PlaneTrigonometry 10047381

By the sam e A uthor .
A T R EATI SE ON ELEM E N TA R Y DYN AM I CS .
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igh er po rt io ns , 38 6 d h . .
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S O L UTI O N S T O T H E E XAM PLES I N T H E PLA N E

T RI GON OM ETRY . Cro w n 8 vc . 1 08 6 d . .
LON D ON C J . . CLAY AN D SON S,

CAM BRI DGE UNI VE RS I TY PRE SS WAREHOUSE ,
AVE MARI A LAN E .
TH E ELE M E N TS OF C O O R D I N AT E GE O M ET R Y .
Cro wn 8vo . Seco nd Edit io n, re vis ed and co rrect e d . 68 .
I n p p
re a ra ti o n .
A N EW E D ITI O N O F D R TO D H UN T E R
S
GEBRA F OR B EGI N N ERS .
A R IT H M ETI C FO R S C H O O LS .
L ON D ON : MACMI LLAN AN D 0 0 . LTD .

l onbou : C .
J . C LAY AN D SON S,
C A M BRI D G E U N I VERS I TY PRES S W A REH O U S E ,
A VE M A RI A LA N E .
a lu m : 2 63, ARGY LE S T REE T .
F . A
. BROCKH AU S .
M f ork : T H E M AC M I L LAN CO .
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PL A N E
T EI G O N O M E T R Y
S . L . L O N EY , MA .
LA E ELL W
T F O OF SI D N E Y S SS OLLE E
U EX C G , OAI BRI D GB ,
O E SSO
PR F R AT TH E R Y O AL OLLOWA
H Y OOLLI GI .
PART I .
AN E L E M E N TARY C OURSE , E XCL UD I N G TH E US E 0 1?

M A GI N ARY Q UAN TI TI E S .
S T EREOT YPED ED I T I O N .
CAM BRI D GE
T H E U N I V ERS I TY PRES S
1 8 96
[A l l Ri gh ts reserved ]
PREF ACE .
H E fo llo wing wo rk will I ho pe be fo und t o be

T , , a
fairl y co mple t e elem ent ary b k o n Plane Trigo

t e xt oo
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H no u classes o f U niversit ies

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t h e bo o k I have e ndeavo ured t o prese nt t o t h e st ude nt ,
as sim p ly as po ssible t h e m o dern t ea t m e nt o f co m ple x

, r
quan t it ie s and I ho pe it will be fo und t hat h e will have

,
litt le t o un learn wh en h e co m men ces t o e ad t reat ises o f

r
a m o re dif cu lt ch aract e r .
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r
applicat io ns t h ere o f I h av e pre xed a list o f t h e principal

,
fo rm ula wh ich t h e st u dent sh o u ld co m mit t o m e mo y r .
Th e se m o e im po rt ant fo rm ula are dist inguish ed in t h e

r
t ext by t h e u se o f t hick t ype Ot h er fo rm ula are s ub

.
sidiary and o f less im po rt ance .
Th e num be r o f exam ples is very large A se lect io n

.
o n ly sh o uld be so lved by t h e st u dent o n a rst reading .

vi P E FAC E R .
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g to the
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t ro uble t h ey h a v e ta ke n .
I am indeb t e d t o M r W . J D o bbs B A
.
, . lat e Sch o lar
S t Jo h n s Co llege fo r h is kindness in re adin

of and
,
g
co rrect in
g t h e p -
roo s f h e et s and fo r man y valuable su
g
st io ns
ge .
For any co rre ct io ns and su ge st io ns

g fo r impro v em ent
I s h all be t hank ful .
S . L . LON EY .
R O L HOLLOWA CO
YA Y LLEG E ,
E A SGHE M, URR Y .
S ep tember 1 2 , 1 893 .
PREF ACE T O TH E S ECON D ED I TI ON .
Th e S eco nd Edit io n h as be en care full y revised , and it

is ho ped t hat fe w se rio us m is t akes re main e it h er in t h e
t ext or t he ans wers .
h anges have been made in t h e ch apt er o n

S o me c s
lo garit hms and logarit h m ic t ables and an addi t io nal ,
chapt er h as be en added o n Proj ect io ns .
Ap ri l 25 , 1 895 .
viii CONTEN TS .
Principle o f Pro po rt io nal Parts

Sides and A ngles of a t riangle
So lut io n o f t riangles
Given t wo sides and t h e included angle
Am biguo us Cas e
H eigh t s and D ist ances
Pro pert ies of a t riangle
Th e circles co nnect ed wit h a t riangle
Ort h ocent re and Pedal t riangle

Cent ro id and Medians
XVI .
Quadrilat erals
Regular Po lygo ns
XVI I . Trigo no m etrical rat ios o f sm all angles .
sin 0< 8< t an 0

Area of a Circle
D ip of t h e h o riz o n .
I nverse circular functi o ns
So me sim ple t rigo no met rical Series

Eliminat io n
Project io ns
A N sWE Rs
TH E PRI N CI PAL FORMULE IN
TRI GON OMETRY .
PA RT I .
I . Circumfe ren ce o f a circle 2m m
11
[ A ppro ximat io ns are

A Radian = 5 7 1 7 448
'
nearly .
Tw o ht
rig an
gles 1 80

200 11 radians .
x Radi an .
se c

0= l + t an 0 ;
co sec

0= l + co t

0 .
( A rt .

co s 0 = ( A rt .
1 J 3

sm 30 30
; co s
( A rt 34
)
sin

45 = co s ( A rt .

f
(

sin 60 ; co s 60 A rt .

sin 90 = l ; 90 = 0 (

c0 8 . A rt .
J S - l
J 3 + 1
si n 15
2J 2
co s 15
3J2 ( A rt .
$ "
J 1
?
5 1
; co s 36

.
( A m . 1 20,
4
TH E PRI N CI PAL F O M R ULE IN TRI GON OMETRY .
s in
( - sin 0; co s ( ( A rt .

sin ( 90 0) = sin 0

co s
( 90 .
( A rt .
sin 0 .
( A rt .
(

0 ( 0 o

sin 1 8 cos 1 8 co s .
( A rt .
s in - s in 0; co s d (A rt . .
V . I f sin 0 = sin a , t h en 0 = m r ( A rt .
If cos O= co s a, t h en 0 = 2m r d n a
. .
( A rt .
I f t an o = t an a, t h en 0 = m r + a.
- sin 4 sin B .
( A rt .
I
s in
(A - B) = sin A co s B co s A si nB .
co s
(A
c p C D
sin C + sin D = 2 s in
g E .
0 D C D
sin C sin D = 2 cos
; .
C D C D
cos 0 + co s D = 2 cos
; E .
C
C
D D
cm D - co s C = 2 n
E .
( A rt .
2 sin A co s B = si n ( A B) .
B) .
2 sin A sin B = co s
( A )
-B - cos (A ( A rt .
TH E PRI N CI PAL FORM ULE IN TRI GON OMETRY .
t an A + t an B
t an (A + B)
'
l t an A t an B
t an A - t an B
t an (A - B )
m .
( A rt .
sin 2A = 2 sin A co s A .
co s 2A = co s A sin

A= l l .
1
2 t an A l
t an A
8 1 11 24
m , 00 8 2A .
m .
24 m 2 t an A
1
7
sin 3A = 3 sin A
oos sA = 4 eo e A L 3 co a A
t an 3A
J
l co s A A l + o os A
d
; co s du
( A rt . llO .
2 2
Jl + sin A *
Jl sin A .
Jl + sin A -
p Jl si n A .
t an ( ,
A +
lo g, m n lo g, m lo g, n.
m
lo g, lo g, 1 lo g, n.
7;

lo g, m n lo g
(
lo g,, 1 lo g, m
TH E PRI N CI PAL F O M R U LE IN TRI GONOM ETRY .
sin A sin B sin 0

VI I I
a c
N + $ f
268
4 .
4
.
A
2
sin A
a = b co s C + c co s B
B- C
b_ c
co t
2 6 -
4 6
a b 8 abc
1x R =
K inB T.S
'
2 sin A 2 ain C
A
_
2
.
A rea of a q uadril ate ral inscribable in a circle
( A rt .
sin 0
1, w hen 0 is ver y sm all
"
0
.
A rea o f a circle m .
R
TH E P I N CI PAL F O M R UL A; IN TRI GONOMETRY . xiii
3
( A rt .
co s a + cos to as t e rms

{ }

f
co s a + B sin
( A rt .
2 TRI GONOM ETRY .
3 . On t his her syst em o f m eas urem ent

acco u nt an o t
calle d t h e C e nt e sim nl o r F re nch syst e m h as been , ,
pro po sed I n t his syst em t h e right angle is divided int o

.
1 00 e qu al part s called G ra d e s ; each grade is subdivided

,
in t o 1 00 M i n u t e s and e ach m in u t e int o 1 00 S e c o n d s

,
.
Th e sym bo ls

and 1 are use d t o de no t e a Grade ,
a Minu t e an d a S eco n d re spe ct iv e ly

, .
Thu s 1 00 Se co nds make One Minu t e

1 00 Mi nut es Grade ,
1 00 Grades ( 1 00 8
) Righ t an
gle .
4 . T his yst e m wo u ld be m uch m o re o nvenient t o

s c
u se t han t h e o rdinary S e xage sim al Sys t e m .
AS a p e lim inary h o we ve t o it s pract ical ado pt io n a

r ,
r, ,
large nu mbe o f t ables wo u ld h ave t o b e re calculat e d

r .
F o r t h is e aso n t h e syst em h as in pract ice ne ve been use d

r r .
5 . To co nvert Sewagesim l into Centesim a l M eas ure,

and vice versa .
S ince a rig ht angle is e qual t o 90

and als o to we
h ave

90

10 3
9
l and 1 8 .
9 10
H ence t o , c hange
degre e s int o grades add o n o ne ,
ni nt h; to ch an e
g grades in t o degre es , subt ract o ne t e nt h
- .
( 3 )
36 + x as
)
1
( 64
10
x 64
I f t he le do no t co nt ain an int e gral num be r o f

an
g
degrees , we m ay reduce it t o a fract io n o f a degree and
t hen change t o grad es .
M EAS UREME NT or A NGLES . 3
In pract ice
it is ge nerall fo und m o re co nve nie nt t o y
re duce an n l e t o a fract io n o f a ri h t an le T h
y a
g g g e .
m e t ho d will be s ee n in t h e fo llo wing example s ;

E x. 1 . Reduce 6 3 "
1 4 51 t C o ent es ima l M eas ure .

17
We h ave 85
87)
1 4 5 1 _ 1 4 85
I
60
63 1 4

rt . angle

70275 rt 8 11 8 10

.
70 2758 : 703 27 5 = 708 27 50 '

'

Reduce 948 28 8 7 to S em gen ma l M eas ure

E x. 3 . .
9 42387 ri gh t angle

943 23 87
848 1 483 degrees

60
48 8 898 minutes
60
5 3 3 8 80 se co n ds .

84 48 53 388

943 23 8 7
6 . A n g le s of a ny si z e .
Su ppo se A OA and B OB t o be t wo xed line s m eet ing

a t ri ht an les in
g g O ,
an d su ppo se
a re vo lving line OP ( t urni ng abo u t
a xed po int at O ) t o st art fro m
GA and revo lve in a direct io n

o ppo sit e to t hat o f t h e h an ds o f a
wat ch .
F o r any po sit io n o f t h e re
vo lving line bet ween 0 A and 0B ,
s u ch as 0 P it will have t urn ed

,,
t h ro ugh an angle A OP which is less t h an a ri

gh t an l
,, g e .
1 2
4 TRI GONOM ETRY .
For po sit io n bet ween OB and OA such as OP

any

, ,,
t h e angle A OP t hro ugh wh ich it h as t urned is great e r

,
t han a righ t angle .
F o r any po sit io n OP be t we en OA and OB t h e

,, ,
A OB + B OA + A OP, , i e

angle t race d o ut is A OP, i , . e . . .
2 rig ht an
gles A OP , so
'
, t h at t h e angle de scribe d is
g reat e r t h an t wo righ t angles .
Fory po s it io n OP
an b e t wee n O B a n d OA t h e angle ,,

,
t urned t h ro ugh is sim ilarly gre at e r t han t h ree righ t angle s .
When t h e re vo lving line h as m ade a co m p let e re vo

lu t io n so t hat it co incide s o n ce m o re wit h 0 A t h e angle
, ,
t hro ugh wh ich it h as t urne d is 4 righ t angles .
I f t h e line OP st ill co n t in ue to re v o lve , the an

g le
t hro ugh w ich h it h as t urne d whe n it is fo r t h e , s eco nd
t im e in t h e po sit io n OP is no t A OP bu t 4 righ t , an
gles
A OP , .
S im ilarly wh e n t h e re vo lving line h aving m ade t wo

, ,
co m p le t e re v o lut io ns is o n ce m o re in t h e p o s it io n OP,
, ,
the an
g le it h as t race d o ut is 8 righ t an
gle s A OP, .
7 . I f the re vo l ving lin e OP be be t we en 0A and OB ,
it is said qu adrant ; if it be bet ween OB

t o be in t h e rst
and OA it is in t h e seco nd quadrant ; if be t ween DA and

,
OB it is in t h e t h ird quadrant ; if it is be t we en OB and

,
DA it is in t h e fo urt h quadrant
, .
8 . Ex . Wha t is t h e po si t io n of t h e revo lving line wh en i t h as t urned

( ) ( )

t h ro ug h 1
( ) 2 a nd 3 1 05 0 r
Since th e revo lving line h as t urned t h ro ugh

1
( ) 1 80
45
mo re t h an t wo righ t angles , an d it i s t h erefo re in th e th ird q uadrant
and h alfwa y bet ween OA
'
and OB

.
Since
( 2) 36 0
th e re vo lving li ne h as t urned t hro ugh
1 20 mo re th an

o n e co m pl t e e revo l ut io n , an d is t h erefo re in th e second
q u adran t ,
i . e. between OB and OA

, and mak es an angle o f 30 wit h OB

.
CI RCULAR MEAS U E R . 5
( )
3 Since x t h e revo lving line h as turned th ro ugh
60
m o re th an ele ven ri gh t angles , and is th erefo re in th e fo urth
q u adrant , i e bet ween OB and 0 A , and m akes 60 with DE
' '
. . .
X
E AM PLES . I .
Ex p res s in t erm s o f a righ t angle the angles
6 3 1 7 25

3

1 . 2
. 75 .
4 ,
1 30
5 , 6 . 37O 2U 48

Ex p ress in grades , minut es , and seco nds t h e angles

7 10

, 8 , 9 ,
1 38 , 35 47 1 5

11

,
235 1 2
12 ,
475 1 3
Ex p ress in t erm s o f righ t angles , an d also in degrees , minutes, and
seco nds th e angle s
13 ,
12 m .
14 .
45: 15 ,
16 . 25 58 8 9 .
17 . 75 9
M ark th e o sitio n p of th e re vo lvi ng li ne wh en it h as traced o ut th e
fo llo wing angles
18 .
g ri gh t angl e. 19 . 3} righ t
4
angles. 20.
1 8} righ t angles .
21 24 1 508

. 22 ,
31 5
23 . ,
1 1 85 25. .
26 . 4208 27 .
8 758 .
28 . H o w m an ydg e rees , mi nutes and seco nds are res ect ivel p yp assed
o ver in 1 1 } minut es by th e h o ur and minut e h ands o f a watch
29 . Th e number o f degrees in o ne acut e angle of a righ t-angle d
t riangle is eq ual t o t h e number o f grades in th e o t h er ; ex ress p bo th th e

ang les in degrees .
30 . Pro ve th at t h e Sexagesimal m inutes in any angle is

number o f
t o th e num ber o f Cen tesim al minut es in th e sam e angle as 27 50 .
31 . D ivide 44 8 int o t wo '

p art s such t h at t h e number o f Sexagesim al
s eco nd s in o ne p
art may be eq ual t o th e number o f Centesimal seco nds in
th e o th er p art .
C i rcu l ar M e asu re .
9. A t hird y
s st e m of m easurem e nt of angles h as
b e e n de vised, and it is t h is y
s st e m h h
w ic is use d in all
the high er branches o f Mat h emat ics .

6 TRI GONOM ETRY .
Th e unit u sed is o bt ain ed hus ;

t
T a ke any circle A PB B w ho se

, ce nt re
any po in t A m easure o f? an arc
AP wh o se le ngt h is e q u al to the
radiu s of the circle . J o in 0A and
OP .
Th e angle A OP is t h e an
g le
w ich h is t ak en as the u nit o f cir
cn lar m eas u re m en t , i . e
. it is t h e
an
g le in t erm s of h h in t h is
w ic
s yst em we m e su a re all o t h ers .
Th is angle is called A R a di an de no t e d
by
10 . I t is clearl y esse nt i
pro per ch o ice Of a al to t he
unit t h at it s h o uld be a cons ta nt u an t it y ; h ence we m ust
q
s h ew t h at t h e Radian is a co ns t an t an le T h is we Sh all
g .
do in t h e fo llo wing art icles .
11 . T h e o re m . The length o f the circum f erence
circle a lways bears a co ns tan t rati o to i ts dia meter .
Take an
y t wo circles w h o se co m m o n ce n t re is O .
t h e large circle inscribe a regu lar
po lygo n o f n Side s ,
A BCD '
Let OA OB , , meet t h e
sm alle r circle in t h e po int s a, b ,
c, and j o in ab , bc, cd
T h en, by Euc VI 2, . . a bcd . is
a re ular p o l
g gon o f n y S ides in
scribe d in t h e s maller circle .
S ince Oa Ob ,
and 0A OB ,
TH E RAD I AN . 7
t h e lines a b and A B m ust be parallel , an d hence

AB OA
( Euc VI
Oa
. .
ab
Also t h e po lygo n A B CD '

. be ing re
g u lar, perimet er
it s ,
i . e . the s um of it s Side s , is e qual t o n AB . Similarly fo r

t h e inner po lygo n .
H ence we h ave
Pe rim e t er o f t h e inn er po lygo n n ab ab O;

Th is re lat io n e x ist s w hat ever be t h e nu mbe r o f Sides
in t h e po lygo ns .
Le t t h en t h e nu mber o f sides be inde nit ely increase d

i l b m i o ncei vab ly ) h lly h
( e e
. t n .e co e nc
grea t so t at na t e
pe rim et e r o f t h e o ut er po lygo n will be t h e same as t h e

circum fere nce o f t he o ut e r circle , an d t h e peri me t e r o f t h e
in n er po lygo n t he sa m e as the circu m fe re n ce o f t h e inne r
circle .
Th e re lat io n 1 ) will t h en beco m e

Circu m fere nce o f o u t e r circle OA
Ra di u s o f o ut e r circle
Circu m fere nce o f o u t er circle

He nce
Radiu s Of o ut e r circle
Circu m fe rence Of in ne r circle
Radius o f inner circle
S ince t h ere was no res t rict io n wh at e v e r as t o t h e siz es
of t h e t wo circle s, it fo llo ws t hat t h e quan t it y

Circum feren ce o f a circle
Radiu s of the circle
is t h e s am e fo r al l ci rc l e s .
8 TRI GON OMET RY .
H ence t h e rat io Of the circum ference o f a circle t o it s

radius, and t here fo re also t o it s diam et er, is a co n st an t
quant it y .
12 . I n the pre vio us art icle we have Sh ewn t hat the

Ci rcum ference
rat io is t h e same fo r all circle s . Th e value
D i ame t e r
o f t his co nst an t rat io is alwa s ydeno t e d by t h e Greek
let t er n
'
( pro n o u nce d Pi) , so t hat n is a num be r .
Circum fe re nce
D iam et e r
W e have t h ere fo re thefo llo wing t h eo rem ; T h e ci r
c u m fere n c e of a ci rc l e i s al w ay s e q u a l t o or t im e s
it s di am et e r or 2 71 t i m e s it s

ra di u s .
13 . U nfo rt unat ely t h e value of rr is no t a w ho le

n umber, no r can it be p
e x re sse d in t h e fo rm of a vulgar
fract io n, and h ence no t in t h e fo rm of a decim al fract io n ,
t erm inat ing o r recurrin

g .
Th e n um ber n is an inco mm ensurable m agnit ude a ,
magni t u de who se valu e cann o t be exact ly e xpressed as t h e

rat io o f t wo wh o le nu m bers .
I ts value , co rre ct to 8 places of decim als is ,
31 41 5 926 5 .
22
Th e fract io n
7 gives t h e value o f rr co rrect l y fo r t h e
2
rst t wo decim al places ; fo r 3
7
35 5
Th e fract io n is a m o re accurat e value o f vr, being
1 13
35 5
co rre ct to 6 places o f decim als ; fo r _
"
112
10 TRI OON OM ET RY .
X
E A M PLES . II .
1 ,
I f th e radius o f th e earth be 4000 mil es , wh at is t h e length of it s
circum ference ?
2 ,
T h e wh eel o f a railwa y carriage is 3 feet in diameter an d m akes
3 revo lut io n s in a seco nd ; h o w fas t is th e train go ing ?
3 ,
A mi ll sail wh o se lengt h is 1 8 feet m ak es 1 0 revo lutio n s per
minute . Wh at distance does it s en d travel in an h o ur ?
4 . Th e diameter of a h alf p enn yi

inch ; wh at is t h e lengt h s an of a
pi ece j
o f st rin g wh ich wo ul d us t surro un d it s curved edge ?
5 ,
A ss um in g t h at th e eart h d escribes in o ne y ear a circle , of
925 00000 mil es radius , wh o se centre is th e su n, y

h o w man m iles do es th e
e arth travel in a y
ear ?
6 Th e radius o f a carriage wh eel i s 1 ft . 9 ins . , and in 1 th of a

9
.
seco n d it tu rns th ro ugh 80

abo u t it s ce nt re , wh ich is xed ; h o w many
m iles do es a po int o n th e rim o f t h e wh e el t ravel in o ne h o ur ?
2
15 . T h e o re m . The radian is a constant an le
g .
Tak e t h e gure o f Art . 9 . Le t t h e arc A B be a
quadrant o f t h e circle, i e . . o ne quart er of t he circum
ference .
By Ar t 1 2, t h e lengt h . of A B is t he re fo re wh ere r
is t h e radius o f the circle .
By Eu c V I 33, we kno w t h at angles at t h e ce n t re o f

. .
any circle are t o o ne ano t h e r as t h e arcs o n wh ich t h e y

st and .
A A OP arc AP r
H en ce
A A OB arc AB 71

7
2
A A OP

A A OB .
Bu t we dened t h e an
gle A OP t o be a Radian .
TH E RAD I AN . 11
Hence a Radian A A OB
o f a ri
gh t an
gle .
Since a rig ht an
g le is a co nst ant angle, and since we
have Sh e wn ( Art n is a co ns t ant q uan t it y it
. 1 2) t h at ,
fo llo ws t h at a Radian is a co n st ant angle and is t h erefo re ,
t h e sam e what e ve r h e t h e circle fro m which it is de rived .
16 . M ag nit ud e of a Ra di an .
By t h e previ o us art icle , a Radian

2
x a n
gh t an
gle
T
r

1 80 x

5 7 1 7 448

ne arl y .
2
17 . S ince a Radian 2
of a ri
gh t an
gle ,
11
t h ere fo re a ri
gh t an
gle radians ,
SO t hat 1 80 gl

es 2 righ t
71 radians an ,
4 righ t angles 2n radians

an d 36 0 .
Hence, wh en t h e revo l ving lin e ( Art 6 ) h as m ade . a
co m plet evo lut io n

re , it h as described an an
gle q
e ual to
27r radians ; wh en it h as m ade t hree plet e revo lut io ns
co m ,
it h as describe d an an l of 6 7r radian s ; wh e n it h as m ade

g e
v
n re o lu t io ns, it h as describe d an an le o f
g 2urr radians .
p 18 . I n pract ice the s ym bo l c is generally o m it t ed ,
and inst ead of l we nd writ t en

an an
g e rr an
an
gle
12 TRI OON OMETRY .
Th e st udent m ust no t ice t his po in t care fu ll y

. I f th e
u nit , in t erm s of w ich h the an
gle is m eas ure d, be no t

m ent io ned, h e m us t m ent all y s uppl y
t h e wo rd radians .
O t h e rwise h e will e asil y fall int o t h e m ist a ke o f su ppo sing

t hat or st an ds fo r I t is t rue t h at qr ra dians is
t he sam e as bu t 71 it self is a nu m ber, and a nu mber
o nl y .
19 . To convert circu lar meas ure into sexagesi ma l
mea sure o r cen t simal

e measure a nd vice vers a .
Th e st udent sh o uld rem e mber t h e relat io ns

Two righ t angle s n radian s

1 80 200 3
.
Th e co nversio n is t h en m e re ly Arit h m e t ic .
1 1 x. ( )
1
( )
2
( )
a 40 1 5
' "
36 = 40
85 2238:
- 40 2 6 x radians .
1

radians

( )
4 4os 1 5 36 x

2007681r radi ans .
20 . E x. 1 . T he angles o f a t ri angk are in A . r. and t h e number o f

r des i n t he le as t is to t he number o f ra dium i n t h e grea tes t as 40 1 ;
g a
nd t h e angle s i n degrees .
Let th e angle s be ( a and (z
Since th e sum o f th e th ree angles of a t riangl e is we h ave

1 80 = z
80 th at a: 60 .
Th e q
re ui red angles are t h erefo re
(60 an d ( 60
l
(6 sr
0 -
g u eo -
sr.
radians.
(60 y) ( 0 y)

x 6
1 80
TH E RAD I AN .
H ence (60 -
y)
-7
3) r ,
200 60- y 40
T IT
OI f; tr
5 (60
y 40 .
Th e angles are th erefo re and 1 00
E x. 2 . E xp ress i n t he 3 systems o f angular measurement t he magni

t ude of t h e ang k of a reg ula r de cago n .
Th e co ro llar yt o E uc I . . 32 state s th at all th e int erio r angles o f any
rectilinear g ure t o geth er with fo ur righ t angles are e ual q t o t wice as

man y righ t angles as th e g ure h as ide sS .
Let th e angle o f a regular decago n co ntain a: righ t angles, so th at

all th e angle s are t o get h er equal to righ t angles .
Th e co ro llar y th erefo re st at es th at
+ 4 = 20,
so t h at
2 righ t angles .
But o ne righ t angle
90
1 003 radians .
H ence th e required angle
1 608 radians .

1 44
3
X
E A M PLES . III .
Ex p re ss in degrees , m in ut es, and se co nds th e angles,
1r

41r
_
1 s
3
.
0
2 s 3 4 5
3
. .
Ex p res s in grades , mi nut es, and seco nds th e angles,
41
71
6 7 8
6
0 s
5
.
Ex p ress in radians t h e fo ll o wing an gle s
9 10 1 10 11

, . . 1 75
12 ,
14

13 . 395 . 603 .
15 .
1 1 0 16 .
17 . Th e difference bet ween th e t wo acute angles o f a
t riangle is
gr radians ; ex ress p the angles in degrees .
14 TRI GONOM ETRY .
[Em
18 ,
One angle o f a t ri angle is
g o: grades an d ano t h er i s
$ 2: degrees,
whilst t h e t h ird i s radian s ; p

ex res s t h em all in degre es .
19 ,
T h e circular m easure of t wo angles o f a triangle are res ect ivel p y
and wh at is t h e num be r o f degrees in t h e t hird angle 7
20 .
Th e angles o f a t rian gle are in A . r. and t h e n um ber of degrees
in t h e least i s t o th e n umber o f radian s in t h e great e st as 60 t o 1 ; nd
t h e angl es in degrees .
21 , Thb angle s of a t riangle are in A . r. and th e number o f radians
in t h e least an gle is t o th e nu m ber o f degrees in th e m ean angle as 1 1 20.
Find th e angles in radians .
22 , Find t h e m agnit ude, in radian s and degrees , of t h e in t erio r

angle o f ( 1 ) a regul ar en t ago n , p ( )
2 a regular p
h e t ago n , (3) a regul ar
o ctago n,
( )
4 a regul ar duo decago n , an d ( )
5 a regular p y
o l go n o f 1 7 sides .
23 . Th e angle in o ne regular p lyg

o on is t o t h at in ano t h er as 3 2;
als o th e n um ber o f sides in t h e tirs s t wice th at in th e seco n d ; h ow
m an y side s h ave t h e p lyg
o o ns ?
24 ,
Th e num ber o f sides in t wo regular p lyg
o o ns are as 5 z 4, and
t h e di erence bet ween t h eir angles is nd th e n um ber o f sides in

th e p lyg
o o ns .
25 , Fin d t wo regul ar p lyg

o o ns such t h at t h e num ber of t h eir sides
m ay be as 3 to 4 and t h e num ber o f degrees in an an gl e o f t h e rst t o th e

num ber o f grades in an an gle o f th e seco nd as 4 t o 5 .
26 ,
Th e angl es o f a q uadril at eral are in A . r . and t h e great est i s
do uble t h e l east ; p
ex res s t h e leas t angl e in rad ia n s .
27 ,
Find in radian s, degrees , and
grades t h e angle bet ween t h e
h o ur-h and and th e mi nut e -h an d o f a clock at (1 ) h alf- ast th ree , p
( 2) t went y mi nu t es to six, ( )
3 a q uart er p ast el even .
28 ,
F ind th e t im es ( 1 ) betwee n fo ur and ve o clock

wh en t h e angle
bet wee n t h e m in u te -h and an d t h e h o ur-h and is ( )

2 bet ween seven and
eigh t o clock

wh en t hi s angle is
21 . T h e o re m . The num ber o f rad ians in any angle
whatever is equa l to a f raction, who se num erato r is the are

which the ang le subtends at th e centre of any circle, and
wh ose deno mina to r is the r adius o
f tha t circle .
MEA S UREM ENT OF AN Y A N G LE IN RAD I AN S
Le t A OP be t h e le wh ich h as be e n describ ed by an a
g
line st art ing fro m GA and re vo lv
ing int o t h e po sit io n OP .
Wit h cen t re 0 and any radius
de scribe a circle cu t t ing OA and
OP in t h e po int s A and P .
Let t h e angle A OB be a radian,
so t hat t he arc A B is e qual t o t he

ra dius 0 A .
By Euc . VI . 33 we, have

A A OP A A OP arc AP arc AP
A Radian A A OB arc AB Radius
so t h at A A OP a Radian .
He nce t h e t h eo re m is pro ved .
22 . Ex . 1 . F i nd t he ang le subtend ed at t he centre of a circle of

rad i us 3 by leng t h 1
f eet a n arc o f f oo t .
Th e n um ber o f radi an s in t h e angle
H en ce th e angl e
radi an n gh t angl e
t ak ing 11 eq ual to
g .
E x. 2 . In a ci rcle o f 5 f eet ra di us wha t is t he le ngt h f

o t he are wh ich
f

subtend s a n ang le o 33 1 5 at t he cen tre ?
If 2: fee t be t h e req uired length , we h ave
5 num ber o f radians in 33 1 5 '
5
_
33
_ }
-
I 80
it ( Art .
a
720
1 33 1 33 22

1 44
1 feet
1 474
7
x
7
feet nearl y
23
3 feet nearl y .
16 TRI GON OM ETRY .
I t . 11 . Assumi ng t he average distance o f t he eart h f ro m t he sun t o be

92500000 mi les , a nd t he angle su bt ended by t h e sun a t t h e ey e of a p erson
t he eart h to be diame ter

on nd the s un s .
Let D be t h e diamet er o f t h e sun in m iles .
Th e angle subte nded by t h e sun being ver small , it s diamet er is ver y y

app ro xi matel y e q ual to a sm all arc o f a circle wh o se ce ntre is t h e eye o f
th e o b server. Al so th e sun s ubt en ds an angle o f 32 th e cent re o f t h is

'
at
circl e .
H e nce, by Art 21 , we h ave

.
D
t h e n umber o f radi ans I n 32
925 00000
0
8
t h e num ber o f radians in
15
8 ir 2 1r
x
15 1 80 6 75
1 85000000 "
2 m il es
6 75
1 85
x
?
3 miles appro xim ately
6 75 7
abo ut 86 2000 mil es .
E x. 4 . Assumi ng t ha t a p erso n o f no rma l sigh t can read p ri nt a t such

wha t is
'
a di st ance t ha t t he le t t ers su btend an ang le o f 5 at h is ey e, nd
t he heigh t of t he letters t ha t h e can read at a dis t ance ( 1 ) of 12 f ee t, a nd
2
( ) o f a quart er o f a mi le .
L et a be t h e req uire d h eigh t in feet .
I n t h e rst case , a: is ver y n earl y eq ual t o th e arc o f a circle, o f radiu

s

1 2 feet , wh ich subtends an angle o f 5 at it s cent re .
Hn e ce number o f radians in 5
'

1
x
?
3 feet nearl y
1 80 7
1
1 nch es = abo ut inch
3
.
18 TRI GONOMETRY .
[En
11 , I f th e circumf erence o f a circle be divided into 5 parts whi ch are
in A . r if t h e great est art be
.
, an d p 6 tim es th e leas t , nd in radians
th e m agnit udes o f t h e angles t h at th e part s subtend at t h e cent re o f t h e
circle .
12 ,
Th e p erim et er o f a certain sect o r o f a circle is equal to t h e len gth
of th e arc o f a s emicircle h aving t h e same radi us ; ex ress p th e angle o f
th e sect o r in degre es , min ut es, and seco n ds .
13 ,
At wh at dist ance do es a man , wh o se h eigh t is 6 feet , sub ten d an
angl e o f
14 ,
F ind th e length wh ich at a di st ance o f o ne mile will subt end
th e

an angle o f 1 at ey e .
1 5 F ind a p ro xim atel th e distance

, p y at which a glo be , 5} i nch es in
diamet er, will subtend an angle o f
18 ,
F i nd a pp ro xim at el y th e dis tance of a t o wer wh o se h eigh t is
5 1 f eet and wh ich su bt en ds at th e ey e an angl e o f 51 51 2
17 ,
A ch u rch s pire , wh o se h eigh t is kno wn to be 1 00 feet , subt ends
an angl e o f 9
'
at th e ey e ; nd a pp ro ximat el y it s dist ance .
18 ,
Find a pp ro xi m at el yi n min u t es t h e inclinat io n t o th e h o ri z o n of
an inclin e wh ich rise s 35 feet i n 21 0 y ards .
19 ,
Th e radius o f th e e art h being t ak en t o be 396 0 miles , and th e
dist ance of th e m o o n fro m t h e eart h being 60 tim es th e radi us o f th e
eart h , nd app ro xim at el y th e radius o f t h e m o o n whi ch subt ends at th e
earth an angle o f
20 ,
Wh en th e m o o n i s se t t ing at any
given lace , th e an gle th at is p
subt en ded at it s cent re by th e radius o f th e e arth assing t hro ugh th e given p
pl ace is I f th e eart h s ra dius

b e 3960 mil es, n d a pp ro xim at el y th e
di st ance o f t h e mo o n .
21 ,
Pro ve th at t h e dist ance of th e sun is abo ut 8 1 millio n geo
gra phi cal miles , ass um ing th at th e angl e wh ich th e eart h s radi us

sub t en ds at th e dist ance of th e s un is and t h at geo gra h ical

a p
th e earth s ce ntre . F in d al so th e circu m ference and

subt e nds

m ile 1 at
diamete r of th e eart h p
in geo gra h ical m il es .
radius o f th e e arth s o rbit , wh ich is ab o ut 92700000 m iles,

22 ,
Th e
subt ends at th e star Sirius an an gle of abo u t n d ro ugh l y th e
dist ance of Sirius .
CHAPTER I I .
TRI GON OM ET RI CAL RATI OS F OR A NGLES LESS THAN

A RI GHT AN GL E .
L23 . I N prese nt chapt er we shall o nly co nsider

t he
an les whi ch are less t h an a ri h t angle
g g .
Let a re vo lvin g lin e OP st art fro m GA and re vo lve

int o t h e posit io n OP t hu s t racing o u t,
t he an l e A OP
g .
I n t h e re vo lving line t ake any
po int P and draw PM perpendicular

0A
t o t h e ini t ial line .
I n t h e t riangle M OP OP is t h e ,
hypo t henuse PM is t h e perpendicular

, , and GM is t h e base .
Th e t rigo no m e t rical rat ios , or funct io ns , of t he an

gle
A OP are de ned as fo llo ws :
g}: $35 ,
is called t h e S in e of t he an
gle A OP ;
3g i;
l a
G o si n a
I
,
P
gM T an g e nt
253
8
Go t a n g e nt
1 .
o
f P
-
Go se c ant
l
OP
S e ca nt
OM

A
O
V
20 TRI GON OM ET RY .
quant it y by which alls ho rt o f u ni t y

le
a .
Th e
1 co s A OP is calle d
the
t h e V e rse
co sine
f
d S in
s
e of A OP ; also
,
the q uant it y 1 sin A OP by which t h e sine

,
falls sh o rt o f
u nit y is calle d t h e Go v e rne d S in e o f A OP
,
w
A24 . I t will be no t e d t hat t h e t rigo no m e t rical rat io s
are all n u m b e rs .
Th e n am e s of t hese ei
gh t rat io s are writ t en, fo r
bre vi t y ,
s in A OP , co s A OP , t an A OP , co t A OP , co sec A OP ,
sec A OP , vers A OP , an d co ve rs A OP res pect ively .
T h e t wo lat t er rat io s are sel do m u se d .
I t will be n o t ice d, fro m t h e de nit io ns , t hat t h e

co se cant is t h e reci ro cal o fp t he sin e , so t hat
1
co s e c A OP
sin A OP
So t h e se cant is t h e reci pro cal o f t h e co s ine ,
1
se c A OP
A OP

co s
an d the co t angen t is t h e reci ro cal o f p t h e t angen t ,
l
co t A OP
t an A O
26 To shew that the tn go no metri ca l

'
. ra tio s
th e sa me f or th e same ang le .
We ha v e to s hew t hat ,
if in
t he re vo lving line OP y an ot h er
po in t P

be t ak en and P M be
drawn perpe ndicular t o 0 A t h e ,
rat io s derived fro m t h e t riangle

m mo no u m mcs n R ATI OS . 21
GP M

are the sam e as t ho se derived fro m t h e tria ngle
I n t h e t wo t riangles t h e ,
an
gle at O is co mm o n , and
t he an
g les at M an d M are bo t h ri
gh t angle s and t here
fo re eq ual .
H en ce t h e t wo t riangles are e q uiangular and t herefo re ,
MP MP
'
by Eu c VI 4, we have w t h e sm e o f t h e an
gle
OP
.
.

OP
.
A OP is t h e sam e w hat ever po int we ta ke on the re vo lving

lin e .
Since by t h e ,
sa m e pro po sit io n ,
we have
OM MP MP

951!

and
01 >
OP

it fo llo ws t hat t h e co sine and t angent are th e sam e
w hat ever po int be t aken on the re vo lving line . S imilarly

fo r t h e o t h er rat io s .
I f 0 A be co n sidered as th e re vo lvi ng line , and in it be t aken

"
any
po int an P d
P M be drawn er endicul ar to OP, th e funct io ns as
'
p p

derived fro m th e t riangle OP M will h ave th e same val ues as befo re
"

.

F o r, since in t h e t wo t riangles 0 PM and 0 P M , t h e t wo angles

P OM and OM P are res ectivel e ual t o P OI 1! and OM P t h ese

p y
.
q ,
t wo t riangles are eq uiangul ar an d t h erefo re sim ilar, an d we h ave

" "
M P _ MP 0 OM
W
OP
" 05
'
27 . F undamenta l rela tions between the trigonanwtrica l

ra ti o s o
f an ang le.
We shall nd t hat if o ne o f t h e t rigo no m e t rical rat io s
o f an an gle be kno wn , t he n u m erical magni t ude o f e ac h of

t he ot hers is kno wn also .
Let t h e an
g le A OP ( F i
g A rt 23) be de no t e d b
, y 0 . .
I n t he t riangle A OP we ha ve by Eu c I 47, , . .
M P + OM
a
OP 2
22 rareo rro m sv .
He nce dividing by OP
,

, we have
( sin ( co s 1 .
Th e q uant it y ( sin is always wri t t en sin

2
8 and fo r
s
, o
the other rat io s

k
.
H en ce t his relat io n is
si n Ol c o s O
-

1
Again, dividing bo t h sides of e quat io n ( 1 ) by OM

, we
have
(m y
( t an 1 ( s ec
so t hat n e w 1 t an 2
0
Again, dividing e quat io ns ( 1 ) by M P
, we have
OM OP 9
1
MP MP
1 ( co t ( co se c
so t hat c o se c

o 1 0 09 0
MP 0 M
Als o , since sin 0 and co s 0

OP 01
sin 0 MP OM MP
we hav e OP OM
t an 0 .
co s 0 OP
sin 0
He nce t an 0
co s 0
Similarly
TRI GON OM ET RI CAL RATI OS . 23
20 . E x. 1 . Prove t ha t co m : A cat 4 .
We h ave
1 co s A
J 1 co s
2
A
by relatio n
( )
2 of th e last article ,
1
co sec A - co t A
sin A
.
sin A
x. 2 . Prove t ha t
J ace
A+ cosec

A tan A + co t A.
We h ave seen t h at sec

= 3
A 1 + t an A,
and
tan
A + 2t an A co t A l co t A
- -
( t an A + co t
so th at
I x. 8 . Pro ve t ha t
( cosec A si n A
)( see A cos A) ( ta n A co t A)
Th e given p
ex res sio n
(
1
-
s z
a

si
2 A
1 si n A 1 co s A n A co s
sin A co s A sin A co s A
2 2
co s A sin A 1
sin A co s A sin A co s A
X
E AM PLES . V .
Pro ve th e fo ll o wing st at em ent s .

