type of river intake
20
Fig.3.5.Detailed section and plan of a twin well type of river intake structure constructed
on Krishna River (below)
Fig 3.6. Single Well Type of a River Intake to be located across an off-take channel or an
approach channel (Ref: Water Supply Engineering book by SK Garg)
21
Fig.3.7. Canal Intake Well
22
Fig.3.8.Valve tower situated at the upstream toe of an earthen dam
23
Fig.3.9. Intake Well or Valve tower for concrete gravity or masonry dams
Fig.3.10.Valve tower situated within an earthen dam

24
3.3) Intake in concrete or masonry dams
In the case of concrete or masonry dams irrigation intake structure can be

located either at the toe when operating head is low or in the body of the dam itself
when operating head is medium or high. Typical layouts are shown in
Fig.3.11&3.12.
Fig 3.11. Approach Geometry- Semicircular Type Intake Structure (Ref: IS: 11570-
1985)
25
Elevation
Plan
Fig 3.12. Semicircular Type Intake Structure

(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
26
Fig 3.13. Typical Installation in a Concrete/Masonry dams
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
27
Fig 3.14.Typical Installation in an Earth dam-sloping Intake
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
Fig 3.15. Typical Installation in an Earth dam-Tower Type Intake

(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
28
Fig.3.16 Typical Installation in an Earth dam-Tower Type Intake (Type II)
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
3.4) Intake in earthen dams
When the reservoir is formed by an earthen dam, the irrigation tunnel is laid
below it or in the abutment. The intake structure for such situations will be a
sloping intake or tower type of intake. Typical layouts for sloping and tower type
intakes are shown in Fig. 3.14, 3.15 and 3.16 respectively. As far as possible,
reinforced cement concrete pressurized system should be avoided in the body of the
earth dam. Measures like provision of steel liners and suitable drainage
downstream of core, provisions of joints for differential settlements when not
founded on rock should be considered in case pressure conduits are provided under
earth dams.
3.5) Intake in reservoir independent of dam
In case of a high head installation; irrigation tunnel taking off from a storage
reservoir, the intake is located at a distance from the dam. The intake structure of
such a layout will be either tower type semicircular, circular, rectangular or
inclined.
29
3.6) Layout of Intake Structure
Main components of an irrigation intake structure are listed below:

a) Trash rack and supporting structures;
b) Anti-vortex devices;
c) Bell-mouth entrance with transition and
rectangular to circular opening; and
d) Gate slot enclosures with air vents.
The efficient and economic design of an intake to serve the functions set out in
section 3.1 will depend upon the conditions prevailing in each development. In
3.10.2 and 3.10.4 few formulae have been suggested which may be modified to suit
any special condition. Hydraulic model studies may be necessary under special
conditions.
The main types of layouts are given below.
3.6.1) Semicircular Type of Intake Structure
In this layout, the structure supporting the rack is formed in a semicircle in

plan in front of the tunnel opening so that no parts of rack fall within a radius of
1.143 B from face of opening, where B is the width of opening of tunnel.
The main features of semicircular intake structure are:
a) Semicircular trash rack structure;

b) Bell-mouth entrance to tunnel;
c) Gate slot enclosures with air vent (Typical details are shown in Fig.
3.12&3.13) and
d) Transition from rectangular to circular conduit.
3.6.2) Sloping Intake
Sloping intake is provided in an earthen dam as shown in Fig. 3.14. Trash rack
for the intake (made by mild steel rectangular bars) is provided at the entrance. The
top and sides at the entrance are provided with bell-mouth.
30
3.6.3) Vertical Intake
Vertical intake is essentially a circular vertical shaft. The structure above it

supporting the trash rack is either tower type or hemispherical cage. The main
features of this layout are:
a) Hemispherical or tower type rack supporting structure;
b) Circular bell-mouth to shaft;
c) Vertical intake shaft; and
d) Right-angled bend at the base of the shaft or an elbow to join the tunnel.
In case of tower type intake structure, flow is regulated either by a single

cylindrical gate or by a number of gates in the tower or %y a separate gate in the
gate shaft. In case of hemispherical intake structure, the control gate is provided in
the tunnel portion only. A typical design of hemispherical vertical intake structure
is shown in Fig. 3.14.
3.7) Conditions for Location and Layout of Intake Structure
Factors influencing the choice of location and layout of intake structure are:
a) Type of development that is run-of river scheme or storage reservoir;
b) Location and type of dam/weir;
c) Type of water conveyance system that is tunnel or canal; and
d) Topographical features of area.
The conditions under which the various typical layouts of intake as classified in
3.6.1 to 3.6.3 are adopted are given below.
3.7.1) Semicircular Type of Intake Structure
This type of layout is adopted when:

a) a reservoir is formed by a concrete or masonry dam and outlet tunnel is laid
in the body of the dam;
b) the topography and geology permit to have almost vertical face at tunnel inlet
portal; and
c) the minimum water depth above the centre line of intake is more than 0.8 of
the entrance height.
3.7.2) Sloping Type of Intake Structure
31
a) the reservoir is formed by an earthen dam and tunnel is laid below it; and
b) the intake is subjected to low-head variations like in run-of the river type.
3.7.3) Vertical Type of Intake Structure

a) the intake is located at a distance from upstream face of the dam;
b) the reservoir is formed by an earthen dam and outlet tunnel is laid below it;
and
c) the intake is subjected to large head variations, resulting in complete
submergence of structure.
3.7.4) Location
As per IS: 11570-1985, the follwing factors shall be considered while determing
theappropriate loaction of Intake:
a) The location where the best quality of water(at least suitable for irrigation
purposes) is available
b) Absence of currents that will threaten the safety of the intake
c) Absence of ice floats etc.
d) Formation of shoal and bars should be avoided
e) Navigation channels should be avoided as far as possible
f) Fetch of wind and other conditions affecting the waves
g) Ice Storms
h) Floods
i) Availability of power and its reliability
j) Accessibility
k) Distance from pumping station
l) Possibilities of damage by moving objects and hazards.
3.8) Design Considerations as per IS 11570-1985
The Intake structures design should provide for withdrawal of water from
more than one level to cope up with seasonal variations of depth of water.
Undersluices should be provided for release of less desirable water held in storage.
32
The intake in or near navigable channels should be protected by cluster of
piles or other devices, against blows for moving objects. Undermining of foundations
due to water currents or overturning pressures, due to deposits of silt against one
side of an intake structure, are to be avoided.
The entrance of large objects into the intake pipe is prevented by coarse
screen or by obstructions offered by small openings in the crib work placed around
the intake pipe. Fine screens for the exclusion of small fish and other small objects
should be placed at an accessible point. The area of the openings in the intake crib
should be sufficient to prevent an entrance velocity greater than about 8 meters per
minute to avoid carrying settable matter into the intake pipe. Submerged ports
should be designed and controlled to prevent air from entering the suction pipe, by
keeping a depth of water over the port of at least three diameters of the port
opening.
The conduit for conveying water from the intake should lead to a suction well
in or near the pumping station. For conduits laid under water, standard cast iron
pipe may be used. Larger conduits may be of steel or concrete. A tunnel, although
more expensive, makes the safest conduit.
The capacity of the conduit and the depth of the suction well should be such
that the intake ports to the suction pipes of pumps will not draw air. A velocity of 60
to 90 cm/s in the intake conduit with a lower velocity of 60 to 90 cm/s in the intake
conduit with a lower velocity through the ports will give satisfactory performance.
The horizontal cross-sectional area of the suction well should be three to five times
the vertical cross-sectional area of the intake conduit.
The intake conduit should be laid on a continuously rising or falling grade to

avoid accumulation of air or gas pockets of which would otherwise restrict the
capacity of the conduit.
3.9) Hydraulic Design of Components of Intake as per IS 11570-

1989
3.9.1) Centre Line of Intake
Centre line of intake shall be located well below the minimum draw down
level to prevent formation of vortices. Suitable arrangements, such as cross walls,
floating grid may be provided if necessary to prevent/minimize, vortices. Cover of
water over the roof of the intake for the prevention of the formation of air
entraining vortices both at vertical or horizontal pipe intake may be computed for
33
the purpose of preliminary design from the set of curves given in Fig.3.17 & 3.18 by
trial method. For important works the design may be checked by model studies.
3.9.2) Procedure for determining optimum submergence or location of centre line of

intake as per IS 11570-1989:
In order to ascertain whether at submergence of intake pipe of diameter D

= 2 vortex will form at the intake or not proceed as under:
From the design data, the following parameters are known:
a) Effective head - ,
b) Discharge corresponding to effective head , and
c) Submergence of the intake - .
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
Step 1: Determine coefficient of discharge, C, from

= 2

34
Step 2: At any convenient distance r from the centre line of the intake, such that
r/D = 3, 4, 5 or 6, compute Velocity, from the correlation:
2
3.45
=
2
2
Step 3: Evaluate
2
Step 4: Enter Fig.3.17 plot of
versus C, and examine; if this above the
particular curve corresponding to the adopted value of r/D, no vortex will form. If
this point lies below the curve vortex will form.
Step 5: To determine the optimum water cover or submergence repeat to the above
2
steps till the point corresponding to the computed values of C and lies on the

particular r/D curve. For the case of horizontal intake, Fig.3.18 may be made use of.
Fig 3.17.Vertical Intakes-for determining submergence

(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
35
Fig 3.18. Horizontal Intakes- for determining submergence
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
3.9) Trash rack Structure
At entrance to canal or tunnel, where trash may create serious problem in

irrigation system, a trash rack structure shall be provided in front of the entrance to
the tunnel to prevent the entry of any trash. The trash rack structure shall be
designed in accordance with IS: 1138:1985.
3.10) Bell Mouth Opening and Transition
In non-pressurized system the gate should be provided outside the bell-mouth

end.
3.10.1) Shape and Size of Opening

Entrance to the irrigation tunnel shall be designed to produce acceleration
similar to that found in a jet issuing from a sharp edged orifice. The surface shall be
formed to natural contraction curve and the tunnel assumed to the size of orifice jet
at its maximum contraction.
The normal contraction with coefficient of contraction Ce, as 0.6 shall be used in
high-head installations and Ce as 0.7 for low-head installations in order to reduce
the height of opening. Coefficients of discharge and loss coefficients for typical
entrances for conduits are given in Table 3.1
36
Table 3.1.Coefficients of Discharge and loss coefficients for Conduit Entrances
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
3.10.2) Opening Area

=

Where
= angle of inclination of centre line of conduit to horizontal,

= Coefficient of contraction
3.10.3) Entrance Curves for Circular Conduits
For circular conduits, an elliptical entrance curve obtained from the following
equation will satisfy the streamlining requirements:
2 2
+ =1
0.52 0.152
Where X and Y are coordinates measured parallel to and perpendicular to the

conduit centre line respectively, and D is the diameter of the conduit.
37
3.10.4) Entrance Curves for Rectangular Conduit
3.10.4.1) Height and width of opening
The height is calculated by the distance above and below the intersection of the
tunnel centre line with the face of the entrance
Centre line to upper edge:
1
1 = 1.21 2 + 0.0487 2
+ 1.10
2 cos
Centre line to lower edge:
0.791
2 = + 0.077

= 1 + 2
3.10.5) Shape of the opening
For a rectangular entrance with the invert at the same elevation as the
upstream floor and with curved guide piers at each side of the entrance openings,
both the bottom and side contraction will be suppressed and a sharper contraction
will take place at the top of the opening. For this condition, the top contraction
curve is defined by the equation:
2 2
+ =1
2 0.67 2
Where H is the vertical height of the conduit downstream from the entrance
shape.
For rectangular or square openings
2 2
+ =1
2 0.33 2
Where D is the vertical height of the conduit for defining top and bottom curves and
is the horizontal width of the conduit for defining side curves.
The above mentioned formulae for rectangular/square conduit are applicable when
the centre line of the transition and centre line of conduit are the same.For higher
heads shape of the opening may be decided by model studies.
38
3.10.6) Transitions
In order to obtain most economical design of intake transitions from a

rectangular section to a circular conduit, the vertical walls are flared in the
direction of flow. The transition shall be designed in accordance with the following
requirements:
a) Transition or turns shall be made about the centre line of mass flow;
b) For contraction, the maximum convergent angle should not exceed that
indicated by the relation:
1
tan =

Where
= Angle of the conduit wall surfaces with respect to its centre line,

U = An arbitrary parameter =
and
H = Vertical height of the conduit.
The value of V and H are the average of the velocities and dimensions at the
beginning and end of the transition. For expansion
1
tan =
2
For usual installations, the flare angle should not normally exceed 10o.
c) The area of any section of the transition shall be proportional to the area of a
jet at similar section and modified to provide the acceleration necessary to
turn the water through the angle that section makes with the face, and
d) All slots or other necessary departures from the neat outline shall be outside
the transition zone.
39
40
Fig 3.19. Bell-Mouth Details of Rectangular Opening
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
Fig 3.20. Bell-Mouth Details of Rectangular Opening

(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
3.11) Intake Gates and Air Vent
The intake gate slot shall be enclosed in a structure designed to guide the
water into the rectangular opening without side contraction. The upstream edge of
the gate slot shall be at least 0.40 be from the nose, where b e is the width of
opening. Where gates are located in a gate shaft, suitable transition from circular to
rectangular gate slot shall be provided.
3.11.1) Size of Air Vent
An air vent is provided just downstream of the gate to prevent occurrence of

excessive sub atmospheric pressure. The air vent shall be so designed as to admit
air with velocity not exceeding 50 m/s. The area of air vent is given by value of air
demand divided by the maximum permissible velocity. Air demand shall be
41
computed on the considerations of type of flow occurring downstream of gates,
namely, spray flow, free flow, foamy flow, hydraulic jump formation with free
surface flow or hydraulic jump formation with pipe flow.
The air demand for different flow types in the conduit shall be computed with the
help of the following formulae:
a) For hydraulic jump formation, = 0.0066( 1)1.4 where is the ratio of

volume flow rate of air to that of water, and is the Froude number at vena
contracta;
b) For spray flow, = 0.2 ; and
c) For free flow, , = 0.09
Where

=

= air demand,
= discharge of water
= the Froude number at vena contracta;
For hydraulic jump formation with channel flow and various types of flows
mentioned above, Fig.3.21. may be used to compute air demand.
42
Fig 3.21.Air Demand Curves for spray, Free and Foamy flow
(Ref: IS: 11570- 1985)
3.11.2) Prevention of air-blows
The air-blows or return blows characterized by flow of air-water mixture, more

or less in the form of a geyser, have been observed at intakes similar to those shown
in Fig.3.14&3.15. Sometimes these blows may be very violent and may result in
blowing of trash rack. In some cases the trash rack may be lifted and drawn in the
tunnel itself. Return blows & lay be prevented by the following measures:
a) By providing larger open area of the trash rack;

b) By providing another air-vent after the vertical bend in the outlet conduit;
and
43
c) By washing away the air pockets frequently by releasing higher discharge in
the tunnel.
3.11.3) Head losses in air vent
Head loss in the air vent, specially in case of an unusually complicated vent
layout containing a number of sharp bends and obstructions, shall be checked to
determine whether the pressure drop exceeds 2 m of water in which case the vent
size shall be increased suitably.
44
Chapter-4 DESILTING ARRANGMENT
4.1) Introduction
The water which is drawn from the river/reservoir/storage system contains

sediments. This sediments may block or reduce the capacity of the distribution
system thereby it affects the efficiency of the whole system. However, the sediment
water may be desirable for crops but it may affect the whole system. Hence, it has to
be removed to some extent considering its impact on the whole system.
Conventional systems like settling basins are quite effective to reduce the
sediment content in the whole system. Moreover, conventional system with tube
settler are having more efficiency in the controlling the sediment rate. Hence, the
tube settlers have been discussed in detail.
4.2) Tube Settlers
Settling efficiency of a basin is primarily dependent upon surface area and is

independent of depth. Attempts have been made to use this concept to achieve
better efficiency and economy in space as well as cost. Wide shallow trays inserted
within conventional basins with a view to increase the surface area have not met
with success. However, very small diameter tubes having a large wetted perimeter
relative to wetted area providing laminar flow conditions and low surface loading
rate have shown good promise. Such tube settling devices provide excellent
clarification with detention time of equal to or less than 10 minutes.
PRINCIPLE OF TUBE SETTLERS
Tube settlers or inclined plate settlers are examples of high rate settlers.
Here what we are doing is we are providing excess surface so that the surface
overflow rate will be decreased. We have sedimentation tank like this say some 3.5
meters depth so if you provide many plates parallelly in the settling zone so what
will happen is the effective surface area will be increasing because many surfaces
are available for the settling or many planes are available for settling. So,
effectively what will happen is it will be considerably reducing the surface overflow
rate or in other words it will be increasing the efficiency of the tank. That is the
principle of these tube settlers.
Tube configurations can be horizontal or steeply inclined. In inclined tubes

