ReproductioninOrganisms

AsexualReproduction
Theperiodthroughwhichacertainorganismlivesisknown
asitslifespan.
Reproductionistheprocessbywhicheveryorganism
ensuresitscontinuity.
Itistheprocessthroughwhichorganismsproduceyoung
ones,whichinturnmaturetogiverisetotheiryoungones.
Reproductioncanbe:
AsexualOnlyoneindividualisinvolved
SexualTwoindividuals(maleandfemale)are
involved

AsexualReproduction
Inthistype,asingleparentcanproduceoffspring.
Theproducedoffspringareclonesofeachother(i.e.,
identicaltoeachotherandtotheparent).
Itiscommonlyseeninunicellularorganismsbelongingto
protistaandmonera.
Here,thecelldivisionitselfisthemodeofreproduction.
MeansofAsexualReproduction
BinaryFissionInthisprocess,thecelldividesinto
halves,andeachhalfdevelopsintoanadult(example:
Amoeba,P
aramecium).
 BuddingInthisprocess,thecelldividesunequallyto
formbuds,whichremainattachedtotheparentinitially,and
thendetachanddevelopintoamaturecell(example:
yeast).

Formationofspecializedstructures
Conidia(Example:P
enicillium)
Gemmules(Example:Sponges)
Buds(Example:H
ydra)
ZoosporesMicroscopic,motilespores(Example:
Algae)
VegetativepropagationItmeansofasexual
reproductioninplants.Differentstructuresarecapableof
givingrisetonewplants.
Runner(Example:Gladiolus)
Rhizome(Example:Ginger)
Sucker
Tuber(Example:Potato)
Offset
Bulb(Example:Onion)
SexualReproduction:PreFertilisationEvents

Sexualreproductioninvolvestheformationofthemaleand
femalegametesineitherthesameindividualortwo
individuals.Thesegametesfusetoformazygote,which
developsintoanewindividual.
Offspringarenotidenticaltoeachotherortotheparents.
So,sexualreproductiongivesrisetodiversityamongliving
 organisms.
Allorganismspassthroughtwostages.
JuvenilephasePeriodofgrowthnonreproductive
Vegetativephaseorreproductivephase
Innonprimatemammalslikerats,sheep,dogs,cowsand
tigers,thecyclicchangeintheactivitiesoftheovariesand
theoviductiscalledtheo
estruscycleinprimateslike
monkeys,apesandhumans,itiscalledthemenstrual
cycle.
Certainmammalsarecalledc
ontinuousbreederssince
theycanreproducethroughouttheirreproductivephase,
whilesomearecalleds
easonalbreederssincetheycan
reproduceonlyinthefavourableseasons.
EventsinSexualReproduction
Organismsreproducingsexuallyexhibitcertainevents.
Theseare:
Prefertilisationevents
Fertilisationevents
Postfertilisationevents
PreFertilisationEvents
Eventstakingplacebeforethefusionofthegametes
Consistof:
Gametogenesis
Gametetransfer
Gametogenesis
Processofformationofgametes(maleandfemale)
 Gametesarehaploid
Insomeorganisms(likealgae),theyarealmostsimilar
(homoorisogametes),andcannotbecategorisedasmale
andfemalegametes.
Inothers,thetwogametesaremorphologicallyand
physiologicallydifferent(heterogametes),andareoftwo
typesantherozoidorsperm(malegamete)andeggor
ovum(femalegamete).
Insomeorganismsboththesexesarepresentinthesame
individual(monoeciousorhomothallic),andinothers,they
arepresentintwoindividuals(dioeciousorheterothallic).
Inaunisexualflower,themalefloweriscalledstaminateand
thefemalefloweriscalledpistillate.
Gameteformationtakesplacebycelldivision.
Inhaploidparents,itisbymitosisindiploidparents,itisby
meiosis,withspecialisedcellscalledmeiocytesundergoing
meiosis.
.GameteTransfer
Fortheirfusiontotakeplace,thegametesneedtobe
transferred.
Inmostorganisms,themalegametesaremotile,whilethe
femalegametesarenonmotile,andthemalegametesneed
amediumfortheirmovement.Alargenumberofmale
gametesdonotmakeittothefemalegamete,andhence,
severalthousandsofmalegametesareproducedto
overcomethisloss.
 Inangiosperms,thepollengraincarriesthemalegamete
andtheovulecarriesthefemalegamete.
Pollengrainsareproducedintheantherandneedtobe
transferredtothestigmaforfertilisationtooccur.Thisis
easyinmonoeciousplantsasboththeantherandthe
stigmaarepresentclosebyindioeciousplants,ittakes
placebypollination.
SexualReproduction:FertilisationEvents
Fertilisationisthemostimportanteventinsexual
reproduction.
Thisprocessisalsocalleds
yngamyandleadstothe
formationofthezygote.
However,insomeorganisms,zygoteformationtakesplace
withoutfertilisation,andisknownasp
arthenogenesis
(occursinrotifers,honeybeesandsomelizards).
Inmostaquaticorganismsandamphibians,fertilisation
takesplaceoutsidetheirbody(inthewater),andistermed
ase
xternalfertilization.Theireggsandoffspringare
highlyvulnerabletopredatorsandthisthreatenstheir
survivaluptoadulthood.
Inmostterrestrialorganisms,fertilisationisinternal,i.e.,it
takesplaceinsidethefemalebody.Inthisprocess,themale
gameteismotileandreachesthefemalegametetofuse
withit,therebyformingzygote.Malegametesareproduced
inlargenumbers.
SexualReproduction:PostFertilisationEvents
Eventstakingplaceafterfertilisationarecalled
 postfertilisationevents.
Zygote
Thehaploidgametesfusetoformadiploidzygoteinall
organisms.
Inexternalfertilisation,azygoteisformedinanexternal
medium,andininternalfertilisation,azygoteisformed
insidetheindividual.
Thedevelopmentofazygotedependsuponthelifecycleof
anorganismanditssurroundings.Insomeorganisms,the
zygotedoesnotdevelopimmediately,anddevelopsathick
wallarounditself.Thiswallisresistanttodamageand
desiccation.
Embryogenesis
Itistheprocessofdevelopmentoftheembryofromthe
zygote.
Thezygoteundergoescelldivisionanddifferentiation.
Celldivisionincreasesthenumberofcellsoftheembryo,
andcelldifferentiationhelpsthecellsundergomodifications
toformspecialisedtissuesandorgans.
Animalscanbegroupedintotwocategoriesbasedonhow
andwherethedevelopmentofthezygotetakesplace.These
categoriesare:
OviparousThefertilisedeggiscoveredbya
calcareousshellandisreleasedintotheoutside
environment.Thedevelopmenttakesplaceinsidethe
eggandtheyoungonehatchesout(example:birds
andreptiles).
 ViviparousThedevelopmentofthezygotetakes
placeinsidethefemalebody,andthedevelopedyoung
oneisdeliveredoutside(example:mammals,including
humans).
Infloweringplants,thezygoteisformedinsidetheovule.
Zygote
Developsinto
Embryo
Ovule
Developsinto
Seed
Ovary
Developsinto
Fruit
Contains
Seeds

Disperseandgerminatetoformnewplants