1 ,
co s A sin A co s
z
A .
2 , ( sin A + co s A) (1 s in A co s A) sin A + co s A
= 3 3
.
sin A 1 + co s A
3 1 + co s A
+
sin
_ 2 co sec A .
4 ,
- 3 sin A
co s
2
A .
5 sec A - t an A .
co sec A co se c A _
2 se c A 2
+
co sec A - 1 co s ec A -l-1
co sec A
co s A
co t A + t an A
( see A + co s A ) (
see A co s A) = 2
t an A + sin A .
1
M A OOS A '
co t A + t an A
1
sec A + t an A
sec A t an A
1 - t an A co t A - 1
'
1 + t an A co t A+1
9
1 + t an A sin A
1 + co t A
co s A
se c A t an A
1
sec A + t an A
t an A co t A
see A co sec A +1 .
1 co t A l - t an A
co s A sin A
1 t an A 1 co t A
sin A) (co t A
( A co s t an A ) sec A co sec A .
2 l 2
sec A sec A tan A
tan A .
TRI GON OMET RY .
N ow sin

0 and cos

0, be ing bo t h q
s uares, are bo t h
n ecess aril y posit ive . Hence , since t heir s um is u nit y ,
n eit her o f t h e m can be great er t han uni t y .
[ F or if o ne o f th em, say si n 0, were greater th an uni t y , th e o th er,
co s
0, wo uld h ave to be negat ive , whi ch is im o ssible ] p
He nce n eit her the s in e no r the co sine can be nu m eri
Since si n 0 canno t be great er t han y t here fo re

unit ,
1
cosec 0, which e quals sin cann o t be nu me rically le ss
0
.
t han uni t y .
So sec 0, which q
e u als cannot be num ericall y
less t han u ni t y.
30 . Th e fo rego ing res ult s fo llo w easily fro m t h e gu re

of Art 23 . .
F o r, what e ver be t h e value of th e an

gle A OP,
neit her t he side OM no r the s ide M P is e ve r g reat e r
MP
S ince M P 18 ne er v g reat er t han OP, t h e rat io 1i8
s
OP
v great er t han unit y
n e er ,
so t hat t he sin e o f an an le 1 8
g
n e ve r gre at er t h an unit y .
OM
Also , since OM is v
n e er g reat er t han OP , the rat io
OP
is ver great er t han unit y
ne ,
i a t he
. . co sine is v
n e er
g re at e r
t han un it y .
31 W e can. p
e x re ss t h e t rigo no m et rical rat io s o f a n
an le in t erm s o f
g any o ne o f t h em .
m ro o no m a mu . au t o s . 27
Th e sim plest m et h o d of procedure is best h ewn

s by
e xam ples .
Ex 1. . To exp ress all the trigono

metr ical rat o s i i n terms f
o th e sine .
Le t A OP be an
y gle 0 an .
Le t t h e le ngt h OP be unit y and let

t he p
co rre s o ndin
g lengt h of M P be 8 .
By Euc . I . 47, OM = VOP MP = t / l

s

.
MP 3
He nce sm 0= 8,
OP 1
i
gg Vl
MP 8 sin e

T
O Vl s Vl - sin
d

OM Vl s Vl - sin a
MP s em 0
OP 1
cosec
MP 8
OP 1 l
-
0 111 41 s Vl sin e

Th e last ve q
e uat io ns
giv e wh at is re quired .
Ex 2
. . To cap rese a ll the trig o nometrical relations in
terms f
o the co tangent .
Taking t h e u sual gure let , t he

lengt h M P be u nit y , and le t t h e co rre
spo nding value of OM be a.
By Euc . I . 47,
28 TRI GONOM ETRY .
He nce
OM w co t 0
GP /1 + a
a
41 + co t
2
9

_
MP 1 1
T!
O a: co t 0

OP VI +w

+ co t
2
0
OM '
a co t e
co se c 0 + co t

0
MP
.
Th e last ve quat io ns give wh at is required

e .
I t will be no t iced t hat i n each cas e t h e deno minat o r

, ,
o f t h e fract io n w h ich de nes t h e t rigo no m e t rical rat io was
ta ken e qual t o unit y . For e xam

Ple t h e sin e is
, an d
hence in Ex . 1 t h e de no m inat o r OP is t a ken equal to

u ni t y.
OM
Th e co t an e nt 18
g and h ence in Ex 2 t h e side M P
MP
.
is t ak en q
e ual to u nit y
.
Sim ilarly suppo se we h ad t o express t h e o t h er rat io s
in t erm s o f t h e co sine , we s ho uld, sin ce t h e co sine is e qual

to
355 , p u t OP y
e qual
and OM e qu al t o c
to u nitTh e .
wo r king wo uld t h en be sim ilar t o t h t o f Exs 1 and 2 a . .
I n t h e fo llo wing exam ples t h e sides have num erical

values .
m rmcu
rms o xo n
'
RATI OS . 29
Ex . 8 . If cos 0 equa l "

2

nd t he va lue s o f t h e o t her rat ios .
Alo ng t h e initial li ne 0 A t ak e OM eq ual t o 3, and erect a p p

er eri
dicul ar M P .
L et a li ne OP , of leng th 5 , revo l ve ro und 0 until its o th er and meets

t h is p p
er endicul ar in th e p o in t P . Th en A OP is th e angle 0 .
By E uc . r. 47, MP :
J am .
01 1 9:
s =4t .
Hn e ce cle arl y
4
co se c and sec o
3 ,
nx 4 . . S upp osi ng 0 to be an ang le whos e si ne i s to nd t he numeri

ca l magni tude of t he o t h er trigo no met rical ra ti o s .
H ere sin so th at th e relati o n ( 2) o f Art . 27 gives
3
l
()
2
(30 8 0: 1,
3
1 8
5 ,
w e
0
H ence
m o o xo mi rmcu RA I OS T . 31
X
E AM PLES . VI .
1 . Ex press all th e o th er t rigo no m et rical ratio s in terms of th e co sine .
2 ,
Ex pre ss all th e rat ios in te rms of t h e tangent .
3 ,
Ex press all th e rat io s in term s of th e co s ecant .
4 , Ex press all th e rat io s in t erms of th e secant .
A 5 , Th e sine o f a certain angle is 1; nd th e numerical values o f th e
o t h er t rigo no met rical rat io s o f th is angle .
12
6 I f sin e nd tan 0 and vers in 0

, .
11
nd t an A , co s A, and sec A.
nd sin o and co t 0 .
9 If co s A 2 nd tan A an d co sec A.
41
,
10 , I f t an 0
2, nd th e sine, co sine , versine and co secant o f 0 .
a
0 0
11 ,
I f t an o
15
12 ,
If co t 0 , nd co s 0 and co sec 0 .
If se c A =
g, nd t an A and co sec A.
I f 8 sin 0 = 4 + co s o, nd sin 0 .
n d sin a .
[- 2 . x
If
i
.
co t 0 + co sec I )
I f 3 sec 0 + 8 = 1 0 sec o, nd t h e

values o f t an 0 .
If nd co s 0 .
I f t an 0 + co t 0 = 2, nd sin e .
If se c
0 = 2 + 2 t an 0, nd t an 0 .
a W 2x ( z +1)
nd sin 0 and co s 0.
V al u e s of t h e t ri g o n o m e t ri c al rat i o s in
so m e u s e ful c a se s .
33 . A ngle f
o
Le t t h e an le A OP t race d o ut
g
be
T h en, since t h e t h re e an
gl es o f
a t riangle are t o get h er e qu al t o
t wo ri
gh t angles,
OP M = 1 80 A F OM PM O

A 4
P OM

1 80 45 = 4 .
I f OP be calle d 2a, w e t h en h ave

4a 2
OP = OM +
MP
2 OM , :
so t hat OM a~ /2
.
I
81 11 40 {f a d 2 1
OP V2

2a
34 A ng le of
.
Let t h e angle A OP t raced

o ut be
Pro du ce P M t o P m aki ng

MP

e qual t o PM .
Th e t wo t riangles OM P and
OM P have t heir sides OM and

M P e qual t o OM and M P and

also t h e co nt ain e d angles eq u al .
Th ere fo re OP

OP and A OP P

OP P
'
, A so
t hat t h e t riangle P OP is e quilateral

'
.
MP J 3a
Hence sin 60
OP 2a
OM l

a
cos 60
OP 2a 2
sin

60
43

an d t an 6 0 '
co s 60
36 . A ngle f
o
Let t h e revo lving line OP have t urned t hro ugh

sm all angle so t hat t h e angle
,
M OP is v ery sm all .
P
Th e m agni t ude o f M P is
t h en v ery sm all, and init ially ,
be fo re OP h ad t urned t hro ugh an angle large eno ug h to

be percei ved t h e quant it y M P was smaller t han any quan
,
t it y we co uld assign i e was what we den o t e by 0

, . . .
Also in t his case t h e t wo po int s M and P very n early

, , .
co incide an d t h e sm aller t h e angle A OP t h e m o re nearly

,
do t h ey co incide .
Hence wh en t h e angle A OP is act ually z ero t h e t wo

, ,
lengt hs OM and OP are e qual and M P is z ero .
0 MP 0
Hence em 0 0,
OP OP
0M 1
9 3
cos 0
OP OP

an d t an 0 }
5 O .
OM
A lso co t 0

t he value of wh en M an d P co incide
MP
th e rat io of a nit e quant ity to so m e t hing in nit ely
sm all
a quant it y which is innit ely great .
S u ch a quant it y is u sually deno t ed by th e sym bo l cc

rm eo xo nmrxmu m rxo s . 35

co t 0
also .

co se c 0 so

sec O
37 . A ngle of
Let t h e angle A OP be very nearly , b ut
no t quit e a right angle
, .
Wh en OP h as act ually described a

ri h t angle t h e po int M co in cide s wit h 0
g , ,
so t hat t h e n OM is z ero and OP and M P
equ al .
MP OP
H ence sin

90
OP OP
OM 0
9
0 1?
t an 90
OM an inni t ely sm all quant it y
a n u m be r inn it ely large 00
OH 0
co t 90
Qf
se c 90 cc as in t h e case o f t h e t angent ,
OM
gP 913
co sec 90
MP OP
38 . Co m p l em e a A n gl e s . D ef . Two angles
are said t o be plem entary when t heir sum is e qual

co m
to ri h t an le T h any an le 0 and t h e an le
a g g u s.
g g
0 are co m ple ment ary

90 .
36 m mo no m nr .
39 . To nd b
theetwerelati o ns
en the tri g ono m etri ca l
ra ti os
f
o two co mp lementary angles .
Le t t h e re vo lving line , st art in

g fro m OA , t race o ut
any acu t e an gle A OP, e qual to

0. F ro m any po int P on it
draw P M perpendicu lar t o OA .
Since t h e t hree angles o f a

t riangle are t o get her e qu al t o
t wo righ t angles an d since OM P ,
is a right angle t h e sum o f t h e , 0

t wo an
gle s M OP and GPM is a
They are t here fo re co m plem ent ary and

GPM 0

A 90 .
[Wh e n the angle GP M is co nsidere d, t h e lin e P M is

the bas e an d MO is t h e
We t h en hav e
( 0) M PO 9

si n 9 0 sin co s A OP co s ,
0) M PO sin A OP 0

co s ( 9 0 co s si n ,
M0
t an ( 90
o
0) = tan M P O
co t A OP -co t 0
PM
,
o) MP O
g t an A OP t an a,

co t ( 90 co t
PO
0) MP O = sec A OP 0
0
co se c ( 90 co sec
MO
s ec ,
P0
0) MPO A OP 0
0
and sec ( 90 sec co sec co se c
PM
.
TRI GON OMETRI CAL RATI OS .
H ence we o bser e v t h at
t h e Sin e y o f an an
gle t h e Co sine of it s co m plem ent ,
th e Tange nt o f any an
gle t h e Co t an gent of it s co m ple
m e nt ,
an d t h e S e cant o f an angle t h e Co secant of it s co m ple
m ent .
F ro m t his is a pparent what is t h e derivat io n of t he

n am e s C o sin e , C o t angent , and C o secant .
40 . Th e st u de nt is ad vised be fo re proce eding any

furt her t o m ake him self
quit e fam iliar wit h t h e fo llo wi ng
t able e nsio n o f t h is t able , Art
.
[F o r an e xt se e .
Co s ine
Co secant
S ecant
I f t he st u de nt co m m it s accurat el y to m em o r y the
po rt io n of t he abo ve t able incl uded bet wee n t h e t ic h k
lines h e
,
sho uld be able to eas ily epro duce t h e re st
r .
38 rai ao no nnrnr .
For
( )
1 the sines of 60

and 90

are res pectively the

co sin es o f 30 and ( Art .
( )
2 t he co sine s of 60

and 90

are res pect ively t he
and ( A

sine s o f 30 rt .
H e nce t h e se co n d an d t hird lines are k no wn .
( )
3 Th e t angen t o f any angle is t h e resu lt o f dividing
t h e sine by t h e co sine .
Hence q u an t it y in t h e fo u rt h line is o bt ain ed by

an
y
dividing t h e co rre spo nding quant it y in t h e seco nd line by
t h e co rrespo nding qu ant it y in t h e third line .
Th an en t o f any an le is t h e recipro cal o f

( )
4 e c o t g g
t h e t an ge nt so t h at t h e quant it ies in t h e ft h ro w are t h e
,
recipro cals o f t h e quant it ies in t h e fo u rt h ro w .
( )
5 Since co sec 9
Si ;0 the sixt h ro w is o bt aine d
by inve rt ing t h e co rre s po ndi ng quant it ies in t h e se co nd
ro w .
1
( )
6 Since sec 0
co s 9
the se vent h ro w is sim ilarl y
o bt ain ed fro m t h e t h ird ro w.
X
E A MPLES .
1 ,
If A verif y th at
( )
1 co s 2A = co s A - 1,
( )
2 sin 2A = 2 sin A co s A,
( )
3 co s = 3
3A 4 co s A - 3 co s A ,
( )
4 sin 3A = 3 sin A 4 sin A ,
-
2 t an A
[Exs VI I
.
] rmo o no ms rmcu RATI OS . 39
2 . I f A = 45
,
verif y th at
(1 ) si n 2A = 2 sin A co s A ,
( )
2 co s 2A = 1 - 2
2 sin A ,
5
and ( 3) t an 24
l it
g .
sin 30 6o + co s 80 sin

co s
J3 1
co s 45 o
c0 3 60
sm 45 o
s1 n 60

= _ .
2J 2
2 co sec 60
4 co t 45
2
sec
sin 3o = i

.
CH APTER I I I .
R
S I M PLE P OBL EMS I N H EI GHTS AN D T N
DI S A C ES .
41 . ON E of the j
o b ect s o f Trigo no m et ry is t o nd t h e
dist ances be t we en point s ,
or th e h eight s of j
o b ect s,
wit ho u t act uall y m easuring t hese distances or t h ese

height s .
42 . S u ppo se O and P t o be t wo point s ,

P being at a
higher level t han 0 .
Le t OM b e a h o riz o nt al line
drawn t hro ugh 0 t o m ee t in M
t h e vert ical lin e drawn t hro ugh
P
Th e le M OP is calle d
an 0
g
t he A n g l e o f E l e vat i o n o f
the po int P as seen fro m 0 .
D raw PN parallel t o M 0 so t hat PN is t h e hori ,
z o nt al line passin t h ro u h P T h n l N P O i t h e
g g e a
g e s .
A n gl e o f D e p re s si o n o f t h e p o int 0 as seen fro m P .
48 Tw
. f th in t m t
o o e di p
s ru ti l w k th Th d
en s us e n rac ca or are e eo o
lite an d th e Sext ant .
Th eTh eo do lit e is used t o m easure angles in a vertical pl ane .
Th Th
e eo do li t e, in it s simpl e fo rm , co nsist s o f a telesco p e att ach ed
to a t pi
a e ce o f wo o d . Thi pi
s ece o f wo o d is su pp o rt ed by th ree legs
and can be arranged so as t o be accuratel yh o riz o ntal.
TRI GONOMETRY .
Let P be th e t o p o f th e s ire and A p B th e po ints at whi ch

t h e angles o f elevat io n are tak en Draw .
PM p p
er en dicul ar t o AB ro duced and p
let M P be at .
We are gi ven AR = 1 00 fee t ,
A M A P = 45

,
and l M B P = 60 0
0
We th en h ave
A co t l
x
1
Oo t 60 O
0
H
5

ence AM z and BM : .

1 00 A M EM
: 1: z
J 3
z _
=
1 00 J
. 3
921
1 1 (J N )
3 E -1
3- 1
feet .
Ex . 3 . m t he t op of a clif 200 f eet hi gh , t h e angles

, f
o dep ressi on
t he top and bo t to m of a to wer a re o bs erved to be 30 and
f
o
nd t he
heigh t o f t he to wer .
L et A be th e p o in t o f o bservatio n and BA th e h eigh t of th e cli and
let 0 D be th e t o wer .
D raw AE h o riz o n tall y , so =

th at z E A C 80
and
L E AD
L et feet be th e h eigh t o f th e t o wer and ro duce
3 p
D C to m eet AE in E , so t h at 0 E = A B z = 200 - s . 0
Sin ce A AD B : 4 D AE = 60
(E uc .
AD B = 200 00 h 60

D B = AB co t
75
zoo - o r: 1
t
HEI GHTS AN D D I S A T N CES .
DB 200
w
200 - 3
T ,
so th at m ace feet .
E x. 4 . A ma n o bserves t ha t at a p o int due so u t h o f a certai n two er i ts

ang le o f ele va ti on i s 60
h e t hen wa l ks 300 f ee t due wes t on a ho riz ont a l
p lane and nds t ha t t h e angle of elevati o n is 30

nd t he hei gh t o f t he
tower and h is origi nal d is tance f rom i t .
Let P be t h e t o p, an d PM t h e h eigh t , o f th e t o wer, A th e o int due p

so uth o f th e t o wer and B th e o in t due west o f Ap .
Th e angles P M A , PM B , and M A B are th erefo re all ri gh t angles .
F or sim plicit y , since th e triangles PAM , PE M , and AB M are in

dierent pl ane s, th e y are re p ro duced in t h e seco nd , t h ird, and fo urth
gure s and drawn t o scale .
We are given A B : 300 fee t , A PAM : an d A PE M :
Let th e h eigh t of th e t o wer be 3 feet .
F ro m t h e seco nd g ure ,
so th at
F ro m th e t h ird gu re ,
so th at
F ro m t h e l as t g ure, we h ave
BM : AM
AB ,
82
g le a m .
8x : 3 x 300 3
.
300 J 3 J
.6
75 x feet .
Also hi s o rigin al di stan ce fro m t h e t o wer
5
a: co t
60
75 x 4 2
5

75 x -
06 o feet .
1 , A perso n , st anding o n th e bank o f a ri ver, o bserves th at t h e an gle
su bten ded by a tree o n th e Opp o sit e ban k is wh en h e ret ire s 40 feet

fro m th e bank h e nds th e angle t o be nd th e h eigh t of t h e tree
and th e breadth of the river.
2 ,
At a certain p o int th e angle o f ele vat io n o f a t o wer is fo und to be
s uch th at it s co tangent is
2 ; on walking 32 fee t directl to ward th e t o wer y
it s angle o f elevati o n is an angl e wh o se co t angent is 2 O Fin d th e h eigh t
5
of th e t o wer .
3 ,
At a p o int A , th e angle o f elevat io n o f a to wer i s fo und t o be s uch
5
t h at it s t angent is ; on walking 240 feet nearer th e t o wer t h e t angen t
E
3
of th e angl e o f elevat io n is fo un d t o be wh at is t h e h eigh t of th e
4
t o wer
4 ,
F ind t h e h eigh t o f a ch imne y wh en it is fo und th at , on walking
to wards it 1 00 feet in a h o riz o n t al line th ro ugh it s base , th e angul ar
ele vat io n o f it s to p ch an ge s fro m 30 t o
5 ,
An o b server o n th e t o p of a cli , 200 feet abo ve th e sea-level,
o bserves th e angl es o f de p ressio n o f t wo sh i p s at anch o r to be 45
and 30
re s p ect i vel y; nd th e dist ances bet ween th e shi p s if th e line j o ining th em

p o ints t o t h e base of th e cli .
[Exs VI I I .
] H EI GH TS AN D D I ST A NCES . 45
6 F ro m t h e t o p
, of a cli an o bserver nds t h at t h e an gles of
de p ressio n o f two bu o y i
s n th e sea are 39
an d 26
re s p t i ly ; t h
ec ve e
buo y s are 300 y ards p t

a ar an d t h e line j o in i n g t h em p i t t igh t
o n s s ra
at t h e fo o t of th e cli; n d t h e h eigh t of th e cl i and t h e di s t an ce o f t h e

nearest bu o yf ro m t h e fo o t of th e cli , gi ven t h at co t and
co t
7 .
Th e u pp p er art o f a tree bro k en by th e wind m ak es an an gle
o ver
of 30 with t h e gro un d, and th e

dis t an ce fro m t h e ro o t t o t h e o in t wh ere p
t h e t o p o f th e t ree to uch es t h e gro und i s 5 0 fact ; wh at was t h e h e igh t of
th e tree
8 .
Th e h o riz o n t al distance bet ween t wo t o wers is 6 0 feet and th e
an gular de p re s sio n o f
t h e t o p o f t h e rst as seen fro m t h e t o p of th e
se co n d, wh ich is 1 50 feet h igh , is n d t h e h eigh t o f t h e rst .
9 ,
Th e angle o f elevat io n o f th e t o p o f an un n ish ed t o wer at a
pi
o nt dist an t 1 20 feet fro m it s b as e is h o w m u ch h igh er m u st th e
t o wer be raise d s o th at it s angle o f el evat io n at t h e same o in t m ay be p
60
10 ,
T wo pill ars o f e q ual h eigh t st an d o n eit h er Side o f a ro adwa y
whi ch is 1 00 fee t wide ; at a pi
o nt in t h e ro ad way bet wee n t h e pill ars th e
elevat io n s o f the t o ps of th e pill
ars are 60
and nd th eir h eigh t an d
th e p o s it io n o f th e p o in t .
11 ,
Th e an gle o f elevat i o n o f th e t o p of a t o wer is o bs erved t o be
at a p o in t 40 feet abo ve th e rs t p
o in t o f o b s ervatio n th e el evat io n
is fo und t o b e nd t h e h eigh t of t h e t o wer and it s h o riz o ntal

di st ance fro m t h e p o int s o f o bservat io n .
12 ,
At th e fo o t of a m o unt ain t h e elevat io n o f it s sum m i t is fo un d
t o be aft er ascending o n e m ile up a sl o p e of 30
in cli n at io n th e
elevatio n is fo un d t o be F in d th e h eigh t of th e m o un t ain .
13 ,
Wh at is th e angl e o f e le vat io n o f th e s un wh en t h e l en gt h of th e
sh ado w o f a p o le is .J3 t i m es t h e h eigh t of th e p o le
14 ,
Th e sh ado w o f a to wer st anding o n a level pl ane is fo und t o be
60 feet lo nger wh en t h e
sun s al t it u de is 30 t h an wh en it is

Pro ve
t h at t h e h eigh t of t h e t o wer is 30 (1 + ,J3) fee t .
15 . On a straigh t co ast th ere are th ree j

o b ect s A, B , and 0 such
th at AB : BC: 2 m iles . A vess el a pp ro ach e s B in a line p p

er endicul ar
to t h e co ast an d at a cert ain p o in t A C i s fo und t o subt e n d an an gle o f
aft er sailing in t h e sam e di rect io n fo r t en m in utes A C is fo un d t o

subtend nd th e rat e at wh ich th e sh i pi s go ing .
46 TRI GON OMETRY .
[Exs VI I I .
]

1 6 Two ag st a s stand o n a h o riz o ntal lane

,
p . A and B are t wo
p j
o int s o n th e lin e o ining t h e b ases o f t h e agst a s and be tween t h em .
Th e angle s o f elevat io n o f th e t 0 p s of th e ags ta s as seen fro m A are
30
and 60
and, as seen fro m B , th e y are 60
and I f th e length AB
be 30 feet , nd th e h eigh t s of t h e agst a s and th e distance bet ween
th em .
17 , P is t h e t o p and Q th e fo o t o f a t o wer st andin g o n a h o riz o ntal

pl ane . A and B are two o int s o n th i s p pl ane such t h at AB is
32 feet an d Q AB is a righ t angle . I t is fo und t h at co t PA Q :

and
co t PB Q
2
nd t h e h eigh t of th e t o wer .
18 ,
A sq uare t o wer s t ands u pon a h o riz o nt al pl ane. F ro m a p o int
in t his p
lane , fro m wh ich t h ree of it s u pp er co rners are visible , t h eir
angul ar elevatio ns are res ect ivel p y and Sh ow t h at t h e
h eigh t of th e to wer is t o th e breadth o f o ne o f it s sides as J 6 (J 5 + 1 )
to 4 .
19 A l igh
,
th o use, facing n o rth , se n ds o ut a fan-sh a ed beam o f p
ligh t extending fro m n o rth -east t o no rt h -west An o bserver o n a st eam er, .
sailing due west , rst sees t h e ligh t wh en it is 5 miles awa yf ro m th e

ligh th o use and co ntinues t o see it fo r 30J 2 minut es, Wh at is th e
p
s eed o f th e steam er ?
20 ,
A man stands at a p o in t X on t h e bank XY o f a river wi th
straigh t and parall el bank s and o bserves th at t h e lin e j o ining X to a
pi o nt Z on th e o pp o sit e bank makes an angl e o f 30 wit h X Y

. H e t h en
go es al o n g t h e bank a di st ance of 200 yards t o Y and nds th at t h e angle
Z YX is F ind th e breadt h of t h e river .
21 ,
A man , walking due no rth , o bserves th at th e el evat io n of a
ball o o n , wh ich is due east o f h im and is sailing to ward t h e no rth -west ,
i s t h en 60
af ter h e h as walk ed 400 y ards t h e balloo n is vert icall y o ver
h is h ead ; nd it s h eigh t su ppo sing it t o h ave y

alwa s rem ained the same .
CHAPTER I V .
T
APPLI CA I ON OF AL G EBRAI O SI GNS TO TRI GONOMETRY .
46 . P o sit ive an d N e g at ive A n gl e s . I n Art . 6 , in

t reat ing o f an
g les o f any siz e, vo lving
we s po ke of the re
lin e as if it always revo lved in a direct io n o ppo sit e t o t hat

in which t h e han ds o f a wat ch re vo lve whe n t h e wat ch is ,
held wit h it s face u ppe rmo st .
This direct o n is calle d c unt e clo ckwise

i o r- .
Whe n t h e re vo lving line t urns in t h is m anner it is said

t o re vo lve in t h e po sit ive direct io n and t o t race o ut a
po sit ive angle .
Wh en t h e line OP re vo lves in t h e o ppo sit e dire ct io n ,
i s in t h e same dire ct io n as t h e h ands o f t h e wat ch it is

.
,
said t o re v o lve in t h e ne gativ e di rect io n and t o t race o ut
a ne gat ive angle This negat ive dire ct io n is clo ck wise

. .
47. vo lving line st art fro m

Le t t h e re GA and re o l e v v
unt il it reach e s a po sit io n OP whi ch ,
lies bet ween OA and OB and which

'
e A OB
'
bise ct s t h e an
gl .
I f it h as re vo lved in t h e po sit ive

direct io n it h as t rac ed
, o ut t h e po sit ive
an le wh o se m easu re is
g
48 T RI GONOM ETRY .
I f it h as re vo lve d in t h e n egat i e v dire ct io n , it h as

t race d o ut t he v
ne gat i e an
gle
A gain , ppo se we o nly kno w t hat t h e revo lving line is

su
in t h e abo ve po sit io n I t m ay h av e m ade o ne t wo t hree

.
, ,
co m ple t e re v o lu t io ns and t h en h av e de scribe d t h e
po sit ive angle Or again it m ay have made ,
o ne ,
t wo co m ple t e re vo lu t io ns in t h e n e gat i v e
,
dire ctio n an d t h e n hav e de scribe d th e negat ive angle
I n th e rst case , the an

g le it h as describe d is e it h er
or 36 0

or 2 x 360
or 3 x 36 0
225

i

. s . or or or 1 305
I n t he s e co nd cas e , t he an le it h as describ e d is 1 35
g
or 360

or 2 x 36 0

or 3 36 0

x 1 35
is . or or or
48 . P o sit ive an d N e g at iv e L ine s . S uppo se t hat

a m an is t o ld t o st art fro m a giv e n m i lest o n e o n a s t ra igh t
ro ad an d t o walk 1 000 y ards alo n
g t h e ro ad an d t h en t o
st o p . U nless we are t o ld t h e direction in which h e

st art e d, we do no t kno w h is po sit io n wh en h e st o ps Al l .
we kno w is t hat h e is eit h er at a dis t an ce 1 000 yards o n

o n e side o f t h e m iles t o n e o r at t he sam e dist ance on the
ot her Side .
I n m eas uring dist ance s alo n

g a st rai
gh t li ne it is
t h ere fo re v
co n e ni en t to have a st andard direct io n ; t his
direct io n is calle d t he po sit i ve direct io n and all dist ances
m eas ured alo ng it are said t o be po sit ive . Th e o ppo sit e

direct io n is t h e negat i e dire ct io n, and all dis t ance s
calle d v
m eas ured alo ng it are sai d t o be n egat i e v .
Th e st andard, o r osit i e, direct io ns fo r lines drawn p v

parallel t o t h e fo o t of t h e page is t o wards t h e ri
gh t .
50 TRI GONOMETRY .
o ut an angle of any m agni t ude what e ver . F ro m a
po int P in t h e re o lv ving line draw PM perpe ndicular

t o A OA
[F o ur po sit io ns o f th e revo lving li ne are given in th e g ure , o ne in

each o f th e fo ur q uadrant s , an d t h e su xes 1 , 2, 3 and 4 are at t ach ed to
P for th e p p
ur o se o f di stincti o n .
]
We t h en have t h e fo llo wing de ni t io ns, w ic h h are t he

Sam e as t h ose given in Art 23 fo r t h e simple
. case of
acut e angle :
is called t h e S in e of t he an l A OP
g e
OM
OP
MP
T an g e n t
OM
Oo t an g e n t
S e c an t
OP-
co sec ant
17 1 5
Th e quant it ies 1 co s A OP , and 1 sin A OP are
respe ct iv e ly ca lle d t h e V e rs e d S i n e and t h e C o v e rs e d

S in e of A OP .
51 . In exact l y t he sam e m anner as in Art 27 it m a

y .
be s he wn t hat , fo r all valu es o f t h e an le A OP

g w e
have
A N GL ES o r AN Y M A GNI TUD E . 5]
sl n

( to -
03 1 ,
si n 0=
t an 0 ,
co s 0
se c : 1 + t an
0 ,
c o se c

a nd 1 co t .
52 . S i gn s of t h e t ri g o n o m e t ric al rat io s .
F irst qua drant Let t h e revo lving line be in t h e rst

.
quadrant as GP, This re vo lving line is always po sit ive

, . .
Here OM 1 and po sit ive so t hat all t h e

M , P1 are bo t h ,
t rigo no m e t rical rat ios are t h e n po sit ive .
S econd quadrant Let t h e re vo lving line be in t h e

.
seco nd q uadrant as OP ,
Here M P is po sit iv e and OM
,. , , ,
is negat ive .
Th e sine be ing e qu al t o t h e rat io o f a po sit ive quant it y

,
t o a p o sit ive qu ant it y is t h ere fo re po sit ive

, .
T h e co sine b eing equal t o t h e rat io o f a negat ive

,
quant it y t o a po sit ive quant it y is t h ere fo re negat ive ,

.
Th e t angent be ing e qu al t o t h e rat io o f a p o sit ive

,
quant it y t o a negat ive quant it y is t here fo re negat ive ,

.
T h e co t ange n t is n egat ive .
Th e co secant is po sit ive .
Th e se cant is negat ive .
Third qua drant I f t h e re vo lving line be as OP in

.
, ,,
t h e t hird q uadrant we hav e bo t h M P and OM negat ive

, 3 , , .
T h e sine is t h ere fo re n egat ive .
Th e co sin e is ne at ive
g .
Th e t angent is po sit ive .
T h e co t angent is po sit ive .
Th e co secant is negati v e .
T h e secant is negat ive .

52 TRI GONOM ETRY .
F ourth quadrant Let t h e re vo lving line be in t h e

.
fo urt h q uadrant as OP, Here M ,P , is negative and

, .
OM , is po sit ive .
Th e sine is t he re fo re negat i e v .
Th e cos ine is po sit ive .
Th e t angent is ne
g v
at i e .
Th e co t ange nt is ne a t i e
g v .
Th e co secant is negati e v .
Th e se cant is po sit ive .
Th e annexed t able s he ws t he Si ns
g of t h e t rigo no
m et rical rat io s acco rdin
g t o t h e quadrant in which lies
the re vo lving line ,
w ich h bo unds t h e angle co nsidered .
00 86 0
53 . Tracing o f the ch ang es in the sign and magnitude

i m i l ratios of an angle, as the angle
of the tr g o no et r ca
increas es f rom 0 to

Let t h e re vo lving line OP be o f co nst ant lengt h a .

C HAN GES I N TH E TRI GON OM ETRI CAL RATI OS .
Wh en it co incides wit h OA t h e ,
lengt h OM is equal t o a and , ,
wh en it co incides wit h OB t h e ,
po int M co incides wit h O and OM

, ,
vanis h es Also as t h e re vo lving

.
,
A
line t urns fro m OA t o OB, t h e dis

t ance OM , decreases fro m a to
zero .
L A ,
Whilst the re vo l ving line IS in
t he seco nd quadrant and 1 8 re vo lving fro m OB t o OA t h e

,
di st ance OM , is negat i e and v increases n u m erically fro m 0
0 to a [i s i
.t dec
.reas es a lgebraica lly fro m 0 t o a ]
.
I n the h
t ird quadrant , dit he
s t an ce OM increases
al e braically
g fro m a to 0 and in t h e fo urt h
, , quadrant ,
t h e dis tance OM , increases fro m 0 t o a .
quadrant t h e length M P increases fro m

I n t h e rst , , ,
0 t o a ; in t h e seco nd qu adrant M P decreas es fro m a t o , , ,
0 ; in t h e t hird q uadran t M P decreas es algebraically , , ,

e
fro m 0 t o a ; whilst in t h e fo u rt h quadrant M P , ,
increas es algebraically fro m a to 0 .
54 . S in e . I n t h e rst quadrant , as the an

gle in
M
5
1 Q
creas es fro m 0 t o t he Sine, i s increases fro m
a
.
'
to 9 i a fro m o
,
. . to 1 .
I n t he se co nd quadrant , as the angle increases fro m

0
t he Sine decreas es fro m
g i s fro m 1 t o 0

90 t o to
d . .
I n t h e t h ird quadrant the

an le incre as es fro m 1 8 0
, as
g
to t he S ine decreases fro m

g to i s
. fro m 0 t o l .
54 TRI GONOM ETRY .
I n t h e fo urt h quadran t , as th e gleanincrease s fro m
a 0
270 t he sine increases fro m fro m

to
a a
1 to 0 .
55 . C o si n e . I n quadrant t h e co sine wh ich

t h e rst ,
0M 9 9
is q
e ual to decreas es fro m t o i s fro m 1 t o 0 . .
a a a
0 a
I n the seco nd quadrant , it decrease s fro m to
a a
fro m 0 t o 1 .
I n t h e t ird h quadrant ,
it increas es fro m
fro m 1 to 0 .
I n
fro m 0 t o l
t h e fo urt h quadrant ,
it increase s fro m
gs to ,
56 . T an g e n t . I n t h e rst quadrant , M ,P , increases

M ,P ,
n m 0 t o a and OM , decreases fro m a to 0 so t h at
OM ,
,
co nt inu all yin crease s ( fo r it s nu m erat o r co nt inually in

cre ase s an d it s nu m e rato r co nt inually decre as es ) .
When OP co incides wit h OA t h e tangent is 0 ; when

, ,
t h e revo lving line h as t urned t h ro ugh an angle wh ich is

S li h t ly le ss t h an a ri ht an le t h at OP n ly
g g g so ear , ,
co incides wit h OB t h e n M P is very nearly e qual t o

, , ,
a and OM , is very small . Th e rat io

OM 1
is t h ere fo re ver y
large , t h e nearer OP, ge t s t o OB t h e larger does t h e
and
rat io h
beco m e, so t at , by t a ing t h e re o l ing line near k v v
e no ug h t o OB, we can make t h e t ange nt as large as we
please This . is p by saying t hat when t h e
e x re ss e d , an
gle
is e qual t o it s t ange nt is innit e .

C HAN GES IN TH E TRI GO N OM ETBI CAL RATI OS . 55
Th e s ymbo l so is use d t o deno t e an innit ely great
Hence in t h e rst quadrant t h e t angent increases Ho rn

0 to co
I n t he Se co nd quadran t
hen t h e revo lving line h as , w
described an angle A OP Sligh t ly great er t han a righ t ,
an le M P is very n early e qu al t o a and OM is v e ry

g , , , ,
s mall and n e at iv e so t h at t h e co rrespo ndin t an ent is

g g ,g
very large and negat ive .
A lso as t h e revo lv ing line t urns fro m OB t o OA M P

, , , ,
decrease s fro m a t o 0 and OM is negat ive and decreases ,
fro m 0 t o a so t h at wh en t h e re v o lving line co incides

,
wit h OA t h e t angent is z ero

.
Hence in t h e seco nd quadrant t h e t angent increases

, ,
fro m co to 0 .
I n h quadrant bo t h M P and OM are negat i ve

t h e t ird , , , , ,
and h ence t h e ir rat io is po sit ive Al so whe n t h e re vo lving .

,
lin e co incides wit h OB t h e t angent is innit e

'
.
,
Hence in t h e t hird qu adrant t h e t angent incre ase s

, ,
fro m 0 t o 00 .
I n h quadrant M P is negat ive and OM is

t h e fo urt , , , ,
po sit ive so t hat t h eir rat io is negat ive Also as t h e

,
.
,
re v o lving line passes t hro ugh OB t h e t ange n t change s

'
o j u st as in passin h ro u h OB]
fro m o to c
[ g tc
g .
Hen ce in t h e fo urt h quadran t t h e t angent increases

, ,
fro m co to O .
57 . C o t an g e nt . When t h e revo lving line co in cides

wit h OA , M ,P, is very small and OM is very nearly ,
e qual to a , so t hat the co t angent , i s t he

. rat io
E
ff l
;
l
is
in nit e t o st art wi t h . Also , as t he re vo lving line ro t at es

56 TRI GONOM ETRY .
fro m 0 A t o OB, t h e quant it y M ,P, incre as es fro m 0 t o a
and OM , de creas es fro m a t o 0 .
Hence in t h e rst quadrant t h e

, , co t an e nt
g decreases
fro m so t o 0 .
I n th e seco nd quadrant , M ,P, is po sit ive and OM ,

u
negat i e, so v t hat the co t an
g e nt decreas es fro m 0 t o
o
i s fro m
. O to oo .
I n h
t h e t ird qu adrant it is po sit ive and decreas es fro m
,
t o 0 [fo r t h e re vo lving line cro sses OB t h e co t an gent

so as
h
c an es
g fro m co to co
I n t h e fo urt h quadrant ,
it is negat i e an d v de creas es
fro m 0 t o co
58 . S e c an t . When t h e re vo lving line co incides wit h

0A t h e value of OM is a so t hat t h e valu e o f t h e s ecan t
, ,
is t h en u nit y .
As t h e re vo lving line t urns fro m 0 A t o OB OM ,

,
decreas es fro m a to 0, and wh en t h e re vo lving line
co nci
i des wit h OB t h e value of t h e s ecant is 2 is . co
0
He nce , in t h e rs t quadrant , t he s ecan t incre as e s fro m
1 to co
I n t h e seco n d qu adrant , OM , is negat ive and decreas es

fro m 0 t o a . He nce in , t his quadrant t h e se can t in ,
cre ases fro m co t o 1 [fo r as the v ving line cro sses

re o l
OB t h e quant it y OM, c anh ges S i n and t h ere fo re t h e

g
secan t c ange s h fro m co to co
I n t h e t hi rd quadrant , OM , is y
alwa s ne at ive and
g
increases fro m a h
t o 0 ; t erefo re t h e secant de creases
fro m l to co I n t h e fo urt hq
uadrant , OM , is al wa s y
posit ive and increas es fro m 0 t o a . He nce, in t his quad
rant , the se cant decreases fro m so to 1 .
58 TRI GON OMETRY .
S imilarly, as the an
g le increases fro m 27r radian s t o
4m radians, the Sin e o e s t h ro u h t h e sam e se ries o f

g g
c anh g es .
A ls o , t h e Sines o f an
y t wo an
g le s wh ich di er by fo ur
'
ri h t n les, i s 21 r radians are t h e sam e

g a
g .
, .
This is expre ssed by sa ing t hat t h e p e ri o d y of the

si n e i s 2 7r .
Similarly t h e co sin e se cant and co secant go t hro ugh

, , ,
all t h eir ch an es as t h e an le increas e s b 2

g g y 71:
Th e t ange nt h o wev er go e s t hro ugh all i ts changes as

, ,
t h e angle increase s fro m 0 t o n radians i s wh ilst t h e , .
re vo lving line t urn s t hro ugh t wo ri

gh t angles . Sim ilarly
fo r t h e co t an
ge nt .
Th e perio d of th e sine , co sine , secant and co se cant is

t h erefo re 27: radian s ; th e perio d of the t angent and
co t an ent
g is n
'
rad ians .
S ince t h e valu es of the t rigo no m et rical funct io ns

re peat o ver and o v er a ain as
g t he an
gle in creases, t h e y
are calle d p e ri o di c f un ct i o n s .
M GM
/
4 ,
*6 2. Th e variat io ns values o f t h e t rigo no

in t h e
m et rical rat io s m ay be raph ically represen t ed t o t h e e e
g y
by m eans v
o f cur es co ns t ruct e d in t h e fo llo wing m anne r .
Si n e -
C u rve .
Le t OX and OY be t wo st raig ht lines at ri

gh t an
gles
S I N E CURVE - . 59
and let t h e m agni t udes o f a n g l e s be re prese nt ed by

l e n gt h s m easured alo ng OX .
Le t R, , R, , be po int s s uc h t hat t h e dist ances

OR, R,R, R, R, , , are e qual . If t h en t h e dist ance OR ,
re p rese nt a right angle t h e dist ances OR , ,,
must repre sent t wo t hre e fo u r ri ht angles

g , , ,
. .
Also if P be any po int o n t h e line OX t h en OP

, ,
re pre sent s an an le wh ich bears t h e sam e rat io t o a righ t

g
an le t hat OP be ars t o OR
g ,.
1
[F o r exam le , if OP be p e q ual to
3
OR, th en OP wo uld p
re resent o ne
th ird o f a righ t angle ; if P bisected R,R, , th en OP wo uld re p rese nt 35

righ t angles .
]
Le t also OR, be so c ho sen t hat o ne u nit of lengt h

re present s o ne radian ; since OR, re present s t wo ri
gh t
an
gle s, i s . n radians, t h e lengt h OR, m ust be qr un it s of
lengt h , i s . a bo u t 3) u nit s o f lengt h .
I n a similar m ann er , ne gat i e angles are re v present ed

by dist an ce s OR m easured fro m O in a negat ive
direct io n .
At eac perpendicular P Q t o represent

h po int P e re ct a
t h e sins o f t h e angle which is re pre sent ed by OP ; if t h e

S in e be po sit ive t h e p erp en dicular is t o be drawn paralle l
,
t o OY in t h e po sit ive direct io n ; if t h e sin e be negat ive ,
t h e line is t o be drawn in t h e negat iv e direct io n .
[F m p l i
o r exaOR p t igh t g l t h
e , s n ce i f w h i h i, re resen s a r an e, e s ne o c s
1 w ,
t p p di l R B q l t
e erec a i t f l gth ; i
er en cu arOR , , e ua o o n e un o en s nce ,
re p t n gl q l t t w igh t gl th in f whi h i
resen s a an e e ua o o r an es , e s s o c s z ero ,
w t
e erecpe p di l f l gth
a ; i
r en OR p nt th igh t
cu ar o en z ero s nce ,
re rese s ree r
an g l t h in
es, f wh i h
e s i 1 w t p p
s o di l q l tc 1 s , e erec a er en cu ar e ua o ,
i . e . we draw do wnward and eq ual to a unit o f lengt h ; if OP were

1
e q ual to o ne -t hird o f OH ,, it wo uld p
re resen t
5
o f a righ t angle , i s.
60 TRI GONOMETRY .
1
th e sine of which is
E and so we sh o uld erect a p p
er en di cular P Q eq ual
to o n e-h alf th e u ni t o f length ]
Th e e nds of all t hese line s, t h us drawn, wo uld be

fo und t o lie v
o n a cur e si m ilar to t he o ne drawn abo ve .
I t wo uld be fo und t hat t h e v

cur e co nsis t ed o f po rt io ns ,
Similar t o OB, placed side by side . T his co rre
s po nds t o t h e fact t h at e ach t im e t h e an le increases b

g y
2 1 r,t h e sine repe at s t h e sam e v alue .
*6 3 . C o s i n e -C u rve
Th e Co si e Cur e
n - v is o bt ain e d in t h e sam e m anner as
the Sine Curve -

, e xce p t t hat in t his case t he perpendicu lar
PQ present s t h e co sine o f t h e angle represe nt ed by OP
re .
Th e curve o bt ain ed is t h e sam e as t hat o f Art 6 2 if in .
t hat curve we m o ve 0 t o R and let OY b e drawn alo ng ,
R,B, .
*64 . T a g n t C u rve
n e - .
I n h
t is case , sin ce t h e t ange nt of a ri
gh t angle is
innit e OR, represent s a righ t angle t h e per
and s ince ,
nd icular drawn at R, m ust be o f innit e le ngt h and

p e
t h e do t t ed curve will o nly m eet t h e lin e R,L at an innit e

dist ance .
TAN GEN T -CU B V E. 61
Since t h e t angent o f an angle sligh t ly great er t han a

ri h t i n t iv nd almos t in nit e ly t t h
g s ega e a
grea ,
e
imm ediat ely beyo nd LE,L co mm ences at an

v
do t t ed cu r e
innit e distance o n t h e negat ive Side i s b elo w OX , .