(about 60 degree) continuous gravity drainage of the settleable material can be
45
achieved. At angle greater than 40 degree the units lose efficiency rapidly whereas
with angles less than 60 degree, sludge will not slide down the floors. Under such
situations, hosing down the sediments may have to be resorted to. With horizontal
tubes (normally inclined at 5 degree) auxiliary scouring of settled solids is
necessary. While tube-settlers have been used for improving the performance of
existing basins, they have also been successfully used in a number of installations
as a sole settling unit. It has been found that if one fifth of the outlet end of a basin
is covered with tube or plate settlers, the effective surface loading on the tank is
nearly halved or the flow though the basin can be nearly doubled without
impairment of effluent quality.
Here the design is based upon the surface overflow rate so here we are
providing many tube or inclined plates at an angle of 45 to 60 degree above the
horizontal. Why we are providing this 45 to 60 degree angle is because the particles
will be settling on the plates or the tubes so if you provide an angle 45 to 60 degree
then whatever the particle that is settled on the tubes or the plates will be sliding
back to the system with the self weight so cleaning will be very very easy.
Fig 4.1.Tube Settler

The tubes may be square, circular, hexagonal, diamond shaped, triangular,
and rectangular or chevron shaped. A widely used material for their construction is
thin plastic sheet (1.5mm) black in color, though plastic and asbestos cement pipes
have also been used. There are number of proprietary devices such as Lamella
clarifier.
This tube settler system has been proposed in the Medium Irrigation Project
in Hamirpur district in Himachal Pradesh.
46
Fig 4.2.Lamella Clarifier
4.2.1) Analysis of Tube Settlers
The performance of the tube settles is normally evaluated by parameter, S,

defined as

= sin + cos

Where,
= Settling velocity of the particle in vertically downward direction (L/T)
= Velocity of flow along the tube settler
= Angle of inclination of tube settlers, degrees.
L= Relative length of settler = I/d dimensionless
l, d= Length and diameter (width) of the tube settlers, (L)
If the value S equals or exceeds a critical value, S for any particle, it is

completely removed in the tube settlers under ideal conditions. For laminar flow
regime in tube settlers, the value of S have been determined as 4/3, 11/8 and 1 for
circular, square and parallel plates type of tube settlers assuring uniform flow.
47
It is found that the performance of tube settlers is improved significantly
with L values of up to 20 and insignificantly beyond 20. Therefore, it is desirable
to design tube settlers, beyond 40 degree, results in deterioration in their
performance. Essentially horizontal tube settlers perform better than steeply
inclined tube settlers. It is opined that from relative economics point of view, the
order of preference for tube settlers is parallel plates followed by circular tubes and
square conduits.
It is recommended to increase the dimensionless L of tube settlers by an

additional amount L to account for transition zone near inlet to change to fully
developed laminar flow

= 0.058

Where is the kinematic viscosity of water
Fig 4.3. Flow distribution from a conventional inlet in a tube settler
48
Fig 4.4.Tube settler type desilting arrangement in Nadaun Medium Irrigation
Project, HP.
4.2.2) Design for Tube Settlers (as per CPHEEO manual on water supply and
treatment)
The following example (shown in the box) illustrates the design for tube settlers
Problem Statement
Design tube settler module of square cross section with following data
Average output required from tube settler = 250 3
Loss of water in desludging = 2% of output required
49
Average design flow = ( 250 100 100 2 = 255.1 3
Cross section of square tubes = 50 mm x 50 mm
Length of tubes = 1m
Angle of inclination of tubes = 60o
Design Steps:
Compute relative length of settler
1000
= = 20
50
Effective relative length of tube,L
= 0.058
= 0.058
= 20 (0.058 0.05) 1.01 106 86400
= 20 0.033
Where is flow through velocity for tube settler in m/d
Determine Flow Velocity through Tubes:
= sin + cos
11 8 = 120 sin 60 + (20 0.033 ) cos
= 388.65 /
Compute Total Tube Entrance Area and No. of Tubes:
Tube entrance area = = 255.1 24 388.65= 15.75 2
No .of tubes required = 15.75 0.05 0.05 = 6300
Provide 6400 square tubes of 0.05 0.05 with 80 tubes along the length of the
square module and 80 tubes along the width of the module
Length of the tube module = No.of tubes (inside dimension of square tubes + 2
thickness of tubes)
50
= 80 0.050 + 2 0.005
= 4.24 m
Height of tube module for 1m length of square tubes inclined at an angle of 600
= 1 sin 600 = 0.866 m say 0.87m
Therefore overall dimension of tube module = 4.24 4.24 0.87
Size of individual square tubes = 0.05 0.05
Thickness of individual square tubes = 1.5mm
The design of desilting chamber, collection chamber and lift pump capacity are
shown in Annexure-2.
4.3) Summary
Although sediment containing water is good for crops, but it may affect the
distribution system. Depending upon the quantity of the sediment, the necessity of
desilitng basin needs to be studied in detail.
51
Chapter 5 Pipe Distribution Network
5.1) Hydraulics of conduits
The design of supply conduits is dependent on resistance to flow, available

pressure or head, allowable velocities of flow, scour, sediment transport, quality of
water and relative cost.
5.1.1) Formulae
There are a number of formulae available for use in calculating the velocity
of flow. However, Hazen-Williams formula for pressure conduits and Mannings
formula for free flow conduits have been popularly used.
a) Hazen William Formula
= 0.849Cr 0.63 S 0.54
= 4.567103 Cd0.63 S 0.54

And
= 1.292105 Cd2.63 S 0.54
Q= discharge in cubic metre per hour

d=diameter of pipe in mm
V=velocity in mps
r=hydraulic radius in m
S=slope of hydraulic gradeline and
C=Hazen Williams coefficient (Refer Table 5.1)
The values of the Hazen-Williams coefficient C for new conduit materials

and the values to be adopted for design purposes are shown in Table 5.1.
Hazen -Williams Coefficients
Pipe Material Recommended C Values

New Design Purpose
Pipes
Unlined Metallic Pipes
Cast iron, Ductile Iron 130 100
52
Mild steel 140 100
Galvanized Iron 50mm 120 100
dia
Galvanized Iron 50mm 120 55
dia and below used for
house service
connections
Centrifugally Lined Metallic Pipes

Cast Iron, Ductile Iron
and Mild Steel Pipes
lines with cement
mortar or Epoxy
upto 1200mm dia 140 140
Above 1200m dia 145 145
Projection Method Cement Mortar Lined Metallic

Pipes
Cast Iron, Ductile Iron 130* 110**
and Mild Stell Pipes
Non Metallic Pipes

RCC Spun Concrete,
Prestressed Concrete
upto 1200mm dia 140 140
above 1200mm 145 145
Asbestos Cement 150 140
PVC,GRP and other 150 145
Plastic pipes
Table 5.1.Hazen William Coefficients

(Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
b) Mannings formula
1 2 1
= 32

53
2 1
3.968 103 3 2
=

8 1
8.661 107 3 2
=

Q= discharge in cubic metre per hour

d=diameter of pipe in mm
V=velocity in mps
r=hydraulic radius in m
S=slope of hydraulic gradeline
n=Mannings coefficient of roughness (Refer Table 5.2)
The coefficient of roughness for use in Mannings formula for different materials as
given in Table 5.2. may be adopted generally for design purposes unless local
experimental results or other considerations warrant the adoption of any other
lower value for the coefficient. For general design purposes, however, the value for
all sizes may be taken as 0.013 for plastic pipes and 0.0015 for other pipes.
Type of lining Condition n
Glazed coating of Enamel In perfect order 0.01

Timber
a) Plane boards carefully laid 0.014
b)Plane boards inferior workmanship or 0.016
aged
c)Non-Plane boards carefully laid 0.016
d)Non- plane boards inferior 0.018
workmanship or aged
Masonry a) Neat Cement plaster 0.013

b)Sand and cement plaster 0.015
c) Concrete, Steel trowled 0.014
d) Concrete, wood troweled 0.015
e) Brick in good condition 0.015
f) Brick in rough condition 0.017
54
g) Masonry in bad condition 0.02
Stone Work a)Smooth, dressed ashlar 0.015

b) Rubble set in cement 0.017
c)Fine, well packed gravel 0.02
Earth a) Regular surface in good condition 0.02

b) In ordinary condition 0.025
c) With stones and weeds 0.03
d) In poor condition 0.035
e) Partially obstructed with debris or 0.05
weeds
Steel a) Welded 0.013

b) Riveted 0.017
c) slightly tuberculated 0.02
d) Cement mortar lined 0.011
Cast Iron & Ductile Iron a)unlined 0.013

b)Cement mortar lined 0.011
Asbestos Cement 0.012

Plastic(smooth) 0.011
Table 5.2.Mannings Coefficients of roughness

Note: Values of n may be taken as 0.015 for unlined metallic pipes and 0.011 for
plastic and other smooth pipes.
c) Darcy-Weisbachs Formula
2
= =
2
H= head loss due to friction over length L in meters
f=dimensionless friction factor (Refer Table 5.3)
g=acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
V=velocity in mps
L=length in meters
D=diameter in meters
55
The friction factor values in practice for commonly used pipe materials are given in
Table 5.3.
Recommended Friction Factors In Darcy-Weisbach Formula
Sl. Pipe Material Diameter(mm) Friction Factor

No.
From To New For Design
Period of 30
Years
1 RCC 100 2000 0.01 to 0.02 0.01 to 0.02
2 AC 100 600 0.01 to 0.02 0.01 to 0.02
3 HDPE/PVC 20 100 0.01 to 0.02 0.01 to 0.02
4 SGSW 100 600 0.01 to 0.02 0.01 to 0.02
5 CI (for non-corrosive 100 1000 0.01 to 0.02 0.053 to 0.03
waters)
6 CI (for corrosive 100 1000 0.01 to 0.02 0.034 to 0.07
waters)
7 Cement Mortar or 100 200 0.01 to 0.02 0.01 to 0.02
Epoxy Lined
mettalic pipes (Cast
Iron, Ductile Iron,
Steel)
8 GI 15 100 0.014 to 0.0315 to 0.06
0.03
Table 5.3. Friction Factors In Darcy-Weisbach Formula

(Reference may be made to IS 2951 for calculation of Head loss due to friction
according to Darcy-Weisbach formula)
d) Colebrook-white formula
1 2.51
= 2 log10 [ + ]
3.7
f=Darcys friction coefficient
56
=Reynolds number = velocity x Diameter/viscosity
= diameter of pipe
= roughness projection (Refer Table 5.4)
S.No Pipe Material Value of k mm

New Design
1 Metallic pipes-Cast iron and 0.15 *
Ductile Iron
2 Metallic Pipes-Mild Steel 0.06 *
3 Asbestos Cement, Cement 0.035 0.035
Concrete, Cement Mortar or
epoxy lined steel, CI and DI
pipes
4 PVC,GRP and other plastic 0.003 0.003
pipes
*Reference may be made to IS: 2951 for roughness values of aged metallic
pipes
Table 5.4. Values of Roughness Projection

e) Modified Hazen Williams formula
The Modified Hazen Williams formula has been derived from Darcy-Weisbach and
Colebrook-White equations and obviates the limitations of Hazen-Williams formula.
= 3.83 0.6575 ()0.5525 / 0.105
= (Refer Table 5.5)

d=pipe diameter
g=acceleration due to gravity
s=friction slope
V=viscosity of liquid
m2 m
For circular conduits, 20 for water =106 and g= 9.81 s 2
s
The Modified Hazen Williams formula derived as
= 143.534 0.6575 0.5525
h=[(/ )1.81 ]/994.624.81
57
V= velocity of flow in m/s
= pipe roughness coefficient; 1 for smooth pipes; < 1 ; (Refer
Table 5.5)
=
s=friction slope
D=internal diameter of pipe in m
h=friction head loss in m
L=length of pipe in m
Q=flow in pipe in m3 /
The recommended Values in Modified Hazen-Williams Formula (At 20 C) is

given in Table 5.5.
Sl. Pipe Material Diameter(mm) Velocity(m/s)

No. Value Value
From To From To when For
New Design
Period
of 30
years
1 RCC 100 2000 0.3 1.8 1 1
2 AC 100 600 0.3 2 1 1
3 HDPE and PVC 20 100 0.3 1.8 1 1
4 CI/DI (for water with 100 1000 0.3 1.8 1 0.85
positive Langelier's index)
5 CI/DI (for water with 100 1000 0.3 1.8 1 0.53
negative Langelier's index)
6 Metallic pipes lined with 100 2000 0.3 2.2 1 1
cement mortar or epoxy
(for water with negative
Langelier's index)
7 SGSW 100 600 0.3 2.1 1 1

8 GI (for water with positive 15 100 0.3 1.5 0.87 0.74
Langelier's index)
*These average Values that result in maximum error of 5 % in the estimation of
surface resistance
Table 5.5.Recommended Values in Modified Hazen-Williams Formula (At 20o C)

58
5.1.2) Coefficient of Roughness
In order to ensure that water resources are utilized judiciously, proper
selection of coefficient of roughness is essential for designing the pipeline network.
Despite technological advancements, improved methods of manufacturing of all
types of pipes and advent of new pipe materials, the current practice of adopting
conservative coefficients of roughness (C values) is resulting in under utilization of
the pipe materials.
The coefficient of roughness depends on Reynolds number (hence on velocity

And diameter) and relative roughness (d/k).For Reynolds number greater than
107,the friction factor f (and hence the C value ) is relatively independent of
diameter and velocity.However,for normal ranges of Reynolds number of 4000 to 106
the friction factor f (and hence the C value) do depends on diameter, Velocity and
relative roughness.
5.1.3) Resistance due to Specials and Appurtenances

Pipeline transitions and appurtenances add to the head loss, which is
expressed as velocity head as KV2/2g, Where V and g are in m/s and m/sec2
respectively or equivalent length of straight pipe. The values of K to be adopted for
different fittings are given in Table 5.6. and the equivalent length of pipe for
different sizes of various fittings sizes of various fittings with K=1 are given in
Table 5.6.
Type of Fitting Value of K

Sudden contractions 0.3*-0.5
Entrance shape well rounded 0.5
Elbow 90 0.5-1.0
45 0.4-0.75
22 0.25-0.50
Tee 90take off 1.5
Straight run 0.3
Coupling 0.3
Gate valve (open) 0.3**-0.4
With reducer and increser 0.5
Globe 10
Angle 5
Swing check 2.5
Venturimeter 0.3
Orifice 1
59
*varying with areas ratios
**varying with radius ratios
Table 5.6. K-Values for Different Types of Fittings

Size in Equivalent length of pipe Size Equivalent
mm in metres in mm length of pipe in
metres
10 0.3 65 2.4
15 0.6 80 3
20 0.75 90 3.6
25 0.9 100 4.2
32 1.2 125 5.1
40 1.5 150 6
50 2.1
Table 5.7. Equivalent Length of Pipe for Different sizes of Pipe Fittings with K=1
5.1.4) Cost Effective Design of Pipelines
The cost of transmission and distribution system constitutes a major portion of
the project cost. It is desirable to adopt the following guidelines.
a) The design velocity should not be less than 0.6 m/s in order to avoid
depositions and consequent loss of carrying capacity.
b) In design of distribution systems, the design velocity should not be less than
0.6 m/s to avoid low velocity conditions which may encourage deposition
and/or corrosion resulting in deterioration in quality. However, where
inevitable due to minimum pipe diameter criteria or other hydraulic
constraints, lower velocities may be adopted with adequate provision for
scouring.
c) In all hydraulic calculations, the actual internal diameter of the pipe shall be
adopted after accounting for the thickness of lining, if any, instead of the
nominal diameter or outside diameter (OD).
60
d) In providing for head loss due to fittings, specials and other appurtenances,
actual head loss calculations based on consideration included in subsection
5.1.3 should be done instead of making an arbitrary provision.
5.2) Pipe Materials (as per CPHEEO Manual on water supply

and treatment)
Pipelines are major investments in water supply projects and as such

constitute a major part of the assets of water authorities. Pipes represent a large
proportion of the capital invested in water supply undertakings and therefore are of
particular importance. Therefore pipe materials shall have to be judiciously selected
not only from the point of view of durability, life and overall cost which includes,
besides the pipe cost, the installation and maintenance costs necessary to ensure
the required function and performance of the pipeline throughout its designed life
time.
Where pipe sizes are not limited or controlled by pressure variation or

velocity requirements, economical pipe sizes will normally have a friction loss
ranging from 0.41.5 m per 100 m of pipe. The most economical pipe size will
depend on the current cost of pipe, the pipe life, hours of pumping, pipe friction, and
energy cost.
During the design process, the designer must take into account the possible
effect of water quality on pipes, as well as the deterioration of pipes with age. Pipe
deterioration often results in increased friction losses. Designers should specify low
friction valves and fittings, where appropriate.
5.2.1) Choice of Pipe Materials

The various types of pipes used are
I. Metallic pipes: Cast Iron (CI), Ductile Iron (DI), Mild Steel (MS),
Galvanized Iron (GI).
(i) Unlined metallic pipes.
(ii) Metallic pipes lined with cement mortar or epoxy lining.
II. Non Metallic pipes

