CS647: Advanced Topics in

Wireless Networks

Basics of Wireless Transmission

CS 647 2.1
Outline

Frequencies
Signals
Antennas
Signal propagation
Multiplexing
Spread spectrum
Modulation

CS 647 2.2
 Types of Wave

Ionosphere
(80 - 720 km)
Sky wave
Mesosphere
(50 - 80 km)

Space wave Stratosphere

(12 - 50 km)
te r Ground wave
sm i t Rece
Tr an iv er Troposphere
(0 - 12 km)
Earth
CS 647 2.3
Speed, Wavelength, Frequency
Frequency and wave length:
= c/f
wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f

System Frequency Wavelength

AC current 60 Hz 5,000 km

FM radio 100 MHz 3m

Cellular 800 MHz 37.5 cm

Ka band satellite 20 GHz 15 mm

Ultraviolet light 1015 Hz 10-7 m

CS 647 2.4
Radio Frequency Bands

Classification Band Initials Frequency Range Characteristics

Extremely low ELF < 300 Hz
Ground wave
Infra low ILF 300 Hz - 3 kHz

Very low VLF 3 kHz - 30 kHz

Low LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz

Medium MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz Ground/Sky wave

High HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz Sky wave

Very high VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz

Ultra high UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz

Space wave
Super high SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz

Extremely high EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz

Tremendously high THF 300 GHz - 3000 GHz

CS 647 2.5
Frequencies for communication

twisted coax cable optical transmission

pair

1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency

LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency

Frequency and wave length:

= c/f
wave length , speed of light c 3x108m/s, frequency f

CS 647 2.6
Frequencies for mobile communication

VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio

simple, small antenna for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections

SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite

communication
small antenna, beam forming
large bandwidth available

Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range

some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
z weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall
etc.

CS 647 2.7
Frequencies and regulations

ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands

worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Europe USA Japan

Cellular GSM 450-457, 479- AM PS, TDM A, CDM A PDC

Phones 486/460-467,489- 824-849, 810-826,
496, 890-915/935- 869-894 940-956,
960, TDM A, CDM A, G SM 1429-1465,
1710-1785/1805- 1850-1910, 1477-1513
1880 1930-1990
UM TS (FDD) 1920-
1980, 2110-2190
UM TS (TDD) 1900-
1920, 2020-2025
Cordless CT1+ 885-887, 930- PACS 1850-1910, 1930- PHS
Phones 932 1990 1895-1918
CT2 PACS-UB 1910-1930 JCT
864-868 254-380
DECT
1880-1900
W ireless IEEE 802.11 902-928 IEEE 802.11
LANs 2400-2483 IEEE 802.11 2471-2497
HIPERLAN 2 2400-2483 5150-5250
5150-5350, 5470- 5150-5350, 5725-5825
5725
Others RF-Control RF-Control RF-Control
27, 128, 418, 433, 315, 915 426, 868
868

CS 647 2.8
Signals I

physical representation of data

function of time and location
signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
classification
continuous time/discrete time
continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = At sin(2 ft t + t)

CS 647 2.9
Fourier representation of periodic signals

1
g (t ) = c + an sin( 2nft ) + bn cos( 2nft )
2 n =1 n =1

1 1

0 0
t t
ideal periodic signal real composition
(based on harmonics)

CS 647 2.10
Signals II

Different representations of signals

amplitude (amplitude domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar coordinates)
A [V] A [V] Q = M sin

t[s]
I= M cos

f [Hz]

Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier

transformation
Digital signals need
infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signal!)

CS 647 2.11
Antennas: isotropic radiator
Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves, coupling of
wires to space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three
dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna

z
y z

y x ideal
x isotropic
radiator

CS 647 2.12
Antennas: simple dipoles

Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
/4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength

/4 /2

Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y y z

simple
x z x dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to

the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)

CS 647 2.13
Antennas: directed and sectorized

Often used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile

phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)

y y z

directed
x z x antenna

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

z
z

x
sectorized
x antenna

top view, 3 sector top view, 6 sector

CS 647 2.14
Antennas: diversity

Grouping of 2 or more antennas

multi-element antenna arrays
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
z receiver chooses antenna with largest output
diversity combining
z combine output power to produce gain
z cophasing needed to avoid cancellation

/2 /2
/4 /2 /4 /2

+ +

ground plane

CS 647 2.15
Signal propagation ranges

Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication sender
possible
Interference range transmission
signal may not be distance
detected detection
signal adds to the
interference
background noise

CS 647 2.16
Signal propagation

Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)

Receiving power proportional to 1/d in vacuum much more in real
environments
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges

shadowing reflection refraction scattering diffraction

CS 647 2.17
Multipath propagation

Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due
to reflection, scattering, diffraction

multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver
Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time
interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol Interference
(ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts

CS 647 2.18
 Free-space Propagation

hb

hm

Distance d
Transmitter Receiver
The received signal power at distance d:
AeGtPt
Pr =
4d 2
where Pt is transmitting power, Ae is effective area, and Gt is the
transmitting antenna gain. Assume that radiated power is uniformly
distributed over the surface of the sphere.
CS 647 2.19
 Antenna Gain
The relationship between an effective aperture and received antenna gain Gr can be
given by:

Gr = 4 Ae / 2

where is the wavelength, and Ae is the effective area covered by the transmitter.

By substituting Ae, in terms of Gr and , we obtain

Pr = GrGtPt / (4 d/) 2

Free Space path loss is defined as

Lf = Pt / P r = (1/GrGt) (4 d/) 2

Lf indicates power loss in the free space.

When Gr = Gt=1,
Lf = (4 d/) 2 = (4 f cd/c )2

where c = fc (c is speed of light) and f c is the carrier frequency.

CS 647 2.20