, .
Th e Tangent Cu rve will clearly co nsist o f an innit e

-
num ber o f Similar po rt io ns all ranged

bu t disco nnect ed ,
parallel t o o ne ano t her S uch a curve is called a Disco n

.
t inu o us Curve Bo t h t h e Sin e Curve and t h e Co sine

.
-
Curve are o n t h e o t h er hand Co n t inuo us Curves

, , .
*6 5 . C o t an g e nt -
C u rve . I f t he cur ev to re present
t he co t an
g ent be drawn in a similar manner, it will be
fo und t o m eet 0 Y at an inn it e dist ance abo ve 0 ; it will
pass t hro ugh po int
R, and t o uch t h e v ert ical line
the
t hro ugh R at
, an inn it e dist ance o n t h e negat ive side o f
OX .Ju st beyo nd R, it will st art at an inni t e distance
abo ve R, , and pro ce ed as be fo re .
Th e curve is t h erefo re disco nt inuo us and will co nsis t

o f an inni t e num ber o f po rt io ns all ran ed Side b id
g y s e .
62 TRI GON OMETRY .
*66 . C o s e c ant -C u rve .
When t he g l
ane is z e ro , t h e Sine is z e ro , and t he
co se cant is t h ere fo re in nit e .
He nce t h e cur ev O Y at innit y

m ee t s .
When t h e angle is a righ t an gle t h e co se cant is unity , ,
and h en ce R B is e qual t o t h e unit o f len t h

, , g .
When t h e angle is e qual t o t wo right angles it s

co se ca n t is in nit y so t h at t h e cur e m ee t s t h e v n
, p p
e e r
dicular t hro ugh R at an innit e dist ance

, .
Again as t h e angle inc ease s f o m Sligh t ly less t o

, r r
Sli h t ly great er t h an t w ri h t an le s t h co secant

g o
g g e ,
ch an e s f o m t
g r oco oo .
He nce j u st beyo nd R t h e curv e co mm ences at an

,
innit e dist n ce o n t h e n egat ive Side o f i s belo w OX

a , .
, .
*6 7 . S eca n t -C u rve . If , sim ilarl y , the S e ca n t -Curve

be t raced it will be fo und t o be t h e same as t h e Co secant
Curve wo u ld be if we m o ved OY t o R,B, .
AN GLES o r AN Y SI ZE . 63
M I S CELLANEOUS EXAM PLES . IX .
1 . I n a triangle man grades as ano th er co n

o ne angl e co nt ain s as y
t ains degrees, and th e third co nt ains as man cent esimal seco nds as y
th ere are ssn g esimal seco nds i n t h e sum o f t h e o th er t wo ; nd th e
number o f radians in each angle .
2 ,
F ind th e num ber o f degrees , mi nut es, and s eco nds in th e angle at
th e centre o f a circle , wh o se radi us is 5 feet , which is subt ended by an arc
o f length 6 feet .
3 ,
T o t urn radians into seco nds , p ro ve th at we must mul ti l p y by
206 265 nearl y , and t o t urn seco nds into radians p
t h e m ulti lier m ust be
0000048 .
4 ,
I f sin e equal 2 2
21 3
-
, nd th e values o f co s 0 and co t 0 .
m + 2mn

sin 0
W
p ro ve th at
/ 6 ,
If co s 0
p ro ve th at co s 0 sin 0: J 2 co s 0 .
7 , Pro ve t h at

co se c a
8 ,
Ex pre ss 2 sec A
sec
A 2 co sec2 A co sec
A
In t erm s of t an A .
9 , So lve th e eq uat io n 3 co seca 0 : 2 sec 0 .
10 ,
A m an o n a cli o bserves a bo at at an angle o f de p res sio n o f
which i s making fo r th e sh o re imxh ediat ely beneath hi m h ree . T

minutes lat er th e angle o f de p ressio n o f th e bo at is H o w so o n will
it reach th e sh o re
11 ,
Pro ve t h at th e eq uat io n sin 0: a: +
5 is im p o ssible if a: be real.
12 , Sh ew th at t h e eq uat i o n sec
0

( f
is o nl yp o ssible wh en
a :
g .
CHAPT ER V .
TRI GONOMETRI CAL F UNCTI ONS OF A NGLES OF AN Y
S I Z E AN D S I GN .
[On a rst reading o f th e subject , th e st udent is recommended

t o conne his att entio n t o th e rst of th e fo ur gures given in
Arts 68, 69, 70, and
.
68 . To nd
the trigonometrica l ra ti os
of an an
g le
0) in terms f
o tho se f
o 0
, f o r a ll values o f 9.
66 TRI GON OMETRY .
h i rt icle, and th e fo ll o wing ar c t i les t h e v al ues o f th e l as t fo ur

[ I n t s a ,
i
tr go no m e t ric al ra t i o s m ay b e fo u n d , w it h o u t re fer en ce t o t h e g ure ,
from t h e v a lu es o f t h e r
st t wo ra ti o s .
sin
Sin ( - 0) 0
- tan 0,
co (
s 0) co s o
co s ( - 0) co s o
sin ( 0) - s in 0
1 1
- co c
Sin 0) - sin 0
( -
1

co s ( 0) co s o
I n

t an ( - t an 60 :
co s (
69 . To nd the tri go no metri ca l ratios of the angle
0) in te rms f th ose f 0 f or a ll values of 0

( 90 o o , .
Th e relat io ns have already be e n discu ssed in Art 39, .
fo r values o f 0 less t han a right angle .
Let t h e re vo lving line st art ing fro m OA t race , , o ut
an n le A OP de no t e d by 0
y a g .
To o bt ain the an
gle 90

0 let t h e
, re vo lving line
ro t at e to B and t h en ro t at e fro m B in t h e o pposit e
direct io n t hro ugh t h e an
gle 0, and let t h e po sit io n o f t he
v ving line be t hen
re o l OF .
Th e le A OP is t h en 90 0

an
g .
Take OP qual t o OP and draw P M and PM per

e ,
dicu lar t o OA pro duced if nece ssary A l d P N

pe n , so raw .
perpendicular t o OB pro duced if necessary , .

A NGLES o r AN Y S I ZE AN D SI GN . 67
I n eac h gure , the an

gle s A OP and B OP

are nu m eri
y e qual
call , by co ns t ru ct io n.
He nce in ,
each gure ,
GP M
' '
,
Since ON and MP

are parallel .
H ence t h e t riangles M OP and M P O are equal

'
respe ct s, and t h erefo re OM M P num erically

'
,
and OM

MP nu m ericall y .
Al so , in e ac h gure , OM and M P
'
are of t he sam e
are M P and OM ,

Sign, and so als o
OM an d UM MP
'
is
. + .
68 TRI GONOM ETRY .
H ence
(

0) Sin A OP

si n 9 0
co s (9 0

6) cos A OP

tan ( 90 0) t an A OP
'
0) A OP

(
'
co t 90 co t
o zf

MP

OP OP
0) se e A OP 0,

(

sec 90 co s ec
OP

OP
and 0) co se c A OP

o
(

90
W
co sec
07
70. To nd the tri gono metri ca l ratios of the angle
0) in terms

( 90 f
o those qf 0, f or a ll values of 6 .
A NGLES o r AN Y SI ZE AN D SI G N . 69
Le t t h e re vo lving line , st art ing fro m OA t race ,

o ut
any an
gle 0 an d let OP be t h e po sit io n of the re vo lving
line t he n h at t h e angle A OP is 0
,
so t .
Let t h e re v o lving line t urn t hro u gh a righ t an gle fro m

OP in t h e po sit iv e direct io n t o t h e po sitio n OP so t h at
'
e A OP is ( 90

l

the g an
Take OP e qu al t o OP and draw P M PM

'
and
perpe ndicular t o A O, pro du ced if necessar y. I n eac h

gure , Since P OP is

a ri
gh t an
gle t h e,su m of t he angles
M OP and P OM is always ri ht an le
'
a
g g .
H ence M P

P OM

0P M

A O 90 A A .
T h e t wo t riangles M OP and MP
'
O are t here fo re equal
in all res pect s .
Hence OM and M P are nu m erically e qual, as also

'
M P an d OM are nu m erically equ al

.
I n each gure OM and M P h av e t h e sam e Sign,

,
h
w ils t M P and OM hav e the o pposit e Si n,
g so t hat
MP OM OM MP
' '
,
and .
W e t h ere fo re h ave
99
-
= Sin A OP

5
02

l
i;
( A[ P
a

0)

( A OP

co s 90 co s
OI ,
t an ( 90

0) t an A OF
1
:
55 af l}P
l!
g; 35
1
r ep

( 90 e
0
05
se c ( 90

0) se c A OP
'
:
: 1
co sec 0,
OF OP
and co se c ( 90 0) co sec A OP
MP OM

70 T RI GON OM E I RY

.
sin sin 60

1 50 ( 90

co s
l
(90 sin

co s 1 35
co s 45
(90 F J

t an - co t 3 .
71 . S u p p l e m e nt ary A n g l e s .
Two angle s are said pple m ent ary when t heir

t o be su .
sum is e qu al t o t wo ri h t an le s i s t h e supp le me nt o f
g g , .
0

any an le 0 is 1 8 0
g .
E xs . Th e su ppl m e en t o f 1 80
30
Th e ppl m
su e en t o f 1 20
1 80

Th e ppl m
su e ent o f 1 80
275
Th e suppl m e ent o f 1 80
72 . To nd the va lues o f the trigonometrical ratios o f

0) in terms 0

the an l
g (
e 1 80 o f those f
o th e a ngle , f
o r a ll
Le t t h e re vo lving line st art fro m and describe an

y
an le A OP
g
A NGLES o n AN Y S I Z E AN D SI GN . 71
To o b t ain
gle 1 8 0 0, le t the
t h e re v o l
anvin
g line

s t art fro m OA and aft e r re vo lvin t h ro u h t wo right

g g ,
an
gles ( i s . po sit io n
. int o t h et he n re vo lve back
t hro ugh an angle 0 in t o t h e po sit io n OP so t hat t h e angle

A OP is equ al in m agnit ude bu t o ppo si t e in Sign t o t h e

'
angle A OP .
Th e le A OP is t hen 1 8 0 0

an
g
"
.
Take OP e q ual t o OP , and draw P M PM

and
perpendicular t o A OA
'
M nd M OP are e qu al, and h ence t h e

O '

Th e an
gles P a
t riangle s M OP and M OP are e qual in all re spect s .
Hence OM and OM

are e u al q in m agnit ude , d
an so
also are M P and M P

.
I n e ac h gure OM ,
and OM are drawn in o ppo sit e
direct io ns wh ilst M P, and MP

are drawn in t h e sam e
direct io n , so t hat
OM OM and MP MP
7
: .
,
He nce we have

0)

si n ( 1 8 0 sin A OP
0)

A OP

co s ( 1 8 0 cos
t an A OP

t an ( 1 8 0

0)

A OP 0

co t ( 1 80 0) co t co t ,
0) se c A OP se c 0,

se c ( 1 8 0
0) co se c A OP 0

and co sec ( 1 8 0 co s ec .
72 TRI GONOM ETRY .
sin 1 20 = sin (1 80

( 0
5

co s 1 35 : cos 1 8 co s 45
2
t an 30
5 1

t an
5
73 . To nd the trigo no metrica l ratios f

o ( 1 80

o) in
terms o f th ose of 0, f o r a ll values of 0 .
Th e quire d relat io ns m ay be o btained geo m et rically

re ,
as in t h e pre vio us art icle s Th e gure s fo r t his pro po

.
sit io u are easily o bt ained and are le ft as an example fo r
th e st u de nt .
y m ay also be deduced f o m t h e result s o f Art 70

T he r .
,
which have be en p o v e d t rue fo all angles F o pu t t ing

r r . r
0 B we h ve

90 , a
6)

( S in B) B rt 70)

s in 1 8 0 ( 90 co s ( A .
Q 0 7

co s ( 90 47 s in , ( Art 0) .
and co s ( 1 8 0

0) co s ( 90

B) Sin B ( Art 70 ) .
sin ( s) 0 A

90 co s .
( rt .
B

t an ( 1 80 0) B)

t an ( 90 co t
t an 0,

co t ( 90 0)
and Sim ilarl y co t ( 1 8 0

0) co t 0,
0,

sec ( 1 8 0 0) se c
0) 0

co se c ( 1 8 0 co sec .
74 . To find th e trig ono metr ica l rati o s of a n angle
0) i n terms of those of 0 f or a ll va lues of 0

( 36 0 , .
74 TRI GONO METRY .
76 Th e t able o f Art 40 m ay no w be ext ended t o

. .
so m e im p o rt ant angles grea t e r t han a righ t angle .

30 45 60 90 1 20 .
1 35
Co t angent
Cose cant
Je 2
m . x .
Pro ve th at
1 ,

2 . co a 570 sin

51 0
sin 330
co s 390 = 0 .
tan t an 765

9 0

3 .
225 oo t 405 co t .
Wh at are th e val ues o f co s A- sin A and t +t wh en A

th e values
'
l
4 and 8
5 t
s 0
[ Exs x ] . .
EX A M PLES .
Wh at values bet ween 0

and 360 m ay A h ave wh en

1
9 , s in A
J 2
10 ,
co s A -
2
11 . t an A
2
12 so t A 13 sec A and 14 co sec A 2
J 3
Ex p re ss in t erm s of th e rat io s o f a p o sitive angle , wh ich i s less t h an

th e quant it ie s
15 . sin 13 , co s 17 ,
t an
18 sin 1 68 20

. 19 , co s . ten
21 .
sin 22 . co s 23 , ten
24 . co s
A
25 , co t 26 ,
sec 1 327
and
27 , co s ec
W h at ai
SI n h as S in A + co s A fo r t h e fo ll o win value s o f A
lg
l4o 2783
( r

28 , 29 , 30 , and 31 ,
1 1 25
Wh at pign /
h as sin A 08
J Afo r t h e fo llo win g values o f A
32 33 34 6 34 an d 35

,
s
38 , F in d th e Sines h co sines o f all angles in th e
an rst fo ur q uadran t s
wh o se t angen t s are eq ual to co s

4
q
7
Pro ve t h at
37 and t an (270 A)

. co s A, co t A .
s in an d co t (

38 ( 270 A) : A) :

,
co s A, 270 te n A .
S in

39 . co s A + sin ( 270 A) + co s

A) t an ( 270
40 A) t an

,
se c ( 270 - A ) sec ( 90
41 , co t A + t an + t an -
M an (360
A) : 0 .
CHAPT ER VI .
GE NERAL R N S F OR ALL AN GLES HAVI N G

EX P ES SI O A
GI VEN TRI GON OM ETR I CAL RATI O .
77 . To construc t the least p osi tive an

g le who se si ns is
equa l to a, where a is a p ro per f racti on .
Le t OA b e t h e init ial lin e , and le t OB be drawn in t h e

po sit ive direct io n pe rpendicular to OA .
M e asure o ff alo ng OB a dist ance

ON which is equ al t o a u ni t s o f lengt h .
[I f a b e ne gat iv e t h e p o int N w ill lie in
B 0 pro duce d ]
T hro ugh N draw N P paralle l t o OA Wit h cent re 0 .
,
and radius eq ual t o t h e u nit o f lengt h describe a circle ,
and le t it m ee t N P in P .
T he n A OP will be t h e req uire d angle .
D raw P M pe rpendicular t o OA so t h at ,
s in A OP
OP OP l
Th e sins of A OP is t h erefo re e qual to the given
quant it y , and h ence A OP is t h e angle re quired.

A NGLES HAV I N G A GI V EN C GS I N E . 77
78 . To co ns tr uct the least p o sitive angle who se cosi ne

is equal to b whe re , b is a p rop sr f racti o n .
Alo ng t h e ini t ial lin e m easure o ff a dist ance OM e qual

to b and draw M P pe rpendicular to OA .
[I f 6 b e negat i e , v M will lie o n t h e o t he r

Side o f O in t h e lin e A O pro duce d ]
Wit h cent re 0 and radius eq ual t o
,
uni t y describe a
, circle and let it m eet
MP in P .
T hen A OP is t h e an
g le re quired . Fo r
OM 6
cos A OP b
OP
.
79 . To cons truct the least p ositive a/ngls who se tangent

is equa l to c .
Alo ng t h e init ial line meas ure 05
OM q
e ual to unit y , and e rect a p e r
di MP M easure o MP
'
pe n cular .
e qual t o G.
T h en
t an A OP
so t hat A OP is t h e re quired angle .
80 . I t is clear fro m t h e de ni t io n given in Art 5 0, .
that when an
,
an le is given, s o
g a lso is it s S in e T h e .
co nv erse st at em ent is no t co rrect ; t h ere is m o re t h an o ne
angle h aving a giv e n Sin e ; fo r exam p le t h e an gles ,
all h av e t h eir sin e equal t o
Hence when t h e Sine o f an angle is given we do no t

, ,
denit ely kno w t h e angle ; all we kno w is t hat t h e angle

is o ne o ut o f a large num ber o f an l
g es .
78 TRI GONOM ETRY .
S imilar st at e m ent s are t ru e if t h e co s ine, t angent , or
an
y h
ot e r t rigo no m e t rical fu nct io n o f t h e angle be
g iv en .
Hen ce S i mply t o g iv e o ne o f t h e t rigo no m et rical

,
funct io ns o f an angle do es n o t de t ermine it wit ho ut

am biguit y .
81 S uppo se we kno w t hat t h e revo lving line OP

.
co incides wit h t h e ini t ial line OA Al l we kno w is t hat .
t h e re vo lving line h as m ade 0 o r 1 o r 2 o r

. co m ple t e
, , ,
re vo lu t io ns e it h er po sit ive o r negat iv e

,
.
But wh en t h e revo lving line h as m ade o ne co m ple t e

re vo lut io n t h e angle it h as describ ed is ( Art 1 7) e qual t o
,
.
21 r radians .
Hence , whe n t h e vo lving line OP co incides wit h t h e

re
init ial line OA t h e angle t hat it h as de scribed is 0 o r 1

, , ,
or 2 or ,
t im es 2 radians in e it h e r t h e po s it iv e o r
7: ,
ne at ive dire ct io ns i s e it h e r 0 o r i 2 or i 4 o r 1; 6 n
g , .
,
1 r, 7r,
ra dians .
T his is p
ex re ss ed by saying t h at wh en t h e re vo lv ing
line co incides wit h t h e init ial li ne t h e angle it h as de
scrib ed is a r, wh e re n is so m e po sit ive or v
negat i e
82 . T h e o re m . To nd a general sa rsssi o n
p to i n
clu de all ang les which ha ve the s ame sins .
Let A OP be an
y angle having t h e gi ve n Sine , and
let it be deno t e d by a .
D raw P M pe rpe ndi cular t o OA

and M O t o M m akin g
pro duce ,
OM M O and draw M P
e qual t o

,
parallel and e qual t o M P .
AS in Art 72 t h e angle A OP

.
,
is e qual t o 7r a.
A NGLES H Av T H E SAM E SI NE . 79
When v ving line is in eit her o f t h e po sit io ns

the re o l
OP o r OP and in no o t h er po s it io n t h e sins o f t h e angle

, ,
t raced o ut is e qual t o t h e give n Sine .
Wh en t h e revo lving line is in t h e posit io n OP it h as ,
m ade a wh o le numb er o f co m plet e re vo lut io ns and t h en

de scribed an angle a, i s .
, by t h e last art icle , it h as described
an
gle q
e u al t o
2r7r a ( )
l
where r is z ero o r so m e po sit ive o r ne

gat i v
e int eger .
Wh en t h e re vo lving line is in t h e po sit io n OP it h as
, ,
Similarly described an angle 2rrr A OP i s an angle

.
, ,
2m n a,
is ( 2 1) n ( )
2

7 a
'
.
wh ere r is z ero o r so me po sit ive o r negat i e v int eger .
All t h ese angles wil l be fo und t o be included in t h e
u rr +
w h ere n is ze ro o r a po sit ive o r negat ive int eger .
F o r wh en n 2r since
,
1 t h e expressio n ( 3)
, ,
g iv e s 2m a wh ich is t h e sam e as t h e expressio n

,
Als o wh en n 2r + 1 Since
,
: 1 t h e expres , ,
sio n ( 3)
giv es ( 2r + 1 ) 7r a wh ich is t h e sam e as t h e ,
e xpressio n
Cor S in ce all an l s which h av e t h e sam e sine have

.
g e
als o t he sam e co secan t , t h e exp ressio n ( 3) in cludes all
angle s which have the sam e co s ecant as a .
83. T h e o re m To f ind a
g en era l exp ressi o n to in
clude all ang les which have the s ame cosine.
Let A OP be any an
gle having the giv en co sine, and
let it be deno t ed by a .
80 TRI GONOM ETRY .
perpendicular t o OA and pro

D raw P M
duce it t o P making PM e qual t o M P

.
,
When t h e re vo lving line is in t h e po sit io n

OP o r OP and in no o t her po sit io n t h en as

, , ,
in Art 78 t h e cosine o f t h e angle t raced o u t

.
,
is equal t o t h e given co sine

When t h e re vo lvi ng line is in t h e po sit io n OP , it h as

m ade a wh o le num ber o f co m plet e revo lut io ns and t h en
describe d an an
gle a, i s it h as describe d
. an angle 2n7r a,
where n is z ero o r so m e po sit ive o r negat ive int eger .
When t h e revo lving line is in t h e po sit io n OP it h as

,
m ade a who le num ber o f co m ple t e rev o lut io ns and t h en

described an an
gle a, i s it h as descri bed
. an angle 2n7r a
-
All t he se an les
g are include d in t h e p
e x res sio n
-
2 n 7r i a
where n is z ero o r so m e po sit ive o r ne

gat i e v in t eger .
Cor . Th e p
ex ressio n ( )
1 inclu des all angles having
t he sam e secant as a .
84 T h eo re m . To nd a g enera l es
p ressi o n f o r all
angles which have the sam e tangent .
Let A OP be y an an
gle having t h e gi ven t angent ,
and le t it be deno t ed by a .
Pro duce P 0 t o P , m aking OP

'
.
e qual t o OP , and draw P M

' 7
per
p endicular GM to .
As in Art 73 t h e .
, angles A OP
and A OP

h ave t he same t ange nt ;
A OP

also the angle qr a .
When t he re vo lving line is in

H ence, by Art . 82, th e general p

ex res sio n fo r all th e an gles wh ich
h ave this sine is
mr
g
( )
2 Th e small est p o s itive angle , wh o se co sine is
is i . s.
H en ce , by Art 83, th e general

. ex ressi o np fo r all th e angles which
h ave th is co sine is
2f i
?
'
( )
3 Th e sm allest p o sitive angle, wh o se t angent is
'
l
is i . e .
6
H ence , by Art 84, th e general
. p
ex res si o n fo r all th e angles
h ave thi s tangent is
x a . . Wha t is t h e mo st general va lue o f 0 sa tis fy i ng t h e equati o n
1
Si n
4
H w h in 0 ==
ere e ave s : I
T ki g th pp Sign
a n e u er ,
1 -
_
_ r
2 6
0 = 7l t + ( s
T aking th e lo wer sign
ein
( -
g) .
a= mr
Put tfhg bo th so lutio ns to get h er, we h ave
I V E ,
wh at is th e same ex ressio n, p
0 na 5 :
EXAM PLES . 83
I x . 8 . Wha t is t h e mos t genera l value f

o 0 wh i ch
sat is es bo t h f
o t he
1 1
equa ti o ns sin e: - and te n d
2 J3
Co nsidering o nl y angles be t ween 0
and th e o nl y values o f 0,
wh en sin 0
are 21 0
and Similarl y , th e o nl y values o f 0, wh en
30 an d

are
3
Th e o nl y value o f 0, bet ween 0
an d sat is fy ing bo t h co ndit io ns
7
is th erefo re i . s.
;
Th e m o s t general value is h ence o bt ain ed by adding any m ult i le p
of fo ur righ t angles t o th i s angle, and h ence is 2m r Z:
wh ere n is any
6
po si tive o r negat ive integer .
Wh at are th e mo st general values o f 0 which sat isf y th e equatio ns ,
1
1 . 2 ,
8 111 0 sin e
5 . co s o
8 ,
t an o 1 .
2
11 co m a-
1
3
. .
00 9 4 sin 0 : 3
13 . 0 14 . t an o 15 .

.
3
16 ,
2 co t o co sec 0. 17 . 80 0 0 7
18 , Wh at is th e mo st general value o f 0 th at satis es bo th of th e

q uat io ns s
1
and
7
19 , Wh at is th e mo st general value o f 0 th at sati s es bo th of th e

eq uat io ns
co t e: J
- . 3 and co sec o - 2?
[Exs XL] .
i
1
20 . If co s (A -B
) , and sin -
i
, n d th e sm allest p o sit ive
values o f A and B and also th eir m o st general values .
1
21
values o f
. I f t an (A
A and B
s) :
and also
1, and s ec (A + 3 )
th eir m o st general
57 5
,
n d th e smallest
val ues .
p o sitive
22 ,
Find t h e angles between 0
and 36 0 whi ch h ave

p
res e ct ivel y (1 )
th eir ines S J3 h i co si nes equal and h i
eq ual to ( )
2 t e r to 3
( ) t e r t an
1
gents equal to
J 3
23 . T aking int o co n sideratio n o nl y angle s less th an h o w m an y

va
lues of a are t h ere if 1
( ) si
1n e w -
g , (2 ) co m m -
, ( )
3 co s z
( )
4 and ( )
5 co t s: - 7?
24 , Given th e angle a: co nstruct t h e angle y i f ( 1 ) sin y = 2 si n :e,
( )
2 t an y = 3 t an a,
( )
3 co s y co s z , and ( )
4 sec y : co sec z .
25 . Sh ew t h at th e same an gles are indicated by t h e t wo fo llo wing
fo rmulae .
( ) (
1 2n 1) and ( )
2 2n1r =
l= n bein g any integer .
2 3 6
26 ,
Pro ve th at th e two fo rm ulae
( )
1
( )
3 2113 - i r: a and ( )
2 nn +
deno t e th e same angles , n being any int eger .
I llus trate by a g ure .
27 . If 0 p ro ve t h at 0 = 2mr + a + or else th at

wh ere m
, and n are any integers .
28 ,
If co s p a co s go : 0, p ro ve t h at th e di erent val ues o f 0 fo rm two
27
arith met ical p ro gressio ns in which th e co mm o n di eren ces are and
2+9
21r
P ~
9
29 . Co n struct th e angle wh ose sine is

35 TRI GONOMETRY .
[Exs x11 ]
.
So lve th e equatio ns
A
1 . co s
0 sin 0 -
i
3 '
co s
0: sin 0 .
4 , co s 0 + co s 0 :
1 .
I
5 ,
4 co s 0 3 sec 0 :

2 t an 0
tan
. sin
0 2 co s 0 +
i
7 . t an 0
co t

0+
( J +
3
5) 5
co t
-
0 ab tan b
9 co t 0: a .
10
/
. .
- 1 t an 0
11 . l eo 0 ) 12 .
13 . co t 0 + tan 0 = 2 co sec 0 .
14 ,
1
15 8 sin 0 ll 2 sin 0 : l 16 s in 50
7
.
. ,
17 ,
sin 90 : sin 0
.
18 ,
sin 30 : sin 20 .
19 .
co s m0 = oo s no. 20 ,
sin 20 : cos so .
21 . co s 50 co s 40 . 22 ,
co s m0 : sin no.
23 . co t 0 tan 8 0 . 24 ,
co t 0: tan no .
25 . t an 20 : t an
. 26 .
t an 20 t an
,
27 . tan 30 co t a. 28 ,
t an 30 co t 9.
2
29 .
t an 30 : t an a. 30 .
3 t an 0 : 1 .
31 . t an mz + co t nz : 0
.
32 ,
t an ( 1 co t 0) : co t ar ( m s) .
1 1
33 sin (0 and
.
5 ,
34 .
co s ( z + 3y )
2
35 ,
F ind all th e angles between 0
and 90 wh ich

sat isf y th e eq uatio n
3 2 a
2 co sec 0
sec 0 co sec 0 -t 8 .
36 ,
If t an 0
2 , nd versin 0 and ex
1
pl i an t h e do uble result.
37 .
I f th e co verl in o f an m gle be nd it s co sine and co tangent .
CHAPTER VI I .
R GONOM ETRI CA L RATI OS

T I O F TH E S U M A N D D I F FE EN CE R
OF TWO A NGLES .
88 . T h e o re m . To p ro ve that
sin ( A + B) = sin A co s B+ oo s A sin B,
co s ( A + B ) co s A co s B sin A sin B .
Le t t h e re vo lving line st art fro m GA an d t race o ut
the an
g le A OB A ) an d t h e n t ra
,ce o u t t h e furt h e r
an le B 0 0 B)
g .
I n t h e nal po sit io n o f t h e revo lving line t ake any

po int P ,
and draw PM perpendicu lar t o GA and
and PN
0 B respect ively ; t hro ugh N draw N R parallel t o A 0 t o
m e et MP in R and draw N Q perpendi cu lar t o 01 1
,
.
Th e angle
RPN

== 90
88 Tmo o no mnm r
'
.
MP M R + RP
Hence sm ( A + B) sm A OP
OP OP
QN RP QN 0 N RP N P
+ +
OP OP ON OP N P OP
sin A co s B co s EB N sin B .
sin (A + B ) = s i n A co s B + co s A sl n B .
OH OQ M Q
Agai n co s ( A + B ) co s A OP
OP OP
oo o o ON RN N P

op 01 >
0 N OP N P OP
co s A co s B sin RP N sin B .
co s (A + B ) = c o s A co s B - si n A sin B .
89 , Th e gures in th e last art icle h ave been drawn o nl yf or th e case
in wh ich A an d B are acut e angles .
Th e sam e p ro o f will be fo un d t o a pply t o l

ang e s o f any siz e , due
at tent io n bein gp aid t o th e signs of th e q uanti ti es invo lved .
Th e resul t s m ay h o wever be sh ewn t o be t rue o f all angles, with o ut
drawing any m o re g ures , as fo llo ws .
Let A and B be acut e angles , so th at , by Art 88 , we kno w th at t h e

.
th eo rem is t rue fo r A and B .
L ot th at , by Art 70, we h ave

so .
sin Al = co s A , and co s Al = - sin A .
sin co s by Art 70 , .
- sin .1 si n
co s A co s B B = sin A1 co s B + co s A I sin B .
co s

sin A co s B - co s A sin B = co s Al co s B - sin 1l
. sin B .
Similarly , we may roceed i f B be increased by

v
p
H
en ce th e fo rm ulas o f Art 88 are t rue if eit h er A o r B be increased
.
by . . y
i a th e are t rue if th e co m o nen t angl es lie bet we en 0 an d

p
Similarl y ,
by putting A, = 90

we can p ro ve th e truth of th e
th eo rems wh en ei th er o r bo th of th e p
co m o nent angl es h ave values
between 0
and
By p roceeding in th i s way , we see th at th e th eo rem s are t rue uni

versally .
90 TRI GONOMETRY .
91 ,
Th e p ro o fs of th e p revi o us article will be fo und to apply t o
angles o f any si z e , p ro vi ded t h at due at t en t io n he p

aid t o th e signs o f
t h e q uan t ities in vo lved .
Assuming t h e trut h of th e fo rmulae fo r acut e ang es, l we can sh ew
th em to be true un iversall y with o ut drawing any m o re g ures .
F o r, p ut t ing we h ave ,
( si nce sin A, = co s A , and co s A, - sin A) ,
B = sin
sin ( ,
A ) ( A B
) (Art.70)

co s A co s B + sin A sin B
sin A, co s B co s A, sin B .
co s (A, B) co s (A sin ( A B) ( Art

. 70)
sin A co s B + co s A sin B
co s A, co s B + sin A, si n B .
Similarl yw e may p ro ceed if B be increased by

H en ce t h e th eo rem i s t rue fo r all angles wh ich are no t greate r th an
two ri gh t angles .
So , by p utt ing we m ay sh ew th e t h eorems t o be t rue fo r

A3 :
all angles les s t h an th ree righ t angles , and so o n .
H
ence , by p
ro ceedin g in t h is m anner, we may sh ew th at th e th eo rems
are true fo r all an gles wh atever .
92 . Th e t h eo re m s of Art s . 88 an d 90 which give

,
res pect ively t h e t ri go no m et rical fu nct io ns o f t h e s u m and
di erences of les in t erm s o f t h e funct io ns o f t h e

'
t wo an
g
an l s t h e m selv es, are o ft en ca lled t h e A d dit i o n a n d
g e
S u b t rac t i o n T h e o re m s .
93 F ind t he va lues o f sin 75

,
8 x . I . and co s
sin co s 80 + co s 45 sin 8 0

45
1
+
1 J 3
_ _
_
+ l
J2 2 7 2 2 2 J2
co s co s (45
= co s 45
co s 80
sin 45

sin 30

1 J 3 1 1 J3 1
J s 2 J 2 2 2J 2
AD D I T I O N AND S UBTRACTI ON ro mm u s . 91
BS . 2 . Prove t ha t si n (A + B ) si n (A - si nI B,
= o os
and cos (A + B ) cos (A B) A s in B .
By Art s 88 . and 90, we h ave

sin (A + B ) sin (A sin B ) ( sin A co s B co s A sin B
.
)
sin
A co s B - co s A sin B rsin A
( 1 sin B) - sin A
) . sin
B
sin A - sin B .
Ag ain , by th e sam e arti cle s, we h ave

co s (A + B ) co s (A
co s

A co s B
sin A sin B
=
co s A ( 1 sin B) ( 1
co s A) sin B

oo s A sin B .
Assumi ng t he ormulas -
E x. 0 .
f f or sin ( z -
l y) and co s x i -y ( ) , deduce
t he f ormul as f or sin ( z -
y) a nd co s ( as y) .
We h ave
sin z
{( = ein z -
y) co s y + co s z - ( y) sin y
an d co s z = co s { ( z - sin z
g) ) sin
oo s y ( y y
py
Mult i l ing ( 1 ) by co s y and ( ) by
2 sin y an d sub tract ing, we h ave
co s z sin =
y)
sin z co s y y sin (
z - y) .
py
M ult i l ing (1 ) by sin y and (2) by co s y and addi ng, we h ave
sin :r si n y + co s z co s y = co s (z
y) = co s (z -
y) .
Hn e ce th e t wo fo rm ulae req uired are p ro ved .
Th ese two fo rm ulae are t rue fo r all values o f th e angl es, since th e
fo rmulae fro m whi ch th e y are derived are t rue fo r all values .
9
1 , I f sin a an d ec a p 2?
nd th e value o f sin (a .
)
2 . If si n s and sin p 2 , nd th e values of sin ( a

) and
and
3 , I t ain a and co s p g J ind th e values
) ,
tan (
awl- B) .
Pro ve th at
4 , co s (45
A) co s (45
B) sin (45
A ) sin (45
B ) = sin (A B) .
92 TRI GONOM ETRY .
[Exs . XI I I .
]
sin sin 5 B) ( B)

5 (45 B ) + co s

co s (4 co s A .
s in ( A - B
) sin (B - C) s in ( C - A
)
6 .
A B
+
co s co s co s B co s C co s 0 co s A
75
7 sin co s 1 05 = co s 45

0 4
5
8 ,
si n 75
sin 1 5 = co s 1 05

co s
9 , co s c co s (
y
- a
) - sin a sin
(y
10 ,
co s ( a+ ) co s 1 - co s (p + (1 a ) .
11 ,
12 .
O 94 . Fro m Arts 88 . and 90, we h av e , fo r all v u es o f
A and B,
sin ( A + B) = sin A co s B+ co s A sin B ,
sin ( A B) = sin A co s B co s A sin B .
Hence, by addit io n and subt ract io n, we have

B) = 2 sin A co s B ( ),
l
sin ( A + B) sin
( A B) = 2 co s A sin B
F ro m t h e sam e art icle s we ha v e , fo r all values of A

and B,
sin A sin B,
co s ( A
H ence by , addit io n and s ub t ract io n , we have

B) = 2 co s A cos B
co s ( A B) co s B
Put A + B = C, an d A so t hat
C+ D C D
_
A and B
T
.
2
94 TRI GONOM ETRY .
Hence QT R T 21 33 t e M N
2P S, and 2M L , . . .
The re fo re M Q NR TQ 2L S 2SP 2LS 2LP .
Also OH + ON = 2 OM + M N = 2OM + 2M L 2OL .
l Q NR MQ + N R
He ce s C + sin D
n in il
+
OQ OR OR
0 M L
1i
3
0 }; 2 sin LOP co s P OR
C+ D C_ D
2 sin co s
2 2
119

1
OQ OR OR
SP SP RP
2 2 2 co s SPR s OP
OB BP OE
'
C+ D C D
2 00 8 8m s
2 2
C D
fo r A SPR = A SP O = L OP
E

90 A
ON OM + 0N
A18 0 008 C + COS D
,
OR T
O L
_
2 _
OR O P OR
C+D C
'
D

2 cos L OP co s P OR = 2 co s
2 2
P ROD UCT FO M R ULE . 95
ON OM ON OM
F i nally, co s D co s 0
OR m T
2 sin SPE sin P OR

C+ D C D
2 em em
2 2
0 96 . Th e st u dent is st ro n
gl g y
ur e d t o m ak e h imself
perfect ly familiar wit h t h e fo rm u lae o f t h e last art icle and

t o care fully pract ise hims e lf in t h eir applicat io n ; perfe ct
familiari t y wit h t h ese fo rm u lae will co nside rably facilit at e
h is furt h er pro gress .
Th e fo rm ulae are ve ry u se ful because t h ey ch ange ,
sum s an d diffe rence s o f ce rt ain q uant it ie s int o pro du ct s o f
ce rt ain o t h er quant it ie s and p ro du ct s o f q uant it ie s are as

, ,
t h e st uden t pro bably kno ws fro m Algebra eas ily dealt ,
wit h by t h e h e lp o f lo garit hm s .
We su bj o in a few examples o f t h eir use .
60 - 40
sin 6 0 + sin 40 = 2 sin 2 sin 50 co s o .
2 2
ao 7o
cos BO- co s 70 = 2 sin
; 2 sin 5 0 sin 20 .