(i) Reinforced concrete, Prestressed concrete, Bar Wrapped steel
cylinder concrete, Asbestos cement
(ii) Plastic Pipes: PVC, Polyethylene, Glass Reinforced Plastic, etc.
61
The determination of the suitability in all respects of the pipes and specials,
for any work is a matter of decision by the Engineer concerned on the basis of
requirements for the scheme.
Several technical factors affect the final choice of pipe material such as
internal pressures, coefficient of roughness, hydraulic and operating conditions,
maximum permissible diameter, internal and external corrosion problems, laying
and jointing, type of soil, special conditions, etc.
Selection of Pipe Materials must be based on the following Considerations:
(a) The initial carrying capacity of the pipe and its reduction with use,
defined, for example, by the Hazen Williams coefficient (C). Values of C
vary for different conduit materials and their relative deterioration in
service. They vary with size and shape to some extent.
(b) The strength of the pipe as measured by its ability to resist internal
pressures and external loads.
(c) The life and durability of pipe as determined by the resistance of cast iron
and steel pipe to corrosion; of concrete and A.C. pipe to erosion and
disintegration and plastic pipe to cracking and disintegration.
(d) The ease or difficulty of transportation, handling and laying and jointing
under different conditions of topography, geology and other prevailing
local conditions.
(e) The safety, economy and availability of manufactured sizes of pipes and
specials.
(f) The availability of skilled personnel in construction and commissioning of

pipelines.
(g) The ease of difficulty of operations and maintenance.
The life and durability of the pipe depends on several factors including
inherent strength of the pipe material, the manufacturing process along with
quality control, handling, transportation, laying and jointing of the pipeline,
surrounding soil conditions and quality of water. Normally, the design period of
pipelines is considered as 30 years. Where the pipelines have been manufactured
properly as per specification, designed and installed with adequate quality control
62
and strict supervision, some of them have lasted more than the designed life
provided the quality of water is non-corrosive. However, pipeline failures for various
pipe materials even before the expiry of the designed life have been reported
probably due to lack of rigid quality control during manufacture and installation,
improper design, presence of corrosive waters, corrosive soil environment, improper
bedding and other relevant factors.
Lined metallic pipe lines are expected to last beyond the normal design life of
30 years. However, the relative age of such pipes depends on the thickness and
quality of lining available for corrosion. The cost of the pipe material and its
durability or design life are the two major governing factors in the selection the pipe
material. The pipeline may have very long life but may also be relatively expensive
in terms of capital recurring costs and, therefore, it is very necessary to carry out a
detailed economic analysis before selecting pipe materials. For details of typical
calculation of economic diameter of rising main, refer annexure-2.
The metallic pipes are being provided with internal lining either with cement
mortar or epoxy. So, as to reduce corrosion, increase smoothness and prolong the
life.
Underground metallic pipelines may require protection against external

corrosion depending on the soil environment and corrosion ground water.
Protection against external corrosion is provided with cement mortar guiniting or
hot applied coal tar asphaltic enamel reinforced with fiberglass fabric yarn.
The determination of the suitability in all respects of the pipe line or any
work is a matter of decision by the engineer concern on the basic of the
requirements for the scheme.
A checklist in table as provided in the CPHEEO Manual on water supply and

treatment (refer Annexure-3) for selection of pipe material has been provided to
facilitate the decision makers in selecting the economical and reliable pipe material
for the given conditions. .
5.2.2) CAST IRON PIPES
5.2.2.1) General
Most of the old cast iron pipes were cast vertically but this type has been
largely superseded by centrifugally spun cast iron type manufactured upto a
diameter 1050 mm (IS- 1536-1989). Though the vertically cast iron pipe is heavy in
weight, low in tensile strength and liable to defects of inner surface, it is widely use
63
because of its good lasting qualities. There are many examples of cast iron mains in
this country which continue to give satisfactory service even after a century of use.
Cast iron pipes and fittings are being manufactured in this country for
several years. Due to its strength and corrosion resistance, C.I. pipe can be used in
corrosive soils and for waters of slightly aggressive character. They are well suited
for pressure mains and laterals. It is preferable to have coating inside and outside
of the pipe.
Vertically cast iron pipes shall conform to IS. 1537-1976. The pipes are
manufacturer by vertically casting in sand moulds. The metal used for
manufacturer of this pipe is not less than grade 15. The pipes shall be stripped
with all precautions necessary to avoid raping or shirking defects. The pipe shall be
such that they would be cut, drilled or machined.
Cast iron flanged pipe and fittings are usually cast in larger diameters.
Smaller sizes have loose flanges screwed on the ends of double spigot-spun pipes.
The method of cast iron pipe production used universally today it is from
pipes spinning or centrifugal action. Compared with vertical casting in sand mould,
the span process results in faster production, longer pipes with vastly improved
metal qualities, smoother inner surface reduced thickness and consequent light
weight ( IS: 1536-1989).
Centrifugally cast iron pipe are available in diameters from 80 mm to 1050

mm and are covered with protective coatings. Pipes are supplied 3.66 m and 5.5m
length and variety of joints and are available including socket and spigot and
flanged joints.
The pipes have been classified as LA, A and B according to their thickness.
Class LA pipes have been taken as the basis for involving the series of pipes. Class
A allows a 10% increase in thickness over class LA. Class B allows a 20% increase
in thickness over class LA.
The pipes are spigot and socket type. When the pipes are to be used for
conveying water, the inside coating shall not contain any constituent soluble in
water or an ingredient which could impart any taste or odour whatsoever to the
water, after sterilization and suitable washing of the main.
Experiments in centrifugal casting of iron pipes were started in 1914 by a

French Engineer which ultimately resulted in commercial production of spun pipes.
Spun pipes are about of the weight of vertically cast pipes of the same class. The
64
greater tensile strength of the spun iron is due to close grain allowing use of thinner
wall than for that of a vertically cast iron pipe of equal length. It is possible by this
process to increase the length of the pipe whilst a further advantage lies in the
smoothness of the inner surface.
5.2.2.2) Laying and Jointing

Before laying the pipes, the detailed map of the area showing the alignment,
sluice valves, scour valves, air valves and hydrants along with the existing
intercepting sewers, telephone and electric cables and gas pipes will have to be
studied. Care should be taken to avoid damage to the existing sewer, telephone and
electric cables and gas pipes. Pipes are laid underground with a minimum cover of 1
metre on the tip of the pipe.
Laying of cast iron pipes for water supply purposes has been generally
governed by the regulations laid down by the local bodies. These regulation are
intended to ensure proper lying of pipes giving due consideration to economy and
safety of workers engaged in laying.
5.2.2.3) Excavation and Preparation of Trench

Excavation may be done by hand or by machine. The trench shall be so dug
that the pipe may be laid to the required gradient and at the required depth. When
the pipeline is under a roadway a minimum cover of 1.0m is recommended. The
width of the trench at bottom shall provide not less than 200mm clearance on both
sides of the pipe. Addition width shall be provided at position of sockets and flanges
for jointing. Depths of pits at such places shall also be sufficient to permit finishing
of joints.
5.2.2.4) Handling of Pipes

While unloading, pipes shall not be thrown down but may be carefully
unloaded on inclined timber skids. Pipes shall not be dragged over other pipes and
along concrete and similar pavements to avoid damage to pipes.
5.2.2.5) Detection of Cracks in Pipes

The pipes and fittings shall be inspected for defects and be rung with a light
hammer, preferably while suspended, to detect cracks. Smearing the outside with
chalk dust helps in the location of cracks. If doubt persists further confirmation
may be obtained by pouring a little kerosene on the inside of the pipe at the
suspected spot. If a crack a present the kerosene seeps through and shows on the
outer surface. Any pipe found unsuitable after inspection before laying shall be
rejected.
65
5.2.2.6) Lowering or Pipes and Fittings
All pipes, fittings, valves and hydrant shall be carefully lowered into the
trench by means derrick, ropes or either suitable tools and equipments to prevent
damage to pipe materials and protective coating and linings. Pipes over 300mm dia
shall be handled and lowered into trench with the help of chain pulley blocks.
5.2.2.7) Cleaning of Pipes and Fittings

All lumps, blisters and excess coating material shall be removed from socket
and spigot end of each pipes and outside of the spigot and inside of the socket shall
be wire-brushed and wiped clean and dry and free from oil and grease before the
pipe is laid.
After placing a length of pipe in the trench, the spigot end shall be cantered
in the pipe forced home and aligned to gradient. The pipe shall be secured in the
place with approved back fill material packed on both sides except at socket.
The socket end should face the upstream while laying the pipeline on level
ground, when the pipeline runs uphill, the socket ends should face the up gradient.
When the pipes run beneath the heavy loads, suitable size of casing pipes or
culverts may be provide to protect the casing of pipe. High pressure mains need
anchorage at dead ends and bends as appreciable thrust occurs which tend to cause
draw and even blow out joints. Where thrust is appreciable concrete blocks should
be installed at all points where movement may occur. Anchorages are necessary to
resist the tendency of the pipes to pull apart at bends or other points of unbalanced
pressure, or when they are laid on steep gradients and the resistance of their joints
to longitudinal or shear stresses is either exceeded or inadequate. They are also
used to restrain or direct to expansion and contraction of rigidly joined pipes under
the influence of temperature changes. Anchor or thrust blocks shall be designed in
accordance with I.S. 5330-1984.
5.2.2.8) Joints
Several types of joints as rubber gasket joint known as Tyton joint,
mechanical joint known as Screw Gland Joints, and conventional joint know as lead
joint are used.
5.2.2.9) Categories of Joints

Joints are classified into the following three categories depending upon their
capacity for movement.
a) Rigid Joints
66
Rigid joints are those which admit no movement at all and comprise of
flanged, welded and turned and bored joints. Flanged joints required perfect
alignment and close fittings are frequently used where a longitudinal thrust
must be taken such as at the valves and meters. The gaskets used between
flanges of pipes shall be of compressed fibre board of natural of synthetic
rubber. Welded joints produce a continuous line of pipes with the advantage
that interior and exterior coatings can be made properly and are not
subsequently disrupted by the movement of joints.
b) Semi Rigid joints
Semi rigid joint is represented by the spigot and socket with caulked lead
joint. A semi rigid joint allows partial movement due to vibration etc. The
socketed end of the pipe should be kept against the flow of water and the
spigot end of the other pipe is inserted into this socket. A twisted spun yam
is filled into this gap and it is adjusted by the yarning tool and is then
caulked well. A rope is then placed at the outer end of the socket and is made
tight fit by applying wet clay, leaving two holes for the escape of the
entrapped air inside. The rope is taken out and molten lead is poured into
the annular space by means of a funnel. The clay is then removed and the
lead is caulked with a caulking tool. Lead wool may be used in wet
conditions. Lead covered yarn is of great use in repair work, since the leaded
yarn caulked into place will keep back water under very low pressure while
the joint is being made.
c) Flexible joints
Flexible joints are used where rigidity in undesirable such as with filling of
granular medium and when two sections cannot be welded. They comprise
mainly mechanical and rudder ring joints or Tyton joints which permit some
degree of deflection at each joint and are therefore able to stand vibration and
movement. In rubber jointing special type of rubber gaskets are use to
connect cast iron pipe which are cast with a special type of spigot and socket
in the groove, the spigot end being lubricated with grease and slipped into the
socket by means of a jack used on the other end. The working conditions of
absence of light, presence of water and relatively cool uniform temperature
are all conducive to the preservation of rubber and consequently this type of
67
joint is expected to last as long as the pipes. Hence, rubber jointing is to be
preferred to lead to jointing.
5.2.2.10) Testing of the Pipeline
5.2.2.10.1) General
After laying and jointing, the pipeline must be pressure tested to ensure that
pipes and joints are sound enough to withstand the maximum pressure likely to be
developed under working conditions.
5.2.2.10.2) Testing of Pressure Pipes

The field test pressure to be imposed should be not less than the maximum of
the following.
(a) 1 1/2 times the maximum sustained operation pressure.

(b) 1 1/2 times the maximum pipeline static pressure.
(c) Sum of the maximum sustained operating pressure and the maximum
surge pressure.
(d) Sum of the maximum pipeline static pressure and the maximum surge
pressure, subject to a maximum equal to the work test pressure for any
pipe fittings incorporated.
The field test pressure should wherever possible be not less than 2/3 work
test pressure appropriate to the class of pipe except in the case of spun iron pipes
and should be applied and maintained for at least four hours. If the visual
inspection satisfies that there is no leakage, the test can be passed.
Where the field test pressure is less than 2/3 the work test pressure, the
period of test should be increased to at least 24 hours. The test pressure shall
gradually raised at the rate of 1 kg/cm2/min. If the pressure measurements are not
made at the lowest point of the section, an allowance should be made for the
difference in static head between the lowest point and the of measurement to
ensure that the maximum pressure is not exceeded at the lowest point. If a drop a
pressure occurs, the quantity of water added in order to re-establish the test
pressure should be case fully measured. This should not exceed 0.1 litre per mm of
pipe diameter per KM of pipeline per day each 30 meter head of pressure applied.
In case of gravity pipes, maximum working pressure shall be 2/3 work test
pressure.
68
The hydrostatic test pressure at works and at field after installation and the
working pressure for different classes of pipes are given in table 5.8.
69
70
Table 5.8. Working pressure for different classes of pipes
The allowable leakage during the maintenance stage of pipes carefully laid
and well tested during construction however should not exceed:
ND P
qL =
115
where
qL = Allowable leakage in 3 /hr
N = No of joints in the length of pipe line
D = Diameter in mm
P = the average test pressure during the leakage test /2
Where any test of pipe laid indicates leakage greater than that specified as
per the above formula, the defective pipe(s) or joint (s) shall be repaired/ replaced
until the leakage is with the specified allowance
The above is applicable to spigot and socket cast iron and A.C. pressure pipes,
whereas, twice this figure may be taken for Steel and Prestressed concrete pipes.
71
5.2.2.10.3) Testing of Non-Pressure conduits
In case of testing of non-pressure conduits, the pipeline shall be subject to a
test for of 2.5 meters head of water at the highest point of the section under test for
10 minutes. The leakage or quantity of water to be supplied to maintain the test
pressure during the period of 10 minutes shall not exceed 0.2 liters/mm dia of pipes
per kilometer length per day.
5.2.3) Steel Pipes
5.2.3.1) General
Steel pipes of smaller diameter can be made from solid bar sections by hot or
cold drawing processes and these tubes are referred to as seamless. But the larger
sizes are made by welding together the edges of suitable curved plates, the sockets
being formed later in a press (IS: 3589). The thickness of steel used is often
controlled by the need to make the pipe stiff enough to keep its circular shape
during storage, transportation and laying as also to prevent excessive deflection
under the load of trench back filling. The thickness of a steel pipe is however
always considerable less than the thickness of the corresponding vertically cast or
spun iron pipe. Owing to the higher tensile strength of the steel, it is possible to
make steel pipe of lower wall thickness and lower weight. Specials of all kinds can
be fabricated without difficulty to suit the different site conditions. Due to their
elasticity, steel pipes adopt themselves to changes in relative ground level without
failure and hence are suitable for laying in ground liable to subsidence. If the pipes
are joined by a form of flexible joint it provides and additional safeguard against
failure. Steel pipe being flexible are best suited for high dynamic loading.
5.2.3.2) Protection against Corrosion

It must be borne in mind, however, that steel mains need protection from
corrosion internally and externally. Against internal corrosion, steel pipes are
given epoxy lining or hot applied coal tar/ asphalt lining or rich cement mortar
lining at works or in the field by the centrifugal process. The outer coating for
underground pipeline may be in cement sand guiniting or hot applied coal-tar
asphaltic enamel reinforced with fiberglass fabric yarn.