15 75 - 15
sin
sin 75 sin 1 5

2 2

co s 75 + co s 1 5
2
sin 30 J

2 co s 45
1 3
53 1 1 30 o 5 7735
3 T
[Thi s is an exam pl e of th e sim pli catio n given by t h ese fo rm ul ae ; it
wo uld be a ver yl o ng an d tireso m e pro ce ss t o lo o k o ut fro m th e t ables t h e

valu es o f sin sin cos an d co s and t h en t o p erfo rm th e
divi sion o f o ne long decimal fractio n by ano th er .
]
96 TRI GON OMETRY .
E x. 4 . S i mp lify t he exp ressio n
40 co s 6 0)
On pplyi
a ng t h e fo rm ulae of Art 94, th is
. p
ex ressio n
-
0 4 30 30 - 0 8 0 4-20 80 20
2 81 11 81 11 x 2 sm
7 2 2 2
4 . sin 20 sin 0 . sin 5 0 co s 80
X
E AM PLES XI V
I
.
Pro ve t h at
c
sin 70 - s in 50 co e ds co mi ;
1 t an 0 t an 0
l co s 70 + co s 50 si n 6 0 + sin 40
si n A + sin 3A
M 2
00 8 A + 00 8 3A
sin 7A - sin A
co s 4A sec 5A .
sin 8A - sin 2A
co s 2B + co s 2A
B
co s 2B co s 2A ) .
sin 2A + sin 2B t an (A + B )
sin A sin 2A sin 5A sin 3A

t an A
00 8 4 2A
'
00 8 co s 3A co s 5A
co s 2B co s 2A
9
10 .
00 8 (A + B ) sin (A B) 2 sin ( 45
A ) co s ( 45
B) .
co s 3A co s A co s 2A co s 4A s in A
11 +
sin sA - sin A
'
sin i A - sin 2 A co s 2A co s 3A
t an 5 0 + t an 30
m 4 0 0 8 20 00 8 40 .
98 TRI GON OMETRY .
0 97 . Th e fo rm ulae and ( )
4 of Art 94 . are
also very impo rt ant . Th e y sh o uld be re m embered in t h e

fo rm
2 si n A co s B = si n si n (A
2 co s A si n B = si n (A + B ) si n (A
2 co s A co s B =c o s (A + B ) + co s (A
Q s in A si n B = c o s (A - B ) co s
They may b e loo k ed u po n as the co nvers e of t he

fo rm ulae I I v o f Art 94 . . .
2 sin 5 0 sin 30 = co s 20 - co s 80
.
E x. 8 . 2 co s 1 1 0 co s 20 = co s 1 30 + co s 90.
Sim lify p
sin 8 0 00 s 0 sin 6 0 co s 80

co s 20 cos 0 sin 30 si n 40
By t h e abo ve fo rmulae, th e p
ex res sio n
?[sin 90 + sin 70] [sin 90 + sin 30]
s in 70 sin 80
co s sa+ co s 70
2 co s 50 sin 20
by th e fo rm ulas of Art 94,
.
2 co s 5 0 co s 20
tan 20 .
[Th e st udent sh o uld carefull y no tice th e arti ce o f pl yi

rs t em o ng
t h e fo rm ulas of th is art icle and th en , t o o b tain a furth er impli ti

s ca o n,
em pl yi
o ng th e co nvers e fo rmulas of Art . 94 . Th i s ar t i i
ce ft s o en
s uccessful in simpli cati o ns. ] r
Ex press as a sum o r di erence th e fo llo wing
1 ,
2 sin 50 sin 70 .
2 ,
2 co s 70 sin 5 0 .
Z
2 sin 54 sin

3 ,
2 co s 1 1 0 co s 30 .
4 .
[Exs xv . .
] TAN GENT o n TH E S UM o r TWO AN GLES . 99
Pro ve th at
5 . sin
g g ? ti n
a -
+sin sin sin 20 sin 5 0 .
0 5
6 . co s
%20
% co s - co s 30 co s sin 5 0 sin i 2
2
.
7 . sin A sin ( A + 2B)
8 . ( sin 3A + sin A) sin A + (

co s 3A - co s A ) co s A =0 .

2 sin (A C ) co s C sin ( A 2 C)
-
sin A
9
sin A sin 2A + sin 3A sin 6 A + sin 4A sin I 8A

10
co s 2A co s 3A - co s 2A co s 7A + cos A co s 1 0A
11 co t 6 A co t 5A
sA sin 2A sin 5A + sin 4A sin 7A
.
sin 4A sin
12 . co s ( 36

A) co s A) + co s (54 + A)
cos ( 54

A) =co s 2A .
1 3: co s A sin (B C) + co s B sin ( C A) + co s C sin (A

1
14 sin sin 4 A)

( 5 co s 2A

.
.
15 .
versin (A + B ) versin (A - B) . A- co s
16 . ( -
p) oc e (y
w 91 31 51
17 2 + co + co s
c
o
s s
T5 i
.
l3
C
t an A + t an B
98 To p rove th at ( A B)
S
. en +
1 t an A t an B

t an t an B
M M ( A
By Art 88 , we . have , fo r all values o f A an d B ,
n ( A B) s in A co s B + o cs A s in B
sin A s in B
co s A co s B
co s A co s B
num erat o r an d de no m inat o r by co s A 00 8 B .
1 00 TRI GON OM ETRY .
Aga in, by Art 90, .
sin ( A B) sin A co s B co s A sin B

t an ( A B)
co s ( A - B) co s A co s B + sin A sin B
sin A sin B
214 2
em 1 em
1 +
i by dividing as be fo re .
co s A co s B
t an A - t an B
'
1 + t an A t an B
u/ 99 .
Th e fo rmulae of th e p receding article m ay be o btained geo metri
call yf ro m th e g ures o f Art s 88. an d 90 .
( )
1 T ki
a ng th e gure o f Art 88, we h ave
.
M P _ QN + RP
95
+ 5 5
t an A +
R

-
P
OQ 0Q OQ
_
EN P
1
RP o o
But , since th e angles RPN and Q ON are equal, th e t riangles EBN and
Q ON are similar, s o th at
RP 00
RP
. PN
and th erefo re t an B
517
.
0Q
t an A + tan B t an A + tan B
Hm mu gl '
l tan RPN t an B l - tan A t an B
( )
2 T ak ing th e g ure o f Art 90, we h ave
.
tan (A B)
QN PR
1 02 TRI GONOM ETRY .
tan (A B) : '
375 .
n
3 .
I i tan A
m and tan B
g
l
4 I f tan a and t an pro ve t h at a+ p
,
I i
,
Pro ve th at
( )
r 81
5 t an + 0 x ts n
.
z
)

l

l
- 0
6 .
1 02 . As furt her
ples o f t h e use o f t h e fo rmulae
e xam
o f t h e pre sent chapt e r we s hall nd t h e e n ral valu e o f

g e
t h e angle which h as a given sine co s ine o r t ange nt T h is , , .
h as be en already fo und in Art s 2 84

8 . .
F ind the genera l value of al l ang les ha ving a given sine .
Le t a be any angle having th e giv e n sin e, and 0 an

y
her angle having t h e sam e sine
ot .
We ha ve t hen t o nd t h e m o st gen eral value of 0

wh ich sat is es t h e e quat io n
sin 0 sin a,
i . e . sin 0 s in a 0
.
This m ay be writt en
0+ u
2 co s
2
AN GLES HAVI NG A GI VEN COSI N E .
and it is t h ere fo re sat is ed by

0
3
0:
0, and by sin
0 J a
any o dd m u lt iple of
;
any m ult iple of 1r
0 : a any o dd m u lt iple of 1r
0 a any e ven m ult iple o f n

ie
. 0 m ust
. l)
a
n rr whe re n is any po s it i ve
,
or
ne at ive in t e ge r
g .
F o r wh en
,
n is o dd, p h
t is e x ress io n agre es wit h and,
w h en n is e ven , it a re e s wit h
g
1 03
. F ind the genera l va lue o f all ang les
sa me cosine .
Th e e q uat io n we have no w to v
so l e is
co s 0 co s a,
co s a co s 0= 0 ,
0+ u 0 a

2 2
and it is t h ere fo re sat is ed by

fi
g
9
-
0, and by sin

an
y m u lt ip le o f qr,
an
y m u lt iple o f qr,
1 04 TRI GONOMETRY .
0 a an
y m u lt iple of 2r ,
0 a an
y m u lt ip le of 27 .
Bo t h t h ese s et s o f values are included in t h e so lut io n

0 2ni r i a, wh ere n is any po sit iv e o r n egat ive int e ge r .
1 04 . F ind the genera l value o f all angles ha ving the

s am e tangent .
Th e e quat io n we have no w t o so lve is

t an 0 t an a 0,
sin 0 co s a co s 0 sin a= 0,
sin ( 0 a ) 0 .
an
y m u lt ipl e of W
ni r, w h ere n is any po sit ive o r

negat ive int e ger ,
so t hat t h e m o st general so lut io n is 0 nrr a .

1 06 TRI GON OMETRY .
1 06 . An inde pende nt geo m e t rical pro o f o f t h e fo rm ulae

of the preceding art icle m ay be given fo r values o f A
w ic h h are less t han a ri
gh t an
gle .
Le t QOP b e t h e an
gle 2A .
Wit h ce nt re 0 a nd radi us OP
describe a circle , and le t QC m ee t
it again in 0 .
J o in OP and PQ , and draw PN

perpen dicu lar t o OQ .
By Eu c . III . 20, t h e angle
and the an
gle N PQ A Q OP A .
H ence
NP 2N P NP NP OP
Sl n 2A 2 2
01? we 50 01 )
oo
2 sin N OP co s P OO since OP Q is
, a ri
gh t angle ,
2 Sin A co s A
M ( 0 0 + CM
( OC CN )
CP 00
ON NO ON OP N Q PQ

oo 07 oo5
P Q oo

co s A sin
2
A
t an 2A
W

ON ON NQ
1
MU LTI PLE A NG LES . 1 07
33 . To nd t he va lues o f sin 15
and co s
Let t h e am A be
le 2 so t h at A i s
Let t h e radius GP be 2a, so t h at we h ave
ON = OC + CN = a
-
J 3) .
OP ON OQ = a ( 2 + J 3 ) x 4a E
: .
( nc . vi .
0 P = aJ 2
P Q = QN
.
Q o = d ( 2 -
J 3) x 40 ,
P Q = a J 2 (J 3
sin l 5

PQ J 3 - l
OQ 4 e
o
OP
1 07 . To nd the trig o nomet ri ca l f u nctions o f 3A

t erms f
o th ose of A .
By Art 88 .
, put t ing B equal t o 2A , we h a ve
sin 3A sin ( A 2A ) = sin A co s 2A + cos A sin 2A

sin A (1 2 sin A ) co s A 2 sin A cos A ,
by Art 1 0 5
.
,

sin A (1 2 sin A ) + 2 sin A ( 1
2
sin
2
A) .
sin 3 A = 3 s in A - 4
3A
s in
co s ( A + 2A ) = cos A co s 2A sin A sin 2A

cos

A ( 2 co s A 1) Sin A 2 sin A . co s A
co s A ( 2 co s A
1) 2 co s A ( l
H ence co s 3A 4 co s A s
3 co s A
t an A + t an 2A
1 t an A t an 2A
2 tan
M A
l t an A t an A ( l
1 t an A
1 t an A
Hence t an GA
l a t an a
Th
[ e student may nd it dif cult t o reme mber, and dis t ingui sh
between , t h e fo rmulae ( )
1 and which bear a general resem blance to
o ne ano t h er, but h ave t h eir signs in a dierent o rder I f in do ub t , h e .
put ting A = 80 fo r fo rmula

and by p ut ting A = 0 fo r fo rmula

1 08 . By a pro cess similar t o t h at o f t h e last art icle ,
the t rigo no m et rical rat io s o f any h igh er mult iples o f 0

m ay be p
e x ressed in t erms of t ho se of 0. Th e m e t h o d is
ho we ver lo ng and t edi o us . I n a lat er h p t er
c a be t t e r
m et h o ds will b e po int ed o ut .
As an e xa mple, let p
u s ex ress co s 5 0 in t erm s o f co s 0
.
We have
cos
cos 30 00s 20 - sin 30 8in 20
( 4 cos 0
3 c0 8 0) ( 2 co s O
l)
( 3 sin 0

( 8 co s 0 10 co s
'
0 + 3 co s 0)
4 sin 0)
1 0 co s 0 + 3 co s 0)

2 co s 0 ( 1 1)
( 8 co s
'
0
2 co s 0 ( 5 co s 0 4 cos 0 1)

-- 5 0 0 8
l 0 .
E
[ xs XVI I
.
J
s in 0 + sin 20 1 + sin 0 - co s 0
1 + co s 0 + co s 20

t 1 0 tan-9
1 + sin 0 +

co s 0 2
1 )A
sin ( + )
2n 1 A sin =
A sin ( n + 1 ) A s in a
nA .
in (3A 2c
o s (A + B
2A + sin 2B
.
) .
s in 3A + s in 2A - sin A = 4 sin A co s
J am .
s
co s co s (
co s 0 sin
1 + co sa
( co s
0 + si
p
sec 2A .
co sec A - 2 co t 2A co s A = 2 sin A .
l A
sin a sin
(6
i

0 a ) sin a ) z sin 3a .
( 60

co s a co s
)
a. co s
4
3a .
co t a + co t =
co t ( 60 )

a 8 co t 3a .
co s 20
co s 40
co s 60
co s 1
16
sin 20 sin

40
sin 60
sin 8 0

co s 4a = l - 8 00 8 3 a + 8 co s a .
si n 4A s in A co s A 4 co s A sin3 A .
co s 6 n = a2 co sa . 48 co s
a + 18 co s ?
a 1 .
tan 8A tan 2A t an A = tan 3A - t an 2A - t an A .
2 co s 20 + 1
m _ (2 co s 0 - 1
)(2 co s 20 1 ) (2 co s 2
S UBM ULTI PLE A NGLES . 1l1
S ubmultip le ang les .
09 . Since t h e relat io ns o f Art 1 05

. are true fo r all
values of th e angle A t h e y will be t rue if inst ead

, of A
we subst it u t e
2 , and t herefo re if inst ead of 2A we put
A
2 A .
2
He nce we have the relat io n s
s in A =2 s in co s

co s A co s

2 co s
tor and den o minat o r by co s

112 TRI GONOMETRY .
To esp ress the tri gono metrical f

ratio s o the
in terms of cos A .
F ro m e quatio n ( 2) of t h e last art icle , we have

co s A = 1 - 2 sin "
g ,
so t hat 1 co s A,
and t h erefo re si n
co s A 2 cos
so t hat
g 1 co s A,
and t here fo re
Hence,
N o w 1 65 lies between 90 and

so th at, by Art 52, it s . sine is
po s itive and its co sine i s n egative .
H ence sin 1 65 I
3 1
cos 1 65
F ro m th e abo ve exam pl es it wil l be see n t h at , wh en th e angl e A and
it s co sine are given, th e rati o s fo r th e angle 4 m ay be determ ined with o ut

2
any am biguit y o f sign.
Wh en , h o wever, o nl y co s A is given , t h ere is an a mbiguit in y ndi ng
sin
g and co s Th e ex pl anatio n o f th is am bigui t yi s gi ven i n t h e n ext
it *1 1 2 . To eap lain why there is ambiguit

y wh en co s
and sin
g
-
are f o und f ro m the va lue o
f cos A .
We kno w t h at ,
if n be any int eger,
co s A cos ( 2u rr j; A ) Io ( say) .
A
H ence any fo rmula which gives u s cos -
in t erms o f It ,
2
2727 if A
s ho uld give us als o the co sin e of
2
2nvr i A
2
A
co s nvr co s
_
si n nvr 8 1 11
co s n rr co s
5
acco rding as n is v
e en o r o dd .
RATI OS or 1
; IN TERM S o r SI N A . 115
S im ilarly any fo rm u la, giving us s n i in t erms of k,

2
,
21m 1 A
s ho uld give us also the sine of
2
Also sin
2m 1 4 " i
2
A
sm nvr co s 1 co s nvr em 1; co s nrr em
5
i SI D
Hence in , eac h cas e , we S h o uld e x e ctp to o bt ai n t wo
v alue s fo r co s 1
an d sin 4 an d h
t is is t h e nu mber w ic h h
2 2
t h e fo rm ulae of Art 1 1 0 giv e
. .
[ Th e s t u d en t m ay il l ust rat e t h i s art i cle geo m et ricall by drawing th e y

2nar = l=A A
angles t e nu b - Th e bo unding line fo r t h ese angles will
g
. . .
2
h ave fo ur po sitio ns , t wo in clined t o t h e p o siti ve directio n of t h e init ial
line at angles and

and t wo in clin ed at
g and t o t h e negat ive
directio n of th e init ial line . I t will be clear fro m t h e g ure th at t h ere

A A
are two valu es fo r co s and t wo fo r sin
2 5
113 . To eap ress th e trigono metri ca l ratios o f the angle
in terms a
f si n A .
F ro m e quat io n ( 1 ) of Art 1 09, we

. have
A A
2 81 n " SI B A
2 a
1, alwa s y
116 TRI GONOM ETRY .
F irst addin
g t hese equat io ns , an d t h en subt ract in
g
( )
1 fro m we have
sin
+ 2 sin 4 -
l + sin A ,
2 2
A A

l - Sl n A
E
'
,
2
A
( g
sin 1 sin A,
-
co s
( g
sin -
l s in A;
so t hat sin -
+ co s i vl -- s n
l i A
2
A
2
By adding, and t hen subt ract ing , we h av e
A
Th e ot her rat io s o f
are t hen easily o bt ained
2
.
1 14 . I n eac h of t h e fo rm u lae ( )
5 and ( )
6 t h ere are
t wo am biguo us signs . I n p
t h e fo llo wing exam les it is
hewn h o w t o de te rmine t h e ambi uit y in an p t i ul
s
g y ar c ar
f

Gi ven t ha t si n 80 is nd t he va lue s o

8 3 . 1 . si n 15 and cos
Put ting A we h ave fro m relati o ns (3) and

*1 1 5 . To exp la in why there is ambigui t

y wh en si n
A
and co s 1
2
are f o und f ro m th e va lue o
f si n A .
W e kno w t h at ,
if n be an
y int e ge r,
-
sin
{
nn A} s in A k ( say) .
He nce an fo rm ula which give s u s sin -

in
y 2
F irst let
, n be e ven and e qual t o 2m . T h en

I ) A A
)
n vr

2 a
A
sm mn COS
COS m vr S l n COS m m $1 11
'
2
A

s
2
acco rdin as m is e ve n o r o dd
g .
S econdly le t , n be o dd an d e q u al t o 2p 1 .
T hen

1) A A
em
n 7r + ( 2p rr + 7r
2 2
sin p n co s n sin co s n
co s
p p co s
2
-
i_ co s 4
acco rding as p is v
e e n o r o dd .
Hence an
y fo rm ula wh ich
giv e s us sin
g in t e rms of
sin A s ho uld be ex pect ed t o gi ve u s, in addi t io n , t he

values o f
SI n and co s
RATI OS or 1
; IN TERM S o r SI N A . 119
ia 4
. . values in a lL This is t h e n um ber o f values which
we ge t fro m t h e fo rm ulae o f Art 1 1 3, . by giving all possible
valu es t o t h e am bi uit ie s
g .
In a sim ilar m anner it m ay be hewn t hat when

s cos -
2
is fo und fro m sin A we , sh o u ld e xpect 4 v alue s .
call yf or th e case wh en
is an acute angle, it will be fo und th at th ere
are f o ur p o siti o n s o f th e bo un ding lin e , t wo in th e rst q uadrant inclined
at angles
3 g;
and x t o th e init ial line , and t wo in th e th ird quadrant
A 1 A
inclin ed at and t o t h e negative directio n of th e initial line It
5
.
2 2
will be clear fro m t h e g ure th at we sh o ul d t h en p
ex ect fo ur values fo r
A A
Simil arl yf o r any o th er val ue o f 1 -o
5
.
sin an d fo ur fo r co s ]
2 5
116 . I n any
g e ne ral case we can s hew ho w the
am biguit ies in relat io ns ( )
3 and ( )
4 of Art 1 1 3 m ay be
.
fo und .
W e have
Sin 1 4 co s
2
A n n A
ln -
co s
z
+ co e
4 J 2 s1 n
Th e righ h
t and
- m embe r o f t his e quat io n is po sit ive if
lie be t we en -
2n n and 2m l n,
A
li e be t ween 2n7r and 2n7r
2
Hence sin
g cos
2
1s posit ive if 1
;
lie bet wee n
7: 3n

4 4
S imilarly we can pro ve t hat

A
sin co s V 2 sin
2
A
Therefo re em 18 posit ive if
2 2
g) lie be t ween 2ml and 2ni r qr,
; m i f
f
f
;
is if lie bet ween - and 2nvr +
. . in +2
I t is v h erwise
n egat i e o t .
Th e result s o f t his art icle hewn

are s gra phically in
fo llo wing gure .
0 A is t h e initial line , an d OP , OQ, OR and OS bisect

1
t an
2 t an A t an A
/ A 1
A__ l f t - - an
i t
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t an A
0
118 . Th e am bi
g uo us Si n
g quat io n ( 1 ) can o nly
in e
be de t erm ined wh e n we kno w so m et hing o f t h e magni t ude

of A .
8 3 . Gi ven tan -
J ,
3 nd t an
Put ting A = 1 5 we h ave , fro m eq uatio n (1 )

of t h e last art icle ,
t an w
- 1 J 8 4J 3 - 1
N o w t an 75 is
p o s iti ve, so t h at we mu st t ak e t h e upp er s ign .
g: 53
(l ) 1
H ence t an
- ,J2 - 1)
J J
3 + 2 - 2 = (J 3 -
J )
2 (us
0
15
Since t an 1 5 = t an
th e eq uat io n whi ch gives us t an
- in t erm s
2
o
1 5
of t an 1 5
m ay be p
ex ect ed t o give us t an
2 in t e rm s of te n I n
fact t h e val ue o bt ained fro m ( ) y

1 b t akin g t h e n egat ive sign be fo re th e
0
1 95
radical is t an
2
1 95 4J 3 - 1
J )
2 1
-
H ence
2 2

l J J
6 + 2 1)
so t h at co t 972
(J 3 + J )
2 2+
it *1 1 9 . To esp lain why there is a m bigui ty wh en
f o und f rom th e va lue f

o ta n A .
We kno w ,
by Art 84 t h at if.
, , n be an
y int ege r ,
t an (nqr A) t an A k ( say ) .
RATI OS OF IN TE RM S OF S I N A .
He nce any e quat io n which giv es us t an in t erms of 10
m A
;
7
m ay be ex pect ed t o giv e us t an
F irst, le t n be v
e e n and e qual t o 2m .
T hen
t an t an
( m vr
as in Art 84 . .
Seco ndly le t ,
n be o dd and e qual t o 2p 1 .
Th e n t an
t an p n
( ( Art 8.4)
1
. 1 ,
( Ar t .
Hence t h e fo rm u la which gi v es us the value of t an
A
s ho uld be e xpect ed t o giv e u s als o the value o f c ot -
2
An il lu st rat io n of h
t is is se en in t h e exam ple of the
last art icle .
X
E AM PLES . XVI I I .
1 ,
I f sin 0 and sin n d th e values o f sin ( 0 4-
43) and
sin (ma-
p as) .
2 , Th e t angent o f an angle i s 24 . F ind it s co s ecant , t h e co secant

h alf th e angle, and th e co secant o f th e su ppl e m e nt o f do uble t h e angl e .
1 24; T mco no m m v .
[Exs xvm . .
]
I
L
g
a
3 If co s a and sin p , nd th e values of s in
61
.
+
cos
a
2
th e angles a. and p bei ng p o sit ive acute angles .
4 ,
If co s a
g and co s
n , nd t h e value o f co s th e angles
a and B being p o si ti ve acute angle s .
0
5 Given sec 0: nd t an and t an 0
2
. .
6 , If co s A 2 8
, nd t h e value o f t an
; and ex pl ain th e result ing
ambiguit y .
7 ,
Find t h e values of ( )
1 s in ( )
2 co s ( 3) t an and
( )
4 t an
8 I f sin 0 + sin = a and co s nd t h e value o f t an

T
.
.
Pro ve th at
9 (
00 8 a + co s a sin m s=
4 co s
;

10 ' a+ ilfl ) -4 oo ts
s
11 . ( s
co a - co s - sin
p
3:
sin
A
2 t an
2
12 . sin A ' 13 . co s A
A
1 + t an
2
14 . sec sec
(; - 0
) 2 5 00 20 .
2
17 . co s a co s a ( . co s (a.
%

18 . co s co s co s
[Exs XVI I
. I J
30 ,
I n t h e fo rmul a
A
2 co s

=
k
J 1 + sin A =
b
J 1 - si n A.
nd with in wh at lim it s
g mu st lie wh en
( )
1 th e t wo p o si ti ve signs are tak en ,
( )
2 t h e t wo negat ive
and ( )
3
th e rst sign is negative and th e seco nd p
o sitive .
31 Pro ve t h at t h e sine is algebraicall yl e ss th an th e co sine fo r any
31
angle be tween 2m : an d 271 11 + wh ere n is any int eger
2 2
.
A
32 I f sin be determined fro m th e eq uat io n
,
3
A A
sm A _ 3 s1 n 4 em a
1
3
p ro ve th at we sh o uld e x ect p to o bt ain als o th e val ues o f
r A 1 +A
am and si n
3 3
Give al so a geo m etrical ill ust rat io n .
33 .
If co s
g be fo und fro m t h e eq uati o n
A A
p ro ve th at we sh o uld ex ect p to o bt ain also th e val ues o f
2r A 21 + A
co s and co s
3 3
Give also a geo m etrical ill ust rat io n .
1 20 . By t h e u se of t h e fo rmulae of the present

c hapt er we can no w nd t h e t rigo no m et rical rat io s of
so m e imp o rt ant an
gle s .

To nd the tmgo no m etrica l f unctio ns of an angle of 1 8
'
'
Le t 0 st and fo r so t hat 20 is 36 and 30 is

Hence 30,

20 90
and t h ere fo re
30) 30

sin 20 sin ( 90 co s .
2 sin 0 cos 0 4 co s 0 '

3 co s 0 ( Art s 1 05 . and
AN GLES or 18

AN D 1 27
H ence , eit her co s 0 0, w ic h h gives 0 or
2 sin 0 = 4 co s 0 4 sin 0
.
4 sin 0 + 2 sin

By so l ving t his quadrat ic equat io n , we h ave

1 5 1
sin 0
4
I n o ur case sin 0 is ne cessaril y a po sit ive quant it y .
H ence we t ak e t h e u pper s ign, and h ave

si n 1 8
_J 5 l
4
Hence
sin 6
co s 18
4
Th e re mainin ri o n o m e t rical rat io s o f m ay be

g t g 18
no w fo und .
Since 72 is t h e

co m plem ent of t he valu es of t he
rat ios fo r 72 m ay be o bt aine d by t h e use o f Art 69

. .
1 21 . To nd the tri gmwmetri ca l f unctio ns f

o an angle
f
o
Since co s 20 1 2 sin 0,
( Art .
05
( 32
6
5 )
co s 36

1 23 m18 g
1 2
3 -
4 5
so t hat
Hence
sin 36

41
co s 36

1 28 ramo xo m ar .
Th e t rigo no m et rical funct io ns of may

re maining 36
no w be fo und
Also , since 54 is t h e

co m ple me nt of t he values of
t h e funct io ns fo r 54 may be fo und by t h e

help o f Art . 69
.
1 22 value o f sin 1 8
. Th e

and 00 8 36

m ay also be
fo un d geo me t rically as fo llo ws .
Le t ABC be a t riangle co ns t ruct ed,
as in Enc . IV . 1 0, so t hat e ac h of t he
an
g les B and 0 is do u ble of the angle
A . T hen
so t ha t A = 36

.
Hence if A D be drawn perpendicu

,
lar t o BC, we have

A BA D
By Euclid s co nst ru ct io n we

kno w t hat B0 is q
e u al to
A X where X is a po int o n A B, su ch t h at
A B BX AX
.
Le t AB = a, and AX = za
T his re lat io n t h en gives

a ( a
ls 1
l
s t a
BD 1 B0
Hence sin BA D
BA 2 BA
_
_
1 w V ii l
[Exs .
Also , since 8 1

is t h e co m plem ent of th e valu es o f
t h e functio ns fo r 8 1 m ay be o bt aine d by t h e of

u se
Art 69
. .
Pro ve th at
1 s in3
72
- sin 60 21 .
8
.

48 sin

co s
co s 1 2 + co s 60 + co s

sin
' 2
sin t sin i f
sin
4
1 5
5

5 5 5 16
1 81
5 s m
-
+ sm -
6 am
TO
.
10
,
t an 6 t an 42 t an 6 6 tan 1

7 ,
.
15 15 15 15 15
21 41 81 1 41
9 rs 13

is
10 ,
Two p arallel ch o rds o f a circle, wh ich are o n th e sam e side o f th e
cent re , subt end angles o f 72
and 1 44
res ect ivelp y at th e cen tre . Pro ve
t h at t h e p p er endi cular di stan ce between th e ch ords is h alf th e radius o f
th e circle .
11 .
p
I n any circle ro ve t h at t h e ch o rd whi ch subtends 1 08
at th e
centre is eq ual to th e sum o f th e two ch o rds which subtend angles o f 36
12 ,
Co nst ruct th e angle wh o se cosin e is q
e ual t o it s tangent .
13 , So lve th e eq uatio n
sin 50 co s 30 = sin 90 cos 70.

CHAPT ER I X .
I D EN I T TI ES AN D TBI GON OM ETRI CAL EQ UATI ON S .
1 24 . TH E fo rm ulae of Art s 88 . and 90 can be u se d to

o bt ain t h e t rigo no m e t rical rat io s o f the su m o f m o re t han
t wo an
gles .
F or e xam ple
sin ( A B ) C
+
+ [ co s A co s B sin A sin B] x sin C
sin A co s B co s G + co s A sin B co s C
+ co s A co s B sin C s n i A sin B sin C

.
So
co s ( A co s ( A B ) oca C
C
( cos A co s B sin A sin B) 00 8 0
( sin A co s B+ co s A sin B) sin C
cos A co s B co s C co s A sin B sin C sin A co s B sin O
sin A sin B cos
9 2
t an ( A
Also t an
t an A + t an B
1 t an O

1 t an A t an B
t an A + t an B + t an C t an A t an B t an C
1 25 . Th e las t fo rmu la of the previo us art icle is a
part icular case o f a very general t h eo re m wh ic h gi v es t h e
t ange nt of th e s um o f any n u m b er o f an l s in t erm s of

g e
t h e t ange nt s of the an les t h e m s e lves Th e t h e o re m is

g .
1 -q + u u .
w h ere
s, = t an + t ,,
t he sum o f t h e t ange nt s of th e se parat e an

gle s,
t an A l t an A , + t an A 1 t an A , +
.
the sum o f t h e t angen t s t a ken t wo at a t im e,

t an A l t an A , t an A , + t an A , t an A , t an A , +
th e su m o f t h e t ange nt s t a ken t hree at a t im e , and
Assu m e t h e re lat io n ( )
1 t o h o ld fo r n an
gles,
an o t h er angle AM I .
Th en t an ( A I A, u . AM I )
I x . Wri te do wn t he va l ue o f ta n 40 .
131 - 3, 4 t an 0
03 t an
0
H t an 40
4 tan 0 -
4 t an 0
Ex . Pro ve th at t an 50
5m o 3
t 5 a
1 26 . By a met ho d sim ilar to t hat of t h e last art icle
it m ay be s hewn t hat sin A

( , A, A)
00 8 AI OOS A 0 0 . 00 8 A ( 81
cos ( A , + A , +
OOS AI OOS A 0 0 0 00 8 A ( 1
w h ere 8 1 , s, , s, , have t he sa m e values as in t hat art cle

i .
1 27 . I d e nt i es h o ldi n g b et we e n th e t ri g o n o
m e t ri c al ra t l c s o f th e an g l e s of a t rian g l e .
Wh en t hree glan
es A B , ,
and C,
are su c h t hat t heir
su m is many iden t ica l l
re at o ns i are fo und t o h o ld
be t ween t heir t rigo no m e t rical rat io s .
Th e m et h o d o f pro o f is be st se en fro m t h e fo llo wing

e xa m ples .
i x. 1 . to p ro ve t ha t
sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2 C = 4 sin A sin B sin 0 .
sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2 0
- B + 2 sin C co s 0 .
(A )
Since
A + D = I 80 - 0 ,
(Art . 72)
I DE NTI TI ES . 1 35
Hn p
e ce t h e ex ressi o n
= 2 sin C co s (A - B ) + 2 sin O cos C

=s 2 sin 0 [co s (A
2 sin C [cos (A - B )
2 si n 0 . 2 sin A sin B
4 sin A sin B sin C .
p ro ve t ha t co s A + co s -
B co s 0 = - 4
1 + co s -
co s sin
Th e p
ex ressio n co s A (
co s B - cos 0 )
g
2 co s
% -sin
B + 0 = 1 80 -A
,
B+C A
90
2 2
B+0 A

2 T
and 4
.
2
Hn e ce t h e ex p ressio n
g B
=2 co s l + 2 co s
sin
[ co s
4C
= 2 co s
[ sin -sin
= 2 co s 2 em
C - co s - - 1
-
B
5
.
2
A
--co s sin - Z
(

2 2 2
3. If
p ro ve t ha t
so t h at =
2S 2 sin A + 1
9
cos 2B +1 co s 20
2 sin A + 2 - 0)
2 2 co s A + 2
co s A = co s { 1 80 - co s
S = 2 + co s A 2 co s B . co s C .
2 + 2 co s A cq co s 0 .
I x. 4 . If A
p ro ve t ha t t an A + t an B + t an C = t an A tan B t an C .
By t h e third fo rm ul a of Art 1 24, we h ave

.
t an A + tan B + t an 0 - t an A t an B t an 0

0 = t an A + t an B + t an C - t an A t an B t an C,
t an A + t an B + t an C = tan A t an Bt an a .
Thi s may also be p ro ve d inde p endentl y . F or
t an (A - t an 0 .
t an A + t an B
- t an C' .
l - t an A t an B
t an A + t an B = tan 0 + t an A t an B t an C,

t an A + tan B + t an 0 = tan A tan B t an C .
E x. 6 . If z + y + z =1ryz , pro ve th at
Put z = t an A , y = t an B , and s = t an C, so th at we h ave
t an A + t an E + t an C = t an A tan B t an 0 .
t an A + t an B
so th at t an (A + B) = t an ( 1 ( Art .
H ence
2a 231 23 2 tau B 2 tan 0

_
i
'
1 - 1 - 33 T
- t anu 1 -
t an B 1 4 3 11 3 0
y
( by a p ro o f similar t o th at of th e last exam pl e )

23; 2:
- r
1 -1
l -
y
1 s
1 38 TRI GON OM ET RY .
[Exs xx ] . .
sin i
19 . (B + 0 A) + s n ( 0 + A - B ) + sin - 0)
4 sin A sin B sin 0
p
.
I f A + B + C = 2S ro ve th at
20 sin s - A siu s - B + sin S sin S

. ( ) ( ) (
21 . 4 8in S sin (S A) sin (8 - B ) sin (S - C)
=1 - co s A co s B - co s 0 + 2 co s A co s B co s 0 .
22 , sin (S - C) - si n 8

4 s1n
I
3
sin - sin
E 2

23 . 00 8
S + co s (S (S ( S 0)
2 + 2 co s A co s B co s 0 .
24 . 0
= 1 + 4 co s S co s ( S ) (
- A co s S - B
) co s (S
25 . If a + + 7 + p ro ve th at
( )
1
sin sin -
( )
2 e - sin p+ y
- s in 6 + 4 co s
and ( )
3 t an a+ tan + t an 7 + t an 8
t an a t an p t an
26 , I f th e sum o f fo ur angles be p ro ve th at t h e su m of th e
p ro duct s of th eir co sin e s tak en t wo and t wo t o geth er is eq ual t o th e
sum o f th e p ro duct s o f t h eir s ines tak en sim ilarly .
27 ,
Pro ve th at sin 2a -
+sin 2p + sin 27
.
28 .
Verify th af
-b

sin a si n (b )
- c sin c - a sin a
) ( ) (
I f A , B , C, and D be any angl es pro ve th at
29 . sin A sin B sin (A -0 )
0 sin A sin (C - B sin B

+ sin ) (
[Exs xx ] . TRI GON OMET RI CAL EQ UATI ON S . 1 39
30 . sin (A -
sin (B
+ sin (C
31 . sin ( +B
A - 2 C) co s B - sin (A + C - 2B )

oo s O
sin ( B
32 .
- 0 - C+D)
33 .
If any th eo rem be t rue fo r val ues of A, B , and C such th at
A +B 0:
pro ve th at th e th eo rem i s still true if we substitute fo r A , B , and 0
p
res ect ivel y th e q uan t i t ies
( )
1 90 - , 9

m 9 ,
2
and 1 80

(2) 1 80 2A, 1 80
213, 20 .
Hn e ce deduce E x 1 6 fro m Ex 6 ,
. . and E x 1 7 fro m E x 5
. . .
If z + y + z = z yz p ro ve th at
32 - z '
3y y Sz z
- 31 1
ay -
y

Bz z '
34 '
1 - +
1 - 8? 1 -3

1 3;i
3y y
and 35 ,
z 1 -
( y )(
1 - z
) 11 (
+ 1 - z
) (1 ( 1 ( 1
1 28 . Th e Addit io n S ubt ract io n Th eore m s may be

an d
used to v
so l e so m e kinds o f t rigo no m et rical equat io ns .
Ex . S o lve the equation

sin a + sin 5 a = sin
By th e fo rm ulae of Art 94, t h e
. e quat io n is
2 Sin 3a co s 2a = sin 3a .
sin 3w= 0 , or 2 0 0 8 211: 1 .
sin 323 0, t h en 32: nvr .
1
co s 2v t hen 2w= 2m x
52
.
,
m:
Hence o r nvr j:
73
1 29 . To so lve an equa ti on o f the f orm
a co s 0 + b sin 0 = c.
D ivide bo t h S ide s o f the e quat io n by Va

b
,
so t hat
it m ay be writ t en
a b
co s 0+
b
Va 2
+ b

F ind fro m t h e t able of t angent s w h o se

b
t angent is an d call it 01.
d
T h e n t an a
3 ,
so t hat
b
an d co s a
Th e q
e u at io n can t hen be writ t en
co s a cos 0+ sin a sin 0=
o
co s ( 0 a )
a g
b
N ext nd fro m t h e t ables or ot h erwise ,

the
0
w h o se co sm e 1 8
dw+ a
c
so t hat co s B
Va b
N B Thisy be do ne when 0 is
can o n l Va
[ . .
Th e e quat io n is t h e n co s ( 0 01) co s B .
Th e so lut io n o f t his is 0 a 2n i 6 s o t hat 7r ,
0 M a 1: B 1 ,
where n is any int eger .