Small size mild steel pipes have got threaded ends with one socket. They are
lowered down in the trenches and laid to alignment and gradient. The jointing
materials for this type of pipes are white lead and spun yarn. The white lead is
applied on the threaded end with spun yarn and inserted into socket of another
pipe. The pipe is then turned to tighten it. Lining and outcoating is done by
72
different methods to protect steel pipes. While laying, the pipes already stocked
along the trenches are lowered down into the trenches with the help of chain pulley
block. The formation of bed should be uniform. The pipes are laid true to the
alignment and gradient before joining. The ends of these pipes are butted against
each other, welded and a coat of rich cement mortar is applied after welding, Steel
pipes may be joined with flexible joints or by welding but lead or other filler joints,
hot or cold, are not recommended. The welded joint is to be preferred. In areas
prone to subsidence this joint is satisfactory but flexible joint must be provided to
isolate valves and branches.
When welding is adopted, plain-ended pipes may be jointed by butt welds or

sleeved pipes by means of fillet welds. For laying long straight lengths of pipelines,
butt joint technique may be employed. The steel pipes used for water supply include
hydraulic lap welded, electric fusion welded, submerged are welded and spiral
welded pipes. The latter are being made from steel strip. For laying of welded steel
pipe I.S. 5822-1986 may be referred to.
For hydraulic testing of steel pipelines, the procedure described for cast iron
spun pipes and ductile iron pipes may be followed.
5.2.4) Ductile Iron Pipes
5.2.4.1) General
Ductile Iron is made by a metallurgical process which involves the addition of
magnesium into molten iron of low sulphur content. The magnesium causes the
graphite in the iron to precipitate in the form of microscopic (6.25 micron) spheres
rather than the flakes found in ordinary cast iron. The spheroidal graphite in iron
improves the properties of ductile iron. It possesses properties of high mechanical
strength, excellent impact resistance and good casing qualities of grey cast iron.
Ductile iron pipes are normally prepared using the centrifugal cast process. The
ductile iron pipes are usually provided with cement mortar lining at the factory by
centrifugal process to ensure a uniform thickness throughout its length. Cement
mortar lining is superior to bituminous lining as the former provides a smooth
surface and prevents tuberculation by creating a high pH at the pipe wall and
ultimately by providing a physical and chemical barrier to the water.
The Indian standard IS 8329-1994 provides specifications for the

centrifugally cast ductile iron pipes (Similar to ISO: 2531-1998 and EN:545-1994).
These pipes are available in the range of 80 mm to 1000 mm diameter; in lengths of
73
5.5 to 6 m. These pipes are being manufactured in the country with ISO 9002
accreditation.
Ductile iron pipes have excellent properties of machinability, impact

resistance, high wear and tear resistance, high tensile strength, ductility and
corrosion resistance. DI pipes having same composition of CI pipe, it will have same
expected life as that of CI pipes. The ductile iron pipes are strong, both inner and
outer surfaces are smooth, free from lumps, cracks blisters and scars. Ductile Iron
pipes stand up to hydraulic pressure test as required by service regulations. These
pipes are approximately 30% lighter than conventional cast iron pipes.
Ductile iron pipes are lined with cement mortar in the factory by centrifugal
process and unlined ductile iron pipes are also available. For more details reference
may be made to IS 8329-1994 for Ductile Iron Pipes.
5.2.4.2) Ductile Iron Fittings

The Ductile iron fitting are manufactured conforming to IS 9523-1980 for
Ductile Iron fittings.
5.2.4.3) Joints
The joints for ductile iron pipes are suitable for use of rubber gaskets
conforming to IS 5383.

Reference may be made to para 5.2.2.2. (laying and jointing of cast iron
pipes).
5.2.4.5) Testing of Ductile Iron Pipelines

The Ductile Iron pipelines are tested as per para 5.2.2.10 (testing of the
pipeline). The test pressures shall be as per IS 8329-1994.
5.2.5) Asbestos Cement Pipes
5.2.5.1) General
Asbestos cement pipes are made of a mixture of asbestos paste and cement
compressed by steel rollers to from laminated material of great strength and
density. Its carrying capacity remains substantially constant as when first laid,
irrespective of the quality of water. It can be drilled and tapped for connecting but
does not have the same strength or suitability for threading as iron and any leakage
at the thread will become worse as time passes. However, this difficulty can be
overcome by screwing the ferrules through malleable iron saddles fixed at the point
74
of service connections as is the general practice. These pipes are not suitable for use
in sulphate soils. Due to expansion and contraction of black cotton soil, usage of
these pipes may be avoided as far as possible in Black Cotton soils, except where the
depth of B.C. soil is clearly less than 0.9 meter below ground level.
The available safety against bursting under pressure and against failure in
longitudinal bending, though less than that for spun iron pipes, is nevertheless
adequate and increases as the pipe ages. In most cases, good bedding of the pipes
and the use of flexible joints are of greater importance in preventing failure by
bending than the strength of pipe itself. Flexible joints are used at regular intervals
to provide for repairing of pipes, if necessary.
AC pipes are manufactured from classes 5 to 25 and nominal diameters of

80mm to 600mm with the test pressure of 5 to 25 Kg/cm2.
AC pipe can meet the general requirements of water supply undertakings for
rising main as well as distribution main. It classified as class 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25,
which gave test pressure 5. 10, 15, 20 and 25 Kg/cm2 respectively. Working
pressures shall not be greater than 50% of test pressure for pumping mains and
67% for gravity mains.
For further details, refer to IS 1592-1989.
5.2.5.2) Handling
Utmost care must be taken while loading, transportation, unloading, stacking
and retransporting to the side to avoid damage to the pipes.

The width of the trench should be uniform throughout the length and greater
than the outside diameter of the pipe by 300mm on either side of the pipe. The
depth of the trench is usually kept 1 meter above the top of the pipe. For heavy
traffic, a cover of atleast 1.25 meter is provided on the top of the pipe.
The AC pipes to be laid are stacked along the trenches on the side or opposite
to the spoils. Each pipe should be examined for any defects such as cracks, chipped
ends, crusting of the sides etc. The defective pipes should be removed forthwith
from the site as otherwise they are likely to be mixed up with the good pipes. Before
use the inside of the pipes will have to be cleaned. The lighter pipes weighing less
than 80Kg can be lowered in the trench by hand. If the sides of the trench slope too
much, ropes must be use. The pipes of medium weight upto 200 Kg are lowered by
means of ropes looped around both the ends, One end of the rope is fastened to a
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wooden or steel stack driven into the ground and the other end of the rope is held by
men and is slowly released to lower the pipe into the trench. After their being
lowered into the trench they are aligned for jointing. The bed of the trench should
be uniform.
5.2.5.4) Pipe Joints

There are two types of joints for AC pipes.
Cast iron detachable joint, (CID) and

AC coupling joint.
Cast Iron Detachable Joints

This consists of two cast iron flanges, as cast iron central collar and two
rubber rings along with a set of nuts and bolts for the particular joint. For this joint,
the AC pipes should have flush ends, for jointing a flange, a rubber ring and a collar
are slipped to the first pipe in that order; a flange and a rubber ring being
introduced from the jointing of the next pipe. Both the pipes are now aligned and
the collar centralized and the joints of the flanges tightened with nuts and bolts.
A.C. Coupling joint

This consists of an A.C. Coupling and three special rubber rings. The pipes
for these joints have chamfered ends. These rubber rings are positioned in the
grooves inside the coupling, then grease is applied on the chamfered end and the
pipe and coupling is pushed with the help of a jack against the pipe. The mouth of
the pipe is then placed in the mouth of the coupling end and then pushed so as to
bring the two chamfered ends close to each other. Wherever necessary, change over
from cast iron pipe to AC pipes or vice-versa should be done with the help of
suitable adapters. I.S. 6530-1972 may be followed for laying A.C. pipes.
5.2.5.4) Pressure Testing

The procedure for the test as adopted is as follows:
a) At a time one section of the pipeline between two sluice valves is taken
up for testing. The section usually taken is about 500 meters long.
b) One of the valves is closed and the water is admitted into the pipe
through the other, manipulating air valves suitably.
(If there are no sluice valves in between the section, the end of the
section can be sealed temporarily with an end cap having an outlet
which can serve as an air relief vent or for filling the fine as may be
76
required. The pipeline after it is filled should be allowed to stand for 24
hours before pressure testing).
c) After filling, the sluice valve is closed and the pipe section is isolated.
d) Pressure gauges are fitted at suitable intervals on the crown into the
holes meant for the purpose.
e) The pipe section is then connected to the delivery side of a pump

through a small valve.
f) The pump is then operated till the pressure inside reaches the
designed value which can be read from the pressure gauges fixed.
g) After the required pressure has been attained, the valve is closed and
the pump disconnected.
h) The pipe is then kept under the desired pressure during inspection for
any defect, i.e. leakages at the joints etc.The water will then be
emptied through scour valves and defects observed in the test will be
rectified.
5.2.6) Concrete Pipes
5.2.6.1) General
Reinforced concrete pipes used in water supplies are classified as P1, P2 and
P3 with test Pressures of 2.0, 4.0, and 6.0 Kg/cm2 respectively. For use as gravity
mains, the working pressure should not exceed 2/3rd of the test pressure. For use as
pumping mains, the working pressure should not exceed half of the test pressure.
Generally concrete pipes have corrosion resistant properties similar to those

of prestressed concrete pipes although they have their own features which
significantly affect corrosion performance. Concrete pipes are made by centrifugal
spinning of vibratory process. Centrifugally spun pipes are subjected to high
rotational forces during manufacture with improved corrosion resistance properties.
The line of development most likely to bring concrete pressure pipes into more
general acceptance is the use of P.S.C. pipes which is widely used to replace
reinforced concrete pipes.
77
The concrete pipes should be carefully loaded, transported and unloaded
avoiding impact. The use of inclined planes or chain pulley block is recommended.
Free working space on either side of the pipe shall be provided in the trench which
shall not be greater than 1/3rd of the diameter of the pipe but not less than 15 cm on
either side.
Laying of pipes shall proceed upgrade of a slope. If the pipes have spigot and
socket joints the socket ends shall face upstream, the pipes shall be joined in such a
way to provide as little unevenness as possible along the inside of the pipe. Where
the natural foundation is inadequate, the pipes shall be laid in a concrete cradle
supported on proper foundation or any other suitably designed structure. If a
concrete cradle is used, the depth of concrete below the bottom of the pipes shall be
at least 1/4th the internal diameter of pipe with the range of 10-30 cm. It shall
extend upto the sides of the pipe atleast to a distance of 1/4th the diameter for larger
than 300mm.
The pipe shall be laid in the concrete bedding before the concrete has set.
Trenches shall be back filled immediately after the pipe has been laid to a
depth of 300mm above the pipe subject to the condition that the jointing material
has hardened (say 12 hours at the most). The backfill material shall be free from
boulders, roots of trees etc. The tamping shall be by hand or by other hand operated
mechanical means, the water content of the soil shall be as near the optimum
moisture content as possible. Filling of trench shall be carried on simultaneously on
both sides of the pipe to avoid development of unequal pressures. The back fill shall
be rammed in 150mm layers upto 900mm above the top of the pipe.
Joints may be of any of the following types
I. Bandage joint
II. Spigot and socket joint (rigid and semi-flexible)
III. Collar joint (rigid and semi-flexible)
IV. Flush joint. (internal and external)
For more details of jointing procedure, reference may be made to I.S. 783-
1985.
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In all pressure pipelines, the recesses at the ends of the pipe shall be filled
with jute braiding dipped in hot bitumen. The quantity of jute and bitumen in the
ring shall be just sufficient to fill the recess in the pipe when pressed hard by
jacking or any other suitable method.
The number of pipes that shall be jacked together at a time depends upon the
diameter of the pipe and the bearing capacity of soil. For small pipe upto 250mm
diameter, six pipes can be jacked together at a time. Before and during jacking, care
should be taken to see that there is no offset at the joint. Loose collar shall be set
upto over the joint so as to have an even caulking space all round and into this
caulking space shall be rammed a 1:1.5 mixture of cement and sand just sufficiently
moistened to hold together in the form of a clod when compressed in the hand. The
caulking shall be so firm that it shall be difficult to drive the point of a penknife into
it. The caulking shall be employed at both the ends in a slope of 1:1. In the case of
non-pressure pipes the recess at the end of the pipes shall be filled with cement
mortar 1:2 instead of jute braiding soaked in bitumen. It shall be kept wet for 10
days for maturing.
5.2.6.3) Pressure Test

When testing the pipeline hydraulically, the line shall be kept filled
completely with water for a week. The pressure shall then be increased gradually to
full test pressure as indicated in 5.2.2.10.2 and maintained at this pressure during
the period of test with the permissible allowance indicated therein. For further
details, reference may be made to I.S. 458-1971.
5.2.7) Prestressed Concrete Pipes
5.2.7.1) General
While RCC pipes can cater to the needs where pressures are upto 6.0 kg/cm 2
and CI and steel pipes cater to the needs of higher pressures around 24 kg/cm 2, the
Prestressed Concrete (PSC) pipes cater to intermediate pressure range, while RCC
pipes would not be suitable.
The strength of a PSC pipe is achieved by helically binding high tensile steel
wire under tension around a concrete core thereby putting the core into
compression. When the pipe is pressurized the stresses induced relieve the
compressive stress but they are not sufficient to subject the core to tensile stresses.
The prestressing wire is protected against corrosion by a surround of cementatious
cover coat giving atleast 25mm thick cover.
79
The PSC pipes are suited for water supply mains where pressures in the
range of 6 kg/cm2 to 20 kg/cm2 are encountered.
Two types of P.S.C. pipes are in use today:
(i) Cylinder type: Consists of a concrete lined steel cylinder with steel
joint rings welded to its ends wrapped with a helix of highly stressed
wire and coated with dense cement mortar or concrete.
Recommended specifications for above pipe are covered by Indian and

foreign codes IS: 784-1978, AWWA c-301, EN-639 and EN-642.
(a) Steel Cylinder Prestressed Concrete Pipes are used in America and
Europe Confirming to AWWA C-301 and in Europe EN 642.
Prestressed Concrete Cylinder pipe has the following two general types
of construction: (1) a steel cylinder lined with a concrete core or (2) a
steel cylinder embedded in a concrete core. In either type of
construction, manufacturing begins with a full length welded steel
cylinder. Joint rings are attached to each end and the pipe is
hydrostatically tested to ensure water-tightness. A concrete core with a
minimum thickness of one-sixteenth time the pipe diameter is placed
either by the centrifugal process, radial compaction, or by vertical
casting. After the core is cured, the pipe is helically wrapped with high
strength, hard drawn wire using a stress of 75 percent of the minimum
specified tensile strength, hard drawn wire using a stress ranges
between 150,000 and 189,000 psi (1034 and 1303 Mpa) depending on
the wire size and class. The wire spacing is accurately controlled to
produce a predetermined residual compression in the concrete core.
The wire is embedded in thick cement slurry and coated with a dense
mortar that is rich in cement content.
Size Range: AWWA C-301 covers prestressed concrete cylinder pipe

16 in. (410 mm) in inside diameter and larger. Lined cylinder pipe is
commonly available in inside diameters ranging from 16 to 48 in. (410
to 1,220 mm). Sizes upto 60 in are available from some manufactures.
Embedded cylinder pipe has been manufactured larger than 250 in
(6,350 mm) in diameter and is commonly available in inside diameters
of 48 in (1,220mm) and larger. Lengths are generally 16-24 ft (4.9-7.3
m), although longer units can be furnished.
80
The technology for manufacture of these pipes is now available with
some of the Indian manufactures.
(ii) Non cylinder type: Consists of a concrete core which is pre-compressed

both in longitudinal and circumferential directions by a highly stressed
wire. The wire wrapping is protected by a coat of cement mortar or
concrete.
Physical behavior of PSC pipes under internal and external load is superior
to RCC pipes. The PSC pipe wall is always in a state of compression which is the
most favorable factor for impermeability. These pipes can resist high external
loads. The protective cover of cement and mortar which covers the tensioned wire
wrapping by its ability to create and maintain alkaline environment around the
steel inhibits corrosion. PSC pipes are jointed with flexible rubber rings.
The deflection possible during laying of main is relatively small and the pipes
cannot be cut to size to close gaps in the pipeline. Special closure units (consisting of
a short double spigot piece and a plain ended concrete lined steel tube with a
follower ring assembled at each end) are manufactured for this purpose. The closure
unit (minimum length 1.27m) must be ordered specially to the exact length.
Specials such as bends, bevel pipes, flanged tees, tapers and adapters to
flange the couplings are generally fabricated as mild steel fittings lined and coated
with concrete.
It is worthwhile when designing the pipeline to made provision for as many

branches as are likely to be required in the future and then to install sluice valves
or blank flanges on these branches. It is possible to make connections to the
installed pipeline by emptying, breaking out and using a special closure unit but his
is a costly item.

PSC pressure pipes are provided with flexible joints, the joints being made by
the use of rubber gasket. They have socket spigot ends to suit the rubber ring joint.
The rubber gasket is intended to keep the joint water tight under all normal
conditions of service including expansion, contraction and normal earth settlement.
The quality of rubber used for the gasket should be waterproof, flexible and should
have a low permanent set. Refer to IS 784 -1978, for laying of PSC pipes.
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Testing of PSC pipe is the same as given in the Para 5.2.2.10.2. However the
quantity of water added in order to re-establish the test pressure should not exceed
3 liters (instead of 0.1 liters ) per mm dia, per km per 24 hours per 30m head for
non-absorbent pipes as per the IS 783(Latest Version).
5.2.8) Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Concrete Pressure Pipes
5.2.8.1) General
Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Concrete Pressure Pipes (confirming to AWWA
C 303 and EN 639 & EN 641) are reported to be manufactured in India. No Indian
Standard is presently available for these pipes. Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder
Concrete Pressure Pipes are available in diameters of 250 mm to 1500 mm and
higher diameter pipes can be designed for working pressures upto 25 kgs per sq. cm.
Standard lengths are generally 5 to 6m. Longer length pipes can also be custom
made.
5.2.8.2) Manufacture
Manufacture of Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Concrete Pressure Pipes begins
with fabrication of a thin steel pipe cylinder. Thicker steel joint rings are welded at
both ends. Each pipe is hydrostatically tested. A cement mortar lining is placed by
centrifugal process inside the cylinder. The lining varies from 12 mm to 25 mm.
After the lining is cured by steam or water, mild steel rod is wrapped on the
cylinder using moderate tension in the bar. The wrapping is to be done under
controlled tension ensuring intimate contact with the cylinder. The cylinder and bar
wrapping are covered with a cement slurry and a dense mortar coating that is rich
in cement. The coating is cured by steam or water.
5.2.8.3) Joints
The standard joint consists of steel joint rings and a continuous solid rubber
rings gasket. The field joint can be over lapping/sliding, butt welded or with
confined rubber ring as per the clients requirement. In the case of welded & rubber
joints, the exterior joint recess is normally grouted and the internal joint space may
or may not be pointed with mortar. The AWWA C-303 provides for use of
elastomeric sealing ring (rubber joint), and EN 641 provides both elastomeric
sealing ring and steel end rings welded together on site. At present the pipes
available in India use steel end rings welded at site.
5.2.9) Plastic Pipes
82
5.2.9.1) General
The chief advantages of PVC pipes are
Resistance to corrosion
Light weight
Toughness
Rigidity
Economical in laying, jointing and maintenance
Ease of fabrication
The PVC pipes are much lighter than conventional pipe materials. Because of
their lightweight, PVC pipes are easy to handle, transport, and install. Solvent
cementing technique for jointing PVC pipe lengths is cheaper, more efficient and far
simpler. PVC pipes do not become petted or tuberculated and are unaffected by
fungi and bacteria and are resistant to a wide range of chemicals. They are immune
to galvanic and electrolytic attack, a problem frequently encountered in metal pipes,
especially when buried in corrosive soils or near brackish waters. PVC pipes have
elastic properties and their resistance to deformation resulting from earth
movements is superior compared to conventional pipe materials specially AC.
Thermal conductivity of PVC is very low compared to metal. Consequently water
transported in these pipes remains at a more uniform temperature.
Rigid PVC pipes weight only 1/5th of conventional steel pipes of comparable
size. PVC pipes are available in sizes of outer dia, 20, 25, 32, 50, 63, 75, 90, 110,
140, 160, 250, 290, and 315 mm at working pressures of 2,5,4,6,10 Kg/cm 2 as per IS
4985 1988.
Since deterioration and decomposition of plastics are accelerated by

ultraviolet light and frequent changes in temperature which are particularly severe
in India, it is not advisable to use PVC pipes above ground. The deterioration starts
with discoloration, surface cracking and ultimately ends with brittleness, and the
life of the pipe may be reduced to 15-20 years.
83
5.2.9.2) Laying and Jointing Procedure
5.2.9.2.1) Trench Preparation

The trench bed must be free from any rock projections. The trench bottom
where it is rocky and uneven a layer of sand or alluvial earth equal to 1/3rd dia of
pipe of 100 mm whichever is less should be provided under the pipes.
The trench bottom should be carefully examined for the presence of hard
objects such as flints, rock, projection or tree roots. In uniform, relatively soft fine
grained soils found to be free of such objects and where the trench bottom can
readily be brought to an even finish providing a uniform support for the pipes over
their length, the pipes may normally be laid directly on the trench bottom. In other
cases, the trench should be cut correspondingly deeper and the pipes laid on
prepared under bedding, which may be drawn from the excavated material if
suitable.
5.2.9.2.2) Laying and Jointing

As a rule, trenching should not be carried out too far ahead of pipe laying.
The trench should be as narrow as practicable. This may be kept form 0.30m over
the outside diameter of pipe and depth may be kept at 0.60 1.0m depending upon
traffic conditions. Pipe lengths are placed end to end along the trench. The glued
spigot and socket jointing technique as mentioned later is adopted. The jointed
lengths are then lowered in the trench and when sufficient length has been laid, the
trench is filled.
If trucks, lorries, or other heavy traffic will pass across the pipeline, concrete
tiles 600 x 600 mm of suitable thickness and reinforcement should be laid about 2m
above the pipe to distribute the load. If the pipeline crosses a river, the pipe should
be buried at least 2m below bed level to protect the pipe.
For bending, the cleaned pipe is filled with sand and compacted by tapping
with wooden stick and pipe ends plugged. The pipe section is heated with flame and
the portion bent as required. The bend is then cooled with water, the plug removed,
the sand poured out and the pipe (bend) cooled again. Heating in hot air over hot oil
bath, hot gas or other heating devices are also practiced. Joints may be heat welded,
or flamed or with rubber gaskets or made with solvent cement. Threaded joints are
also feasible but are not recommended Jointing of PVC pipes can be made in
following ways:
a) Solvent cement
84
b) Rubber ring join
c) Flanged joint
d) Threaded joint
For further details on laying & jointing of PVC pipes, reference can be made
to IS 4985 1988, IS 7634 Part 1-3.
Socket and spigot joint is usually preferred for all PVC pipes upto 150 mm in
dia. The socket length should at least be one and half times the outer dia for sizes
upto 100 mm dia and equal to the outer dia for larger sizes.
For pipe installation, solvent gluing is preferable to welding. The glued spigot
socket connection has greater strength than can ever be achieved by welding. The
surfaces to be glued are thoroughly scoured with dry cloth and preferably chamfered
to 300. If the pipes have become heavily contaminated by grease or oil, methylene
cement is applied with a brush evenly to the outside surface of the spigot on one
pipe and to the inserted immediately in the socket upto the shoulder and thereafter
a quarter (900) turn is given to evenly distribute the cement over the treated
surface. The excess cement which is pushed out of the socket must be removed at
once with a clean cloth. Jointing must be carried out in minimum possible time,
time of making complete joint not being more than one minute. Joints should not be
disturbed for at least 5 minutes. Half strength is attained in 30 minutes and full in
24 hours. Gluing should be avoided in rainy or foggy weather, as the color of glue
will turn cloudy and milky as a result of water contamination.
5.2.9.3) Pre- Fabricated Connections

In laying, long lengths of pipe, prefabricated double socketed connections are
frequently used to join successive pipe lengths of either the same or one size
different. The socket in this case must be formed over a steel mandrel. A short
length of pipe is flared at both ends and used as the socket connection. The mandrel
used is sized such that the internal dia of the flared socket matches the outer dia of
the spigot to be connected. By proper sizing of the two ends of a connector, it is
possible to achieve reduction (or expansion) of pipe size across the connector.
5.2.9.4) Standard Threaded Connections

Normally PVC pipes should not be threaded. For the connections of PVC
pipes to metal pipes, a piece of a special thick wall PVC connection tube threaded at
one end is used. The other end is connected to the normal PVC pipe by means of a
85
glued spigot and socket joint. Before installation, the condition of the threads should
be carefully examined for cracks and impurities.
Glue can be used for making joints leak proof. Yam and other material
generally used with metal pipe and fittings should not be used. Generally, it is
advisable to use PVC as the spigot portion of the joint.

The method which is commonly in use is filling the pipe with water, taking
care to evacuate any entrapped air and slowly raising the system to appropriate test
pressure. The pressure testing may be followed as in 5.2.2.10.
After the specified test time has elapsed, usually one hour, a measured
quantity of water is pumped into the line to bring it to the original test pressure, if
there has been loss of pressure during the test. The pipe shall be judged to have
passed the test satisfactorily if the quantity of water required to restore the test
pressure of 30m for 24 hours does not exceed 1.5 liters per 10 mm of nominal bore
for a length of 1 Km.
5.2.10) Polyethylene Pipes
Rigid PVC and high density polyethylene pipes have been used for water
distribution systems mostly ranging from 15-150 mm dia and occasionally upto 350
mm.
Among the recent developments is the use of High Density Polyethylene

pipes. These pipes are not brittle and as such a hard fall at the time of loading and
unloading etc. May not do any harm to it. HDPE pipes as per IS 4984- 1987 can be
joined with detachable joints and can be detached at the time of shifting the
pipeline from one place to another. Though for all practical purposes HDPE pipes
are rigid and tough, at the same time they are resilient and conform to the
topography of land when laid over ground or in trenches. They are coilable, easily be
bent in installation, eliminating the use of special like bends, elbows etc., thereby
reducing fitting and installation costs. HDPE pipes are easy to carry and install.
They are lighter in weight and can be carried to heights as on hills. They can
withstand movement of heavy traffic. This would not cause damage to the pipes
because of their flexural strength. HDPE has excellent free flowing properties. They
have non-adherent surface which reject (not attract) any foreign materials which
would impede the flow. HDPE pipes are anti-corrosive, have smooth inner surface
so that there is less friction and pressure loss is comparatively less.
86
HDPE pipes can be jointed by welding, for further details of PVC and HDPE pipes
refer to: IS 7834 1975 Parts 1-8, IS 8008 1976 Parts 1-7, IS 7634 1975 Parts 1-
3, IS 3076 1985, and IS 4984 1987.
5.2.11) Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE) Pipes
The medium density Polyethylene Pipes (MDPE) is now being manufactured

in India conforming to ISO specification (ISO 4427 and BS 6730 1986) for carrying
potable water. However no BIS codes are available for these pipes. The
Polyethylene material used for making the MDPE pipes conforms to PE 80 grade
and the MDPE pipes when use for conveying potable water does not constitute toxic
hazard and does not support any microbial growth. Further, it does not impart any
taste, odor or color to the water.
The Polyethylene material conforms to PE 80 grade. The MDPE pipes are

color coded black with blue strips in sizes ranging from 20 mm to 110 mm dia for
pressure class of PN 3.2, PN4, PN6, PN10 and PN16. The maximum admissible
working pressure is worked out for temperature of 20 degrees centigrade as per ISO
4427. The pipes are supplied in coils and minimum coil diameter is about 18 times
diameter of the pipe.
MDPE compression fittings made of PP, AABS, and UPVC are also available
in India for use with MDPE pipes. The material used for the fittings are also
suitable for conveying potable water like MDPE pipes. The jointing materials of
fitting consists of thermoplastic resins of Polyethylene type, NBR O ring of Nitrile
and clamp of Polypropylene, copolymer body, Zinc plated steel reinforcing ring, nuts
and balls of special NBR gasket.
The MDPE pipes are lightweight, robust and non-corrodible. Since the pipes
are supplied in coils, there will be no joints under the roads and bends are avoided
resulting in fast, simple and efficient jointing.
5.2.12) Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic Pipes (G.R.P. Pipes)
Glass fibres Reinforced Plastic (GRP) Pipes are now being manufactured in
India conforming to IS 12709. The diameter range is from 350 mm to 2400mm. The
pressure class is 3,6,9,12 & 15 kgs/sq. cm. The field test pressure are 4.5, 9, 13.5, 18,
22.5 kgs/sq cm. The factory test pressures are 6, 12, 18, 24 & 30 kgs/sq cm.
Depending on the type of installation, overburden above the crown of the pipe and
the soil conditions, four types of stiffness class pipes are available. Standard lengths
87
are 6 & 12 metres, however custom made lengths can also be made. The specials are
made out of the same pipe material i.e. Glass fibre Reinforced Plastic (GRP).
The pipes are jointed as per the techniques: Double bell coupling (GRP) for
GRP to GRP; Flange Joint (GRP) for FRP to valves, CI pipes or flanged pipes.
Mechanical Coupling (Steel) for GRP to GRP / steel pipe and Butt - strap
joint (GRP) for GRP to GRP.
GRP pipes are corrosion resistant, have smooth surface and high strength to
weight ratio. It is lighter in weight compared to metallic and concrete pipes. Longer
lengths and hence minimum joints enable faster installation.
G.R.P. pipes are widely used in other countries where corrosion resistant
pipes are required at reasonable costs. GRP can be used as a lining material for
conventional pipes, which are subject to corrosion. These pipes can resist external
and internal corrosion whether the corrosion mechanism is galvanic or chemical in
nature.
5.2.12.1) Pipe Installation

GRP pipes being light in weight can easily loaded or unloaded by slings,
pliable stripes or ropes. A pipe can be lifted with only one support point or two
support points, placed about 4 metre apart. Excavation of trench and back filling of
materials is similar to that in the case of CI and MS pipes.
Pipes are joined by using double bell couplings in following manner.
I. Double bell coupling grooves and rubber gasket rings should be

thoroughly cleaned to ensure that no dirt or oil is present.
II. Lubricate the rubber gasket with the vegetable oil based soap which is
supplied along with the pipes and inserted in the grooves.
III. With uniform pressure,. Push each loop of the rubber gasket into the
gasket groove. Apply a thin film of lubricant over the gaskets.
IV. Apply a thin film of lubricant to the pipe from the end of the pipe to the
back positioning stripe.
88
V. Lift manually or mechanically the double bell coupling and align with
the pipe section.
VI. Push the coupling onto the pipe by using levers. For large dia pipe, the
coupling may be pushed mechanically with even force on the coupling
ring.
VII. Apply a thin film of lubricant over the pipe to be pushed into the
coupling just assembled until the stripes on the pipe are aligned
between the edge of the coupling.
Thus pipes are coupled together and the rubber gasket acts as a seal making
the joint leak-proof. Joint types are normally adhesive bonded, however reinforced
overlay and mechanical types such as flanged, threaded, compressed couplings or
commercial/proprietary joints are available.
5.2.12.2) Strength of Pipes

The stresses in a pipe are normally induced by internal pressure, external
loading, surge forces and change of temperature, although torsional stresses can
also arise. Internal pressure induces circumferential and longitudinal stresses, the
latter developing where the line changes in size or direction, or has a closed end. A
pipe is usually chosen so as to carry the circumferential stress without extra
strengthening or support but if the joints cannot safely transmit the longitudinal
stress, anchorages or some other means of taking the load must be provided.
Longitudinal stress is absorbed by friction between the outside surface of the pipe
and the material in which the line is buried.
A pipe must withstand the highest internal pressure it is likely to be

subjected, the general provisions for which have been discussed in section 6.4.4,
while surging or water hammer is discussed in 6.17.
External loads generally arise from the weight to the pipe and its contents
and that of the trench filling from superimposed loads, including impact from
traffic, from subsidence and from wind loads in the case of pipes laid above ground.
If a pipe is laid on good and uniform continuous bed and the cover does not greatly
exceed the normal, no special strengthening to resist external loading is generally
necessary. Loading likely to arise from subsidence is best dealt with by the use of
flexible joints and steel pipes. External loading becomes important usually when a
line is laid on a foundation providing uneven support (e.g. across a sever, trench or
in rock under deep cover) or is subjected to heavy superimposed surface loads at less
89
than normal cover. The necessity of stronger pipes can often be avoided by careful
bedding and trench filling to give additional support. The importance of good
bedding under and around the pipe upto at least the horizontal diameter cannot be
overemphasized and in some cases concreting may be required.
Excessive distortion of a steel pipe may cause failure of its protective coating
but can be limited by the use of strengthening rings. This problem is only likely to
arise in very large mains. Distortions at flexible joints can cause leakage.
When a pipeline has to be laid above ground over some obstruction, such as
waterway or railway, it may either be carried on a pipe-bridge or be supported on
pillars. In the latter case, the pipe ends must be properly designed to resists shear,
if the full strength of the pipe as a beam is to be realized. A small diameter pipe is
usually thick enough to span short lengths with its ends simply supported, but as
diameter and lengths of span increase, the problem becomes more complex and the
ends must be supported in saddles or restrained by ring girder. For pipes of more
than 900 mm in dia the ring girder method will probably provide the most
economical design.
Provision of expansion joints to take care of temperature induced stresses is

necessary. Thrust and anchor blocks are provided to keep the pipe curve in
position. In small mains, i.e. the mains with spigot and socket lead joints, the joints
themselves allow sufficient movement, although some recaulking may be
occasionally necessary. On large steel pipelines with welded joints expansion can be
allowed to give a longitudinal stress in the pipes, when first laid. In about four
years or so, the ground normally consolidates sufficiently around the pipe so that
the stress is transferred to the ground. Valves require to be bridged by steel or
reinforced concrete blocks so that the valve bodies are not stressed, as this could
affect their water tightness.
In case of PVC pipelines, it should be noted that that coefficient of expansion

of PVC is eight times greater than steel and considerable movement can take place
in place in long lengths of rigidly pipelines.
5.2.12.3) Structural Requirements

Structurally, closed conduits must resist a number of different forces singly
or in combination.
a) Internal pressure equal to the full head of water to which the conduit
can be subjected (see.)
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b) Unbalanced pressures at bends, contractions, and closures
c) Water hammer or increased internal pressure caused by sudden

reduction in the velocity of the water; by the rapid closing of a gate or
shut down of a pump, for example, which has been discussed in 6.17.
d) External loads in the form of backfill, traffic, and their own weight
between external supports (piers or hangers). A reference may be made
to the Manual on Sewerage an Sewage Treatment.
e) Temperature induced expansion and contraction,
Internal pressure, including water hammer, creates transverse stress or hoop

tension. Bends and closures at dead ends or gates produce unbalanced pressures
and longitudinal stress. When conduits are not permitted to change length,
variations in temperature likewise create longitudinal stress. External loads and
foundation reactions (manner of support), including the weight of the full conduit,
and atmospheric pressure ( when the conduit is under vacuum) produce flexural
stress.
5.2.13.3.1) Temperature Induced Expansion and Contraction