Hne ce co s 0 co s 2 1 48

sin 0 si n 21

48 '
( 68
90
co s 68

co s (0 21 co s 68
Hne ce 0 21 48
211 x 1 80
=
k 68
0 = 2n x 1 80
12 '
2n x 1 80
or 2n x
wh ere n is any integer .
n it - Th1 . e e quatio n o f Art . 1 29 m ay b e so lved in ano th er
F o r let t an
5
0
2 t an
2 2t
th at Bill Oz

80
1 t
1
t an

2
0
1 ta n

2 1 t
( Art . 1 09 )
1 t an 0 1 +t
Th e q
e uat io n th en beco m es

1 t
1 + 1 +
so th at - 2bt + c - a = o.
Thi s is a q u ad rat i c eq u at i o n giving two values fo r t and h ence
values fo r t an
2
Th us , th e exam pl e of th is art icle gives
-0
70 4t 3 ,
so th at t 1 or 3
t an o r t an 23 1 2
( fro m t h e t abl es) .
Hn e ce
g : n 1 80
or n 1 80
28
0 = n 860
or n
[Exs XXL ] . TRI GON OM ETRI CAL EQ UATI ONS . 1 43
So lve t h e e quatio ns
1 . sin 0 + sin 70= sin 40 .
2 . co s 0 + co s 70 = co s 40 .
3 ,
co s 0+ -co s 30 = 2 co s 20 . 4 . sin 40 - sin 20 = co s 30 .
5 .
co s 0 - sin 30 = co s 20 . 6 .
sin 70 = sin 0 + sin 30 .
7 ,
co s 0 + co s 20 + co s s0 = 0 . 8 . sin 0 + sin 30 + sin
9 .
sin 20 - co s 20
10 .
- a
)+ si n a -( 0)
11 . co s ( 3 0 )
a. co s (30 a
) co s (5 0 a ) co s ( 5 0 a ) co s 2a
..
12 . co s n0 = co s n - ( 2) 0 + sin 0 . 13 . sin 0 .
14 . sin mo + sin n0 = o .
15 . co s m0 + co s n0 = 0 .
16 .

si n n0 - 2
sin n - ( l ) 0 = sin 0 .
17 . si n 30 + co s 20 = 0 .
18 . J 3 co s 0 +-si n 0 = J 2 .
19 . sin
- co s 0 =
20 . J 3 sin 0 J 2 .
21 .
sin z + co s z = J 2 co s A .
22 .
5 sin 0 + 2 co s 0 : 5 (gi ven t an 21
23 . co s z + 8 sin z = 9 (given t an 53
an d co s 25
3 0 = 3 sin
24 . 1 + sin 0 co s 0 ( given t an
25 .
0 0 86 0 9 = oo t 0 + J 3 .
26 . co se c z : 1 co t x.
27 , ( J
2 + 3 ) co s - sin 0 .
28 . t an 0 + sec 0 = J 3 .
29 .
00 8 20 = 00 8 0
.
30 . 4 co s 0 3 sec 0 : t an 0 .
31 .
co s 20 3 co s 32 ,
co s 30 2 co s 0 : 0 .
33 .
co s
( co s 0 34 , co t 0 t an
35 2 =
4 co t 0 co t 0 2
3 t an (0
. t an 0 .
36 .
( 0
37 .
tan 0 + t an 20 t an
38 ,
t an 0 + t an 20 + J 3 t an 0 t an 20 = J 3 .
39 . sin 3a = 4 s in a si n
(
at -H z )
. sin z - a
( ) .
40 ,
Pro ve th at t h e eq uat io n 2x 1 0 is sati s ed by p ut ti ng fo r a:
eit h er o f th e values
J sin
2 2 sin an d 2 sin
1 44 Tmco no unm r
'
.
41 . If sin p ro ve t h at
( I)
'
l 1
00 8 0-
1k
42 ,
If sin
( 1 co t 0) = co s (
f t an p
ro ve th at ei th er 00 80 0 20 o r co t 20
is eq ual t o n+i .
1 32 . Ex . To trace the ch anges in the sign and
magnitude of the eap ressio n sin 0 co s 0 as 0 i ncreas es f rom

0 to
1
We h ave sin + co s = 42 s in 0+ cos
v
i 0 0 sin 42 sin ( 0

4 [
2 s n co s 45 co s
As 0 increas es fro m 0 t o sin ( 0 increases

fro m sin 45 t o

s in an d h ence the p
e x ressi o n incre as es
fro m 1 t o 42 .
As 0 incre ases fro m 45 t o 0 increas e s fro m

45
90

to and h ence the p
ex ressio n is po sit ive and
de creas es fro m 42 t o 0 .
As 0 incre ases fro m 1 30 to the p

ex ressio n
changes fro m 42 si n 1 80 t o 42 sin

i . s . it is n egat i e v
and de creas e s fro m 0 t o 4 2 .
As 0 increases fro m 225

to the p
e x ressio n
h
c an
g es fro m 42 sin 270 t o

42 si n i . s . it is nega ti e v
and increases fro m 42 t o 0 .
As 0 increases fro m 31 5

to the p
ex ressi o n
h fro m 42 sin 36 0 t o i i s it is po siti ve

c anges 42 s n . .
and increas es fro m 0 t o l .
1 33 . Ex To trace the cha nges in the sign a nd
m agnitude o f a cos 0 b sin 0 , and to nd th e g rea tes t

value o f the eap ressi o n
W e h av e
0+
O b i 0 4a +b
m
a co s + s n = 3 2 cos

CHAPTER X .
LOGARI T HM S .
1 34 . S U PPOS I N G t h at we k no w t hat
25 3, lO m 407,
and lO 'M "1 02971 ,
we can s hew t hat 25 3 x 407 1 02971 wit ho ut performing

the o perat io n o f mult iplicat io n . For
25 3 x 407 x 10 2
W
m mo m
lo a
10 " - m 1 02971 .
Here it will be no t iced t h at t h e pro cess o f m ultiplica

t io n h as be en re placed by t h e sim pler pro ce ss o f addit io n .
A gain, suppo sing t hat we kno w t h at

795 07 ,
43,
we can eas il y sh o w t hat the cube ro o t o f 795 07 is 43 .
For VW =
( 1 0 -
m
?
o
10mm 10 m 43 .
Here it will be no t iced t hat t h e di cult process o f

e xt ract ing t h e cube roo t h as b een re placed by t h e simpler
process o f divisio n .
Lo cnm n m s 1 47
'
.
1 35 L o gari t h m
. D ef I f a be any num ber .
, and a:
a nd N twa o the r numbers s uch tha t a N then a: is called

=
,
the logari thm o

f N to the base a an d is writt en loga N .
Th e lo gari t hm o f a number t o a given bas e is t h ere fo re

t h e index o f t h e p o wer t o which t h e bas e m ust be raised
t hat it m ay be e q ual t o t h e gi ven number .
I n . Sin ce t h e refo re 2 = lo gm 1 00 .
Since th erefo re 4 = lo g, 1 6
8
Since 83 th erefo re
1 I 1
8 111 06
1
- 2 1 __
2
N B . . Since 1 al ways , th e lo garit hm o f uni t yt o any base is alwa y s
z ero .
1 36 I n Algebra, if m and n be any real

. quant it ies
what e ve r, t h e fo llo wing laws, kn o wn as t h e laws of indices ,
are fo und t o be t rue :
Co rrespo nding t o t hese we have t hree fundam e nt al

laws of lo garit hms , viz .
i
() 1 0 8 . (M ) 10 8 . m 10 8 . 11 .
ii
( ) lo g. lo g . m lo g. n,
iii
( ) lo g. m 3
n lo g. m .
Th e pro o fs of t h e se laws are

giv en in t h e fo llo win g
a rt icles .
1 37 . The logari th m o
f the p ro duct f
o two qua nti ties is
1 0 2
l 48 TRI GON OM ETRY .
equal to the sum o f the lo gari thm s f

o the quanti ties to th e
sa me base, i e . .
l o g . (m n ) lo g . m lo g . 11 .
Let a: lo g m , 80 t hat a m,
g lo gn, so t hat a n.
lo g, mn a:
g ( Ar t 1 35 ,.D e f ) .
lo gm lo g, n .
The logar ithm of the quo tient of two quant iti es is

the dier ence of their logari thms, i s

. .
lo g . lo g. m lo g . n .
lo gm , hat D f
a: so t a m , ( Art 1 35 e ).
, .
g lo gn, so t ath a n .
m
n
() Q
n
w
g ( Art 1 3 5 , D e f
.
) .
lo g, m lo g , n .
1 39 The logari thm qf a qua ntity raised to any p ower

.
is equa l to the logarithm of the quantity mul tip lied by the

index cf the p ower, i . e
.
l o g . (m
) n lo g. m
Let a : lo g, m , so t hat a

m . T h en
m
m u
"
a
lo ga ( )
m we ( Art 1 35
.
, D e f ) .
n lo g , m
I n . lo g 48 : 10 g (
2 x
l o g 2 + l o g 3 : 4 lo g 2 + l o g 3
,
63 7X3 9-
10 8 - 10 8 lo g -
7 i-lo 3 lo g 23-
lo g 1 1 2
g
4371 2
2 x1 1 9

lo g 7 + 2 lo g 3 - 2 lo g 2 - 2 lo g 1 1
lo g 4 1 3
lo g
1 50 m e o no un rav
'
.
i
() Let t h e n u mbe r be great e r t han uni t y.
Since 10
1, t h ere fo re lo g 1 O
since 10
1 0, t here fo re lo g 1 0 1
sin ce 10
1 00, t h ere fo re lo g 1 00 2,
an d so o n .
He nce t h e lo garit h m o f any num ber lying be t we e n 1

an d 1 0 m ust lie be t wee n 0 and 1 t h at is, it will b e a ,
decim al fract io n and t herefo re have 0 as it s h

c aract erist ic .
S o t h e lo garit hm o f any nu m be r bet wee n 1 0 and 1 00

m us t lie b et ween 1 and 2 i e it will h ave a charact e ris t ic, . .
e qual t o 1 .
S im ilarly t h e lo garit hm o f
, any n u m ber be t wee n 1 00
and 1 000 m ust lie be t we e n 2 an d 3, i . s . it will h av e a
h
c aract eris t ic e qual t o 2 .
S o if t h e n um be r lie be t we en 1 000
, and 1 0000, t h e
ch aract e ris t ic will b e 3 .
Gen erally the , ch aracterist ic o f the log ari th m o

f a ny
num ber will be o ne less th an the nu mber o f digits in i ts
m s. Th e num ber 296 3 457 h as 3 g ures in it s integral p art , and
th ere fo re th e ch aract erist ic of it s lo garit h m is 2 .
Th e ch aract eristic o f th e lo gari th m o f 296 34 57 will be 5 1, i . s. 4

.
ii
( ) Le t t h e num ber be less t han u nit y .
S ince 10
, t herefo re lo g
l
since
'
1 t here fo re lo g '
1
fo
,
since
b -
01 , t h erefo re lo g 0 1

f
:
l
1
t here fo re lo g 00 1 '
3
cn nnncrs ms ri c o r AN Y Lo s narrnn 1 51
'
.
Th e lo garit hm o f any num be r be t wee n 1 and 1 t h ere '
fo re lies be t we en 0 an d 1 , and so is e qu al t o 1 so m e
decim al i s i ts
, . . h
c aract eris t ic is 1 .
S o t h e lo gari t hm o f an
y n u m be r bet ween 1 '
and 01
lies bet we en 1 and - 2, and hence it is e qual to 2+
so me decim al, i s it s . . h
c aract e ris t ic is 2 .
S im ilarly, t h e lo garit h m o f any nu m ber bet ween Ol '
and 00 1 lies be t we en 2 and 3, i e it s charact e rist ic is 3

'
. . .
Generally the characteristic of the logari thm of any

,
racti o n ne ative and n u m e ri c a ll y

decima l f wi ll be g will be
g rea ter by unity th an th e num ber f
0 cyp he rs f o llo wing th e
decima l p oint .
F or fract io n be t we en 1 an d 1 ( 5 ) h as

any

eg
. . no
cy pher fo llo wing t h e decim al po int an d we have se e n t hat

it s ch aract erist ic is 1 .
Any fract io n bet ween '

1 and 01 ( eg . . 0 7) h as o ne
c ypher fo llo wing t h e decimal po int an d we have seen
t hat it s ch a act erist ic is 2 r .
Any fract io n be t we en 01 an d 001 ( 0 03) h as t wo

' '
eg . .
cyphers fo llo wing t h e decim al po int and we have seen t hat

it s charact e is t ic is 3 r .
Similarly fo r any fract io n .
E xs. Th e ch aract erist ic o f t h e lo garith m of th e number 0 0835 is 3

.
Th e ch aract eristic o f t h e lo garith m of t h e num ber 0000053 is '

6.
Th e ch aract erist ic of t h e lo garith m of th e num ber 3 45 6 7 i s l .
1 43 The ma ntissce qf th e logari th m of

. a ll num bers ,
co nsisting of the same digits are the same , .
Th is will b e m ade clear by an exam ple .
S u ppo se we are
giv e n t h at
lo g 6 6 8 1 8 4 8 248935 .
Th e n
65
233
8
lo g lo g lo g 6 6 8 1 8 lo g 1 00 ( Art 1 38) .
4 8 248 935 2 2 8248 935

6 6 81 8
lo g 6 68 1 8

lo g lo g 6 6 8 1 8 lo g 1 00000
1 00000
( Art 1 3
.8 )
48 248 935 5
So lo g 0 0066 8 1 8 lo g lo g 6 6 81 8 lo g 1 0 8
48 248935 8
N ow t he nu m bers 6 6 8 1 8, 6 6 8 1 8, 6 6 8 1 8, and 0 006 6 8 1 8
'
co nsist of the sam e signicant gure s , and o nl y diff e r in

t he po sit io n o f t h e decimal po int We o bserve t hat t h eir .
lo garit hms have t h e sam e decimal po rt io n i e t h e sam e , . .
m ant issa and t hey o nly differ in t h e charact eris t ic

, .
Th e value o f t his charact e ris t ic is in each case det e r

m ine d by t h e rule o f t h e pre vi o us art icle .
I t will be no t ed t hat t h e m ant issa o f a lo garit h m is

always po sit ive .
1 44 . T ab l e s o f l o g arit h m s .T h e lo garit hm s o f all

n um be rs fro m 1 t o 1 08 000 are
giv e n in Ch am be rs Table s

of Lo garit hm s . T heir values are t here given co rre ct to

se ven places of decim als .
T h e st udent ho uld have access t o a co py o f t h e abo ve

s
t able o f lo garit h ms o r t o so m e o t h er s uitable t able It .
11 be re qu ire d fo r m any e xam ples in t h e co u rse o f t h e

ne xt few chapt ers .
On t h e o ppo sit e page is a specim en page select ed fro m

Chambers Tables I t gives t h e m ant issa o f t h e lo gari t hms

.
o f all wh o le num be rs fro m 5 25 00 t o 5 3000 .

1 54 a co no u s m r
'
.
1 45 . To i t h e lo garit hm o f any s uch n umber, su ch

o bt a n
as 5 26 87, we proceed as fo llo ws Run t h e eye do wn t he .
e xt rem e lef t an
- h d co lum n u nt il it v
arri es at t h e num be r
5 26 8 . ho rizo nt ally unt il t h e eye sees t h e gure s
Then lo o k
7035 which are v ert ically beneat h t h e n umber 7 at t h e t o p
o f t h e page T h e number co rresp o nding t o 5 26 87 is t h ere
.
fo re 721 7035 But t his las t num ber co nsist s o nly o f t h e

.
digit s o f t h e m ant issa so t hat t h e m antissa re quire d is ,
7 21 7035 Bu t t h e charact erist ic fo r 5 2687 is 4

. .
Hence lo g 5 26 87 47 21 7035 .
lo g 5 26 8 7
'
1 7 21 7035,
lo g 0 005 26 87 4 721 7035 .
I f,
g a ain , t h e lo garit m h of 5 2725 be re quired ,
the
st udent will n d (o n runnin
g his ey e vert ically do wn t h e e x
t re m e left h
- an d co lu mn as far as 5 272 and t h en h o riz o n t ally
alo n t h e ro w u nt il he co m es to the co lu m n under t h e

g
digit 5 ) t h e nu mber 01 6 6 Th e bar wh ich is placed o v er .
t h e se digit s deno t e s t h at t o t hem m ust be prexed n o t

721 but 722 Hence t h e m ant issa co rrespo nding t o t h e
.
nu m b er 5 2725 is 7 2201 6 6 .
Also t h e ch aract e rist ic o f t h e lo garit h m o f t h e nu mber

5 2725 is 4 .
Hence lo g 5 2725 47 2201 6 6 .
So lo g 0 5 2725 2 72201 66 .
We shall no w wo r k a few num erical examples t o shew

t he e fcienc y of the applicat io n o f lo garit h m s fo r p urpo se s
o f calcu lat io n .
1 43 .
n . 1 . F i nd t h e value o f 4 73
2 .

Let z :
4 231 :
(23 4 6 .
so th at lo g a lo g by Art 1 39
. .
ms
EXAM PLES o r Lo cnarrr . 1 55
I n th e table of l o garith m s we nd, o ppo site th e number 234, th e

l o garith m 86 921 59 .
H ence lo g 1 3 6 921 59 .
lo g z [ 1 436 92 1 5 9] 2 738432 .
Again , in th e table o f lo gari th ms we nd, co rres p o nding t o t h e lo garith m

2788432 , th e num ber 1 8 7864, so th at
lo g 2 738432 .
83 . 2 . F ind th e va lue o f
(9 x
4 89 3
L et a: be t h e req uired value so th at , by Arts 1 38 . an d 1 39,
log c : lo g ( 0 0034 9 lo g (9 lo g 4 7
8 93
1
3 lo g _lo 2 lo g lo g
g
.
N o w in th e table of lo garith m s we nd
o pp o site th e number 6 45 t h e lo garith m 8095 597,

9 34 3Q 58 1 4789,
937 971 7396 ,
898 9508 5 1 5 .
lo g z = 3 x 8 0955 9? (4 5 31 4789)
2 x 971 7396

i

x

95085 1 5 .
g.
( 4 5 91 4799) [3 2 531 47891
2 '
843826 3 .
lo g a: 2 4286 791 [2 0 43826 3] 1 0 434792 0

23771 29
3 2725054 4 1 81 1 921
-
1 4 272505 4 4 1 8 1 1 921
1 0 91 31 33 .
1 56 m mo no u nrnv '
.
I n th e t able of lo garith ms we nd, o pp o site th e number 1 2340, t h e

lo garith m 091 31 52, so th at
lo g 1 2340 = 1 0 91 31 5 2

.
Hn e ce lo g z : log 1 2340 nearl

y ,
z :

1 2340 n earl y .
Wh en th e lo garit h m o f any num ber do es no t uit e agree with any q

l ogarit h m in th e tables, but lie s between t wo co nsecutive lo garith ms , it
will be sh ewn in th e next ch a pt er h o w th e num ber may be accurate ly
fo und .
I x. 8 . H aving gi ven lo g nd t he number o f digi ts in 2 "

and t he p osi ti on of t h e rs t signi ca nt gure i n
We h ave
Si nce th e ch aract erist ic o f t h e logarith m o f is 20, it fo llo ws, by Art .
1 42, th at in 2 t h ere are 21 di git s

07 .
Again, lo g 24 7: 37 l o g 2 37 x 301 03
H en ce, by Art 1 42, in

. th ere are 11 c yph ers fo llo wing th e decimal
p o int, t . e.
th e rst signi cant g ure is in t h e t welfth pl
ace o f decimals .
I x 4. . Gi ven 109 8 :
4771 21 3, lo g 7 and lo g
so lve t he equati o n
3 xM
: 1
T aking lo garith ms o f bo th sides we h ave
lo g 3 + lo g M
3 l
lo g l l m ,
z l
[ go 8 + 2 l o g 7 - lo g 1 1 ] : 5 lo g l l - log 7 .
5 lo g 1 1 - lo g 7
lo g 3 + 2 lo g 7 l o g 1 1
'
8450980
4771 21 3

1 6901 960
'
E
m
1 58 rarco no mn rnr [E XXI I I ]
'
. xs .
6 ,
H aving given lo g 3 :
4771 21 8 ,
nd th e number o f di git s in
7 and
(1 ) ( 2) 3 . (3)
and th e positio n of th e
rst signi cant g ure in
-0
( )
4 t
, ( )
5 3 , and (6)
7 . Given lo g lo g and lo g
th e eq uatio ns
m
( )
1 2 3 7
s : 8
,
gu n-1
3m = a
7 ,
7m 3W x =9
4 -
aw n H u e s
8 ,
F ro m t h e tables nd th e seventh roo t o f
'
000026 75 1 .
M aking use o f th e t ables, nd th e a pp ro xim at e value s o f

9 { ls45 0 . 10
4 4
.
8 2
,
x
st x 111
27 { 2
74 x 76
CHAPTER XI .
TABLES G
OF LO AR I THMS AN D TRI G ONOMETRI CAL RATI OS .
R
P I N CI PLE OF PROPORTI ONAL PARTS .
1 43 . W] : have po int ed o ut t hat h o f all

t h e lo gari t ms
num be rs fro m 1 t o 1 08 000 m a b fo u n d in Cham bers

y e
Mat h em at ical Tables so t hat fo r e xam p le t h e lo gari t h ms

, , ,
o f 745 83 and 745 84 m a b b t ained di re ct ly t h e re fro m

y e o .
S uppo se ho we ver we want e d t h e lo garit hm o f a

number lyin b t w n t h t w o e g t h e nu mber 745 8 3 3
g e ee e se , . . .
To o bt ain t h e lo garit hm o f t h is nu mbe r we use t h e

Prin ciple o f Pro p o rt io na l Part s wh ich stat es t hat t h e
increas e in t h e lo garit h m o f a nu m ber is pro po rt io nal t o
t h e incre as e in t h e num ber it self .
Thu s fro m t h e t ables we nd
lo g 745 83 48 726 398
lo g 7458 4 48 726 45 7
Th e quant it y lo g will cle arl y lie bet ween

lo g 745 83 and lo g 745 84 .
Let t h en lo g lo g 745 8 3 9:
48 726 398 a:
1 60 rarc o no n nm v
'
.
F ro m ( )
1 and we se e t hat fo r an increase 1 in t h e
nu mb er t h e increas e in t h e lo garit m is 0 00005 9 h .
Th e h y p
T e o r o f Pro o rtio nal Part s t en st at es t h hat fo r
an increase of
'
3 in t h e n u m be r t he in cre ase in t h e
lo garit hm is
3 x 000005 9, i e , 0 00001 77
'
. . .
Hence lo g 48 726 398 0 0000 1 77

48 726 41 5 7 .
1 49 . As h er exam ple we shall nd t h e value o f

ano t ,
lo g 0 38275 7 and s h all e xh ibit t h e wo rkin in a m o re

g
F ro m t h e t ables we o bt ain
lo g 0 38 275 2 5 8 291 5 2
lo g 0 38 276 2 5 8 2926 5 .
Hence t h e diff erence fo r

0 00001 0 000 1 1 3 .
Th ere fo re t h e diff ere n ce fo r

0 000007
7 x 0 0001 1 3
0 000 0791 .
lo g 0 38 275 7 2 58291 5 2
0 0000791
2 5 8 29231 1 .
S ince we o nl y re qu ire lo garit h ms t o se ve n places of
decimals , we o m it t he las t digit and th e answer is

2 5 829231 .
1 50 . Th e verse que st io n is o ft en m et wit h m

co n ,
t o n d t h e num ber wh o se lo garit h m is giv en I f th e .
lo garit hm be o ne o f t h o se t abulat ed t h e re qu ired nu m be r

is easily fo un d Th e m et h o d t o be fo llo we d when t his is
.
no t t h e cas e is sh e wn in t h e fo llo win e xam ples

g .
1 62 Tmco no u nrav
'
.
We sh all so lve two mo re exam pl es, t aking all th e l ogarith ms fro m

t h e t abl es, and o nl yp ut ti ng do wn th e n ece s sar y ste s.p
32 . 1 . F ind t he sevent h roo t o f 0 345 74 .
If 2 be t h e required q uanti t y , we h ave
lo g lpg (0 34574) ( 5 88 7496)

2
lo g 11
791 2499 .
lo g 0 1 8374 7 91 2484
di . 000001 5

.
But die fo r 0 0001 = 0 000071 ,

.
req ui red increase : W 21 1 ,

s = 0 1 8 3721 1 .
Ex . 2 .
If a: and b : 28347 91 2, ml t he value
'
f
o t h e s quare
roo t of a
a
b
.
If 2 be th e q
re uired quant it y , we h ave
=
2 lo g r l o g ( a
(
a b) + lo g ( a b)
lo g 621 48 1 8 lo g 6291 00 42 .
lo g 621 4 8 87 934272
1
8
lo g 6291 0 47 98 71 97
3
4
2
H ence, by additio n, 2 lo g
lo g r = 4 296 076 3
.
lo g 1 9773 4 296 0726
37 .
220,
p p ro o rti onal in crease t x1
, 1 68,
a:
1 52 Th e pro o f o f t h e Principle o f Pro po rt io nal Parts

.
will no t be given at t his st age I t is no t st ri ct ly t rue .

P OPO R RTI ONAL m ars . 1 63
Th e num bers t o w ic h h the principle

pplied m ust is a
co nt ai n no t less t h an ve signicant gures and t h e n we ,
may re l y o n t h e result as co rrect t o se ven places o f
F or e xam ple ,
we m ust no t a pply t h e principle t o
o bt ain the value of lo g 2 5 fro m t h e valu es o f lo g 2 and
lo g 3 .
F o r, if we di d ,
since t h ese lo garit h m s are
'
301 03 and
4 771 21 3, t he lo garit m o f 2 5 wo u ld be 38 9075 h
Bu t fro m t h e t ables t h e alue o f lo g 2 5 is fo und t o be v

3979400
H ence t h e res ult wh ich we sho uld o bt ain wo uld be

manifest ly q uit e inco rrect .
T ab l es of t rlg o n o m et rl c al rat i o s .
I Chambers Tables will be fo u nd t ables giving

1 53 . n
t he values o f t h e t rigo n o m et rical rat io s o f an

g les be t wee n
and t he angles increas ing by differences o f

0
I t is u nn ecessar y to separat ely t abulat e t h e rat io s fo r
bet we en 45 and since the rat io s o f an

angle s les
g
bet wee n 45 and 90

can be re du ced to t hose o f an les
g
bet ween 0 and

( A rt .
F o r example,
[ sin 76 1 1 sin

(

90 1 3 49 cos 13
and is herefo re kno wn]

t .
S uch a t able is called a t able o f nat ural sines cosines , ,
e t c t o dist in uis h it fro m t h e t able o f lo arit hmic sines

.
g g ,
cosines, e t c.
I f we want t o nd t h e sine o f an angle which co nt ains

an int egral n umber o f degrees and minu t es we can o bt ain ,
1 1 2
it fro m t h e t ab les . ho wever t h e angle co nt ain seco nds

I f, , ,
we m us t u se th e principle o f pro po rt io nal part s .
Ex . 1 . Given si n 29
4 886 2 1 2,
'
t i n 29

15

14
'
nd t he va lue o f si n 29
By subtract io n we h ave
dierence in th e sine fo r
dier
en ce in th e sine fo r 32
23 x 0 002538 : 0 001 3536 ,
sin
'
29 1 4 32

0 001 3536
"
1 8850276 .
Since we want o ur answer o nl yt o seven pl ace s o f decim als , we o mit
th e last 6 , an d, si nce 76 is nearer t o 80 th an 70, we write
sin

29 1 4
4 885 028 .
N B . . Wh en we o m it a g ure in th e eigh t h pl ace o f decims ls we add

1 t o t h e gure in th e seven t h pl ace, if t h e o mit t d g
e ure be 5 o r a n um ber
gre at er t h an 5 .

Ex . 2 . Gi ven cos 1 6 27
0 5 906 72,
and cos 16 '

9589848,
1 51 741 cos 1 6 27 '
We no t e th at , as was sh ewn in Art 5 5 , th e

. co sine decreas es as th e
H ence fo r an in creas e of i . s. in th e angle , th ere is a d e cre as e
0 000824 in th e co sine .
H ence fo r an i n creas e of 47 in th e an gle , th ere is a d ecrease o f
x 0 000824 in th e co sine .
co s 47
i;
"
s
x 0 000824

95 906 72 0 000645

95906 72
0 000645
0 5 90027 .
1 66 m ao no mnm v
'
.
T ab l e s of l o g a rit h m i c sin e s, c o s in e s , et c .
1 56 . I n m any kinds of t rigo n o m et ric calcu lat io n , as
in t h e so lu t io n o f t riangles, we o ft en req uire t h e lo garit hm s

o f t rigo no m e t rical rat ios To avo id t h e inco nvenience o f
.
rst nding t h e sine of any an le fro m t h e t ables and

g
t hen o btaining t h e lo garit h m o f t his sine by a seco n d
applicat io n o f t h e t ables it h as be en fo und desirable t o
,
have se parat e t ables giving t h e logarit hms o f t h e vario us

t rigo no m et rical funct io ns o f angles As be fo re it is o nly .
,
necessary t o co nst ru ct t h e t ab les fo r angles be t wee n 0

and
S ince t h e sine o f an an le
g is alwa s y le ss t h an u nit y ,
t h e lo garit m h of it s sine is g y
alwa s n e at ive ( Art .
Again, since t h e t angent o f an an l b d

g e e t we e n 0 an
45 is less t h an

u nit y it s logarit hm is negat ive , wh ilst t h e
lo garit h m of t h e t angent o f an l b and

an
g e e t we e n 45
90 is t h e lo garit h m

o f a nu m ber
gr ea t er t h an unit y and
is t h erefo re po sit ive .
1 57 . To v
a o id t h e t ro uble and in co n venience of prin t
ing t h e pro per sign t o t h e lo garit hm s o f t h e t rigo no me t ric
funct io ns t h e lo garit hm s as t abulat e d are no t t h e t ru e
,
lo garit h m s but t h e t rue lo garit hm s increased by 1 0

, .
F o r e xam ple sine 30

,
Hence lo g sin 30 lo g 1}

lo g 2
'
30 1 03 1 0 9897 .
Th e lo garit h m t abulat ed is t h erefo re
10 lo g sin i s 90 9897
. . .
V3

t an 6 0 .
TABLES o r L o o s arrnm c s ums , are . 1 67
He nce lo g t an 6 0 l 77

} g
1 o 3 }
1
( 4 1 21 3)
'
238 5 6 06 .
Th e lo garit h m t abulat ed is t h erefo re

10 2 38 5 6 06 , i . s
. 1 0 2385 6 06 .
Th e sym bo l L is us e d to de no t e t h ese t abular

lo garit h ms, i s t h e lo garit h m s
. . as fo und in t h e English
bo o ks o f t ables .
Th us L sin 1 5 25 lo g sin 1 5

10
L se c 48 23 lo g se c 48
'
10
1 58 . I f we wan t t o nd t h e t abular lo garit hm o f any

funct io n o f an an le which co nt ains an int e ral nu m be r
g , g
of degre es and m inut es, we ca n o bt ain it direct ly fro m t h e
t ables . I f h o we ver, t h e
, angle co nt ain se co nds we m ust
use th e principle pro po rt io nal part s Th e met h od o f
of .
pro cedure is sim ilar t o t h at o f Art 1 5 2 W e give an . .
exam ple and also o n e o f t h e inverse que s t io n .
Ex. 1 . Given L cosec 82 21

1 0 271 5 783,
and L cosec 32
nd L cosec 82
"

21
F o r an increase of 60 in th e angle , th ere is a de crease of 0 001 998 in

t h e lo garith m .
H e nce fo r an in crease

o f 5 1 in th e angle, th e p
co rres o nding decrease
is
% x 0 001 998 , i . e. 0 001 6 94 .
H ence L co sec 32
21

1 00 71 5 733
0 001 6 94
Ex . 2 . F ind t he angle s uch t ha t t he tabula r lo gari t h m of i ts t angent

i s 94 41 7250 .
Let a: be th e q
re uired angle .
1 68 rarc o no m ar .
F ro m th e tables, we h ave
L tan r . 94 41 7250 L tan 1 5 28 = 94 42006 2

L t an 1 5
27 94 41 5 1 45 L tan 1 5 27 = 94 41 5 1 45

21 05 . 491 7
21 05
60
9884
a : 1 5 27 25
27960
245 85
88 750

E x. 0 . Gi ven L si n 1 4 6 '
90 86 7040,
cosec 1 4

nd L
H ere lo g sin 1 4 6 = L sin 1 4 6
'
10
1 4 0 8 67040 .
1
lo g co sec 1 4 6 '
lo g _

n 14 6
lo g sin 1 4 6
1 0 86 7040 0 1 82960
.
Hn e ce L co sec 14
1 0 0 1 32960 .
M ore generall y , we h ave sin 0 x co sec 0 = 1 .
lo g sin 0 + lo g co sec
L sin 0+L co sec
Th e erro r t o be avo ided is th is ; th e st udent so metimes ass u mes
lo g co sec 1 4 6
lo g sin 1 4
h e may th erefore assume th at

L co sec 1 4

6 L sin 1 4
Thi s is o bvio us ly untrue .
Given lo g -
5 527290
1 ,
lo g 85706 40 52741 2,
nd th e values o f lo g 85 705 7 and lo g
lo g 5 0 743
7689487
and lo g 5 87 4 4 : 2 76895 6 1 ,
nd th e values o f lo g 5 8 7480 7 and lo g 0 0587432 .
1 70 m l eo no mm ar .
[Exs . XXI V ) .
14 , Find al so th e angle 0, wh ere

L co s 0: 90 1 47828 .
15 . Given L co t 71 27
9 5 25 7779
and L
co t 71 90 25 85 89,
nd th e value o f L co t 71 27
an d so lve th e eq uatio n L co t 0 90 254782 .
16 , Given L sec

1 8 27 1 00 2291 68
and

L sec 1 8 28

1 00 229590,
nd th e value o f L sec 1 8

27

17 ,
Find al so th e angle wh o se L sec is 1 0 0 229285 .
18 ,
F in d in degrees, m inut es, and seco nds th e angle wh o se sine is 6 , '
given th at
lo g 6 778 1 5 1 3, L sin 86 5 2 97 78 1 1 86,

L sin 86 5 8
9 7 782870 .
1 59 On t h e ne xt page is print ed a specim en page

.
t ak en fro m Cham bers t able s I t giv es t h e t abu lar lo g

.
arit h m s o f t h e rat io s o f an le s be t ween 32 and 33 and

g
also b e t we e n 5 7 and

Th e rst co lu m n
gi ve s t h e L sine fo r e ac h m inut e
be t ween 32 and

t he seco nd co lu m n un der t h e wo rd D i is fo und

'
I n .
the n um ber 20 21 . Th is m eans t h at 0 00 2021 is t h e

difference be t wee n L sin 32 0 t is m ay

and L sin 32

h
v
b e e rie d by subt ract ing 97 242097 fro m 97 2441 1 8 It .
h
will also be n o t ed t at t h e gu re s 2021 are rint ed alf p h
way be t we en t h e n um be rs and 97 2441 1 8,
t hus cle arl y sh o wi n
g b et wee n wh at n u m b ers it is t h e
difference .
This sam e co lu mn of D ifferences also a pplies to t h e

ht -hand side which is h eaded Co sec
co lu mn o n it s rig .
Similarly t h e ft h co lum n wh ich is also h e aded Dii , ,
m ay be used wit h t h e t wo co lu mns o n t h e righ t and left

of it .
LOGA IR THM I C SI N ES , TA N GENTS , AN D S ECAN TS .
m u
ig
'
1 00 755882 97 980708 1 00 71 8585

1 0 0 3 8 487 1 00 71 7875
97 988822 1 00 71 8 1 88
1 O 2M B7O

97 971 938 1 00 71 9749

97 974745
48788 97 97755 1 1 00 721 884
9 7w )858 1 0 0 7221 27
'
80 9 7m81 80

97

m 87
1 0 27887w

10 m 1 00 7281 01
97 27 0278 1 02 729727 10 m 1 00 7 7 9 9278I CE

1 00 727724
22
21 728
1 0 27 1 W%

9

m1 1 1 81
90 11 8752
97 28825 ) 1 00 71 8740 9 m1 9548 1 01 W 1 0 0 788288
'
1 00 78 443 7
9 3 125 1 88 1 0 1 974867 1 0 0 784888
788 1 00 7
90 10 771 8 1 01 m
1 0 0 787290
1 01 988704
1 0 1 9819 1 5 1 00 783 0 4 9 0 281 098
8
1 00 7405 1 8
1 01 m 1 0 0 741 81 9
1 0 2 891 891 1 00 7421 25 90 257075
1 0 28w91 8 1 01 948981 1 00 70 981

1 02 887988 1 01 9441 97 1 00 748789

1 00 88593) 1 01 941 41 8
10 m 90 0 1 870 1 01 m 90 25 4848
1 0W 481 88
1 01 m
9 m 71 4

1 0m m 1 01 927508
I OW M 90 775278

1 0 m721 88 1 00 75021 4
'
1 00 75 mm
10 m 1 00 75 1 889
1 01 91 3 1 7
1 00 758485
90 245721
1 00 755098
1 01 90252 )
1 01 W 5
10 mm; 1 00 758858
1 00 7591 78
97 851 845 1 01 m 1 00 759990
1 00 761 3 39
1 00 78 1 827
1 00 782448
1 01 877592 1 0 0 788288
1 01 874828 1 00 78
1 72 T m c o s o marav .
1 80 . Th ere is o ne po int t o be n o t ice d in u sing the

co lum ns headed Di
'
. I t h as been po int e d o ut t hat 2021

( at t he top of t he se co nd co lum n ) m eans 0 00 2021 . N ow
the 790 ( at t h e t o p o f t h e eigh t h co lumn) m eans no t 0 00790,
but 0 000790 Th e rule is t h is ; t h e righ t h and gure o f
.
-
t h e D i m ust be placed in t h e se vent h place o f de cim als

'
and t h e re q uisit e n u m b er o f cyph ers pre xed T h us .
D iff 9 m eans t h at t h e di e rence is 0 000009,

'
74 0000074,
D i 735 0 00 0735 ,
'
D i
'
. 2021 0 002021 ,
h
w ilst D iff . 1 2348 001 2348

.
1 61 . Page 1 71 also giv es t h e t abular lo s o f rat ios

g .
be t we en 5 7 S uppo se we want e d L t an 5 7

and

We no w st art wit h t h e line at t h e bottom of the page and
run o u r eye up the co lum n which h as Tang . at it s f o ot . We

go up t is h co lum n un til we arri e atv t he n u m be r w ich h is
on the same lev el as the n u mber 20 in t h e e xt re m e
riht ha nd co lu mn Th is nu m ber we nd t o be 1 01 93028 6 ,

-
g .
which is t h erefo re t h e valu e o f
L t an 5 7 20

X
E A M PLES . XXV .
1 . F ind 0, given t h at co s 0: 0 725 882,
9725 783, di d fo r

00 8 1 8 27
'
.
2 ,
F ind t h e angle wh o s e sine is
2 , given
si n 22

diff fo r
.
CH APTER XI 1 .
RELATI ONS BETWEEN TH E SI D ES AN D TH E TRI GONOM ETRI CAL

RATI OS OF TH E AN GLES OF AN Y TR I A NGLE .
1 62 . I N any t riangle A B C, t h e side BC, o ppo sit e

to the an
gle A , is deno t e d b
y ;
a t h e sides CA and A B ,
o ppo sit e t o t h e angles B and C respect ivel , are deno t ed

y
by b and c .
1 83 . T h e o re m I n an
y triangle AB C,
sin A sin B sin 0

a b c
i e th e sines qf rtiona l to th e opp osite

. . are
p ro
p o
sides.
D raw A D perpendicular t o t h e o ppo sit e side m eet ing

it , pro duced if ne cessary in t h e po int D
, .
S I D ES AN D AN GLES o r A TRI AN GLE . 1 75
I n t h e t riangle A BD , we have
32
sin B, so t hat AD = c sin B .
I n t h e t riangle A OB , we h av e
1
23 sin C hat A D = b sin 0

, so t .
[I f th e angle 0 be o bt use , as in t h e s eco nd gu re, we h ave
A sin A CD = sin (1 80

0) = sin a
b
so th a t AD : b sin
Equat ing t h ese t wo values o f A D , we have

c sin B b sin 0,
sin 0
B sin
b c
I n a simi lar mann er, by drawing a perpendicular fro m

B u po n 0A , we have
sin 0 sin A
c a
If o ne o f the an
gle s , 0, b e a ri
gh t angle , as in t h e t h ird
gure, we have sin (7 = 1 ,
b
sin A and sin B '
sin A s in B sin C'

l
H ence
a b c e
We t herefo re have , in all cases ,
si n A si n B ain c
a b c
1 64 . I n any tri angle, to nd the cosine of an angle in

terms o f th e sides .
2 0
Let A BC be t h e t ria ngle and le t t h e perpendicu lar

fro m A on B 0 me et it , produced if necessary in t h e
,
po int D .
F irs t , let t h e an
gle 0 be ac u t e , as in t h e rst gure .
By Euc I I 1 3, we have
"
. .
AB
BC OA
2BC CD
' '
32

But co s 0, so t hat b 00 8 0 .
Hence (i) beco mes
c =
a +
s
b
2c h o o s C,
. .
'
C
s
a
s
b
e
c
a
co s 0
2ab
S eco ndly, let t h e an

gle 0 be o b t u se , as in t h e seco nd
gure .
By Euc I I . . 1 2, we have
AB BC
CA + 2BC CD
' '
A CD

= co s = cos
( 1 8 0
so t hat b co s 0 .
TRI GONOMETRY .
Let 23 st and fo r a b 6 , so t hat s is e qual t o half t h e

su m o f the sides o f t h e triangle, i . e s . is e qual t o the se mi
perim et er o f t h e t riangle .
We t hen have
a +b 2o = 2s - 2o = 2 ( s c) ,

and a 2b = 2s 2b = 2( s - b) .
Th e re lat io n ( )
1 t h ere fo re b e co m e s
( 8 a )( s b)
and sin
ab
1 66 . To nd the cosines o f h alf the an

g les i n t erm s o f
the sides .
By Art 1 09, we . have

co s A = 2 co s

A
Hence 2 co s
1 + co s A =1 +
g
a
2bc 2bc
SI D ES AN D AN GLES or A TRI AN GLE . 1 79
so t hat ( 1 ) be co m es
A 2e x 2 ( s a) s ( e a )
260 be
Sim ilarly,
g
(-1
and co s

1 67. To n d the tangents o
f h a lf the ang les term s
of the sides .
A
Q
we have , by ( 2) of Ar t s 1 6 5
. and 1 66,
s ( s a )
T

T
Sim ilarly ,
( 8 c )( 8 0 ) and t an
,
b)
(
s e s ( s c )
A
Since, in a t riangle, A is alwa ys 1 80
2
is alwa sy
Th e sin e , co sin e , and t ange n t o f f

; are t here fo re always
po sit ive ( Art .
Th e po sit ive S ign m ust t h e re fo re al wa s y be prexe d t o

the radical Si n
g in t h e fo rm ulae of t ish and t h e last t wo
art icle s .
12 2

1 80 R
T I GO OM E RY N T .
b = 1 4, and
s = 21 , e s
2
s - c= 6 .
1 69. To cap rese the sine o f any amg le
f
o th e sides .
We have by , Art 1 09,

.
But , by t h e pre vio us art icles ,
sin A =2
and c = 6 3,
A B 0
m , tw tan -
g
.
Hence , in t his case ,
a = BC = BD CD = c co s B b co s
so t hat in eac h case

a =b co s c+ c co s B .
Sim ilarly ,
b c co s A a co s 0,
c = a co s B + b co s A .
1 71 . I n any tri angle , to p rove th at
B C b c A
2 b c 2
I n any t riangle, we have

b sin B
'
c S in C
C
'
b c sin B Sin C
b+ c sin B + sin C
t an
( A rt
7
.
Hence
SI DES AN D ANG LES o r A TRI AN GLE . 1 83
1 72 , I x. F rom t he f o rmulae o f Art . 1 64 deduce t hose f

o Art . 1 70
and vice vered.
Th e rst and th i rd formulas of Art 1 64 give

.
a

+ b c c

+ a - b
b oo s 0 + c co s B
2a 2a

2a
=
267
a = b co s C + c co s B .
Similarl y , th e o th er fo rm ulae o f Art 1 70 m ay be ob tained.