(i) Change in pipe length with temperature
Where = change in temperature and C = coefficient of expansion of

conduit per Degree Centigrade and is equal to 11.9 x 10 6 for steel, 8.5 x
106 for Cast Iron and 10 x 106 for concrete, L = length of pipe.
(ii) Resulting longitudinal stress, =
For pipeline with fixed ends, and E = youngs Modulus of Elasticity,

2,10,000 N/m2 for steel, 1,00,000 N/m2 for Cast Iron, and 1400 40,000
N/m2 for concrete.
(iii) Resulting longitudinal force = ( + )
5.2.13.3.2) Cross Section

The selection of the optimum cross section of a transmission main depends
upon both hydraulic performance and structural behavior because hydraulic
91
capacity is a direct function of the hydraulic radius, full circles or half circles posses
the highest hydraulic capacity, by virtue of their largest hydraulic radius or
smallest frictional surface for a given area. Hence circular cross sections are
preferred for closed conduits and the semicircular ones for open conduits whenever
structural conditions permit. The cross sections preferred next are those in which
circles or semicircles can be inscribed. The following cross sections are generally
used:
(a) Trapezoids approaching half a hexagon as nearly as maintainable slopes

permit, for canals in earth,
(b) Rectangles with widths equal to twice the depths for canal in rock and
flumes of masonry or wood,
(c) Semi-circles for flumes of wood staves or steel,
(d) Horse shoe for grade aqueducts and grade tunnels.
Material high in tensile strength with circular cross sections withstand

satisfactorily the internal pressure; external pressures due to earth or rock, not
counterbalanced by internal pressures are resisted best by horse shoe sections of
materials possessing high compressive strength. The hydraulic properties of horse
shoe sections are only slightly poorer than those of circles. Moreover their relatively
flat invert makes for easy transport of excavation and construction material, in and
out of the aqueduct.
5.3) Water Hammer
All irrigation distribution systems are susceptible to pressure surge or water

hammer. Surges occur when the velocity of water within the system changes from a
steady state condition to another. The most severe surges usually occur on starting
and stopping pumps or instantaneous opening and closing of a valve in a pipeline.
Pressure surges may be high and can result in significant damage to piping,
pumps and other components of the irrigation system. Designers should be aware
that water hammer effects are always possible and must consider possible effects on
the design loads for the system.
92
Water velocity contributes significantly to the effects of water hammer.
Lower velocities limit the adverse effects of water hammer.
A water hammer analysis may be necessary and mitigation measures specified to
lessen the risk of damage. Such analysis is complex and specialized engineering
services may be required to analyze the proposed mainline design.
5.3.1) Occurrence
If the velocity of water flowing in a pipe is suddenly diminished, the energy given
up by the water will be divided between compressing the water itself, stretching the
pipe walls and frictional resistance to wave propagation. This pressure rise or water
hammer is manifest as a series of shocks, sounding like hammer blows, which may
have sufficient magnitude to rupture the pipe or damage connected equipment.
It may be caused by nearly instantaneous or too rapid closing of a valve in the line,
or by an equivalent stoppage of flow such as would take lace with the sudden failure
of electricity supply to a motor driven pump. The shock pressure is not concentrated
to the valve and if rupture occurs, it may take place near the valve simply because
it acts there first. The pressure wave due to water hammer ravels back upstream to
the inlet end of the pipe, getting weaker on each successive reversal. The velocity of
the wave is that of acoustic wave in an elastic medium, the elasticity of the medium
in this case being a compromise between that of liquid and the pipe. The excess
pressure due to water hammer is additive to the normal hydrostatic pressure in the
pipe and depends on the elastic properties of the liquid and pipe and on the
magnitude and rapidity of change in velocity. Complete stoppage of flow is not
necessary to produce water hammer, as any sudden changes in velocity will create it
to a greater or lesser degree depending on the conditions mentioned above.
93
Fig 5.1.Thrust at a bend & Thrust block
5.3.2) Computations
Maximum Water Hammer Pressure (which occur at the critical time of closure or
any time less than ) is given as below
Where,
= Maximum Pressure rise in the closed conduit above the normal

pressure in m
= Velocity of pressure wave travel in m/s
= Normal velocity in the pipeline, before sudden closure in m/s
= Acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
1425
=

1 +
1
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Where,
= bulk modulus of water (2.07 108 /2 )
= diameter of pipe in m
1 = wall thickness of pipe in m
= modulus of elasticity of pipe in /2 (Table 5.9)
Material E (kg/m2)
Polyethylene - Soft 1.2 107
Polyethylene- Hard 9 107
PVC 3 108
Concrete 2.8 109
Asbestos Cement 3 109
Reinforced Cement Concrete 3.1 109
Prestressed Concrete 3.5 109
Cast Iron 7.5 109
Ductile Iron 1.7 1010
Wrought Iron 1.8 1010
Steel 2.1 1010
Table 5.9 modulus of elasticity of different pipe material
5.3.3) Control Measures

The internal design pressure for any section of a pipeline should not be less
than the maximum operating pressure or the pipeline static pressure obtaining at
the lowest portion of the pipeline considered including any allowance required for
surge pressure.
The maximum surge pressure should be calculated and the following

allowances made.
a) If the sum of the maximum operating pressure or the maximum pipeline

static pressure whichever is higher and the calculated surge pressure does
not exceed 1.1 times the internal design pressure, no allowance for surge
pressure is required,
b) If the sum exceeds 1.1 times the internal design pressure, then protective
devices should be installed and
95
c) In no case the sum of the maximum operating pressure and the calculated
surge pressure should exceed the field hydrostatic test pressure
Depending upon the layout of the plant, the profile and the length of the pipeline,
surging in pipelines can be counteracted in two fundamentally different ways
a. By checking the formation of the initial reduced pressure wave itself by

means of flywheels ( which lengthen the slowing down time of the pump ) and
air vessels (which continue to feed water into the pipeline until the reflected
pressure wave again reaches the pump) and
b. By neutralizing the reflected wave from the reservoir by installing special

devices in the pipelines, some of which are automatically controlled quick
closing valves, automatically controlled by passes and pressure relief valves.
To obtain greatest effectiveness, the relief valve or other form of suppressor
should be located as close as possible to the source of disturbance.
Since the maximum water hammer pressure in meters is about 125 times the
velocity of flow in m/s and the time of closure of gate valves varies inversely with
the size of the main, water hammer is held within bounds in small pipelines by
operating them at moderate velocities of 1 to 2 m/s. In large mains, the pressure is
held down by changing velocities at sufficiently slow rate so that the relief valve
returns to position of control before excessive pressures are reached. If this is not
practicable, pressure relief or surge valves are used. For mains larger than 1.75 m,
which operate economically at relatively high velocities of 2 to 3 m/s and cannot be
designed to withstand water hammer without prohibitive cost, the energy is
dissipated slowly by employing surge tanks. In its simplest form, a surge tank is a
stand pipe placed at the end of the line next to the point of velocity control. If this
control is a gate, the surge tank accepts water and builds up backpressure when
velocities are regulated downward. When the demand on the line increases, the
surge tank affords an intermediate supply of water and, in so doing, generates the
excess hydraulic gradient needed to accelerate the flow through the conduit
following a change in the discharge rate. The water tank oscillates slowly till the
excess energy is dissipated by hydraulic friction through the system.
The summary of the method of the water hammer protection are provided in the
table 5.10.
96
97
Table 5.10.Summary of the methods of water hammer protection
5.4) Appurtences
To isolate and drain pipe sections for test, installation, cleaning and repairs, a
number of appurtenances or auxiliaries are generally installed in the line.
5.4.1) Line Valves

Main line valves are provided to stop and regulate the flow of water in the
course of ordinary operations and in an emergency. There are many types of valves
for use in pipeline, the choice of which depends on the duty. The spacing varies
principally with the terrain traversed by the line. In urban areas with connections
in the distribution system, main aim is to sectionalise the line in order to maintain
reasonable service. In larger lines isolating valves are frequently installed at
intervals of 1 to 5 Km. The principle considerations in location of the valves are
accessibility and proximity to special points such as branches, stream crossings etc.
The spacing of valves is a function of economics and operating problems. Sections of
the pipeline may have to be isolated to repair leaks. The volume of water which
would have to be drained to waste would be a function of spacing of isolating valves.
These valves are usually placed at major summits of pressure conduits.

Summits identify the sections of the line that can be drained by gravity, and
pressures are least at these points permitting cheaper valves and easier operation.
Gravity conduits are provided with valves at points strategic for the operation of
supply points, at the two ends of sag pipes and wherever it is convenient to drain
the given section.
Normally valves are sized slightly smaller than the pipe diameter and
installed with a reducer on either side. In choosing the size; the cost of the valve
should be weighed against the cost of head loss through it, although in certain
circumstances it may be desirable to maintain the full pipe bore (to prevent erosion
or blockage).
It is sometimes advisable to install small diameter bypass valves around

large diameter inline valves to equalize pressures across the gate and thus facilitate
opening.
5.4.2) Sluice Valves

Sluice valves or gate valves are the normal type of valves used for isolating or
scouring. They seal well under high pressures and when fully open, offer little
resistance to fluid flow. There are two types of spindles for raising the gate; a rising
98
spindle which is attached to the gate and does not rotate with the hand wheel, and a
non rising spindle which is rotated in a screwed attachment in the gate. The rising
spindle is easy to lubricate.
The gate may be parallel sided or wedge shaped. The wedge gate seals best,
but may be damaged by grit. For low pressure, resilient or gunmetal scaling faces
may be used. For high pressure, stainless steel seal are preferred.
Sluice valves are not intended to be used for continuous throttling, as erosion
of the seats and body cavitations may occur. If small flows are required the bypass,
valve is more suitable for this duty.
Despite sluice valves simplicity and positive action, they are sometimes
troublesome to operate. They need a big force to unseat them against high
unbalanced pressure and large valves take many minutes to turn open or closed, for
which power operated or manual operated actuators are also used. Some of these
problems can be overcome by installing a valve with a smaller bore then the pipeline
diameter.
In special situations variations of sluice valves suited to the need are used,
needle valves are preferred for fine control of flow, butterfly valves for ease of
operation and cone valves for regulating the time of closure and controlling water
hammer.
5.4.3) Butterfly Valves

Butterfly valves are used to regulate and stop the flow especially in large size
conduits. They are sometimes cheaper than sluice valves for larger sizes and occupy
less space. Butterfly valves with no sliding parts have the advantages of ease of
operation, compact size, reduced chamber or valve house and improved closing and
retarding characteristics.
These would involve slightly higher head loss than sluice valves and also are
not suitable for continuous throttling. The sealing is sometimes not as effective as
for sluice valves especially at high pressures. They also offer a fairly high resistance
to flow even in fully open state, because the thickness of the disc obstructs the flow
even when it is rotated to fully open position. Butterfly valves as well as sluice
valves are not suited for operation in partly open positions as gates and seatings
would erode rapidly. Both types require high torques to open them against high
pressure, they often have geared hand wheels or power driven actuators.
99
Butterfly Valves with loose sealing ring are sometimes not effective,
especially at higher pressures. Butterfly valves with fixed liner can overcome this
shortcoming, further the butterfly valves with fixed liner need no frequent
maintenance for replacement of scaling ring as in the case of butterfly valves with
loose scaling ring. The fixed liner design butterfly valves are now available in India
suitable for working pressures up to 16 kgs /sq cm. Presently there is no Indian
Standard for the fixed Butterfly valves.
5.4.4) Globe Valves

Globe valves have a circular seal connected axially to a vertical spindle and
hand wheel. The seating is a ring perpendicular to the pipe axis. The flow changes
direction through 900 twice thus resulting in high head losses. These are normally
used in small bore pipe work and as taps, although a variation is used as a control
valve.
5.4.5) Needle and Cone Valves

Needle valves are more expensive than sluice and butterfly valves but are
well suited for throttling flow. They have a gradual throttling action as they close,
whereas sluice valves and butterfly valves offer little flow resistance until
practically shut and may suffer cavitation damage. Needle valves may be used with
counter balance weights, springs, or actuators to maintain constant pressure
conditions either upstream or downstream of the valve or to maintain a constant
flow. They are resistant to wear even at high flow velocities. The method of sealing
is to push an axial needle or spear shaped cone into a seat. There is often a pilot
needle which operates first to balance the heads before opening. The cone valve is a
variation of the needle valve but the sealing cone rotates away from the pipe axis
instead of being withdrawn axially.
The needle and cone valves are not commonly used in water supply but are
occasionally used as water hammer release valves when coupled to an electric or
hydraulic actuator.
5.4.6) Scour Valves

In pressure conduits, small gate off-take known as blow- off or scour valves
are provided at low points above line valves situated in the line on a slope such that
each section of the line between valves can be emptied and drained completely. They
discharge into natural drainage channel or empty into a sump from which water can
be pumped to waste.
The exact location of scour valves is frequently influenced by opportunities to

dispose off the water. Where a main crosses a stream or drainage structure, there
100
will usually be a low point in the line, but if the main goes under the stream or
drain, it cannot be completely drained into the channel. In such a situation it is
butter to locate a scour connection at the lowest point that will drain by gravity and
provide for pumping out the part below the drain pipeline.
There should be no direct connection to sewers or polluted watercourses

except through a specially designed trap chamber or pit. For safety, two blow off
valves are placed in series. The outlet in the channel should be above the high water
line. If the outlet must be below high water, a check valve must be placed to prevent
back flow.
The size depends on local circumstances especially upon the time in which a
given section of line is designed to be emptied and upon the resulting velocity of
flow. Calculations are based upon orifice under a falling head, equal to the
difference in elevation of the water surface in the conduit and the blow off less the
friction head. Frequency of operation depends upon the quality of the water carried,
especially on silt loads.
5.4.7) Air Valves

When a pipeline is filled, air could be trapped at peaks along the profile there
by increasing head losses and reducing the capacity of the pipeline. It is also
undesirable to have air pockets in pipe as they may cause hammer pressure
fluctuations during operation of the pipeline. Other problems due to air include
corrosion, reduced pump efficiency, malfunctioning of valves or vibrations. Air
valves are fitted to release the air automatically when a pipeline is being filled and
also to permit air to enter the pipeline when it is being emptied. Additionally air
valves have also to release any entrained air, which might be accumulated at high
points in the pipeline during normal operations.
Without air valves, vacuum may occur at peaks and the pipe could collapse or
it may not be possible to drain the pipeline completely.
Air valves require care in selection and even more care in siting and it is good
practice to plan the pipeline alignment to avoid air troubles altogether. A special
study of the possible air problems is necessary at the design stage itself and
provision should be made for suitable corrective measures rather than positioning
arbitrary air valves at pipeline peaks.
Locations of air valves can be at both side of gates at summits, the

downstream side of other gates and changes in grade to steeper slopes in sections of
line not otherwise protected by air valves.
101
The valve usually takes the form of a rigid buoyant vulcanite or rubber-
covered ball seated on a rubber or metal ring. The sealing element i.e., the ball is
slated against an opening at the top of the valve when the pipe is full and seals the
opening. When the pressure inside the pipe falls below external pressure, the ball
drops there by permitting air to be drawn into the pipe. The valves are mainly
available in two forms, either single-ball. The single ball type can have either a
large orifice or a small orifice, the former being only suitable for emptying and
valves are available which can be classified as dual purpose with a large orifice and
small orifice in unit, with a common connection to the main. For large aqueduct
pipelines, a triple orifice air valve is available with two large orifices and one small.
For high pressures, stainless steel floats are used instead of the vulcanite-covered
balls.
Special designs of air valves are also available which operate satisfactorily
with high-velocity air discharges. If normal air valves are used under these
conditions, there is a danger that the ball might be carried on to its seat by the air
stream before the accumulated air has been fully released.
Air valves can be provided with an integral stop valve or alternatively and
preferably, a standard sluice valve can be bolted to the inlet flange, which must be
of adequate size for its duty. Regular maintenance checks on at least an annual
basis should be carried out to ensure that the balls are free to move and that the
seats do not leak. If an air valve is isolated for any reason in very cold weather, the
body should be drained to prevent frost damage; a plug, cock can be fitted at the
base of the body for this purpose. Trapped chamber drainage is essential to prevent
any possibility of stagnant or polluted water or air entering the pipeline.
Automatic air valves in urban streets present a serious contamination risk,

since they must have air vents that could, in some circumstances, admit polluted
surface water. Constructing an air valve chamber as water tight as possible and
fitting a ball valve interceptor as on outlet to a storm water is a practice to obviate
this possibility. Using manually operated air valves in the streets, it being the
routine duty of a turncock in the area to air the main, to minimize the risk of
serious contamination, is yet another practice.
The following ratios of air valves to conduit diameter provide common but
rough estimates of needed sizes:
For release of air only 1:12
For admission as well as release of air 1:8
102
An analysis of air-inlet valves for steel pipelines, Parmakian takes the
compressibility of air into account and combines equations for safe differential
pressures of cylindrical steel pipe, pipe flow, and air flow, in the following
approximate relationships:

= 1.99 102 1 2 0.288 0.25
1
For 2 > 0.531 and as

0.356
2 2
= 3.91 10 1
For P2 0.53 P1, because air flow cannot increase beyond a critical differential
of 0.488 Kg/cm2 .
In these equations,
and d are the diameter of the orifice and pipe respectively,
V is the difference in the velocities of flow on each side of the inlet

valve,
C is the coefficient of discharge of the valve, and
P 2 and P 1 , are the pressures inside and outside the pipe

respectively, with P 1 P 2 not exceeding one half the collapsing pressure
as a matter of safety.
The equations apply strictly only to elevations of 304.8m above

mean sea at 40 degrees latitude (g = 9.81 mps) temperatures of 25.32 C,
20% humidity, an adiabatic expansion for which pv n = pv 1.40 , the air
occupying a volume of 0.87 cum/Kg.
5.4.8) Air Release Valves

Air release valves must be specified in the design at the highest points in the
pipelines. Specify one air release valve for the highest point in the pump discharge
pipe work. For irrigation systems with long pipelines, at least one air relief valve for
every 1000 m of pipe is recommended. For irrigation systems installed in
undulating terrain, air release valves at all high points where air may build up is
103
recommended. At all times the designer must follow the manufacturers
recommendation regarding sizing / installation of valves.
Air Release valves are designed specifically to vent, automatically and when
necessary, air accumulations from lines in which water is flowing. Such
accumulations of air tend to collect at high points in the pipeline. Air which
accumulates at such peaks, reduces the useful cross sectional area of the pipe, and
there induces a friction head factor that lowers the pumping capacity of the entire
line. The use of air release valves eliminates the possibility of this air binding and
permits the flow of water without damage to pipeline.
Small orifice air valves are designated by their inlet connection size, usually
12 to 50m diameter. This has nothing to do with the air release orifice size which
may be from 1 to 10mm diameter. The larger the pressure in the pipeline, the
smaller need be the orifice size. The volume of air to be released will be a function of
the air entrained which is on the average 2% of the volume of water (at atmospheric
pressure).
The small orifice release valves are sealed by a floating ball, or needle which
is attached to a flat. When a certain amount of air has accumulated in the
connection on top of the pipe, the ball will drop or the needle valve will open and
release the air. Small orifice release valves are often combined with large orifice air
vent valves on a common connection on top of the pipe. The arrangement is called a
double air valve. An isolating sluice valve is normally fitted between the pipe and
the air valves.
Double air valves should be installed at peaks in the pipeline, both with
respect to the horizontal and the maximum hydraulic gradient. They should also be
installed at the ends and intermediate points along a length of pipeline which is
parallel to the hydraulic grade line. It should be borne in mind that air may be
dragged along in the direction of flow in the pipeline and may even accumulate in
sections falling slowly in relation to the hydraulic gradient. Double air valves should
be fitted every 1/2 to 1 KM along descending sections, especially at points where the
pipe dips steeply.
Air release valves should also be installed all along ascending lengths of
pipeline where air is likely to be released from solution due to the lowering of the
pressure, again especially at points of decrease in gradient. Other places where air
valves are required are on the discharge side of pumps and at high points on large
mains and upstream of orifice plates and reducing tapers.
104
Air- Relief towers are provided at the first summit of the line to remove air
that is mechanically entrained as water is drawn into the entrance of the pipeline.
5.4.9) Air Inlet Valves

In the design and operation of large steel pipelines, where gravity flow occurs,
considerations must be given to the possibility of collapse in case the internal
pressure is reduced below that of atmosphere. Should a break occur in the line at
the lower end of a slope, a vaccum will in all probability be formed at some point
upstream from the break due to the sudden rush of water from the line. To prevent
the pipe from collapsing, air inlet (vaccum breaking) valves are used at critical
points.
These valves, normally held shut by water pressure, automatically open when
this pressure is reduced to slightly below atmosphere, permitting large quantities of
air to enter the pipe, thus effectively preventing the formation of any vaccum. In
addition to offering positive protection against extensive damage to large pipelines,
by prevention of vacuum, they also facilitate the initial filling of the line by the
expulsion of air wherever the valves are installed.
Air inlet valves should be installed at peaks in the pipeline, both relative to
the horizontal and relative to the hydraulic gradient. Various possible hydraulic
gradients, including reverse gradients scouring, should be considered. They are
normally fitted in combination with an air release valve.
Often air release valves are used in conjunction with them, the purpose of the
being to vent air accumulations that may occur at the peaks after the line has been
put into operation.
5.4.10) Kinetic Air Valves

In case of ordinary air valve, single orifice (small or large) type, the air or
water from the rising main is a admitted in the ball chamber of the air valve from
one side of the ball. The disadvantages with this type of valve are that
(a) Once the ball goes up, it does not come down even when air accumulates
in the ball chamber and
(b) due to air rushing in, it stirs the ball making it stick to the upper opening
which does not fall down unless the pressure in the main drops.
The Kinetic air valve, overcomes these deficiencies since the air or water
enters from the bottom side of the ball and the air rushing around ball exerts the
105
pressure and loosens the contact with the top opening and allows the ball to drop
down.
5.4.11) Pressure and Vacuum Relief Valves

Pressure relief valves are recommended for situations where the pressure
rating of the system (e.g. the pressure rating of pipes) may be occasionally exceeded.
Vacuum relief valves are recommended for situations where negative pressures may
be experienced. The design should specify if pressure or vacuum relief valves are
necessary. It should also specify the type of valve to be used and the location in
which it should be installed. When considering type and size of pressure or vacuum
relief valves designers should follow manufacturers recommendations.
These, also called as over-flow towers, are provided in one or more summits of
the conveyance main to keep the pressure in the line below given value by causing
water to flow to waste when the pressure builds up beyond the design valve. Usually
they are spring or weight loaded and is not sufficiently responsive to rapid
fluctuations of pressure to be used as surge protection devices.
5.4.12) Check Valves

Check valves, also called non-return valves or reflux valves, automatically
prevent reversal of flow in a pipeline. They are particularly useful in pumping
mains when positioned near pumping stations to prevent backflow, when pumps
shut down. The closure of the valve should be such that it will not set up excessive
shock conditions within the system.
5.4.13) Dual Plate Check Valves

Dual plate check valves employ two spring loaded plates hinged on a central
hinge pin. When the flow decreases, the plates close by torsion action without
requiring reverse flow. As compared to conventional swing check valve which
operates on mass movement, the Dual plate check valve are provided with
accurately designed and tested torsion springs to suit the varying flow conditions.
The Dual plate check valves are of non- slamming type and arrest the tendency of
reversal of flow. Presently there is no IS for the Dual plate Check Valves.
5.5) DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF UNDERGROUND

PIPELINE IRRIGATION SYSTEM
An underground irrigation system must be properly designed to handle the

required flow throughout the system efficiently. If pipelines are too small in
diameter, pumping costs are increased and the capacity of the system may be
106
seriously limited. On the other hand, pipelines larger than necessary add to the cost
of system and may cause uneven flow. Control stands must be high enough to allow
sufficient operating head for the pipe lines. Stands higher than necessary may
permit high heads of water to build up, leading to excessive line pressure.
In executing the pipeline distribution schemes in the minor irrigation

command areas where the open channel system is already in operation, the Main
Pipeline replaces the main canal. This avoids the issue of additional land
acquisition which is a very critical issue due to very small land holdings (0.2 to 0.5
ha per family) in regions like Konkan. In new schemes there is flexibility in
choosing the alignment of the main pipeline.
For a given size of an individual pipeline distribution system the discharge

ranges between 130 lps to 500 lps and hence the pipe diameters generally lie in the
range of 300mm to 900mm. The length of main pipe line is also about 3 to 5 km.
Different types of pipes such as RCC, PVC, PVC RiblocR can be used. PE pipes can
be recommended for the pipe diameters between 400 mm to 2000 mm. Below 400
mm, PVC pipes may be recommended.
The permissible velocities in the pipes should be ideally between 0.6 m/sec
and 2.0 m/sec. For gravity lines, under no circumstances the velocities should be
less than 0.6 m/sec.
While deciding pressure class of the pipe, safety factor of 25% should be
sufficient. That means, 4.0 kg/cm2 pipes should be designed only up to 3.0 kg/cm2
pressure considering water hammer and other factors.
The design pressures are in the range from 5 m to 25 m. Therefore, in

general, PVC Class 2.5 pipes can be used conveniently. However in hilly terrain,
operating pressures in excess of 2.5 kg/cm2 are not unusual. However, in such cases,
use of higher class pipes or steel pipes has to be considered.
The Main Pipeline is provided with branch outlets along its length so as to
feed the distribution system of each chak. For controlling the flow of water, sluice
valves or Tee Valves are provided. Similarly, along the main pipe itself sluice
valves/Tee Valves are required to be provided at suitable distances (1 km to 1.5 km)
to stop the flow in case of emergency. A sluice valve commonly used on water supply
lines is standardized (IS:780 & IS:2906 of 1984) for operating at comparatively high
pressures (10 kg/cm2) . Hence, the use of such sluice valves for regulatory purpose
(in fully closed or fully open position) on pipelines where the operating pressures
are low, be, comes expensive. Excepting at critical points such as the starting point
107
of main pipe line and branches, the sluice valve has been replaced by fabricated MS
Tee valves which are simple to manufacture and cost about one third of the cost of
the sluice valve.
108
Chapter-6 PUMPING STATIONS
6.1) Requirements
Planning and operation of a pumping station embrace consideration of the

following points
1) Selection of the Pump/s

2) Intake design
3) Piping layout
4) Providing space, equipment and facilities for
a) Substation , if needed, for receiving and distributing the power supply
b) Auxiliary power unit, generally diesel
c) Control panel
d) Bays for loading and unloading
e) Overhauling, repairs and maintenance of pumps and all other
equipments
f) Head room material handling tackle
g) Ventilation
h) Lighting
i) Safety from fire
j) Railings, ladder and passages for safe, easy and efficient movement of
people.
k) Office and administrative areas, including room for lockers, dress
change and utility for sanitary and hygienic need of the working staff.
5) Installation of Pumps
6) Operation of Pumps
7) Maintenance of Pumps
8) Trouble shooting of pumps
9) Selection of Motors
10) Selection of starters
11) Provision in control panel
12) Selection of cables
13) Planning of transformer substation
14) Maintenance and repairs of the electrical equipments
15) Trouble shooting of the electrical equipments
6.2) Selection of Pumps
109
In case of pressurized irrigation system, pumping machinery serves the following
purposes:
a) To transport water from low to high elevated area for distribution purposes.
b) To attain the uniform pressure in the distribution network.
While deciding the type of pump for the specific requirements, it is necessary to
analysis different type of pumps and their suitability to meet the requirements.
6.2.1) Criteria for Pump Selection

Prior to the selection of a Pump for a pumping station, detailed consideration
has to be given to various aspects, viz
a) Nature of liquid
b) Type of duty required i.e. whether continuous, intermittent or cyclic
c) Present and projected demand and pattern of change in demand
d) The details of head and flow rate required
e) Type and duration of the availability of the power supply
f) Selecting the operating speed of the pump and suitable drive/ driving gear.
g) The efficiency of the pump/s and consequent influence on power consumption
and the running coats.
h) Various option possible by permuting the parameter of the pumping system,
including the capacity and number of pumps including standbys, combining
them in series or in parallel,
i) Options of deferent modes of installation their influence on the costs on the
civil structural construction, on the case of operation and maintenance and
on the overall economics.
6.2.2) Consideration of the parameters of head, discharge and speed in the selection
of a pump
This parameters are combined together in the term specific speed of a pump
which is calculate by the following formula
3.65 0.5
=
0.75
Where,
= Specific speed
= The operating speed of the pump in rpm
110
= The rate of flow in cubic meters per second
= The rated head per stage of the pump in meters
Most aspect of performance characteristics of the different type of pumps can be

compared based on their specific speed. Some useful observations are summarized
below.
(a) Positive displacement pumps are prominently used when high pressure high
heads are to be developed or for metering / dosing duties as also handling
sludge.
(b) Centrifugal pumps are made with specific speeds above 36. Fig.6.1 illustrates
the relationships amongst the pump efficiency, the shape of the impeller and
the nature of the curves of Head (H) versus Discharge (Q), Power versus Q
and Efficiency versus Q as influenced by the specific speed of the pump. The
figure also helps in obtaining estimates of pump efficiency, which are useful
in planning 3 pumping plant.
(c) For high discharges, by which specific speed becomes high the corresponding.
Net Positive suction Head required also becomes high, it can be arranged
that the discharge be shared by two impellers or by two side of an impeller as
in a double suction pump. While estimating the attainable efficiency for such
pumps, only half of the total Q should be considered.
(d) Similarly, for high head, by which the specific speed becomes low, and hence
the attainable efficiency becomes low, it can be arranged that the head be
distributed amongst a number of impellers as in multi stage pumps, thus
improving the specific speed of each stage and consequently attainable
efficiency.
111
Fig.6.1.Speed and Efficiency Characteristics
112
6.2.3) CONSIDERATION OF THE SUCTION LIFT CAPACITY IN PUMP
SELECTION
The meaning of NPSHr

The sanction lift of pump depends upon its NPSHr characteristics. The meaning
of NPSHr can be explained by considering an installation of pump working under
suction lift as illustrated in Fig. 6.2
Fig.6.2. Schematic Representation of NPSHr

When a pump, installed as shown is primed and started, it throws away the
pumping water has vacuum developed at its suction. The atmospheric pressure
acting on the water in the suction sump then pushes the water through the foot
valve, into the suction line, raising it upto the suction of the pump. While
reaching upto suction of the pump, the energy content of the water, which was
113
one atmosphere when it was pushed through the foot valve would have reduced,
partly in overcoming the friction through the foot valve and the piping and the
pipe fittings, partly in achieving the kinetic energy appropriate to the velocity in
the suction pipe and partly in rising up the static suction lift. The energy content
left over in the water at the suction face of the pump is thus less than one
atmosphere until here the flow is turbulence and shocks and will have to lose
more energy in the process. This tax on the energy of the water demanded by
the pump, before the pump would impart its energy, is called the NPSHr of the
pumo.The NPSHr characteristic of a pump is parabolic, increasing with flow
rate. Pump of high specific speed have high NPSHr.
6.2.4) Vapour Pressure and Cavitations

The energy of the water at the pump suction, even after deducting the
NPSHr should be more than the vapour pressure Vp, corresponding to the
pumping temperature. The vapour pressures in meters of the water column
(mWC), for water at different temperatures in degrees Celsius are given in table
Celsius (mWC)
0 0.054
5 0.092
10 0.125
15 0.177
20 0.238
25 0.329
30 0.427
35 0.579
40 0.762
45 1.006
50 1.281
Table 6.1.Vapour Pressure of Water

If the energy of the water at the pump suction would be less than the vapour
pressure, water would tend to evaporate. Vapour bubbles so formed will travel
entrained in the flow until they collapse. The phenomenon is known as cavitation.
In badly devised pumping systems, cavitation can cause extensive damage due to
114
cavitation erosion or due to the vibration and noise associated with the collapsing of
the vapour bubbles.
6.2.5) Calculating NPSHa
To insure against cavitation, the pumping system has to be devised that the
water at the pump suction will have adequate energy. Providing for this is called as
providing adequate Net positive suction head available (NPSHa). The formula for
NPSHa hence becomes as follows.
NPSHa = pressure on the water in the suction sump

2
=
2
Where,
= suction pressure
= friction losses across the foot valve, piping and pipe fittings
= velocity- head at the suction face
= the potential energy corresponding to the difference between the
levels of the pump-centre line and of the water in the suction-pump
= the vapour pressure
While calculating NPSHa, the atmospheric pressure at the site should be
considered, as the atmospheric pressure is influenced by the altitude of the place
from the mean sea level (MSI.). Data on the atmosphere in mWC for different
altitudes from MSI. is given in the Table 6.2.
Altitude above MSL in m mWC

Upto 500 10.3
1000 9.8
1500 9.3
2000 8.8
2500 8.3
3000 7.8
3500 7.3
4000 6.8
115
Table 6.2.Atmosheric Pressure in mWC at different Altitudes above MSL
6.2.6) Considerations of the System Head Curve in Pump Selection
A Pump or a set of pimps has to satisfy the needs of the pumping system.
Hence one has to first evaluate the head needed to be developed by the pump for
delivering different values of flow rate. A plot of these values is called as the
system Head Curve.
116
Fig.6.3. System Head Curve
Each point on the system Head Curve denotes the head comprised of the following.
117
Static Head
This is the difference between the level of the liquid suction sump and the
level of highest point of the delivery piping, obviously the static head is more at the
low water level (LWL) and less at high water level (SWL)
Friction Head
This is sum of the head losses in the entire length of the piping, from the foot
valve to the final point of delivery piping, also the losses in all the valve i.e. the foot
valve, the none return (reflex) valve and the isolating (Generally, Sluice or
Butterfly) valve, and the losses in all pipe fittings such a bends tees, elbows,
reducers, etc. The friction head varies particularly with the rate of flow.
Velocity Head
At the final point of delivery, the kinetic energy is lost to the atmosphere. To
recover part of the loss, a well mouth is often provided at the final point of delivery.
The kinetic energy at the final point of delivery has also to be a part of the velocity
head.Figs.6.3 (a, b & c) show typical system head curves. As shown in Fig.6.2(b) the
system head curves for HWL and LWL are parallel to each other.
The system head curve will change by any changes made in the system, such
as change in the length or size of the pipings, change in size and/ or number of
pipes fitting, changes in the size, number and type of valve by operating the valve
semi open or fully open. These changes can cause the system head curve to be
steep or flat as shown in fig 6.22(c).
6.2.7) Summary View of Application Parameters and Suitability of Pump