.
Again , t h e t hree fo rmulae o f Art 1 70 give

.
a = b co s C + c co s B ,
b = c co s A + a co s 0,
and c= a co s B + b co s A.
py
M ul ti l in g th ese in successio n by a, b, and c we h ave, by additio n ,
3 2 9=a
a + b c ( b ocs
2ab co s 0 .
-
a + h c
co s 0:
2ab
Similarl y , b
th e th er fo rmulae of Art 1 6 2 may be fo und
. .
1 73 ,
Th e student will o ft en meet with ident i es, wh ich h e is required
to p wh ich invo lve bo th th e sides and th e angles o f a tri angle
ro ve , .
I t is, in general , desirable in th e iden tit t o subs ti tute f or th e sides in y

t erm s o f th e angles , or t o s ubsti t ute fo r th e ratio s o f th e angles in t erm s
of th e sides .
B
E x . :I .. Prove t hat a co s ; : sin
2
By Art 1 6 3, we h ave
.
D+O B 0
b+ c sin B + sin C T
a sin A
_
B C
{
co s - co s
2 2
sin i co s
2 2
A
( b + c) sm -
2
a co s
2
I n . a. In any tri angle p rove t ha t
( b - c

) co t A + ( c
-
a ) co t B+( a

b
) co t C=0 .
By Art 1 6 8 we h ave
.
si n A sin sm
'
B C
a b T
k (say )
Hn e ce t h e given p
ex res sio n
f:
o

(

(b c ) c a )
9 2 a
1 b a
+ ( a t
c)

b -
[ c - b
I t . 8. I n any triang le p ro ve t ha t
-- + t an 2c co t
2
Th e left -h and m ember
by Art 1 6 7,
.
s-a
( )
since
C
26 00 5
E
.
Thi s iden tit ym ay also be p ro ved by substit ut ing fo r t h e sides .
We h ave, by Art 1 63, .
a + b+ c sin A + s iu B + sin 0
c
A B A B
4 co s co s co s 2 co s co s

c c a
2 sm co s sm
1 86 TRI GONOM ET RY .
In any triangle AB C , pro ve t h at
B C b c A
I co s -
A
.
a 2
2 , sin A .
/
3 , a (b 0 0 8 C - c .
4 (b )
}
. + c cos co s
5 .
{ JPN
6 , a (co s C - co s B
) = 2 ( b -
)
c co s
2
9 .
a sin
;
( ) i + B = b + c sin
( ) g .
sin B + sin C s in A + sin B
q
b
( +c a
)
(
co t + c t
o -
) 2a co t
g .

a + ( be co s A + ca co s B + a b co s
t an 0 .
( a - c3
)
g
- .
- C + b sin ( 0
a sin (B )
- b ain ( C - A) c sin (A
'
a sin (B C)

T s a c
- a
B 0 B
17 a sm + b sin -- sin + c sin
,
T 2 2
[Exs . m u] SI D ES AND AN GLES or A TRI AN GLE . 1 87
18 . a
2
(
co s B ( co s

0 (co s

A - co s B) = 0 .
2 _ 8 2

b c
A B 0
m
(
a
" -b + c
s
y
w i Z + co t B+ co t 0

21 .

a co s (B co s (A
22 , I n a t ri angle wh o se sides are 3, 4, and J 38 fee t p

res ectivel y ,
p ro ve th at t h e largest angle is greater th an
23 , Th e si des o f a righ t -an gled tri angl e are 21 and

28 feet ; nd t h e
lengt h of th e p p er endicular drawn t o t h e h yp o th en use fro m th e righ t
24 ,
I f in any tria ngle t h e angles be t o o ne ano th er as
p ro ve th at th e co rresp o ndi ng si des are as 1 J 3 2 .
25 .
I n any t riangle, if
A 5 B 20
nd t an
2 , and pro ve th at in th is triangle a + c = 2b.
26 . I n an iso sceles righ t -angled triangle a straigh t line is drawn fro m

t h e mi ddl e p o int o f o ne o f th e e q ual aids t o th e o p p o sit e angl e S h o w .
t h at it divides th e angl e int o p art s wh o se co tangent s are 2 and 3 .
27 ,
Th e p p
er endicular AD t o t h e base of a tri angle AB C divide s it
into segm ent s such t h at BD , CD , and AD are in th e ratio o f 2, 8, and 6;
p ro ve t h at th e vert ical angle o f th e triangle is 45
28 ,
A ring , ten inch es in diam et er, is p
sus ended fro m a p o int o ne
fo o t abo ve its cen tre by 6 eq ual strings att ach ed to it s circumi erence at
eq ual int ervals . Find th e co sine o f th e angle between co n secutive
29 , If
a , b
, and o s
be in A P . .
, p ro ve th at co t A, co t B, and co t C are in
A P. als o.
.
30 . If a, b, and c be in A. r. , p ro ve t h at co s A co t co s B co t
and co c
g
o t --are in Am .
[Exs xxvn ]
.
31 .
If a, b, and c are in n r . .
, pro ve t h at sin

and sin! 2 are
2
also in
32 , Th e sides of a tri angle are in A . P. and t h e great es t and least

angles are 0 an d N p ro ve t h at
- cos 0) ( 1
33 ,
Th e sides of a t riangle are in A m and th e greatest
. angle exceeds
t h e least by pro ve t h at th e side s are p ro po rt io nal to J? l, and
W 1 0
34 ,
I f C = 60
,
t h en pro ve t h at
1 a

c+c b+ c a + b+ c
35 .
In any t ri angle AB C if D be any p o int o f t h e b as e B C, such th at
BD DC m n, p ro ve th at
( SH -n) co t AD C = n co t B - m co t C,
and -
min
( - s
) mm ?
36 ,
I f in a t riangle th e bisect o r o f t h e side c be p p er e ndicular to th e
side 6, pro ve th at
2 t an A + tan
37 . I n any t riangle p ro ve th at , if 0 be any angle , t h en
b co s =
0 c co (
s A 0) + a co s
38 p p
I f p and g be th e er endiculars fro m th e angular o int s A and B
. p
o n any li ne p
assing th ro ugh th e vert e x C o f th e t riangle AB C, t h en
pro ve th at
i
a p b q 2abp q co s 0 : a b s n C .
39 ,
I n th e t riangle AB C, lines OA , OB , and 00 are drawn so that
th e angl es OAB , CB C, and OCA are each e ual q to w ; pro ve th at
co t w= co t A + co t B + co t C,
co m
1 co se c
A co sec
s
B co sec
C .
Le t b be t h e given side and c t h e given hypo t henuse .
Th e angle B is given by t he
re lat io n
b
sin B =
c
L S B 1 0 + log b lo g 0
in = .
Since 6 and c are kno wn we ,
t hus have L Sin B herefo re B

and t .
Th e angle A B) is t h en k no wn

90 .
Th e side a is o bt ained fro m eit her o f t h e re lat io ns
6
a
1 76 . Case I I . Given the two sides a and b, to solve
th e tria ng le .
Here B is give n by
t an B
a
so t hat
L t an B = l O + lo g b lo g a .
Hence L t an B, here fo re B is kno wn

and t ,
.
Th e angle A B) is t h en k no wn

90 .
Th e h ypo t he nuse c is giv e n by t h e relat io n 0

Va + b
.
Thi s relat io n is no t h o wev er v ery suit able fo r loga

rit h m ic calculat io n and c is be st give n by
,
b
q '
0 s in B
lo g e = lo g b lo g sin B

1 0 + lo g b L sin B .
Hence c is o bt ain ed .
SOLUTI ON or EI GHT -ANG LED TRI A NG LES . 1 91
1 77 . Cas e I I I . Given an angle B and qf th e si des
a, to s o lve the triangle .
He re A 90

B) is kno wn .
Th e side 6 is fo und fro m t h e rela
t io n
6
a
and c fro m t h e relat io n
9 co s B .
1 78 . Case I V . Given an ang le B a nd the hyp o thenuse

c, to s o lve th e triang le .
H ere A is kno wn ,
and a and b are
o b t aine d fro m t h e relat io ns
a
= co s B, and 9 ;
c c
1 ,
In a righ t -angled tri angle AB C, wh ere C is th e righ t angle , if
a: 50 an d B = 75
,
nd th e sides .
(t an
2 .
So lve t h e t riangle of wh ich t wo side s are e qual to 1 0 and 20 feet
and o f wh ich th e included angl e is give n th at l o g 20 : 1 3 01 03 , and
L t an 26
di fo r .
3 ,
Th e length of th e p p er en dicul ar fro m o n e angle o f a tri angle u p
on
th e base is 3 inch es and th e lengt h s of th e sides co nt ain in

g this angl e are
4 and 5 inch es . Find t h e angles , h aving given

lo g 2 = -
301 03, lo g s = -
4771 21 3,
L sin 36 -
77su se, die fo r . 1 6 84,
and di for
.
4 ,
F ind th e acut e angles o f a righ t -angled t riangle wh o se h yp o t h enus e
is fo ur tim es as lo ng as th e p p
er en dicular drawn to it fro m th e o ppo site
angle.
1 79 . We no w pro ceed t o t h e cas e o f t h e t riangle w hich

is no t
giv e n t o be ri ght angle d .
Th e di erent co nsidered are

'
cases t o be ;
Cas e I . Th e t hree Side s given ;
Case I I Two sides and t h e include d an le gi v en ;

.
g
Case I I I . Two sides and t he an
gle o ppo site o ne of
t hem gi ven ;
Case I V . On e Side and t wo an
gle s i ven ;
g
Case V . Th e t hre e an
gles given .
1 80 . Case I . Th e three si des a, b , and 0 gi ven .
S ince t h e side s are kno wn t h e semi-perime t er

, s is
kno wn and hence also t h e quant it ies s a s b , , and
s 0 .
A B C
Th e ha f angles
l - and are t h en fo und fro m t h e
2 2
( 8 b) ( 8 0 ) ( s o )( s - a )

(
s e a ) s e
( b)
Only t wo o f t h e angles n e ed be fo und t h e t hird being ,
kno wn sin ce t h e sum o f t h e t hre e angles is always

Th e angles m ay also b e fo und by using t h e fo rm ulae
fo r t h e sine o r co si e o f t e e
n h s mi-an les
g .
( Art s 1 6 5 . and
Th e abo ve fo rm ulae are all suit e d fo r lo garit hmic

p
co m ut at io n .
0 0025 1 2
H ence
60 0 003431
25 1 2
so t h at
343i
x 60 = nearl y 44 .
66 1 8
'
44 = 6 6 1 7 '
and h ence 0 : 1 32 '
34 32 "
1 ,
I f th e sides of a triangle be 5 6, 65 , and 33 feet , nd th e greatest
angle .
2 ,
Th e sides o f a t riangle are 7, 4 3, and my ards res ectivel p y .
F ind th e number o f degnaes in it s smallest angle .
3 ,
Th e sides o f a t ri angle are a + a
z
+ 1, 2r + 1 , and a
- 2
1 ; p
ro ve th at
th e great es t angle is
4 ,
Th e sides o f a triangle are a , b, an d feet ; n d th e
great est angle .
5 ,
If a = 2, b = J 6, and c = J3 I , s o lve th e triangle .
6 ,
If a: 2, b = J 6 , and so lve t h e t riangle .
7 ,
If a = 9, b= 1 0, and c = 1 1 , n d B , given
log 2 '
301 03, L tan 29
29
9 7523472,
and L tan 29
9 75 26420 .
8 , Th e sides of a tri angle are 1 30, 1 23, and 77 feet . F ind th e

great est an l
g ,e h aving given
lo g 2 3 01 03, L t an 38
99 029376 ,
an d L t an 38
40

9 Find t h e greatest
, angle o f a triangle wh o se sides are 242, 1 88, and
270 feet , h aving given

log 2 3 01 03, lo g 3 4 771 21 3, lo g 7 8 450980,
L tan 38
20

9 89801 04, and L t an 38
9 8 977507 .
10 ,
Th e sides o f a triangle are 2, 3, and 4 ; nd th e greatest ang le,
h aving given
lo g 2 3 01 03, l o g 3
4771 21 3,
L tan 52
1 01 1 08395 ,
L tan 52
15 '
1 0 1 1 1 1 004 .
GI V EN T wo SI D ES AN D T H E I N CL UD ED AN GLE . 1 95
Making use o f t h e t ables, nd all th e angles wh en
11 . a = 25, b = 26, and c = 27.
12 . c = l 7, b = 20 , and c= 27 .
13 . a = 2000, b = 1 050, and c : 1 1 50 .
1 81 . Cas e I I . Given two si des 6 and c a nd the

included angle A .
Taking b t o be t h e great e r of t h e t wo gi ven side s ,
we h ave

B C b c
2 b e
co t ( Art .
B + C
= 90 B
2 .
2
Th ese t wo re lat o ns i giv e us
B 0 B+C
and
2 2
and h erefo re by addit io n and subt ract io n B and C

t , ,
.
Th e t hird side a is t h en k no wn fro m t h e relat io n
a 6
Sin A S in B
an A
t ch
gi ve s
Sin B
and h
t us det e rm ines a .
Th e side a m ay also be fo und fro m t h e fo rmu la

2bc co s A .
T h is is no t ad a pt ed to lo gari t h ml c calculat io n but is

so m e t im es u se ful, esp e ciall y when the sides a and b are
s m all n u mb ers .
1 3 2
1 82 . Ex . 1 . I f b = J 3, and A = 3O ,
s o lve t h e tri a ngle .
We h ave

co t 15

t an 1 5
80 t h at
H e nce
90
By additi o n , B = 1 20
.
C = 30

By subt racti o n , .
Since A : C, we h ave a=c= 1 .
-
O t h er wi se . W e h ave
- 2bc co s A = 3 + 1
so th at a =1 = c .
B = 1 80 - A C = 1 20
.
A = 74 nd t h e remaini ng

us . a . I f b = 21 5 , c= 1 05 , and
and also t he t hi rd s ide a , h avi ng gi ven
lo g 2 3 01 0300, log 1 1 1 0 41 3927,
lo g 1 05 2 0 21 1 893, lo g 21 2 476 2 3 2731 0 3,
L co t 37 1 3

1 01 1 94723, dif .
f or
L 3364,
'
9 6 55 3477, di f 1
'

tan 24 20 . or
L sin 74
27

99 83805 2,
L
'
a nd cosec

28 25

1 03 225 025 , (h f .
f or 1 2334 .
1 98 TRI GONOM ET RY .
# 1 83 ,
Th ere are wa y f ding t h
s o n e t h ird side a of t h e t riangle in
p revi o us case with o u t t di g t h
rs n n e angles B and 0 .
Two met h o ds are as fo llo ws

2= 2
( )
1 Since a b c

2bc co s A

b9
+c

2bc
( 2 co s
; ) 1
9
I
A
(b + c) 4bc co s
2
4bc A
[ 1
3_ s 1
4bc A
H ence , I f
0 05 2
(b )
c
we h ave a
(b : c

) [1 sin

(b co s
2
0,
so t h at a= (b )
c co s 0 .
I f th en sin 0 be cal culat e d fro m th e relat io n
A

b+ c 2
a: (b )
C 00 8 0 .
We h ave
2bc co s - 2bc
(b sin
"
;
so th at
an d h ence 95 is kno wn .
Th en a
(b ) [1
c

t an 8
so th at a= (b
and is t h erefo re easil yf o und .
An angle , such as 0 or 4 abo ve, intro duced fo r th e p p

ur o se
facilit at ing calculati o n is called a subsidi ar y an gle (Art .

S OL UTI ON or TRI AN GLES . 1 99
EXA M PLES . XXX .
I f b = 90, c =70, and A = 72 48 nd B and

'
1 ,

0 , given
lo g 2 3 0 1 03, L co t 36
24
'
1 01 323 1 1 1 ,
L tan 9
an d

L t an 9 38 93 297735 .
2 If a = 21 , b= 1 1 , and o = s4 42 an d
'
nd A
'
. B, ven
lo g 2 3 01 08 ,
and L t an 72
38 45 " '
3 , I f th e angles o f a triangle be in A . r. and th e lengt h s of

th e greatest
and least sides be 24 and 1 6 feet res ecti vel p y , nd th e leng th o f th e third
side an d th e o th er angles , given
lo g 2 3 01 03, lo g 3 1 771 21 3,
and L tan 1 9
93 394287, di fo r 1 .

4084 .
a= 1 3, b == and C = 60 nd A B , given th at

4 ,
If 7, , an d
lo g 3 -
4 771 21 3,
and L t an 27
9 71 55508 , di for .
a = 2b, an d C = 1 20 nd t h e

5 , If , values o f A , B, and th e ratio o f c
to a, given th at
lo g 3 4 771 21 3,
and L tan 1 0

di fo r 1 = 6 808
.
'
.
6 . If and A = 60

, nd B and 0 , given th at
lo g 2 3 01 03, lo g 3
4771 21 3,
L t an 1 1
9 3 1 74299,
an d L tan 1 1
7 ,
Th e two sides o f a triang le are 540 and 420 y ards lo ng reapectively
remaining ang les ,

and include an angle o f 52 F ind th e given th at
lo g 2 3 01 03, L t an 26 3
: 93 891 430,
-
40741 39, and L t an 1 4 -
40
L tan 1 4 7945 3 .
200 TRI GON OMETRY .
[Exs . xxx ) .
8 ,
If e=2 ft .
, and nd th e o th er angles , and
sh ew th at th e th ird side is nearl y o ne fo o t , given
lo g 2
801 03, lo g 3 "
1 771 2 ,
L co t 11 10
'
1 0 70465 , L sin 22 20 '
'
L tan 29 22 L t an 29 22 '
and L sin 49
27 34
" '
9 If a = 2, b= 1 and C = 60 so lve

, , th e triangle .
10 T wo si des of a tri angle are J 3 + 1 and J 3 1, and th e included

angl e rs nd th e o th er si de an d angles.
11 , I f b=1 , - 1 , and A = 60
, nd th e length of th e side a .
1
1
12 .
I f b = 91 , c= 1 25 , and t an
g 0
6
p ro ve th at az 2o4 .
13 ,
If a =5, b = 4, and co s (A -B
) i
g mm e th at th e thi rd side e will
be 6 .
angle and th e length s th e si des

14 , One of a tri angl e i s 30 of
j
ad acent to it are 40 and y ards . F ind th e length of th e third
side and th e num ber of degrees in th e o th er angles .
15 ,
Th e sides o f a t rian gle are 9 and 3, an d th e di erencc of th e
angl e s o pp o sit e t o th em is F ind th e base and th e angl es, h aving
i
g ven
lo g 2 : 3 01 03, l o g 3 : 4 771 21 3,
10 8 75894 4 8802074, 10 8 75895

'
'
L t an 26 33
L t an 26 34
9 6 990006
'
.
b C
18 .
If
zb +
co t
sin g
2
p ro ve th at (a b)
008
If a = 3, b= 1 , and C = 53
nd c with o ut get ting A an d B,
i
g en
v
lo g 2 3 01 03, lo g 25298 : 44 0308 62,
lo g 25299 41 031 034, L co s 26 '

33 5 4
"93 5 1 5452 ,
L t an 26 33 54
93 989700

.
Th e rem ainin
g s ide a is t h en fo und fro m t h e relat o n i
(3
a b "
a
4w
sin A sin B

sin A
y \
4m
so
1 85
e
.
cases no
Th e q
e uat io n
value ,
( )
1
I n so m e
of the previo us art icle gives in
cases o ne , and so m e t i m es
t wo values ,
fo r C .
F i rst , let B be an acu t e angle .
( ) a If 6 s sin B, the gh h
ri d m e mber o f ( l ) is
t an
-
g reat er t han unit y

, an d h ence t h ere is no co rrespo nding
valu e fo r C .
( B) If g h h
b = c sinan d B t he
m e,m b e r Of ri
( )
1 ist -
eq ual t o unit y and t h e co rre spo nding value o f C is
(7 ) I f 6 s sin B t h e re ar e t w o v a l u,e s o f 0 h a v in
g
B
;
0 81
as it s sin e o ne valu e lyin b

0 d

g , e t w e e n an 9 0
and her bet ween 90 and

the ot

Bo t h o f t h ese value s are no t h o wever always admissible .
F o r if b c t h en B C Th e o bt use -angled value o f

, .
C is no w no t admissible ; fo r in t h is case C cann o t be , ,
o b t u se unless B be o bt use also and it is m ani fes t ly ,
impo ssib le t o h ave two o bt use angles in a t riangle .
I f 6 o and B b e an acu t e angle bo t h valu es o f C ,
are adm is sible H ence t h ere are t wo values fo und fo r

.
A and h ence t h e relat io n ( 2) gives t wo values fo r a

,
In .
t his case t h ere are t here fo re t wo t riangles sat isfying t h e
g i v e n co ndit io ns .
S e c o n dly , let B be an o bt use an

g le .
I f 6 be or c, t h en B wo u ld be less t han, or e qual

AM B I GUOUS C AS E . 203
to , 0 , so t hat C wo uld be an o b t u se angle . Th e t riangle

wo uld t h en b e im p o ssible .
I f 6 be c, the acu t e valu e o f C , as det ermined fro m

wo uld b e adm iss ible , bu t no t the o bt u se value . We
sho uld t h ere fo re o nly have o ne ad m issible so lut io n .
S in ce fo r so m e valu e s Of b c and B t h ere is a do ubt

, , ,
o r am bi uit y in t h e det erm inat io n o f t h e t rian le t his

g g ,
cas e is calle d t h e A m b igu o u s C ase of the so lu t io n of
t riangles .
1 86 Th e A mbiguo us Case may

. als o be discu sse d
eo m e t rical m ann er
a
g .
S uppo se we were given t h e ele ment s 6, c, and B, and

t h at we pro ce ede d t o co ns t ruct o r at t e m pt ed t o co nst ruct , ,
t h e t rian gle .
We rst m eas ure an angle A BD e qual t o t h e gi v en
We t h e n m eas ure alo n

g B A a d ist an ce BA e qual to
t h e give n dist ance 0, and t h u s de t e rm m e t h e angular
p o int A .
We have no w t o nd a h po int C which must lie

t ird ,
on BD an d m u st also be s uch t hat it s dist ance fro m A
S hall be e qual t o b
.
To Ob t ain it , we describe wit h ce n t re A a circle w h o se

radi u s is b .
Th e po int or po int s ,
if y in wh ich t h is
an ,
circle m e et s
BD will de t e rm ine t h e po sit io n Of C .
D raw A D perpendicular t o BB , SO t hat

AD = A B sin B = c sin B .
One of t h e fo llo wing e ve nt s will happe n .
Th e circle m ay no t re ach B D ( F i 1 ) or it may

g .
t o uc h BD F
( gi . or it m ay m e et BB in t wo po int s C,
and C, ( F igs 3 . and
I n t he case of F ig . 1 , it is cle ar t hat t h ere is no
t riangle sat isf ying t h e gi ven co ndit io n

Here b A D, i . s . 0 sin B .
I n th e case o f F ig . 2, t h ere is o ne t riangle A BD

w ic h h is rig h -
t an gled at D . Here
b = AD = o s in B .
I n the case o f F ig 3, t h ere

. are t wo t riangles A B C,
and A BC, . Here b lie s in magni t u de bet we en A D and c,
i s b is
. . > c sin B and < 0 .
I n the case Of F ig 4 t h ere is

.
, o nl y o ne t riangle A B C,
sat isfying t h e gi v en co ndit io ns
[t h e t riangle A BC, is
inadmissible ; fo r it s angle at B is n o t equal t o B b u t is
e qu al t o 1 80 B] Here b is great er t han b o t h 0 Sin B

.
and c .
( ) a If b qu an t it y
s sin 0 sin i
B, t h e
s 3
imaginary and ( 1 ) gives no real v alue fo r a

, .
I f b = c sin B t h ere is o nly o ne v alu e 0 co s B

( B) , , ,
fo r a ; t h ere is t h us o nly o ne t riangle which is right

angle d .
( y)
v If 6 c sin B, t h ere are t wo valu es fo r a . B ut ,
since a m u st b e po sit ive , the value by t aking
o b t ain e d
t h e lo wer Sign aixed to t h e ra di cal is inadmissible unless
0 co s B Vb 2 s in2
s B is po sit ive ,
i . s . unless Vb
a sin B 0 co s B,
i . s unle ss
. b
o Sin
f
B 0

co s B
i . s u nle ss
. b
c

.
Th ere are t herefo re t wo t riangle s o nl y w h en b is

> c sin B and at the sam e t im e c .
8
( ) I f B be an o bt u se angle , h en 0 co s B is negat ive t ,
and o ne value Of a is always negat ive and t h e co rresp o nd
ing t riangle im po ssible .
Th e o t h er valu e will b e po sit ive o nly when

0 co s B Vb 2
s
sin9 B is po sitiv e
"
,
i . s o nl
. y wh e n t /b s
sin2
B 0 co s B,
i . s. o nly wh e n b
s sin B
2
c cos B,
i . s. o nly wh e n b 0 .
He nce B be ing o bt use t h ere is

, ,
no t riangle if b c,
and o nly o n e triangle wh e n b c .
1 88 ,
B x. Given b = 1 6 , 0 = 25 , and E =
=33
p ro ve t h a t t he triang le
is ambiguo us and nd t he o t her angles, h avi ng g iven
3 01 03, L s in 33 1 5
'
lo g 2 9 73901 29,

L si n 58 5 6 '
L sin 58
93 328376 .
S OL UTI ON OF TRI AN GLES .
We h ave
10 2
c 25 1 00
_
srn C - srn B un B s1 n 33 1 5 o
z I 3 a 2,
Hn e ce - 6 log 2
93 328329 .
H ence L sin 0 93 828329 L sin 58 5 7

93 328376
93 3276 1 6

sin 58 56

L sin 5 8 5 6 93 3276 1 6 L
'
D i fo r 1
'
71 3 . 760 .
71 3
6
angular di .
m x

60
5 6 nearl y . 330
478
456
'
C 58 5 6 56
'
or 1 80
58 56
H ence Fi
( g ,
3 A
.rt 1 8 6 ) we h a
.ve
C, = 1 2 1 3 '
C, 58 5 6

and
'

5 8 56
'
8 7 48
'
L B A 0, 1 80
33 1 5
L BA C, = 1 80

33 1 5
'
1 21 '
3 4
"25
41
'
1 , and sin A , Is t h ere any am big uit y?

2 , If a: 2, c= J 3 1, and A = 45
, so lve t h e triangle .
a = l oo, c = 1 00 J , and A = 3O th e tri angle

3 , If 3 , so lve .
4 ,
I f 2b = 3a , and t an A
p ro ve th at t h ere are t wo val ues t o t h e
th ird side, o ne o f wh ich is do uble t h e o t h er.
5 ,
I f A = 3O , b = 8 ,

and a = 6 , nd c .
8 ,
Given B = 30
, c: 1 5 0, and b = 50 J 3, prove t h at of t h e t wo
t riangles wh ich satisf y th e data o ne will be iso sceles and th e o th er righ t
angled. Fin d t h e greater value o f t h e t h ird side .
Wo uld th e so lutio n h ave been ambiguo us h ad

E = SO ,
c= 1 5 0, and b = 75 ?
[Exs XXX
. I J
7 ,
I n th e ambiguo us case given a, b, and A, p ro ve t h at t h e dierence
bet ween th e t wo value s o f c is

b sin A
s
.
8 ,
If a = 5, b = 4, and A = 45
, nd th e o th er angle s , h aving given
lo g 2 : 3 01 03, L sin 83
93 5 20507,
L sin 33 30f
9 . If a = 9, b = 1 2, and A = 30
, nd c, h aving given
lo g 2 : 3 01 03, lo g 3 = 4771 2 ,
lo g lo g
L sin 1 1 48 39

93 1 1 08 , L sin 41 48 39
' "93 2391 ,
and L sin 1 08 1 1 '

21 "93 7774 .
1 0 Po int o ut wh eth er o r n o th e so luti o ns Of th e fo llo wing tri angles

,
are am biguo us .
F ind th e sm all er val ue Of t h e t h ird side in th e ambiguo us case and

th e o th er angles in bo t h case s .
1 A = 3O , c = 25 0 feet , an d a = 1 25 feet ;

( )
c = 250 an d a = 200 feet
( )
2 A feet , .
Given lo g 2 3 01 03, lo g 6 3 3893

7809601 ,
L sin 38
93 95 8800 ,
and L sin 8 41 '

91 78900 1 .
b = 240, A = 72 4 nd th e angles

and and

11 ,
Given a = 25o, B C,
and stat e wh eth er t h e y can h ave m o re t h an o ne value , given
- = - -
4= -
10 3 25 3 979400, lo g 2 38021 1 2,
9 3 783702, L sin 72 3

L sin 72
: 93 7841 1 1 ,
and L sin 35
12 . Two straigh t ro ads in tersect at an angle o f fro m th e pi

o nt
of j un ct io n two pde est ri an s A and B st art at th e sam e time, A walking

alo ng o ne ro ad at th e rat e o f5 miles per h o ur and B walking unifo rm l y
alo ng th e o th er ro ad . At t h e end o f 3 h o urs t h e are 9 miles a art y p .
Sh ow t h at t h ere are t wo rat es at which B may walk t o full t h is

co n dit io n and nd t h em .
21 0 TRI GONOME TRY .
X
E A MPLES . XXXI I .
g
i
1 If co s A and co s C= , nd t h e rat io o f a z b z c.
iz
,
2 ,
Th e angles o f a triangle are as 1 2 7; p ro ve t h at th e rat io o f
th e great est side t o th e least side is J5 + 1 . J 5 1 .
8 I f A = 45
B = 75
an d C = 60
p ro ve th at +o J 2 = 2 b
"
a
"
, , , , .
4 ,
T wo an gles o f a tri angle are 41
1 3 22 d 71
'
an

19 5 d th an e side
o ppo sit e th e rst angle i s 55 ; nd t h e side o pp o si t e th e lat ter angle,
g ven
r
lo g 5 5 1 7 403627, l o g 7906 3 43 979775 ,
'
sin 41
L 13 79,
and

sin 71
L 19
5 ,
F ro m each of t wo sh i p s, o ne mile p
a art , th e angl e is o bserved
which is s ubten ded by an o th er sh ip an d a beaco n o n sh o re ; th ese angles

are fo und t o be "

5 2 25 1 5 and 75 9 30 res ecti vel p y . Given
L sin 75 9
93 85 26 35 ,
L sin 5 2 25 '
15 "93 99005 5 , lo g 1 3 1 97 3 86 2530,
and lo g 1 3 1 98 : 3 86 2886 ,
nd th e dis t ance of t h e beaco n fro m each of t h e sh i p s.
8 ,
Th e base angl es o f a t riangle are 225
and p ro ve t h at t h e
base is eq ual t o t wice t h e h eigh t .
F or t h e f o llowi ng jive q ues t io ns a boo k o f ta bles is requ ired .
7 ,
Th e base of a triangle being se ven f eet and th e base angles
1 29 23

and 38
n d t h e length Of it s sh o rter side .
8 ,
I f th e an gles Of a triangle be as 5 10 21 , an d th e si de Opp o si te
th e small er angle be 3 feet , n d t h e o th er si des .
angles o f a t riangle being and

9 ,
Th e 18 11
and th e
longest side being 1 000 feet , n d t h e length of th e s h o rt e st side .
1 0 To ge t t h,
e di st an ce o f a o in t A fro m a o in t B , a li n e B C an d p p
th e angles AB C and B CA are measured , and are fo un d t o be 287 ards y
and 55
32 1 0
' " d 51 an

8 20
"

p res ect ivel y . F in d th e distan ce AB .
11 ,
T o n d th e dist ance fro m A t o P a dist ance , AB , o f 1 000 y ard s is
m easured in a co nveni ent direct io n . At A t h e angle PAB is fo und t o be
and at B th e angle PB A is fo un d t o be 1 1 4
Wh at is t h e
required dist ance to th e nearest y ard ?
H EI GHTS AND T NCES
DI S A .
1 91 . I N present chapt er we Sh all co nsider so me

the
u t i n f t h k ind whi h ur in land su rv eyin -
q es o s O e c o cc
g .
Sim ple qu est io ns Of t his kind h ave already be en co nsidered

in Ch ap t er I I I .
1 92 To nd h i h i naccessible tower b
.
th e e g t of a n y
means of o bservatio ns ma de a t dista nt p oints .
Suppo se P Q t o be t h e t o wer an d t h at t h e gro und

passing t hro ugh t h e fo o t Q Of t h e
t o wer is h o riz o n t al At a po int A
.
o n t h is o u n d m e asu re t h e an le
gr
g
Of e levat io n a Of t h e t o p Of t h e
t o wer .
Me asure o f? a dist ance a ) A

fro m A direct ly t o ward t h e fo o t Of
t h e t o w er, and at B m easu re t h e an l f l e v at io n B

g e O e .
T o nd t h e unkno w
n h eigh t a o f t h e t o we r we h av e
,
to co nne ct it wit h t h e m eas ured lengt h a . T h is is best

do ne as fo llo ws :
1 4 2
A
. ) 3 1 T RI GON OM ET RY I
4
mm th
5
4
e t riangle PB Q, we have
a:
an d, fro m t h e t riangle P A B , we have

PB sin P A B
a Sin BP A sin (B a
)
since z BPA = 4
QEF z
QA P =
B a .
F ro m ( )
1 and by m u lt ip licat io n we , h av e
a sin a sin B

a s in (B a
)
Th e height
is t h ere fo re give n in
a; a fo rm su it able fo r
lo garit h m ic calculat io n .
N umerical E xa mp le a = 30 and =
60 t h en

. If a: 1 00 feet , , ,
?
it 86 3 feet .
1 93 . It is Oft e n no t v
co n en ie nt to m easure AB
dire ct ly t o wards Q .
Measure t here fo re A B in any
ot h er suit able direct io n on the h o ri

zo nt al
g ro un d, an d at A m eas ure t h e
an
gle Of ele vat io n a of P, and als o
the l
an
g e P A B B) .
At B m e as ure t h e angle P BA
7)
I n t h e t riangle P A B , we have t hen
4 A PB = 1 80 2 PAB 4 PBA

- 1 80
I n t h e t riangle A P Q we have no w de t e rmine d t h e

s ide s AP and AQ; also t h e included angle PA Q ( a B)
is kno wn We . can t here fo re nd t h e s ide P Q by the
m e t h o d Of Art .
. 1 81 .
I f t h e fo ur po int s A, B P , ,
and Q be no t in t h e sam e
plane we must in addit io n m eas ure t h e angle PA Q ; fo r

, , ,
in t h is cas e P A Q is no t e qu al t o a B I n o t h er respe ct s .
t h e so lut io n wi ll be t h e sam e as ab o ve .
1 95 . B e ari n g s an d P o int s of t h e C o m p as s . Th e
Bearing Of a
gi v e n po int B as se en fro m gai v en p o int
0 is t h e dire ct io n in which B seen fro m 0 .Thus if
1 7
I
l 1
t h e direct io n 0B bisect t h e angle bet ween

Of
N o rt h , t h e bearing Of B is said t o b e N o rt h Eas t

- .
I f a line is said t o bear 20 Wes t Of N o rt h we m ean

t hat it is inclin e d t o t h e N o rt h dire ct io n at an angle Of

t h is angle being measured fro m t h e N o rt h t o wards
t he West .

I
HEI GHTS AN D T
D I S AN C ES . 21 5
T o facilitat e t h e po int
st at e m ent Of t h e bearing of a
t h e circum fe re n ce o f t h e m ari ner s co m pass -card is di vided

int o 32 e qual po rt io ns as in t h e abo ve gure and t h e s ub

, ,
di visio ns marked as indi cat ed Co nsider o n ly t h e qu adrant .
be t we e n Eas t and N o rt h Th e middle po in t o f t h e are .
bet ween N and E is m arke d N o rt h East

. . Th e -
bise ct o rs of the arcs be t we e n N E . . an d N . an d E . are
p
re s e ct i e l v y l
cal e d N o rt h N o rt h East
- -
and E as t - N o rt h
Eas t andh er fo ur subdi visio ns Th e ot ,
re ck o nin fro m N are ca lle d N o rt h b E t N E b

g y
.
,as y , . .
N o rt h N E by East and Eas t by N o rt h

, . . S im ilarly t h e
, .
o t h er t hree qu adrant s are s ubdivide d .
I t is clear t hat t h e are be t wee n t wo s ubdivisio ns Of

3
the card su bt e nds an an
gle of
g; is . . at the
cent re 0 .
X
E AM PLES . XXXI I I .
1 ,A agst a st ands o n th e m iddl e o f a sq uare t o wer A man o n .
th e gro und,
o o sit e t h epp
m iddle Of o n e f ace and di s tant fro m it 1 00 feet ,
j u s t se es t h e ag ; on his receding an o th er 1 00 feet , t h e tangents o f eleva
t io n o f th e t o p of th e t o wer and th e t o p of t h e agsta are fo und t o be
5
an d F ind th e dimensio ns of t h e t o wer and th e h eigh t of th e agsta ,
5
t h e gro un d being h o rizo ntal .
2 ,
A man, walki ng on a level pl ane to wards a t o wer, o bserves th at
at a certain p
o int th e an gular h eigh t of th e t o wer is and, after go ing
50 yards nearer th e t o wer, th e elevatio n is fo und to be H aving i
g en
v
L sin L co s 9 3 983442,
lo g 1 4 1 1 3334, and lo g 25 784 : 1 3 1 1 3503,
nd, t o 4 laces p of decimals, th e h eigh t of t h e t o wer in y ards.