Based on the consideration in 6.2.2 and 6.2.3 a summery view is compiled of
the application parameters and suitability of various types and presented in table
6.3. However these are general guidelines. Specific designs may either not satisfy
the limits of certain designs may exceed the limit.
118
Suction-capacity to Head range Discharge range
lift
Pump type
Low Medium High Low Medium High Low Medium High
3.5m 6m 8.5m upto 10-40m Above upto upto Above
10m 40m 30 500 L/s 500
L/s L/s
Centrifugal
Horizontal Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok No Ok Ok No
End-suction
Centrifugal
Horizontal
Ok No No Ok Ok No No Ok Ok
Axial split
casing
Centrifugal
Horizontal Ok Ok No No Ok Ok Ok Ok No
multistage
Jet - When limitations of
Centrifugal Suction lift are to be Ok Ok No Ok No No
combinations overcome
Centrifugal
When suction lift is to
Vertical Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok
be avoided
turbine
Centrifugal
When suction lift is to
Vertical Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok
be avoided
submersible
Positive Normally self Limited only by the Ok Ok NO
displacement priming pressure which casing Easy adaptation for
pumps can withstand dosing or metering
Table 6.3 Application of Pumps

119
6.2.7) Defining the Operating Point or the Operating Range of the Pump
The operating point of a pump is the point of intersection of the system

Head curve with the H versus Q characteristics of the pump. See fig. 6.4 (A).
Shifting of the system Head curve will cause a change in the operating point of
the pump. Hence the following point worth of noting
a) If the level of water in the suction sump would deplete during pumping from
HWL to LWL, the operating point of the pump would vary from a low head-
high discharge point in a high head low discharge point see fig. 6.4(B)
b) If in a pumping system, the discharge is re-circulated to the suction sump, as

is often the case at the testing setups at the manufacturers works, the
throttling of the delivery valve from full open to close, shifts the system head
curve from a flat curve, intersecting the pumps H Q curve at high flow in
initially to a steep system head curve intersecting the pumps HQ curve at
high head, see fig. 6.4(C).
Similarly, a pumping system can be devised with flat or steep system head
curve. Alternatively, throttling the delivery valve would shift the system
head curve from flat to steep.
c) The most average water level in the suction sump and the most average
system head curve would define the operating point of the pump. For such
operating point of the pump, the pump should have its point of maximum
efficiency at or nearest to it. To provide for marginal changes in the operating
point e.g. between HWL and LWL the nature of the efficiency characteristics
of the pump should be as flat as possible in the vicinity of the point of its best
efficiency, often called as the BFP.
When specifying the operating point of the pump, margins and safety factors,
especially in specifying head should be avoided. On providing margins and safety
factors, the rated head for the pump would work out high.In actual running the
pump would work at a head less than the rated head and yield high discharge.
120
By working at high discharge, the NPSHr demanded by the pump would be
higher. If NPSHa is not adequate for this higher NPSHr, the pump may
cavitate.
Due to the high discharge included, the pump may vibrate. Sometimes, this
may result in serious damage to the shaft and bearings.
Fig.6.4 (A).Operating Point of the Pump

121
Fig.6.4 (B).Change in operating point of pump with change in water level in suction
sump (Ref: CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
122
Fig.6.4(C).Change in operating point of pump by operation of delivery valve (Ref:
CPHEEO Manual on water supply and treatment)
While calculating HP following efficiencies may be adopted:
a. Centrifugal Pumps 60%
b. Submersible Pumps- 65%
c. VT Pumps 80%
In absence of electrical power, if the project can be designed with Solar Pumping
Systems. Such projects MUST be designed with operating hours of 7-8 per day only.
All necessary pre-requisites such as shadow free land availability for panels etc to
be ensured before submitting such proposals. While designing the project, it must
be ensured that pumping requirements are kept minimal and therefore energy
requirements are also minimum.
123
Chapter 6 Delivery system
Once the water is being transported to delivery system, from there it could be
transferred to field via micro irrigation system. Delivery system could be of any
types like outlet, service reservoir, RCC/Steel tank etc.
Some type of outlet structure or hydrant is necessary in pipelines to deliver

water to the land or into some distributing device. Hydrants are risers built from
vertical sections of pipe which are saddled over openings in the pipe line and
permanently attached to it. Some kind of valve or gate is installed in the riser to
regulate discharge through the hydrant.
The whole delivery system shall be automated by using SCADA system which
ensures the supply all the time.
Considering the size of the project and requirements of the project, this will
have to be provided suitably. There should be a provision of level control, flow
control and pressure control. It will be automation for irrigation system and SCADA
control for Pump Station. Because of automation and SCADA control mechanism,
one is able to see how much water has been applied for a crop and how much water
is wasted. Provision of solenoid valves, controllers and Remote Terminal Units
should be made in the network order to automate and decide proper irrigation
scheduling.
124
CHAPTER - 7 CONCLUSIONS
1) Considering the scarcity of water, it is recommended that irrigation in command
shall be popularized through pipeline distribution system.
2) Local pipe fabrication industries should be encouraged and given incentives and
avoid excessive transportation cost of pipe. Concession in various excise duties
should be given to keep less manufacturing cost of pipe.
3) Large scale pipe manufacturing industries should be established.
4) The Planning for deriving maximum benefits from pipeline distribution system
should be effectively implemented.
5) Farmer is the primary beneficiary of the system. His involvement should be
given prime importance for maximization of production.
6) For accurate climatological data, climatological stations should be installed in
the command.
7) For perishable agriculture products, market facilities shall be made available.
8) In case of major and medium projects, instead of the minors and field channels,
low pressure pipeline system for irrigation should be adopted. In case of minor
irrigation project, entire distribution system may be of pipeline.
9) There is substantial water saving over conventional open channel system.
10) The pipe line distribution system should be preferred where land cost is
comparatively high and farmers are reluctant for sparing the valuable land.
11) For judicious use of water the modern techniques namely sprinkler and drip
irrigation can be enlarged. The pipe line distribution system would be more
suitable implementation of advance techniques.
12) Canal falls and steep gradients are most favourable for introduction pipe line
distribution system.
13) Operation and Maintenance Cost is minimum compared to conventional
irrigation.
14) Advanced material like PVC - RIBLOCK, Fibre Glass-RP is more suitable
because of low cost, light in handling and smooth finishing and easy repair
facility.
125
PRESSURIED PIPE IRRIGATION SYSTEM -PROJECTS
DETAIL SUMMARY (ACROSS INDIA)
A. NADAUN INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT,

NADAUN, HAMIRPUR, HIMACHAL PRADESH
Concept: Under this project Water is proposed to lift from River Beas and will
provide the irrigation facility to 14 No. panchayats with 2980ha area. Desilting tank
is proposed at intake. Water is lifted from the river and proposed to deliver in the
Main Delivery Tank (MDT). Further water is conveyed from these MDTs to
Chak/Outlets through HDPE pipe distribution network as per water requirement.
Outlet to each 1 to 1.5ha area is proposed to irrigate. The HDPE pipe distribution
network is proposed as to maintain sufficient residual head to operate the Sprinkler
System. To enhance the intensity of irrigation and proper water management in the
fields on each outlet HDPE pipe with detachable joints are proposed @90mtr per ha.
General Information:
Location Nadaun, Dist: Hamirpur, Himachal

Pradesh
Area Irrigated, ha 2980
No of Beneficiaries 3000
Water Source Beas River
Project Cost 97.52 Crore
Cost per acre Rs. 1,32500
Period from Completion 24 months
Maintenance Contract 5 Years
System Type Pressurised Sprinkler
Status Under Execution
Proposed Components:
1. Intake structure (2 Nos)
2. Pump House cum Chowkidar Quarter (4 Nos)
3. Desilting Tank ( 2 Nos)
4. Main Collection Tanks/Zonal Tanks (22 Nos)
5. Thrust Blocks (392 Nos)
6. RCC Bridge 15 Mtr Span
126
7. HDPE Pipe Distribution system (550Km)
8. Outlet RCC Pipe Chamber (2235Nos)
B. RAMTHAL INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT,

HUNGUND, BAGALKOT, KARNATAKA
Concept: Under this project Water is proposed to lift from delivery chamber
provided under Marol Lift Irrigation scheme. Main water source is Narayanpur
reservoir backwater. At this delivery chamber sump and centralised pump house is
proposed from where water is lifted through HDPE/PVC pipe distribution network
and proposed to provide irrigation Facility to 12300ha area by drip irrigation
system as on farm system. Centralised self-cleaning filtration units are proposed at
pump house. Secondary automated filtration units are proposed at each approx.
100ha block level. Automated irrigation control is proposed at each farmer level
through wireless automation system. Fertigation equipment is provided at farmer
level for the drip system.
Location Hungund, Dist: Bagalkot, Karnataka

Area Irrigated, ha 12300
Water Source Narayanpur Reservoir Back water
Project Cost Rs. 385.78 Crore
Cost per acre Rs. 1,27,000
System Type Pressurised Fully Automatic Drip
System
1. Pumping Units with SCADA to pumping machinery (12 No of Pumps)
2. Centralised self-cleaning filtration units at pumping unit.
3. HDPE/PVC Pipe Distribution Network from centralised pumping unit to
Block level (Approx. 100ha area of each block) (Total 129.54Km)
4. Secondary filtration units at each block level.
127
5. Secondary PVC Pipe Distribution network from block level to each farmer
level ( Total 1980Km)
6. Drip Irrigation System (12300ha area)
7. Wireless automation system with SCADA to Drip Irrigation System.
8. Formation of 28 Water User Associations
9. Training to the farmers/WUAs and the Dept. officials.
10. Operation and Maintenance of the project for 5 years.
C. SAMPATRAO DESHMUKH SAHKARI PANI PURVATHA

SANSTHA INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT,
RAIGAON, SANGLI, MAHARASHTRA
Concept: Under this project water is proposed to lift from Hingangaon Talav which
is feeded by Tembhu Lift Irrigation scheme. Water from Hingangaon talav is lifted
by 4.16km 900mm HDPE rising main and delivered into Main Delivery Chamber of
2000cum capacity. Secondary pumping and Centralised Self-cleaning filtration unit
is proposed at MDC. From secondary pumping unit Primary HDPE/PVC pipe
distribution network is proposed to the block level. (Block of approx. 40-45 acre
area). From Block level secondary PVC piping network is provided up to the farm
level. Sectional (each section is of approx. 4 acre area) automated operated drip
system is provided at farm level and total area of 2009acre is covered under
irrigation.
Location Raigaon, Dist: Sangli, Maharashtra

Area Irrigated 2009 Acre
Water Source Hingangaon Talav
Project Cost Rs. 27.46 Crore
Cost per acre Rs. 1,37,000
Maintenance Contract 1 Year Technical support
System Type Pressurised Fully Automatic Drip
System
128
1. Centralised self-cleaning filtration units at pumping unit.
2. HDPE/PVC Pipe Distribution Network from centralised pumping unit to
Block level (Approx. 40-45 acre area of each block)
3. Secondary PVC Pipe Distribution network from block level to each farmer
level
4. Drip Irrigation System (2009 Acre area)
5. Wireless automation system with SCADA to Drip Irrigation System.
6. Training to the farmers/WUAs
D. KANDI INTEGRATED MICRO IRRIGATION PROJECT,

KANDI BELT, TALWARA AND HAJIPUR BLOCKS,
HOSHIARPUR DISTRICT, PUNJAB
Concept
Kandi CMI project (Community Micro Irrigation) is unique type of Irrigation
Project where solar PV energy is being used for pumping water from a canal to
irrigate area under command with micro irrigation either by sprinkler or drip
irrigation. This is going to be largest of its type. Canal water is lifted with solar
pumps. HDPE pipes are being used for rising main. PVC pipes for distribution
network for 1730 Acres. of command area.
General Information
Kandi Belt, Talwara and Hajipur

Location
Blocks of Hoshiarpur District
Area Irrigated, Acre 1642
Water Source Kandi Canal (Mukherian Canal)
Project Cost Rs. 40.93 crore
Cost per acre Rs. 249270
Period from Completion 12 Months
Solar Powered Pressurised
System Type
Sprinkler/Drip Irrigation Project
129
A. Stage I
1. Intake from Canal by Siphon using HDPE pipes At three pumping locations
along Canal
2. R.C.C. Sumps at three pumping locations
3. Pump Houses at three Canal Pump Stations
4. HDPE Rising Main 180 mm to 450 mm total length 8160 Rmt.
5. Solar Pumping System with Solar PV panels for 560 KW.
B. Stage II
1. Solar Pumping stations at pond intermediate stage at 11 locations
2. Sumps and pump room at these pump stations at 11 locations
3. PVC pipe distribution network 359152 Rmt. of 63 mm to 180 mm diameter.
4. Solar Pumping System with Solar PV panels for 320 KW
Special Features
1. Solar Pumping LIS with MIS
2. Solar pumping with 1000 Kw PV panels.
3. Complete Concept to commissioning Project
4. 7 Years Operation and Maintenance
5. Training of farmers for advance farming and cropping pattern
130
REFERENCES
a) Manual on water supply and treatment by central public health and

environmental engineering organization (CPHEEO) under Ministry of Urban
Development
b) Book on Water supply engineering by S.K. Garg.
c) Rural Irrigation System design standards code of practice of Australia.
d) IS 11750-1985 Criteria for Hydraulic Design Of Irrigation Intake Structures
e) Pipe Distribution System for Irrigation Manual by INCID (1998)
131
ANNEXURE-1
I
ANNEXURE-2
II
ANNEXURE-3
III
ANNEXURE-4
IV
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
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GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. III

Fig 1.1.Flow Diagram of Typical Piped Irrigation System .......................................... 4

1.1) Conveyance Methods

1.1.1) Open Channels

Pipelines have several advantages over open channels. Well-constructed

1.1.2.2) Closed (Pressurized) Pipelines

1.2) Necessity of Pipe Distribution System

If the water distribution system is well operated, many other important

1.3) Pressurized Piped Irrigation System

A pressure piped irrigation system is a network installation consisting of pipes,

Typical layout (system configuration) of medium irrigation project in Hamipur

OUTLET / PIPE DISTRIBUTION PUMPING

Fig 1.1.Flow Diagram of Typical Piped Irrigation System

2.1) LAYOUT PLANNING

2.2 ) Criteria for Route Selection of Conductor Line

2.3) Factors taken into consideration for hydraulic design

2.3.1) Design Discharge

1) Rotational Water Supply

In rotation method the water is delivered at a fixed time on prearranged

a) Two water users

2.3.1.2 ) On Demand Water Supply

2.3.2) Flow velocities through pipelines

2.3.2.1) Maximum Water Velocity

a) Minimum to flush drip lines 0.3 m/s

Rising pipeline: Maximum friction loss = 1.5% (m/100m pipe length)

Gravity pipeline: Maximum allowable flow velocity of 3.0 m/s

2.3.3.1) Pressure variation

A. Agricultural spray irrigation pressure variation

a) 20% of the outlet operating pressure at any point in

2.3.4) System Costs

2.3.4.1 ) Fixed Costs

Depreciation is the decrease in system value due to age and obsolescence.

Interest is the return from productively invested capital. When money is

Annual depreciation and interest costs can be estimated using following

= Annual Depreciation and interest Costs

= Capital Recovery Factor

= Analysis Period in Years

= Annual Interest Rates, in decimals

PW = Present Worth (of all the components)

= present worth of component (Rs);

= initial cost of component (Rs);

= salvage value of component (Rs);

r = expected annual rate of cost escalation (decimal);

= analysis period (years).

2.3.4.2) Operating Costs

a) Annual Water Costs

In many locations (especially in those served by irrigation districts, irrigators

b) Annual Energy Costs

c) Annual Maintenance and Repair Costs

d) Annual Labor Costs

2.3.5) Selecting the Most Suitable System Design

When the source is separated by a long distance from the area of

A. The period of design considered or the period of loan repayment if it is

2.3.5.1) Economic Size of Conveying Main

In the given example at Annexure 4, the economical diameter of main pipeline is

It is a device or structure placed in a surface water source to permit the

An intake is provided in an irrigation development to allow water into a

3.2) Types of Intakes

Fig.3.10.Valve tower situated within an earthen dam

In the case of concrete or masonry dams irrigation intake structure can be

Fig 3.12. Semicircular Type Intake Structure