21 6 TRI GO N OMETRY .
[Exs xxt .
8 ,
D E is a t o wer st anding o n a h o riz o ntal pl ane and AB CD is a
st raigh t lin e in t h e pl ane. Th e h eigh t of th e t o wer s ubt ends an angle 0

at A , 20 at B, an d 30 at C . I f AB an d B C be res p ectivel y 50 an d 20 feet ,
nd th e h eigh t of t h e t o wer an d th e dist ance CD .
4 A t o wer, 50 feet h ig h , st ands o n t h e t o p o f a m o und ; fro m a

,
p o int o n th e gro un d th e angles Of elevati o n Of th e t o p and b o tt o m o f t h e
t o wer are f o un d t o be 75 and 45 res ect ivel ; nd th e h eigh t o f t h e

p y
mo und .
5 , A vertical plo e (mo re th an 1 00 feet h igh ) co nsist s o f t wo p t ar s,
1
th e l o wer being
g
rd o f th e wh o le . F ro m a p o int in a h o riz o n t l pl
a ane
t h ro ugh th e fo o t of th e p o le and 40 feet fro m it , t h e u pp p er art subt ends
1
an angle wh o se t angent is
5
F ind t h e h eigh t of th e pl
o e .
8 ,
A t o wer subt ends an angle a at a po int o n th e sam e level as th e
foo t of t h e to wer, and at a seco nd p o in t , h feet abo ve th e rst , th e
depressio n of t h e fo o t of th e to wer i s 8 . F ind th e h eigh t of t h e t o wer .
7 ,
A perso n in a ball o o n, wh ich h as ascended verticall yf ro m at
land at t h e sea l evel , o bserves th e angl e o f de p res si o n o f a s h ip t a anch o r
to be aft er descending verticall y fo r 600 feet , h e n ds th e angl e
of depressio n t o be nd th e h o riz o nt al dist an ce Of th e sh i pf ro m the

p o int Of asce nt .
8 ,
P Q is a t o wer st anding on a h o riz o nt al pl ane, Q being it s foo t
A and B are t wo pi o nt s o n th e pl ane such th at t h e r QA B is and AB
is 40 feet . I t is fo und t h at
3
co t PA Q an d co t PB Q
10
Find t h e h eigh t of th e t o wer .
9 ,
A co lumn is E , S E o f . . an o bserver, and at n o o n th e end o f th e
sh ado w is N o rth -E ast o f hi m . Th e sh ado w i s 80 feet lo ng an d th e
el evatio n o f th e co lumn at the Ob server s st ati o n

is F ind th e h eigh t
of th e co lumn .
10 A to wer is o bserved fro m t wo s t ati o ns A and B I t is fo und t o

4
, .
11 due no rth of A and no rt h -

west o f B . B is due east o f A and dist ant
fro m it 1 00 feet . Th e elevat i o n of th e to wer as seenfro m A i s th e
co m pl m e en t o f th e el evatio n as seen fro m B . Find t h e h eigh t o f th e
t o wer .
21 8 TRI GON OM ETRY . E
[ s
x . m m) .
19A agsta PN s t ands o n le vel gro un d

, A base AB i s m easured .
p
at righ t angles t o A N , t h e o int s A , B , an d N being in th e same h o riz o nt al
pl ane , and th e angles PAN and PB N are fo und t o be a an d p p

res ect ivel y .
Pro ve th at t h e h eight of th e agst aff is

si n u sin
I f AB : 1 00 feet , at : and 3 : cal culat e th e h eigh t .
20 , A m an , s t anding due s o ut h of a t o wer on a h o riz o nt al plane

th ro ugh its fo o t , n ds th e elevat io n o f t h e to p o f th e t o wer t o b e 54

h e go es east ards 1 00 y and nd s th e elevati o n t o be th en 50

F ind
t h e h eigh t o f th e to wer .
21 ,
A m an in a balloo n o bse rves t h at t h e angle o f de p res si o n o f an
j
o b ect o n th e gro un d bearing due n o rt h is t h e ballo o n drift s 3 miles
due west and th e angle o f de ressio n is no w fo und t o be p
Find t h e
h eigh t of th e ballo o n .
22 ,
F ro m th e ext remi ties o f a h o riz o nt al base-line AB , wh o s e len gth
18 1 000 feet , th e bearin gs of t h e fo o t 0 of a t o wer are o bserved an d it is
and t h at th e elevat io n o f

fo und th at A CAB : 5 6
z CB A = 47
th e t o wer fro m A i s 9

n d th e h eigh t of t h e t o wer .
1 96 A agsta is the t op f tower which

'
. Ex . 1 on o a
s tands o n a ho riz o nta l p la ne A p erso n o bserves th e angles,

.
a and B ,
s ubtended a t a p o int o n the h o r iz o nta l
p la n e by th e
and th e tower ; he th en wa lks kno wn distance

'
l a
f g
a st a a
th a t the a snbtends the

'
to wa rd the tower and nds f g

la st
same ang le as bef ore ; p ro ve tha t the height f
o the to wer
and th e leng th of the are resp ectively
'
ags ta

a sin Bco s ( a + B) a S in a
and
cos ( a co s ( a 23)
Let P and Q b t h t and fo o t of t h e t o wer, and let
e e o p
PR be t h e an d B be t h e p o int s at wh ich
agstaff Le t A .
t h e m e as urem e nt s are t aken so t h at A P A Q B and ,
AP A R = A P BR a S in ce t h e t wo lat t er angles are .
e qu al a circle will go t hro u gh t h e fo ur p o int s A B, P ,

, ,
and R .
HEI GH TS AN D D I S AN CES T . 21 9
height o f t h e agstaff we h ave t o co nnect

To nd t h e
t h e u nkno wn lengt h P R wit h t h e kn o wn lengt h A B .
T his m ay be do ne by co nnect ing each wit h t h e

lengt h A R .
To do t his we must rst ,
det erm ine t h e angles o f t h e

t riangles A RP and A RB .
S ince A , B P and R lie o n a

, ,
circle , we have
A BRP = A BA P = B ,
and A A PB A A RB 0 ( say ) .
Als o A A PB A PA Q 90

3
H ence , since the an
gles of t h e t riangle A PR are
t o get her e qual t o t wo ri h t

g an
gl es we ,
have
so t h at 0 90

( a 28 )
F ro m t h e t riangles A PR and A BR we t h en have
PR A B Al l a
( Art
s in a sin RPA sin RBA sin 0
[I t will be fo u nd in C h ap XV t h at . . e ac h of t hese
quant it ies is equal t o t h e diam e t er o f t h e circle ]
H ence t h e h eigh t o f t h e agst aff
a S in a a sin a
PR :
by ( 1 )
sin 0
,

cos ( a + 2B)
P
P g co s BP Q co s ( a B)
PB sin PAB s in 3
and o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
a sin A PB S in 0
Hence , fro m ( 2) and by m ult iplicat io n,
sin 0 cos ( a
220 TRI GONOMETRY .
Also , B Q P Q t an BB Q P Q t an ( a B)
= a.
sin B sin ( a B)
co s ( a 2B)
and AQ = G + BQ
If a, a, and y t hese result s are

B be given n u m ericall ,
all in a fo rm suit able fo r lo arit hm ic co mp ut at io n

g .
I t . 8 . At a dis ta nce a f ro m t he f oo t o f a to wer AB , of known heigh t

b, DC
'
a a gs tq and t he to wer s ubtend equal angles. F i nd t he height of

t he a gst af .
Let 0 be t h e p o int o f o bservat io n , and let t h e ang les A OB and B0 0

bo e sch 0; also let th e h eigh t B C be z
We th en h ave tan o and t an 20
b
2
2
Hn 3
20
11 a
e ce t an 20
1 11
1 !
a
b 1;
so th at
1 f
ig ,
Th fjz
a
en y z b =b
a
a
If a and b be given num ericall y , we th us easil y o bt ain 31

.
1 97 . Ex . A man wa lks a lo ng a st raight ro ad
o bserves that the greatest angle su btended by two o bjects i s a ,

ro m the reat es t ang le i s s ub d h
f p oi nt wh ere th is g te nde e w a lks
a dista nce 0 along the ro ad, an d f inds that the two o b jects a re
in a straigh t line which ma kes an angle B with th e

ro ad ;
p ro ve th at the distance between the o b ects
j is
a + B se c a
B
0 sin a sin B sec
2 2
Hence, by mult iplicat io n we ha ve ,
PQ s in a sin B
0 s in Os in ( 0 + a)
sin a sin B
.
a + B B
2
PQ = c sin a sin B s ec
X
E A MPLES . XXXI V .
1 , A bridge h as 5 e q ual s p an s , each of 1 00 feet measured fro m th e

cent re o f th e pi ers, an d a bo at is m o o red in a lin e with o ne o f t h e m iddl e
pi ers . Th e wh o le length of t h e bridge s ubt en ds a righ t angl e as seen
fro m t h e bo at . Pro ve th at th e di stance of t h e bo at fro m th e bridg e is

feet .
2 ,
A l adder pl aced at 75 with t h e gro und us t reach es
an angle o f

j
th e sill o f a win do w at a h eigh t o f 2 7 feet abo ve th e gro und o n o ne side
o f a st reet. On t urn ing th e l adder o ver wit h o ut m o vi ng it s fo o t , it i s
fo und t h at wh en it rest s again st a wall on th e o t h er side o f th e s t reet
1 5 wit h th e gro und Pro ve t h at t h e breadth of th e

i t is at an angle o f .
s t reet and th e length o f th e ladder are res e ct ivel p y

2 7 (3 J )
3 and 27 . J )
2 fe et .
3 ,
F ro m a h o use o n o ne side o f a st reet o b servat io n s are m ade o f t h e
angle subt ended by th e h ei gh t o f t h e o pp
o sit e h o use ; fro m th e l evel o f
th e st reet th e angle subt ended i s th e angle wh o se t angent is 3 ; fro m t wo
windo ws o n e abo ve th e o t h er th e angle subtended i s fo und t o be t h e

angle wh o se t angent is 8; t h e h eigh t of th e o pp o sit e h o u se being
6 0 feet , nd th e h eigh t abo ve th e s t reet o f each of th e two win do ws .
4 ,
A ro d o f given l ength can t urn in a vertical pl ane p assing t h ro ugh
th e s un, o ne end being x d e on t h e gro un d ; nd t h e lo nges t sh ado w it
can cast o n th e gro und .
Calculat e t h e alt i tude of th e sun wh en t h e l o nge st sh ad o w it can cast
i s 8} t im es th e length of th e ro d .
5 ,
A p ers o n o n a shi pA o bserves ano th er sh i pBl eaving a h arbo ur,
wh o se bearing is th en N . W . Aft er 1 0 min ut es A , h avi ng sail ed o ne mile
[Exs xxxrvq . HEI GHTS AN D D I S AN CES T . 223
NE . ., sees B due west and th e h arbo ur t h en bears 60

West of N o rt h .
Aft er ano th er 1 0 mi nutes B is o bserved t o bear S . W . F ind th e dis tances

bet ween A an d B at th e rst o bservat io n and also t h e di rect io n an d rat e
of B .
A , A perso n o n a shi p sailing n o rt h sees two ligh th o uses, whi ch are 6

mil es p
a art , in line due west ; aft er
a an h o ur s saili ng o ne o f th em bears

S . W . and th e o th er 8 8 W . Find th e shi

. . p
s rate.
7 , A p erso n o n a sh i p sees a ligh th o use N W . . of h imself . Aft er

sailing fo r 1 2 m il es i n direct i o n 1 5 so uth o f W th e ligh th o use is

a .
seen due N . F ind th e dis t an ce of t h e lig h th o use fro m t h e sh i in p

each p o sit io n .
8 ,
A m an , t ravelling west al o ng a st raigh t ro ad, o bserves th at wh en
h e is due so u th o f a ce rtain win dmill th e st raigh t line drawn t o a distant
t o wer makes an angle o f 80
with th e ro ad . A m ile furth er on th e
bearing s o f th e windmill and t o wer are p
res ectivel yNE . . and N . W . F ind
th e di s t an ces of th e t o wer fro m th e windmill and fro m th e neares t pi o nt
of th e ro ad.
9 ,
An o b server o n a h eadland sees a sh ip h im ; after a
due no rth o f
q uarter o f an h o ur h e sees it due east and after ano t h er h alf-h o ur h e sees

it due so ut h -east ; n d t h e di recti o n t h at t h e sh i s co urse mak es with p
t h e meridian and t h e t im e after th e sh i p

is rst seen unt il it is nearest
th e o bserve r, su pp
o sing t h at it s ail s unifo rm l in a s t raigh t line y .
A m an walki ng alo ng a straigh t ro ad, whi ch runs in a directio n

10 ,
80 east o f no rth , n o t es wh en h e is due so uth o f a certain h o use ; wh en h e

h as walk ed a m ile furt h er, h e o bserves t h at th e h o use lies due we st and
th at a windm ill on th e Opp o sit e si de o f th e ro ad is N E . h im ; t h ree

of
mil es furt h er on he nd s t h at h e i s due no rth of th e windmill ; ro ve p

t h at t h e lin e j o in ing t h e h o us e and t h e windmill mak es wi th t h e ro ad
t h e angl e wh o se tangent is
48
11
11 , A, B, and C are th ree b

o n secutive m il est o nes o n a s traigh t ro ad
fro m each o f wh ich a distant spi re is visible. Th e s pi re is o bserved to

bear no rt h -east at A, cast at B, and 60

east o f so ut h at C . Pro ve t hat
7+ J 3
th e sh o rtest dis tance of th e spi re fro m t h e ro ad is
1 2 miles .
12 ,
Two st ati o ns d ue so uth of a t o wer, wh ich lean s t o wards t h e
no rt h , are at distances an d b fro m i t s fo o t ; if and b th
a a p e e
224 TRI GONOMETRY .
[Exs XXXI VJ.
elevatio ns of th e t o p o f t h e t o wer fro m t h ese st at io ns , p ro ve t h at i ts

inclinat io n to t h e h o riz o nt al is
-1 b co t a a co t B
co t
b a
p pl
W
3 ,
F ro m a o int A on a level ane th e angle o f elevatio n o f a
n is a, t h e balloon being so uth o f A ; fro m a po int B , wh ich is at a

distan ce c so uth of A , th e ballo o n is s een n o rt h wards at an el evatio n o f
5 ; n d t h e dist ance of t h e ballo o n fro m A and it s h eigh t abo ve the
gr o un d .
14 ,
A st at us o n t h e t0 p of apill ar s ubte nds th e same angle a at
1
distances of 9 an d 11 y ards fro m th pill e ar ; i f tan a = , nd t h e h eigh t
10
of th e pill ar an d o f th e statue .
15 ,
A agst a o n th e t o p o f a t o wer is o bserved t o subtend th e same
angle a at t wo p
o ints o n a h o riz o nt al p
lane , wh ich lie o n a line assing p
t h ro ugh th e cent re o f th e base of t h e t o wer and wh o se distance fro m o ne
ano th er is 2a , and an angle 3 at a p o int h alfwa y b tw

e een th em . Pro ve
t h at t h e h eigh t of th e ags ta i s
\/
2 sm B
a sin a
16 ,
An o bserver in th t pl
e rs ace st at i o n s hi mself at a distance a
feet fro m a co l u mn s ant di g p

n u on a m o un d . He nd s t h at t h e co l umn
subt ends an angle, wh o se tangent

g hi s ey e wh ich m ay be pp
'
18 , at su o s ed
t o be on th e h o riz o ntal pl ane th ro ugh t h e base of th e m o und . On
m o ving
2 a feet nearer th e co lumn , he n ds th at th e angle subtended is
unch an ged . Fin d th e h eigh t of th e m o und and o f th e co lumn .
17 ,
A ch urch t o wer stands on t h e bank o f a river, wh ich is 1 50 feet
wide , an d o n th e t o p o f th e t o wer is a s ire 80 feet h igh p . To an o bserver
on th e o pp o sit e bank o f th e river, t h e s ire sub tends th e p same an gl e t h at

a po le six feet h igh subtends wh en laced u righ t o n th e gro und at th e p p
fo o t o f t h e t o wer Pro ve th at th e h eigh t o f t h e t o wer is nearl 285 f eet
. y .
18 ,
A perso n, wi shi ng t o ascert ain th e h eigh t of a t o wer, st ati o ns
h imself on a h o riz o ntal pl an e t h ro ugh i t s f o o t at a p o int at whi ch th e

elevatio n o f t h e tap is On walking a distance a in a certain directio n
he nds th at t h e elevati on o f th e t o p is th e same as befo re , and o n th en
walking a di st ance
g a at righ t angles t o h is fo rm er directio n h e nd s th e
[Exs . XXXI V .
26 ,
p
A regular yram id o n a sq uare base h as an e dge 1 50 feet lo ng,
and th e lengt h o f th e s ide o f i t s base is 200 fee t F in d t h e inclinat io n o f .
it s face to t h e base .
27 ,
A py ramid h a s fo r base a square o f si de a it s vert ex lies on a
line th ro ugh t h e m iddl e p o in t o f t h e bas e an d p p

er en dicular t o it , and at
a distan ce 11 fro m i t ; ro ve t h at th e p angle 0 . be t ween t h e t wo lat eral faces

is given by th e eq uatio n
m a
a /ea
2 2
28 A agsta, 1 00 feet h igh , st ands in th e centre o f an e q ui lat eral

,
trian gle wh ich i s h o riz o ntal F ro m t h e t o p o f t h e agst a each side

.
subt ends an angl e o f p

ro ve th at t h e len gt h o f t h e s ide o f th e t ria ngle
is 5 0J 6 feet .
29 ,
Th e ext remi t y of th e s h ado w o f a fl agst a , whi ch is 6 feet h igh
and st ands o n th e t o p of a py ram i d o n j
a s q uare base , us t reach e s t h e
side of t h e base and is dist ant 5 6 an d 8 feet p

res e cti vel y fro m th e
ext rem ities o f th at side. Find th e al ti t u de if t h e h eig h t

sun s of th e
py ramid be 34 fee t .
30 ,
Th e e xtremi t y of th e sh ado w o f a agst a , wh ich is 6 feet hi gh
an d st ands o n th e t o p of a py rami d o n a sq uare base, j t us reach e s th e
s ide o f t h e b ase and i s dis t ant 3 feet and y fee t re s p
ect ive ly f ro m th e ends
o f t h at si de ; p ro ve t h at t h e h eigh t of th e py ram id is
/
a a
z
t an a G,
N
wh ere a is th e elevat io n of th e sun .
31 , Th e angle o f ele vat io n o f a cl o ud fro m a p o int h feet abo ve

a lak e is a , an d th e angle o f de p ress io n o f its refle xi o n in t h e l ake is
t h at it s h e
'
ro ve h t is h
32 . Th e sh ado w o f a t o wer is o bserved t o be h alf t h e k no wn h eigh t

of th e t o wer and so m e t im e aft erward s it is eq ual t o t h e kn o wn h eigh t ;
h o w m uch will th e s un h ave go ne do wn in th e int erval , given
lo g 2 '
301 03, L t an 6 3 26 '
di fo r. 7
[Exs XXXI V
.
J HEI GHTS AN D D I S AN CES T . 227
33 ,
An iso sceles triangle of wo o d is pl aced in a verti cal plane , vert ex
u pw ards , and faces th e sun . I f 2a be th e base of th e t riangl e, h its

h eigh t , and 30 t h e

alt it ude o f th e sun , p ro ve t h at th e tangent of th e angle
2a h .J3
at th e p
a ex o f t h e sh ado w is
3h
a

34 A ,
re ct ang ular t arget faces due so uth , being vert ical and standi ng
on a h o riz o nt al plane. Co m p are th e area o f th e targe t wit h th at of it s

sh ado w o n th e gro und wh en t h e sun is B fro m th e

s o uth at an altitude
of
35 , A sph erical ball , of diam eter 6 , s ubtends an angle a at a m an s
ey e wh en th e el evatio n o f its ce ntre is B; p ro ve th at th e h eigh t of the

1 a
cen tre o f t h e ball is 6 sin Bco sec
5 5
36 ,
A m an st an ding o n a plan e o b serves a ro w o f eq ual and eq ui
distant pill ars , th e l oth and 1 7th of whi ch subt end th e s am e angle t h at
th e y wo ul d do if th e y were in th e p o s itio n of th e rst and were
p
res ect vely i and
% of th eir h eigh t . Pro ve th at , neglect in g th e h eigh t
of th e man

s ey e , th e line of pill ars i s in clin ed t o t h e line drawn fro m his
ey e to t h e rst at an angle wh o s e se can t i s n earl y26 .
F or t he f o llo wi ng f o ur examp les a bo o k o f ta bles wi ll be wan ted .
Appo si 7 , A an d B are two p o ints , whi ch are o n t h e bank s o f a river and
o te t o o n e ano th er, and between t h em is th e mast , PN , o f a shi p;

t h e breadth of th e ri ver is 1 000 feet , and th e angular elevatio n o f P at A
is 1 4 20
and at B it is 8
Wh at i s t h e h eigh t of P ab o ve AB
_38 ,
AB is a li ne 1 000 y ards lo ng ; B is due n o rth o f A and fro m B
a dist ant pi o nt P bears 70

east o f no rt h ; at A it bears 41

22

east o f
n o rt h ; nd t h e dis t ance fro m A t o P .
A is a s t at io n exactl y 1 0 m ile s west of B . Th e b earing of a
articular ro ck fro m A i s 74 1 9
its bearing fro m B is

eas t o f no rth , and

26 5 1 wes t

o f n o rt h . H o w far is it n o rt h o f t h e line AB
40 ,
Th e summi t o f a s pi re is verticall y o ver th e m iddle po in t o f a
h o riz o nt al sq uare en clo sure wh o se side is o f length a feet ; t h e h eigh t o f

p
t h e s ire is h feet abo ve t h e level o f t h e square I f t h e sh ado w o f th e .
spi j t
re us reach a co rner o f th e sq uare wh e n t h e sun h as an altit ude 0,
p th t
ro ve a
h J 2 = a t an 0 .
Calculate h , h avin g given a = 1 000 feet and 0 = 25
15 2
CHAPT ER XV .
R
P OPE RTI ES OF A TRI ANGLE .
1 98 . A re a of a g iv e n t ri a n g l e . Let AB C be an
y
t riangle , and AD t he pe rp e n
dicular drawn fro m A u po n t he A F

Oppo sit e side .
Th ro ugh A draw E A F parallel

t o BC, and draw B E d CF per

an
p e n dicu lar t o it By E u
. c I 41 , . .
t h e area o f t h e t riangle A BC
i le BF i B C CF AD
re ct an
g i d .
But A D = A B sin B = c sin B .
Th e area of t h e t riangle A BC t herefo re l ca Sin B .
Thi s area is deno t ed by A .
Hence A = ca s in B = a h zi n c = b c si n A

2
By Art 1 69, we have sin A Vs ( s a )( s b) ( s c )
56
.
,
This lat t er quant ity is o ft e n calle d S .

[Exs XXXV J
.
17 ,
T h e lengt h s of t wo side s o f a t riangle are o ne fo o t and fee t
p
res ecti vel y , an d th e angle Opp i t os e th e sh o rt er side is pro ve th at
t h ere are t wo triangles sati fyi g th
s n ese co n dit i o n s, nd th eir angl es , and
sh o w t h at t h eir areas are in th e rat io
- 1 .
18 ,
F ind by t h e aid o f t h e t ables t h e area o f t h e larger of t h e t wo
t riangl es given by th e dat a
a = 5 in s . , an d b = 7 in s .
1 99 . On th e circl e s c o n n e ct e d wit h a g i v e n
t ri an g l e .
Th e circle wh ic h passe s t hro ugh t he an

gular po int s o f
a t riangle A BC is calle d i ts circumscribing circle o r m o re ,
briey, it s circu m circl e . T h e cent re o f t his circle is

fo und by t h e co ns truct io n o f Euc I V 5 I t s radi us is
. . .
y
alwa s called R .
Th e circle h can be inscribed wit hin t h e t riangle

wh ic
so as to t o uch each o f t h e sides is called it s ins cribed
circle o r, m o re brie y it s i n ci rcle
,
Th e cent re o f t his .
circle is fo und by t h e co ns t ruct io n o f Euc I V 41 I ts radi us . . .
will b e deno t ed by r .
Th e circle which t o u ch es t h e side B C and t h e t wo

side s AB and A C pro duced is called t h e e sc rib e d circle
o pp o sit e t h e angle A I t s radiu s will b e deno t ed by r,

. .
S im ilarly r, de no t es t h e ra dius of t he circle w ich h

t o uc h es t he side CA and t h e t wo sides BC and BA
produced . Also r, deno t es t h e radius o f t h e circle t o u ch
ing A B and th e t wo sides CA and CB pro duced .
Bis ect t h e t wo side s BC an d CA in D and E res pec

t ive ly, and draw D O and E 0 perp endicular t o BC and CA .
RAD I US o n TH E C I RCUM CI RCLE . 231
By Euc I V 5, . . O is t h e cent re of t he circum circle .
Jo in OB and 0 0 .
Th e po int 0 may eit her lie wit hin t h e t riangle as in

F ig 1 ,
. o r wit ho ut it as in F ig 2 o r u po n o ne o f t h e sides
.
,
asin F ig 3 . .
Taking t h e rst gure, t h e t wo t ria ngles B OD and
COD are e q ual in all respect s so t hat ,
A B OD A COD ,
A B OD }
1 A B OC A BA C ( Euc . III .
A .
BD B O sin B OD .
a

R 81 11 A
2
.
I f A be o b t use , as in F ig 2, we. have

A B OO A BL O E

A B OD }
1 1 80 A ( uc . III .
so t hat , as be fo re, S in B OD sin A,

a
R
2 sin A
I f A be a ri
gh t an l
g ,
e as in F ig 3, we . have

R 0A 00
2
a
S i nce I n t hi s case sm A = 1
2 sin A
.
Th e relat io n fo und abo ve is t h ere fo re t rue fo r

t riangle s .
Hence , in all t h re e cases , we have

b c
( Art .
Q ui n A 2 s in B Q ui n t!
201 . I n Art 1 69 we
. h ave sh e wn t hat
c;
H
w here S is t h e area o f t h e t riangle .
S ubst it ut ing t his value o f sin A in we have

ab c
48
giving t h e ra dius o f t h e circum circle in t erm s o f t h e Sides .
202 . To nd the value o

f r, the
f
o th e tri ang le A BC .
Bise ct t h e t wo an
gle s B an d C by t h e t wo lines BI
and CI m ee t ing in I .
By Euc . III . 4, I is t h e
ce nt re o f t h e incircle . J o in
I A, and draw I D , I E ,
an d
I F perp endicular to the

t hre e sides .
Th e n I D = I E = I F = r .
W e have
are a o f A I BO l I D BC = -
.
}
i r a,
.
area o f A
area o f A i n c .
234 T RI Go N o M E E T Y .
r = I E = CE t an I CE = ( s c ) t an
an d also r = I F = F A t an I A F =
( s a ) t an
A
Hence
A t hird value fo r r m ay be fo und as fo llo ws

we h v
a e a = BD DC = I D co t I BD + I D co t I CD
B
-
+ r co t g
2 2
B
r Sin co s + co s

r sin

90 r cos
Esin
2
r a _ -
Z
o
00 8
5
Cor . Since a 2R sin A 4R sin
A B
we h ave
To nd th e f th e radius o the escribed

205 .
value o r, ,
f
circle opp osite the angle A f
o the tri angle A B C .
RAD I I o r TH E ES C RI BE D CI RCLES . 235
Pro duce A B and A C t o L and M .
Bise ct t h e angle s CBL and

E CM by t h e lines BI 1 a nd CL ,
and le t t h e se lines m ee t in I
D raw I , D , , LE , and L E,
perpendi cular t o t he t hree s ides
re spe ct ive ly .
T h e t wo t riangles I I D l B and
I , F,B are e q ual in all res pect s ,
so t hat
Similarly I ,E, = I ,D , .
Th e t hree perpendiculars
I 1 D , I ,E , ,
, and I being e qual t h e po int ,
I 1 is t h e ce nt re
of t he re quired circle .
N o w t h e area A BLC is e qual t o t h e su m of the

t riangle s AB C and I ,B C ; it is als o e qual t o t h e su m o f
t h e t riangles I 1 BA and I l CA .
H ence
A A B O + A I ,BC = A I , CA + A I ,A B .
S+} , 1
I D B
1 C = .
}
1 I , E , CA . A B,
+ c + d
r, ( s a ) .
8
s a
Similarly it can be s hewn t hat

8
s - b

206 . Since AE, an d AF, are t ange nt s, we have ,
as in Art 203 A E1
.
,
= AF l o
S imilarly ,
BF , BD , , and CE , CD , .
2A E, = A E, AF , AB BF , + A C CE ,
CA 23 .
A E, = s= AF , .
LE, A E, t e n I ,A E ,,
A
. t an --o
207 . A t hird value m ay b e o bt ained fo r r, in t erm s

a and t he an les B and C
g .
F o r, since I , C bisect s t h e an
gl e B CE , ,
we have
LCD , C)

4 90
B
g
O
AI I D 1
= 9O e
I ,D , co t I ,BD , I ,D , co t I , CD ,
I-} 2
r,
(t an
2
t an
2 )
B
[Exs XXX
. VL ]
1 1 1 1
11
a
- r co t
) c
S : 2R sin A sin B sin C .
4R sin A sin B si n C : a co s A + b co s B + c co s C .
A B C
S : 4c os - co s -co s

1 1 1 1
17 , 18 . f1 r r -
+ s+ f
S
19 .
1 1 1 1 1 1
fl fa
a
2 o wn as raw

21
B
+
ec
+
ab 23
'
208 . Orth oce nt re an d p e d al t ri an gl e of any
t ri an gl e .
Le t A B C be any t riangle , and le t A K, BL, and CM be

t he perpendiculars fro m A B and C , ,
u po n t h e o ppo sit e sides o f t h e t ri
an le I t can be easily sh e wn as
g .
,
in mo st edit io ns o f Euclid t hat ,
t h e se t hree perp endiculars m ee t in

a co m m o n p o int P Th is po int P . B
is calle d t h e o rt h o c e nt re of t he
t riangle Th e t riangle KLM wh ich is fo rm ed by j o ining
.
,
t h e fe et o f t h ese perpe ndiculars is called t h e p e d al ,
t ri an gl e o f AB C .
209 . D istances o f the o rth ocentre f ro m the a ngula r
p o ints o f the triangk .

PED AL TRI ANGL E . 239
We have P K KB t an P BK = KB C)

t an ( 90
c
A B co s B co t C oo s B oo s C
sin C
2R co s B co s C ( Art .
Again AP AL se c KA C
c co s A co sec C
c
sin C
2R co s A ( Art .
So BP 2R co s B , and CP 21 2co s 0 .
Th e dist an ce s of t he o rt ho cent re fro m t h e an

g ular
po int s are t h erefo re 2R cos A , 2R co s B, and 2B co s C ; it s

dist an ces fro m t h e side s are 2R co s B co s C 2R co s C cos A ,
,
an d 2B cos A co s B.
21 0 . To nd the sides and ang les o f the p edal triangle .
Sin ce t h e angle s PK0 an d PL C are rig ht angle s, th e

po int s P ,
L, C ,
and K lie o n a circle .
A P KL A POL ( Euc . III . 21 )
A

90 .
Similarly, P, K, B , and M lie o n a circle, an d t h erefo re

A P KM A P EM

90 A .
Hence A M KL 2A

1 80
t he su pplem ent of 2A .
A KLM : 1 80

2B,
LM K

A 1 80 2C .
fro m t h e t riangle A LM , we h ave

LM AL A B co s A
sin A s in A ML cos PML
c oos A c oo s A
co s PA L s in C
6
sm A co s A
sin C
a co s A .
( Art .
So
Th e sides of t he pe dal t riangle are t h ere fo re 0 co s A

.
,
b co s B , an d c co s 0 also it s g l
anes are t h e supp le men t s
of t wi ce t h e an les of the t riangle
g .
21 1 . Let I be t h e ce n t re o f t h e in circle and I I an d
I the cen t res o f t he es cribe d circle s
which are o ppo sit e t o A B, an d C

re sp e ct i e l v y . A s in Art s 202 . an d
205 , I C bis ect s t h e angle A CB, and
I , C bisect s t h e an le B OM
g .
A A CB + A M CB
A M OE]
1 80

a ri
gh t an
gle .
Sim ilarly, A I CI , is a right

gle .
Hen ce I , CI is a st raigh t line t o wh ich I C is perpen

dicular .
So I ,AI , is a st raig ht line t o wh ich I A is perpo n

H ence 2A D
t hat 20 2
a
.
Hence also AD i / b h

c

2bc cos A .
( Art .
So also
V =
b and CF =
h/ 2a + 2b
BE : 1, 2c + 2a

,
=
}
1
2
c

.
21 4 . A ng les that the median A D ma kes wi th the s ides .
I f t h e A BA D B , an d A CA D 7 we, have
sin y DC a
sin C AD 240
a sin 0 a sin C
a s1 n B
S imilarly, B
Again, if t h e A AD C be 0, w e have
sin 0 AC b
S in C AD v
.
b sin 0 2b sin C
a:
Th e an les t hat A D m ak e s wi t h t h e sides t here fo re

g are
fo und .
21 5 . The cent roi d lies on th e line j oining the circum
centre to the ortho centre .

CI RCUM CEN TRE AN D O RTHOCENTRE . 243
Le t 0 an d P
be t h e circu m cent re o rt h o cent re
pe ct ive ly
res . D raw CD and
P K pe rpe ndicular t o BC .
Le t A D OP m e et in G
an d .
Th e t riangles CCD and

P GA are clearl y e qu i an
g u lar.
Also , by Art 200 .

,
CD R co s A
and, by Art 209, .
AP 21 2co s A .
He nce by Eu c , . VI . 4,
AG AP
GD 6 75
Th e po int C is t h ere fo re t h e ce nt ro id o f t h e t riangle .
Al so , by t h e sam e pro po sit io n,

CC 0D 1
GP
'
AP 2
The cent ro id t h erefo re lies o n t h e line j o ining t h e

circu m ce nt re to t h e o rt h o ce nt re and di vi des it in t h e rat io
,
1 2.
I t m ay be sh ewn by geo m e t r t h at t h e ce nt re y of the

nin e p o int circle ( wh ich passe s t h ro u h t h e fe e t
- of the
g
perpendiculars t h e m iddle po int s o f t h e side s and t h e
, ,
m iddle po int s o f t h e lin es j o ining t h e angu lar p o int s

t o t h e o rt ho cent re ) lie s o n OP and bisect s it .
Th e circu m ce nt re , t he ce n t ro id, the ce nt re of the

p
n ine - o int circle , and the o rt ho cent re t here fo re all lie on a
s t rai ht lin e
g .
21 6 . D is tance between th e circu mcentre and the o rth o
centre .
1 6 2
I f OF be perpendicular t o A B we , h ave
0AF A OF C

A = 90 A = 90 .
A PA L C

90 .
A 0A P = A A OA F - A PA L
A C) A+ 2C

= 1 80
A + 2C B

( A .
Also OA R , and, by Art 209, .
PA 2B . co s A .
: 20 A P A
OP OA 2
PA a
co s OA P
4R
oo s A co s ( C B)
R
AR co s A [ A ( C B) ]
2
co s co s
R
4R
oo s A B )]
( Art .
R
8R
co s A co s B co s C .
OP = R /1 S co s A co s B co s C .
To nd the distance between th e ci rcum centre

'
21 7
.
a nd the incentre .
Let O be t h e circum ce nt re, and
let OF be perpendicular t o AB .
Let I be t h e ince nt re , an d IE
be perpendicular t o A C .
T h en as in t h e last art icle

, ,
OA F C

A 90 .
A OA I = A I AF A OAF
1 C
B

A nt o n Let OI b e p ro du ced t o m eet t h e circu mcircle o f th e t riangle

in S an d T, an d l et AH , m eet it in H .
By E uc . I II . 35 , we h ave
SI . I T = (R + 0 1 ) (R 01 ) = m 01
t H I C = 2 1 0 4 + 4 1 4 C = 4 1 0 3 + A H AB
4 1 0 3 + 4 H OB
A H CI .
HI : H 0: 21 3 em
I E
E2
Substituting in we h ave
a
R OI 2Rr,
Similarl y , we can sh ew th at I 1 H = I 1 0 , and h ence t h at

110 2
R =
3
I
I H 1 1 A = 2Rr1
21 8 . B i se ct o rs of th e a n g le s .
I f A D bis ect t h e an
g l e A and
di vide t h e bas e int o po rt io ns a: and
y, we h ave ,
b y Eu c . VI . 3,
a: AB 0
2
5
'
y AC
a: y _
w + 31 0.
=
c b b+ b+ c
ivin w and y
g g .
A lso , if 8 be t h e le ngt h of AD and 0 the

m ak es wi t h B C, we h ave
A A BD l A A CD - A ABO .
0 8 sin + 1 b8 8 in l bc sin A ,
[Exs xxxvn ]
. R
P O PE RTI ES o r TRI ANGLES . 247
be sin A _ 2bc
_
b+ c A b+ c
2
0 = A D AB + B +B
We t hus have th e lengt h of th e bisect o r

inclinat io n t o BC .
EXAM PLES . XXXVI I .
If I ,
I I I , and I 8 be p
res ect ivel y th e cent res o f incircle
th ree escrib ed circle s o f a t riangle AB C, p ro ve th at
1 . AI z r co sec
A B
2 IA I B I C t an - tan - -t an
Q
. .
. .
A
3 .
AI l = r1 co sec I I l
= a seo O
5 . 1 21 8 -
1 0 . 0 0 880 s .
B+C
7 . 8 . A 0
2
9
9 , I 1 1 + I zl ,
10 .
Area of co s
; g
1 co s co s
11
s in C
If I , O, and P be p
res ecti vel y th e in centre, circum cent re , orth o
centre , and G th e centro id o f t h e triangle AB C , p ro ve t h at
12 .
1 0 =R 9 9
3-
( 2 co s A - 2 co s B 2 co s C ) .
13 . IP = 2r - 4R
co s A co s B co s C .
14 , 00 = R 9
B - C
15 Area o f AI OP ==2R 2
sin
2
.
[Exs . m 1
4 B C
16 Area o f _ R am
0
, A I P G .

8 2 2 2
17 ,
Pro ve t h at th e di st ance of t h e centre o f th e nine- p o int circle fro m
_
i
f
th e angl e A i s + 8 co s A si n B sin q .
18 .
D E F is t h e p dlt i
e a r angle o f AB C ; p ro ve t h at
( )
1 it s i s 25 '
are a co s A co s B co s C,
( 2) th e radius o f it s circum circle is }

I
and ( 3) th e radiu s o f it s incircle is 2B 00 5 A co s B co s C

.
19 . 0 1 0 3 03 is t h e t riangl e fo rmed by th e cent res o f th e es cribed circles
of th e triangle AB C ; p ro ve th at
( )
1 it s si des are 412co s 4 4B co s

l

A ir B
( 2) i t s angles are
2 2 2 5
and ( )
3 i ts area is 2Rs .
20 D E F is th e tri angle fo rm ed by o ining th e o in t s

.
j p o f co nt act o f
th e incircle with t h e sides o f th e t riangle AB C ; ro ve t h at p

( )
1 it s sides are 2r co s
g ,
2r cos
g , and g,
2r co s -
'
l A r B r C
( )
2 i n augua ti n
r -
g 2 5 5 .
28 ' I f
M d ( 3) l t s area l s - s
E
. .
abos
21 . D, E, and F are th e mi ddle po ints o f th e sides o f t h e t riangle

AB C ; p ro ve th at th e centro id o f t h e triangle D E F is t h e same as th at of
AB C, and th at its o rt h ocentre is t h e circumcentre of AB C .
I n any triangle AB C, p ro ve th at
22 ,
Th e p erpendicular fro m A di vides B C int o p o rtio ns whi ch are
p p
ro o rti o nal t o th e co t angent s o f th e j
ad acent angles, and th at it di vides
th e angl e A int o po rt io n s wh o se co sines are inversel yp ro po rti o nal to th e
j
ad acent sides .
23 Th e
,
m edian th ro ugh A di vid es i t int o angles wh o se co t angent s
are 2 co t A + co t C and 2 co t A + co t B , and m akes wi t h t h e b ase an angle
wh ose co t angent is
i; (co t C co t B) .
[ s
Ex . m m ]
33 . Th ro ugh th e angular p o int s o f a tri angle are drawn st raigh t
lines which make th e same angle a wit h t h e o o sit e sides o f t h e tri angle ; pp
p ro ve th at t h e area o f t h e t riangle fo rmed by t h em is to t h e area o f t h e
o riginal t riangle as 4 co s a

1 .
34 . Two circl es , o f radii a an d b, out each o t h er at an angle 0 .
Pro ve th at th e length of th e co mm o n ch o rd is
2a b sin 0
co s 0
35 , Th ree equal circles t o uch o ne ano th er ; nd th e radius o f th e

circle wh ich t o uch es all t h ree .
36 , Th re e circles , wh o se radii are a , b, and c, t o uch o ne ano th er
externa lly an d th e t angen t s at th eir p o int s o f co nt act meet in a pi

o nt ;
p ro ve th at th e dis tan ce o f th is pi o nt fro m eith er o f th eir p o int s o f co nt act is
)
a bc t
a+ b+ c
37 ,
I n t h e s ides B C, CA, AB are taken t h ree p o ints A ,B
' '
, C
such th at
A = AC
' ' '
CB z m
' ' '
DA A C r- CB
2B n ;
p ro ve th at if AA
'
, BB '
, and C C be
j o ined th e y will f o rm by th eir inter
sectio n s a tria ngle wh o se area i s to t h at of th e t riangle AB C as
( m n)
a
38 ,
Th e circle inscribed in t h e t riangle AB C t o uch es t h e sides B C ,
CA , and AB in p
th e o in t s A, , B , , and C, re s ectivel ; similarl t h e p y y
circle inscribed in t h e triangle A,B , C, t o uch es th e sides in A, , B , , C,
res pect ivel y , an d so o n ; if be th e nth tri angle so fo rmed, p ro ve
th at it s angl es are
7 -n I I I
7
I
H ence pro ve th at th e t riangle so fo rm ed is ult imatel y eq uilate ral .
39 .
A,B ,C, is th e triangle fo rmed by j i ing th
o n e feet o f th e perpen
dicul ars drawn fro m AB C u o n t h e p Opp it id os e s es ; in like manner
A, B,C, is t h e triangle o btain ed by j o ining th e feet of th e p p er endiculars
fro m A, , B , , and C, on th e o pp o site sides , and so o n. F ind th e values o f
t h e angles A, B, " and C,, in th e nt h o f th ese triangles .

CH APTER XVI .
ON Q UAD RI LATERALS AN D REGULAR POL YGONS .
21 9 . To nd the area o
f a qua dri la t eral which is
inscribable in a circle .
Let A BCD be t h e q uadrilat eral , the side s being a, b

, c,
and d as m ark e d in t h e gu re .
Th e are a o f t h e qu adrilat e ral
area o f A A B C + area o f A A D C
l a bsin B + cd sin D ( Art

.
A(

a b cd sin
) B ,
since , by Eu c I I I 22 . .
AB

1 80
an d t h erefo re
sin B sin D .
We h a v e to ex ress sin p B in
t erm s of t he sides .
We h ave
+b 2ab co s B = A C = c9 + d 2cd co s D
z 3 2
a .
B ut D ( 0 B)

co s co s 1 8 co s B .
Hence

a + b

2ab 2cd co s B,
+ b d
3 ,
a c
co s B
2 ( ab cd )
( M + & - d &y
sm

B l co s B l
{ 2
4 ( ab ed )
2
4 ( ab cd )
2
2a b b)

(
c 2cd + 2cd d
) b 2ah) }
4 ( ab cd )

4 ( ab cd )
2
4 ( a b cd )

so t h at
a + b+ c 2d = 2 (e d) ,
a + b
) c ,
b
a ) ,
a
) .
Hence
2 (s d) x 2 s c x 2 (s b) x 2( s a )
srn

B
4 ( a h + cd )
so t hat
a
)( s b) ( s - o )( s d) .
H ence t h e area o f the quadrilat eral

25 4 TRI GON CM ET RY .
F o r let t h e su m o f t h e t wo an
gle s B D be de no t e d
by 2a , and deno t e t h e area o f the
quadrilat eral by A .
T h en
A are a o f A BC are a o f A CD
l a b sin B 5 0d sin D,
so t hat
4A 2a b sin B 2cd sin D .
Also a

b
2a h co s B c
2
d
2cd co s D ,
so t ha t
+ b c d = 2ab B 2cd co s D

a co s
S q uaring ( 1 ) an d ( )
2 and addin
g w
, e h ave
b 4a b 4c d
I G A (
2 2 2 2
a c
8 a bcd ( co s B co s D sin B sin D )

4a b 2 2
4c d
8a bcd co s ( B D)
4a b 9 2
4c d
8a bcd co s 2a
4a b 4c d 8 abcd ( 2

2
1)

i i 2 2
co s a
4 (ab cd ) 1 6 a bcd

co s a,
so t hat
4 (a b cd b
I GA ) ( d) 1 6 a bcd
2 z a 2
a c co s at
( )
3
Bu t , as in Art 21 9, we . have
4 ( ab ed)
6
( ) d
2
a + 0
2 ( s c
) 2 ( s d) .
16 ( s a )( s b) ( s c) ( s d) .
H ence ( 3) be co m es
a
)( s
b) ( s c )( c -d
) abcd co s a,

giving t h e re quired area .
Cor . 1 . I f d be q uadrilat eral beco mes a

z ero , the
t riangle , and t he fo rm ula abo ve beco m es t h at o f Art 1 98 . .
A REA OF A Q UA D R I L ATE R AL .
Cor 2 . . I f t h e sides of the qu adrilat eral be giv e n in
leng t h , we kno w a b c d and t here fo re s T h e

, , , . are a A is
h ence great est when abcd co s a is least t hat is wh e n co s a 2

,
2
is z ero and t h en a
, I n t his cas e t h e sum o f t wo
o ppo sit e angle s o f t h e q u adrilat eral is 1 80 and t h e gure

inscribable in a circle .
( Eu c . I II .
quadrilat eral who se sides are given h as t here fore

Th e , ,
t h e great e st area wh en i t can be inscribed in a circle .
222 . Bx . F i nd t he area o f a qua dri la t era l whi ch ca n h ave a ci rcle
i ns cri bed i n i t .
I f t h e q uadrilateral AB CD can h ave a circl e inscribed in it so as t o

t o uch t h e sides AB , B C, CD , and D A in t h e o int s P , Q, R, an d 8 , we p
sh o ul d h ave
A P = AS , B P = B Q , C Q = CR, and D R = D S .
AH + CD = B C + D A ,
+ b+ c+ d
H ence
a
2
s-a = c, s b = d, s - c = c , and c d=b .
Th e fo rm ula o f t h e last art icle t h erefo re gi ves in t h is case

a bcd si n a ,
2 2
A a bcd a bcd co s a

th e area req uired /
g ab zd sin a .
I f in additi o n t h e q u adrilat eral be als o inscri bable in a circl e, we h ave

2a so t h at sin a s in 1 .
H en ce th e area of a q uadril at eral wh ich can be bo th inscribed in

a circle and circum scribed abo ut an o t h er circl e is m .
X
E AM PLES . XXXVI I I .
1 ,
Fin d th e area o f a quadrilat eral , whi ch can be in scribed in a circle,
wh o se sides are
( )
1 3, 5 , 7, 9 feet ;
an d
an d ( 2) 7, 1 0, 5 , an d 2 feet .
2 ,
Th e sides of a q uadrilateral are res p ectivel y3 ,
4, 5 , and 6 feet, and
th e sum o f a pi ar of o pp
o site angles i s p ro ve t h at t h e area o f th e
q uadrilat eral is 3 J 30 square feet .
[Exs XXXVI I I J
.
3 , quadrilat eral whi ch can be inscribed in a circle

Th e sides of a are
3, 3, 4, and 4 feet ; nd th e radii o f th e incircle and circumcircle .
4 ,
Pro ve th at t h e area o f any q uadril at eral is o ne -h alf th e p ro duct o f
th e t wo diago nals an d th e sin e of th e an gle bet ween t h em .
5 ,
If a q uadrilateral can be in scribed in o ne circle and circum scribed
abo ut ano th er circle, p ro ve th at it s area is J abcd , and t h at th e radius o f
t h e latt er circle is
6 ,
A quadrilateral AB CD is described abo ut a circle ; p ro ve that
A B C D
A B s rn CD sm - srn -
2 z g
.
7 ,
a, b, c, and d are th e sides of a q uadrilat eral t ak en in o rder, and a .
is th e angle bet ween t h e diago nals o pp o si te to b o r d ; p

ro ve t h at t h e area
of th e q uadrilat eral is
i( a
b +
c

d
) t an a .
8 ,
If a, b, c, and d be th e s i des an d a: and y th e diag als
o n of a
quadrilateral , p ro ve th at it s area is
i
l
lw y
i -
(ba r - ai
m .
9 ,
If a q uadrilat eral can be in scribed in a circle, p ro ve th at t h e angle
between its diago nals is
I f th e same quadril ateral can al so be circum scribed abo ut a circle, p ro ve
th at th is angle is t h en
ac bd
ac bd
10 .
Th e si des o f a quadrilat eral are divided in o rder in th e rat io
m z n, and a new quadrilateral j

is fo rmed by o ining th e o int s o f di visio n ; p
pro ve t h at it s area is t o t h e area o f t h e o riginal gure as to
m -
( l
11 ,
I f AB CD be a q uadrilateral in scribed in a circle, p ro ve th at
and t h at th e p ro duct o f th e segm ent s in t o whi ch o ne diago nal is divided

by t h e o t h er di ago nal is
Th e angle B OC is
ith of t he s um o f all t he
subt ended at O by t h e sides ,
4 righ t angles 21 r
AB C O radi ans .
n n
Hence AB O L i A B OO Z
If a be a side o f t he po lygo n , we have
a = B C = 2B L = 2R sin B OL 2R sin

a a If
co se c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
rr 2 n
a 2BL 2OL t an B OL 2r t an
225 . A re a of a R e g u l a r P o ly g o n .
Th e area o f t he po lygo n is n t imes t h e area o f t h e
t riangle B OC .
Hence t h e area o f t he po lygo n

=n
?
a n
COt
Z! a
giving t h e area in t erm s o f t h e side .
Also t h e area
OL OL t an BOL
.
= nr t an
R EGULAR POLYGON S . 25 9
Agai n, t h e area

n . OL BL = . n . OB co s L OB OB sin L OB .
-
27'
nR co s E
sin Z r
-= R sin
n n 2 n
Th e fo rmulae ( 2) ( )g
3 iv e t and
h e area in t erms of t he
radius o f t he inscribed and circumscribed circles .
33 0 . x. T h e le ngt h of each side o f a regular dodecago n is 20 f eet

nd ( ) he radius
1 t of i ts i nscri bed ci rcle , ( 2) t he ra dius of i ts circumscri bing
ci rcle , and ( 3) i ts area .
Th e angle subten ded by a side at th e cent re o f th e p lyg n o o
860
12
Hn e ce we h ave 1 0 = r tan I 5 = R sin

r: 1 0 co t 1 5
10
(Art 1 01
.
)
2 43
1 0 (2 37 feet .
1

lox
2 2
(Art 1 06.
)
sin 15 - r
y s
10 .
J 2
1 0 (2 4495 . 1 38 6 37 . feet .
Again , th e area 12 x r x 1 0 sq uare feet

1 200 square feet .
1 . F ind, co rrect to 0 1 in ch , th e length o f th e

o f an p erimeter o f a
regular decago n whi ch surro unds a circle o f radius o ne fo o t .
2 ,
F ind t o 3 pl decimals th e length o f th e side of a regul ar
aces o f
p lyg
o on of 1 2 sides which is circumscribed to a circle o f uni t radi us .
3 .
Find th e area o f ( 1 ) a pent ago n , ( )
2 a h exago n, ( )
3 an o ct ago n,
( 4) a decago n and ( 5) a do decago n, each being a regular g ure o f side
1 foo t .
Find t h e di erence bet ween th e areas o f a

4 ,
regular o ct ago n and a
p
regular h exago n if th e erim et er o f each be 24 feet .
1 7 2
260 TRI GON OM ETB Y .
[Exs .
A square , wh o se side is 2 feet, h as its

5 , co m ers cut awa y so as to
fo rm a regular o ctago n ; nd i t s area .
6 , Co m p are th e areas and p erim eters o f o ct ago ns wh ich are respec
ti vel y in scribed in and circumscri be d gi veto

n circ
ale , an d sh o w t h at t h e
areas o f th e inscribed h exago n and o ct ago n are as J 27 t o J 32 .
7 ,
Pro ve t h at t h e radius of th e circl e describe d abo ut a regul ar
pen tago n is n earl y th s of th e s ide o f th e p entago n.
8 ,
If an equilat eral t riangle and a regular h exago n h ave th e sam e
p erim eter, pro ve t h at th eir areas are as 2: 3 .
9 ,
If a regular p en t ago n and a regular decago n h ave th e sam e
perim et er, p ro ve t h at t h eir areas are as 2 J 5 .
10 Pro ve t h at t h e s um o f th e radii o f th e circles , wh ich are t eepe e
t ively m scribed in an d circumscribed abo ut a regul ar p lyg

o o n o f n sides , is
a. r

2 2n
wh ere a is a side o f th e p lyg

o o n.
11 Of t wo re gul ar p lyg
o o n s o f n sides , o ne circum scribes an d th e
o t h er 1 8 ins cribed in a gi ven circle . Pro ve th at th e th ree perim eters are in
th e rati o
an d th at th e areas of th e p lyg
o o ns are in th e rati o co s "
; l
1 .
12 ,
Given th at t h e area o f a p lyg
o o n o f n sides circum scribed ab o ut
a circle is to th e area o f th e circum s crib e d p lyg

o on of 2a si des as 3 2,
nd n .
13 Pro ve th at t h e area o f a re gular p lyg

o on o f 27: sides inscribed in a
circle 1 8 a m ean p p ti
ro o r o nal between th e area s o f th e regular in scribed
and circum s cr ib d p lyg
e o o ns o f n sides.
14 ,
Th e area o f a regular p lyg
o o n o f n sides inscribed in a circle is t o
t h at of th e same n umber o f si des circums cribing th e same circl e as 8 is t o
4 . F ind th e value o f n.
15 ,
Th e int erio r angl es o f a p lyg
o o n are in A . r th e l east angle
i s 1 20
and th e co mmo n di erence is nd t h e number o f sides.
CHAPTER XVI I .
TBI GON OM ETRI CAL RA I OS OF T SMALL AN GLES . A REA OF
A CI RCLE . D I P OF TH E HORI ZON .
I rad ians in any a ngle,

227 . F 0 be the number of
which is less than a right a ng le, then sin 0, 0, and ta n 0 a re
in
Le t TOP be an
y an
gle wh ich is less t h an a
an
gle.
Wit h cent re 0 an d any radius OP

arc PA P m e e t ing OT

describe an
in A .
D raw PN perpendicular to OA ,
and pro duce it t o m ee t t h e arc o f the
in P

circle
D raw t h e t angent P T at P to
m e et OA in T, and j o in TP

.
Th e t riangles P ON and P ON

are
e qual in all respects , so t hat PN NP

'
and
AP

arc P A arc .
Also t h e t riangles TOP and TOP

'
are e qual in all
res pect s , so t hat

SI N 0 6 TAN 0. 26 3
Th e st raig ht line PP is less t h an t h e

arc PA P

, so
t hat N P is arc PA .
W e shall assu me hat t h e arc PA P is less t h an t h e

t
an d TP , so t hat are P A PT

su m o f PT .
Hence N P , t h e arc A P, and PT are in as cendin

g
o rder o f mag nit ude .
P
g
arc
Th ere fo re are in ascendin
g
o
o rder o f m agnit ude .
But
g; sin A OP sin 0,

2$
1 )
num ber o f radians in 4 A OP 9 ( Art .
an d
t an P OT = t an A OP t an 0 .
Hence sin 6 6 , , and t an 0 are in ascending o rde r o f
m agni t ude, pro vided t hat

6 <
228 . Since sin 0 0 t an 0 we , have ,

by dividing
e ac h by t h e p o sit ive qu ant it y sin 0,
0 1
l
sin 0 co s 6
0
H ence always lie s b e t we en 1 and
em 0
This h o lds ho wever sm all 0 m ay be .
N o w wh en 0 is v ery small co s 0 is v ery

, , n earl y unit y ,
and t he sm aller 0 beco m es, t h e m o re y do es

ne arl co s 0
1
b eco m e y
u ni t , and h ence t he m o re nearly do es
co s 9
beco m e uni t y .
26 4 TRI GON OM ET RY .
9
He nce, wh en 0 is very small t h e quantit y lie s
s in 0
,
bet ween 1 and a quan t it y which di ers fro m unit y by

'
indenit e ly sm all qu ant it y .
I n o t her words wh en 0 is made indeni t ely small t h e

,
0
quanti t y and t h ere fo re is ult imate ly eq u al t o
sin 6
u nit y t e t h e sm aller an an le beco m es t h e m o re nearl
, . .
g y
is it s sine e qual t o t h e nu mb er o f radians in it .
This is o ft en s ho rt ly e xpre ssed t h u s ;

sin 0 0 wh en 0 is ve ry s mall , .
S o also t an 9 0 wh en 0 is ve ry sm all , .
Cor . Pu t t ing 0
5 ,
it fo llo ws t h at wh en 0 is inde
,
nit el y small ,
n is indenit ely great .
n
Hence is u nit y ,
w h en n is indenit ely great .
So n sin a, w hen n is indeni t ely great .
Similarly ,
n t an
; a, w h en n is indenit ely great .
229 I n t h e pre ceding art icle it m ust be part icularly

.
no t iced t hat 0 is t h e n u m be r o f radians in t h e ang le
co nsidered .
Th e valu e o f sin a

, w hen a is small, m ay be fo u n d .
F o r, since 7r

we have
res ult o f t h e last art icle .

266 TRI GONOMETRY .
)
0
' r
we h ave si n sin
1 80 x 6 1 80 x 6
1 41 59265
1 80 x 6
.
0029089 nearl y .

cos l sin
[1
app ro xi y
matel by th e Bino mial Th eo rem ,
1 '
W 234
'
9999958 .
I 2 . 3 . S o lve app roxi ma tely t he eq ua t i on
s in 0 52
'
.
1
Sin ce sin 0 rs ver yn earl y eq ual to
2
9 0 mus t be nearl y q
e ual to
Let th en 0
% + z , wh ere a: is small .
5 2 = s1n sin z co s z --
i co s z si n z
6 6
00 5 3 + i

Since 4: is y
ver sm all , we h ave
co s an d sin x = x nearl y .
J
.S 75
H ence a: 31
1 9 nearl '
y.
X
E A M PLES .
T kia ng r q
e ual to 31 41 5 926 5 , nd of decimals
value o f
1 ,
sin
4 ,
co s
[Exs XL .
] E XAM PLES . 26 7
So lve a pp ro ximat el y th qu e e at io ns
7 . Sin o= 01 .
0 8 .
Bin o = 48 '
9
(g --
i O
) 10 0 = 999
.
co a . co s .
11 ,
Find a ppro ximatel y th
which a h alf enn , wh ich is
e di st ance at p y
an i nch in diameter, m ust be placed so as t o just h ide th e m oo n , th e
angular diamet er o f t h e mo o n, t h at is th e angl e it s diameter subtends at
th e o bserver s eye, being tak en t o be

12 ,
A p walks in a straigh t li n e to ward a ver distant o b ect , and
erso n y j
o bserves t h at at t h ree p
o ints A , B , an d C th e angle s o f el evati o n o f t h e

j
t o p o f t h e o b ect are a , 2d , and 8a res ect ivel ; ro ve t h at p y p
AB 33 0 near ly .
13 ,
I f 0 be t h e n umber o f radians in an angle which is les s t h an
a righ t angl e , p ro ve t h at

0 0
00 8 0 18 < 1
14 ,
Pro ve t h e th eo rem of E ul er, viz. t h at
0 0 0
sin 0 -
23
0 0
Sin e 2 em - cos
2 9
2,
co s
0
Q" co s 22
co s 2
-
2 2
"
2 i s n
g
2 2
.
0
"
-
2 2
0
98
2
Mak e n indeni tel yg reat so t h at , by Art 228 Co r . .

,

0
2 81 1) " ; 00
2
0
H ence sin 0: 0 c co s -
Q co s 22 co s o o o o o o
2 2
15 ,
Pro ve th at
( 1 t
t au -
g) ( 1 tu na
( 1 ta n
g) ad inf
.
=0 e 0 t 0
0
26 8 TRI GO NOM ETRY .
233 A re a o f a c irc l e
. . . .
By Art 225, t h e area o f

. a re ular
g po lygo n o f n sides ,
which is inscribed in a circle o f radiu s R is ,
2
3R sin
:

Let no w th e num be r o f side s o f t h is p l go n be inde y

o
nit e ly increase d t h e po lygo n always remaining regular
, .
I t 1 8 clear t hat t h e peri m et e r o f t h e po lygo n m u st m o re

and m o re appro xim t e t o t h e circu mfere nce o f t h e circle
a .
He nce wh e n t h e num ber o f sides o f t h e po lygo n is

,
innit ely great t h e area o f t h e circle m u st be t h e same as

,
t hat o f t h e po lygo n .
"
21 r
21 r n
Now R
sin
n
sin 0 27
nR

. wh e re 0 .
0
,
n
Wh en n is made innit ely great t h e value o f 0 beco mes ,
innit ely sm all and t h en by Art 228 is u ni t y

T
. .
, , ,
Th e area o f t h e circle t h erefo re WR

n t im es t h e
'
s quare o f it s radiu s .
a ci rcle
234 . A rea f
o the secto r o f .
Let 0 be t h e ce nt re o f a circle , A B t h e bo unding arc
of the se ct o r, and let A A OB a ra dians .
By Eu c VI 33, since se ct o rs are t o

. . o ne ano t h er as t he
arcs o n wh ich t h ey st and we h ave ,
area o f se ct o r A OB arc AB
270 T I R GON OM ETRY .
[Exs . m ] .
10 . Six q
e ual circles , each of radius a, are pl aced so t h at each
t o uch es t wo o t h ers , t h eir centres being all on th e circumference of
ano t h er circle ; p ro ve th at th e area wh ich t h e y enclose is
(3 JS
?
2a t ) .
11 ,
F ro m th e vertex A of a t ri angle a straigh t line AD is drawn
making an angle 0 wi th t h e base an d meeti ng it at D . Pro ve t h at th e
area co mm o n to th e ci rcumscribing circles of t h e triangles ABD and
A CD is
1
( w

-

b -
i c bc sin A) co se c o,
4
wh ere p and 7 are th e number o f radians in t h e angles B and 0 respec
235 . D ip of th e H o ri z o n.
Let 0 be a po int at a dis t ance h abo ve the e art h s

surface . D raw t angents ,

su c h as OT
and GT t o t h e s urface o f t h e eart h
,
.
Th e e nds o f al l t h e se t ange nt s all

clearly lie o n a circle This circle is .
calle d t h e O n g o r V i s ib l e H o ri z o n .
Th e hat each o f t hese t ange nt s

angle t
OT makes wi t h a ho rizo nt al plane P OQ
is called t h e D ip of t h e Ho rizo n .
Let be t h e rad ius o f t h e eart h ,

r
and let B be t h e o t he r e nd o f t h e diamet er t hro ugh A .
We t hen hav e by Euc I I I 36 , , . .
0T = OA OB = h ( 2r + h ) ,
so t h at O T 4/h ( 21 h )
.
T h is gives an accurat e v alue fo r OT .
I n all pract ical cases h o weve r h is very , , s mall co m
[ r 4000 m iles nearl y , and h is ne er v great e r, and
g e nerall y is very co nsiderably less t han 5 , miles ] .

D I P o r TH E HORI ZON . 271
H ence
very small co m pared wit h hr
it is .
As a clo se appro xim at io n we h ave t h en ,
OT a/W .
Th e clip 4 TOQ
= 90 A COT = OCT

.
OT 1
4 277
Al so t an OCT
,
OT r
so t hat very appro xim at e ly

, ,
we have
4 OCT

27; 1 80
7?
236 . Bx . T a ki ng t he radi us o f t he eart h as 4000 mi les , nd t he dip

at t he t op o f a ligh tho use whic h i s 26 4 f eet abo ve t he sea, and t he dis ta nce
of t h e o ng .
1
H ere r ==
4000 miles, and b = 264 1ee t
-
20
mil e .
Hn e ce h is ver y sm all co m ared p with r, so t h at
J;
2h I
Al so th e dip radrans = - radian
200
1 8x 60 5
5 "
) ( ) ly
'
'
17 11 near .
l

l
[ Unle ss o t herwise s ta t ed, t he eart h s radi us

may be ta ken to be 4000
mi les ] .
1 ,
F ind in degrees, minutes , and seco nds, th e dip o f th e h o riz o n fro m
t o p o f a m o unt ain 4400 feet h ig h , th e earth s radius being 21 x 1 0

th e
feet .
2 ,
Th e M p of a ligh th o us e is 1 96 feet h igh ; h o w far o can i t be
seen
[Exs n u ) . .
3 ,
I f th e radius o f th e eart h be 4000 miles, nd t h e h eigh t of a
ball oo n wh en th e dip is
F ind als o th e dip wh en th e ballo o n is 2 miles h igh .
4 ,
F ro m th e t o p o f th e m ast o f a shi , wh ich is 66 feet abo ve th e p
se a, t h e ligh t o f a ligh t h o use wh ich is kn o wn t o be 1 32 feet high can
j ust be seen ; pro ve t h at it s dist ance i s 24 miles nearl y.
5 F ro m t h e t o p
,
of a mast 6 6 fe et
, abo ve th e th e t o p o f t h e
sea,
m ast o f ano t h er sh i p can j ust be see n at a dist ance o f 20 miles ; ro ve p

th at th e h eigh ts of t h e m ast s are th e sam e .
6 F ro m th e t o p
,
of . th e m ast o f a sh i p whi h c i s 44 feet abo ve th e
sea-le vel , th e ligh t o f a ligh th o use can j ust be seen ; aft e r saili ng fo r
1 5 mi nut es t h e ligh t can j ust be seen fro m th e deck whi ch is 1 1 feet
abo ve t h e sea- level ; pro ve th at th e rate o f saili ng o f t h e shi pi s nearl y
1 6 3 3 miles per h o ur .
7 ,
Pro ve th at , if th e h eigh t of th e pl ace o f o bservatio n be n feet , th e
distance t h at th e o bserver can se e is

$1 miles nearl y .
8 ,
Th ere are 1 0 millio n m etres in q uadran t o f th e earth s circum
a

ference . Fin d a pp ro xi mat el t h e y dis t ance at wh ich t h e t o p o f th e E i el

to wer sh o uld be visible , it s h eigh t being 300 m etres .
9 ,
Th ree vertical p o st s are pl aced at intervals o f a mil e alo ng a straig h t
canal , each rising to t h e sam e h eigh t abo ve th e surface o f t h e wat er . Th e

vi sual li ne j o inin g th e t o p s of t h e t wo extrem e po sts cuts t h e m iddle p o st
at a pi
o nt 8 inch es belo w it s t o p . Find th e radius o f th e eart h to th e
nearest mil e .
238 . Th e quantit ies sin

a, co s
a,

t an a ,
called I nv erse Circular F unct io ns .
Th e s ymbo l sin
a is o ft en, p
es eciall y in fo re ign
m at hemat ical bo o ks, writ t en as arc sin a similarl y

co s
a is writ t e n arc co s a, and so fo r t h e ot her inverse
rat ios .
239 . Wh en po sit ive

a is , sin a clearl y lies bet ween
and when a is negat ive it lies bet we en

90 and

0 ,
0
0
1
E x. sin 60
When a is l s, o ne lying
po sit ive t here are t wo an
g e ,
bet wee n 0 and 90 and t h e o t her lying be t ween

90
and eac h o f which h as its co sine eq ual t o a F
[ o r .
exam ple bo t h 30

and 30

have t heir co sine e ual q to
43 I t his we t ak e t h e an le
n case smallest os itive g
2 p .

Hence co s a, when a is po sit ive lies bet ween 0 ,

and

90
wh e n a is negat ive lies be t ween and

So cos a, , 90
1
75
When a is po sit ive , the an

gle
li
tan a
es bet ween
wh en is negat i e, v it lies bet ween 90 and

and a
m
. t an tan (
g i;
-l
240 l x. 1 . Prove tha t si n
%=G, 80 t h at Gi n a :
'
R
I N VE S E CI RC ~
ULAR F UN C I O T NS .
12 12
= 5, so th at co s p =
a T ,
1 44 5
and th erefo re
16 16
L et sin t h at m y z
.
so
We h ave t h en t o p ro ve th at
G- =
7.
sin a (
sin a ( -
)= si n a cos p - cos a sin
p
3 12 4 5 36 - 20 16
3 1
=
T 63
8m
H ence t h e relati o n is p ro ved.
1 1
-1 _
I x . 3 . Prove t ha t 2 t an + t an .
3 7 4
1
a, so th at t an a
13
1
and let -
5,
so th at t an B
7
We h ave th en to ch ew th at
t an 2a + tan p
ml z
- t an 2a t an
p
4 7
- l tan
1 8 1 28 - 3 25
2a +
1 8 2
276 TRI GONOMETRY .
E x. 3 . Prove t ha t
4 ta n
a , so t h at t an a
!a -
t an ?
2 tan a
_ 5 5
__
l - t an
a T 12

I -
25
10
12 1 20
t an 4a : -
7 g
1
1 44
so y
th at t an 4a is nearl unit
. y , and 4a th ere fo re nearl y4
f -1
t an 3 .
(i f t an 3
) (Art .
1
H ence 4 t an
1
3
tan
l lx 4
. . Pro ve t ha t
a b
tan a+ t an : l '
b t an
'
l
1 ab
t an a = a , so th at t an a =a .
-l
tan bz ,
so th at t an =b .
+b
(
a+ b a
Also , let - 7 , so th at t an 7 - .
l ab 1 _ ab
We h ave th en t o p ro ve t h at
a +=7 .
t aD a--
i tan +b
m1
a
(H - t an a t an 1 - ab
so th at t h e relatio n is p ro ved.
278 TRI GON OI I ETRY .
Th us t an [tan "
it 2 tan
1 ] = t an [t an
-1
a tan
ii i -
f, 1 92 4-31 5
" '
7 5 6 - so
tan
+ 2 t an
= tan i .
I x . O. S o lve t he e ua ti
f l
x--
l l
z - l
T ki
a ng th e tw gent s o de s o f th e
T
'
j
AM I Er :
z - l
+ t an
[ t an
[:
- tan "1
l tan tan
a:
t an { WW W7B -
3 +1 4: 1
+
:r l a:
80 th at
Thi s value m ak es t h e left -h and side t h e given e uat io n o sit ive ,

of q p so
t h at th ere is no value o f a: strictl y y

sat isf ing th e give n equat io n .
Th e value a: 2 is a so lutio n o f th e eq uatio n

I N VE S E CIR RCULAR F UN CTI ON S
X
E AM PLES . XLI I I .
Pro ve th at
3 8
l m -l
+ Sin
-l "
k
.
3 17
5 7
2 sin + s1 n
3 25
3 co s 1 --
l tan 1
8-
Jan 4
8
3
.
5 5
5 co s
2
O
8 6
-l 1

-l
6 2 co s + oo t 4
w8 '
l
B8
'
J 1 3
;
1 1
7 tan Ir an
-1
7
.
t an
5 9 t an
E
.
7 9
,
1
tan
-
-
H an ? 1 00 8 1
8
Z 3 c a
.
9 2 J
2 t an 1
1 -1-tan 1
3
t an L
I-m l _
8 t
5 19 4
1 l
m
Z
-1 + t an 1 -l
+ t5 n
7
.
8 4
1
M an + tan t au
l L .
4 1 985
-L 1m
4 tan
5 99 4
ta r
-1
1 39
l7 t au
1
k
e
119
3t 4

'
tan t + t an
l t 1 - 3t
if t > and
CHAPT ER XI X .
o n so m r
. SI M PLE Taro o no u m mcu . s eams .
241 . To nd the sum o f the sine s f

o a series of angles ,
the an
g les being in ar ith metical
p rogressio n .
Le t t h e angles be
{a + (n
Let
1 ) B}
By A rt 97 we . have
2 sin a sin
g (
- cos a co s
( a
2 sin ( a + B) ein
g ( cos a co s
( a
g
g
( co s a
i ) co s
( a
2 sin {a + ( n 2) B}sin
p
i

2
-
{
co s a + ( n -
g) B} co s a + n
{ (
and
zein {a + <n m om e m
s) e}
By addin t
g go e t her t hese n lines, we have
co s
{a + ( n
S I M PLE T RI GON OM ETB I CAL SE I ES R .
t he ot h er t erm s on t he rig h h t an
- d
ano t h er .
H ence, by Art 94, we . have

2 sin
2 S 2 sin
By p ut ting p = 2a , we h ave
sin a + sin 3a + sin (2n l)a
sm a
242 . To nd the s um o
f the cosines f
o a series of
ang les , th e a ng les being in ari thm etical ro ressio n.
p g
Let t h e an le s be
g
a, a + B , a + 2B, - 1) B .
Let
SE co s a co s ( a+ B) (
cos a + 2 B) cos a { ( n 1 ) B} .
By Art 97, we . have

2 cos a sin
= sm
( g)
a + - sm
(a
2 co s sin
(a - sm
(a +
B
2 cos ( a + 2B) sin
(a s m
( a
) .
284 rmo o no u m r.
and
2 c s a+ n
o
{ ( 1 ) B }sin {
sin a + n (
By addin t
g go et her t hese 1 1 line s, we have
as x sin
; sin { a + ( n sin
t h e ot her t erms on th e ri
gh t -h and sides cancellin
g o ne
ano t her .
Hence, by Art 94, we . have

2S >< sin 2 co s
2
C OS
243 . Bo t h t h e p
ex ressio ns fo r S in Art s 241 . and 242
vanish when s in is z ero , i . e . wh en is e qual to any
mult iple o f qr,
i . e
. w h en
w h ere p is any int eger ,
27r
i e wh e n B=
p

;b
. . .
He nce t h e sum o f the sine s ( o r cosines ) o f n angles,
which are in arit hmet ical pro gressio n vanishes , w h en

t he co m mo n di erence t he les is mu lt iple
'
of an any
g
?
of !
n
:l a. co s a + co s
(a + to n terms = 0,
286 rmco no u m
'
r .
In a similar manner we can o btain th e sum o f t h e cubes o f t h e aim s

o f a series o f angles in
Cor . Since
2 sin 3
a =1 co s 2a , an d 2 co s
a = 1 + co s
we can o btain th e sum o f th e squares .
Since again 8 sin

a =2 [1 - co s 2a
r
2 - 4 co s 2a + 2 co s 2a = 3
4 co s 2a + co s 4a ,
we can o bt ain th e sum o f th e 4th p o wers o f t h e sines . Similarl yf or th e

co sines .
B x. 3 . S um to n terms t h e series
co aa ein + coe 3a ei n 2p + coe to n t erms .
Let 8 deno te th e series .
Th en
- sin (3a
sin a
( -2
) }
{ sin (su + sp) sin ( 5 a m} 4
3
{ sin
i -
sp) + a (5a 3) +
{ sin (a - n
by Art 241 , .
SI M PLE TRI GON OMETRI CAL SE I ES R . 28 7
i s . 4. ie a reg ular p o lygo n o f n aides inscribed i n a circle ,
w hose centre i s O, and P is any p o i nt o n t he are such t ha t t he ang le
P 0 4 1 is 0 nd t h e m m of t he lengt h : of t h e li nes jo i ni ng P to t he a ngular
p o i nts o f t h e p o lygon .
2l '
Each of th e angles . A 0 4 1 is so th at th e angles

a
P0 4 1 , p
are res ectivel y
0, 0
H ence, if r be th e radius o f th e circle, we h ave
PAI = 2r sin
P04 1
= 2r sin -

l
P OA, 0 1!
_ +
P OA, _ 0 2:
H ence th e req uired s um
0 2n
[ g (
0 ir
2r sin + sin -
2
0 n I
m
0
__+
r
sin g f
5
'
2 2 2 n
1r
(Art 241.
)
2n
1 0 1
= 2r cosec s1 n
2f ocese
( L 1
) .
Sum t h e seri es
1 . cos o + co s 30 + co s 5 0 + to n terms .
2 . co s
; + co s 2A +co s to n t ermB .
Pro ve th at
sin a + sin 2a + sin
3
288 rmco no mnrnv .
[h a m v]
.
sin a + sin 8a + sin 5a + -1 ) a
sin a to n term s
Sum th e fo llo wing series
6 . co s + co s
n-4 n-6
8 .
9 .
- 1)a .
10 . to n te rms.
11 . co s a sin 2a + 8in 2a co s 8a + o o s 3a sin 4a

+ sin 4a co s 5a + t o 21: te rms .
12 .
13 .
14 ,
t o n t erms .
15 .
16 .

sin a + sin
3
t o n terms .
17 . to n te rms .
18 . to n t erm s .
19 . to a tom s.
20 . sin u sin a + ( ) to 2 t erms .
21 .
F ro m th e sum o f th e series
sin a + sin 2a + sin 3a + to n terms ,
deduce (by making a ver y small ) th e sum o f th e series
22 ,
F ro m th e resul t o f th e exam pl e of Art 241 deduce th e sum
. of
to n t erms .
2
23 .
If 9
p ro ve th at 2 (co s a cos 2a . co s 4a co s 8a)

and 2 (co s
are th e ro o t s o f th e eq uat io n
3
+3
CHAPTER XX .
ELI M I NATI ON .
245 . Ihappens t hat we have t wo equa

T so met im e s
t io ns e ach co nt ainin n e unkno wn quant it y I n t h is

g o .
case t h ere m ust clearly be a re lat io n bet we en t h e

co ns t ant s o f t h e e quat io ns in o rde r t hat t h e same
value o f t h e u nkno wn quan t it y m ay sat isfy bo t h Fo r .
e xamp le suppo se we k ne w t hat an u nkno wn

,
q uant it y
a: sat ised bo t h o f t h e e qu at io ns
aa + b = 0 and
F ro m t h e rst e quat io n ,
we have
6
w
a
and h
t is sat is es the s eco nd, if
c
a
+d
( a
i if 60 abd O
2
. e
. a e .
Th is lat t er q
e uat io n is t h e re s ult o f e liminat in
g a:
be t ween t h e abo ve t wo e qu at io ns ,
and is o ft e n calle d t he ir
e lim inant .
EL I M I NATI ON . 291
246 Again, suppo se we

. knew t hat an an
gle 0
sat is e d bo t h o f t h e e q uat io ns
sin 0 = b, an d co s 0 = c,
'
so t h at sin 0 bi and co s 0 6
9
,
N o w we always h av e , fo r all values o f 0 ,
sin
8
0 co s

0 1,
so t hat in t his case bi *

c = 1 .
This is t h e resu lt o f e liminat in

g 0 .
247 . Be t we e n an
y t wo equat io ns invo lving o ne
un k no wn quant ity we can in , t h e o ry always e lim inat e
,
t hat quant it y I n pract ice a co nsiderable am o unt o f

.
,
art i ce and in e nuit y is o ft e n re quired in m in l y

g se e g
Simple cas es .
So bet we en any t hree equat io ns invo lving t wo un

,
kno wn qu ant it ies we can t h eo retically elim inat e bo t h

,
o f t h e unkn o wn quant it i es .
248 . So me e xam ples o f elim inat io n ppe nded

are a .
x. 1 . E limina te 0 f ro m t he equa t i ons
a co s 0 + b sin 0 = c,
and d coe 0 + e sin 0 =f .
S o lving fo r co s 0 and sin 0 by cro ss p

m ulti licatio n , o r o th erwise,
we h ave
co s 0 si n 0 l
=
bf cc cd - a j ba- cc
so t h at (f
b ( cd of )
(bd cc )

l x. 8 . E li mi nat e 0 bet ween
ax by
we 0 si n 0
as: s in 0 by we 0
co s

0
sin 0
F ro m h ave as sin 8
0 by co s8
0 .
co s 0 J sin o t co s
- -
o
( H all and Knigh t

s H ig her Algebra , Art 1 2)
.
H om e
and
co s 0
so t h at ( 1 ) beco me s
1
a

b =

( az ) *
Jan/2+ ( Mos h ch i }
{
(a x
( sh
ca (
a
s
m i .
Th e st udent wh o sh all afte rwards beco m e acq uaint ed with Analytical

y
Ge o met r will nd th at t h e abo ve is th e so lutio n o f an im p
o rt ant p
ro blem
co ncerning no rmals to an elli se.p

B x. 3 . E li mi na te 0 f ro m t he equa tio ns
,
si n 0 = cos so
b
an 0 co s s in 20
b
[Exs
. XLV.
]
a cos o y sin o
6 . +
a b
and
7 ,
sin -
0 co s 0 =p , and co sec o sin 0= q .
8 ,
z : a co s O+ b co s 20, and g = a sin 0 + b sin 20 .
9 . If m = co sec 0 - sin 0, and n = sec o- co s 0,
p
ro ve th at m n} : m
( )
a i .
10 ,
Pro ve th at t h e re sult o f elimi nat ing 0 fro m th e q
e uatio ns
a co s
y oo s ( 0 + a )
(z oo s
(z sin a - y co s
Eli minat e 0 and fro m t h e equatio ns
11 . s in 0 + sin =
,G and 0
12 . and
13 .
and a t an 0 = b t an .
14 . co s 0 + co s az a, and
15 .
a sin 0 = b sin , and
16 .
0 0 45
a sm
2 2
81 n + b co s ec s 0 .
2 2 2
CH APT ER XXI .
R T NS
P OJ EC I O .
LET P Q be an
y s t rai
gh t lin e , and fro m it s e nds ,
P and Q ,
letperpendiculars be drawn t o a xe d st raigh t
line OA . The n M N is called t h e proj ect io n o f P Q
on 0A .
I f M N be in t h e sam e direct io n as OX it is , po sit ive ;

if in t h e o ppo sit e direct io n ,
it is negat i e v .
250 . I j 0 be the angle between any straight li ne P Q

and a
fired line OA , th e p j
ro ecti o n o f PQ on OA is
PQ co s 6 .
What e ver be t h e direct io n o f P Q draw t hro ugh P , ,
a st rai h t line P L paralle l t o OA and le t it and QN bo t h

g ,
pro du ced if ne cessary m e et in R ,

.
T h en in e ac h gure t h e angle LP Q o r t h e angle A UQ

, ,
is e qual t o 0 .
Also MN PR P Q co s LP Q P Q co s 0,
by t h e de nit io ns of Ar t 5 0 . .
S im ilarly t h e , proj ect io n of PQ on a line perpe ndicu

lar t o OA RQ
P Q sin LP Q P Q Sin 0 .
T h e p roje ct i o n s o f a ny li n e PQ on a l in e t o
w h i c h P 0 i s i n cli n e d at a ny a n gl e 0, an d on a
p e rp e n di cu l ar l i n e , are t h e re f o re PQ co s 0 an d
P O si n 0 .
25 1 . We m igh t t h ere fo re , in Art . 5 0, have de ned

t he co s ine as the rat io t o OP of the proj ect io n of OP on
t h e in it ial line , and, Sim ilarl y , the sine as the rat io to

OP o f t h e proj ect io n o f OP o n a line perpendicular t o
t h e init ial line .
This m e t h o d o f lo o king u po n t h e de nit io n o f t h e

co sin e and S ine is o ft en u se fu l .
252 The p rojectio n of P Q up o n th e red line OA

.
is equa l to the sum of the p rojecti ons on 0 A o

f any
bro ken line beginni ng at P a nd ending a t Q .

on0 A is e qual t o t h e s um o f t h e proj ect io ns on OA of
ON and N P ; but ON and N P are t h e of
OP on OB and a pe rpe ndi cular lin e .
H e nce t h e project io n o f OP On OA
co s A OB x proj ect io n o f OP o n OB
A OB) x proj ect io n o f OP

co s ( 90 on a p p
e r en
dicular t o OB , [ i
s nce t h e dire ct io n N P is incline d t o GA
at an angle A OB]

90 .
OB x OP cOS B OO i A OB x OP sin B OC '

cOS A s n
.
( Art .
cos ( A + B) = cos A cos B Sin A sin B .
So , proj ect ion of OP on a line perpe ndicular to

OA
sum of proj ect io ns of ON and NP on a line perpen

di cu lar t o OA
sin A OB x proj ect io n o f OP o n OB

A OB) x proj e ct io n o f OP perpendicular

sin ( 90 on a
t o OB,
R
P OJ ECT I O NS .
299
i s OP S in A OP
. .
s in A OB x OP co s B OO co s A OB x OP sin B OC ,
i . e . sin (A B) s in A co s B co s A sin B .
Th e abo ve proo f h o lds ,

as in t h e j
sub o ined gures fo r
,
all po sit io ns o f t h e bo unding lines OB and 00 .
254 . I n t h e cas e o f t h e subt ract io n t heo rem, t a in

g k
t he co nst ruct io n o f Art 90 t h e line 0 0 is
.
, inclined t o OB
at an an le wh ich , wit h t h e pro per Sign pre xed is B
g , .
Th e j
pro ectio ns o f OP o n OB and a pe rpe ndicu lar
t o OB are t he re fo re OP co s B) and OP S in B) ,
i . s . OP co s B and OP S in B .
S ince OB pe
rp e ndicular m ak e an le s A OB and
an d it s g
A OB) wit h OA we t h u s h ave

( 90 ,
300 TRI GONOM ET RY .
p ro ee t io n Of
j OP on OA
sum o f proj ectio ns o n DA o f
the the p roj ect io ns of OP
on OB and a perpe ndicu lar
OP B A OB + ( OP Sin B) ( A OB

cos x cos x cos 90 + )
OP cOS B cOS A OP sin B s in A ,
co s ( A
Sim ilarly, p roj e ct ing t h e sam e lines on a perpendicular
t o DA , we have
OP s in (A B ) = OP co s B x S in A OB
OP Sin B) sin ( 90 A OB)

OP co s B s in A OP sin B co s A ,
is
. . sin ( A B) sin A co s B cOS A S in B .
Th ese pro o fs ho ld w hat e ver be t h e po sit io ns of t he
bo unding lines OB and 00 , as , fo r ple

e xam ,
in t h e sub
jo ined gure .
ii TRI GON OM ETRY .

233 33 33 3 2000

7 .
3 8 .
3
.
703 355 7
11
7 20 1 3500
371 '
1 1 03
14 . .
10 2000
17 81 18 .
1 32 l 5 l 2 6
'
19 .

20 .
1 1r 21r 1
21 radi an s .
3
22 .
( )
1 -
( )
2
( )

3 1 35 ( )
4
23 . S an d 4 . 24 10 an d 8 . 25 . 6 md 8 .
g gg i
28 . . 27 .
( )
1 75 = 83y ;
if
9
( )
2 ( )
3
;
28 .
( )
1 A t 7 1
1 1 an d 36 m in ut es past 4 ; ( )
2 at 281 91 an d
48 minu t es pas t 7 .
IV .
(Pages 1 7,
[ Tak e and
= 31 831

g 34 22 38 9

n earl dian

y . ra
6 8 7 5 inch e s nearly 4 0 5 236 in ch n e arly .

"
. .
57
'
in ch es nearly . 6 . 1 25 nearly .
395 98 mil es nearly . 8 .

'
17 ft . 3 1 41 5 9 f t .
5 4 . 10 . 31 41 6 .
41 r 91 r 1 4m 1 97 24m

an d radians .
35 35 35 35 35
6 5 24 206 26 5 ft

13 n early

. . .
ft . n ea rly . 15 . 26 26 ft . n early .
32l 42 9 ft
. n ea rly . 17 . 38 1 972 f t . nearly .
A N SWE S R . iii
18 . 19 . 1 1 05 8 mile s .
20
. miles 21 . 2 1 6 00 ; nea rly .
22
. 478 x 1 0 11
miles .
VI .
( Pag e
J
,1 5 1
6
12 8
7

11 60 6 1
5 13
40 41 5
. . 11 .
9 40 3
15 .
17

17 8
3 5 5 12
OP -
B fg
. . .
13 13
1 1
2a: + 1
VI I I .
(Pages 44
ft ; 20 ft
. . 2 . 1 6 0 ft . 3
. 225 ft .
ft . 5 . ft .
ards d 7 ft
y ; y a r s . . .
ft . 9 . ft .
ft . 75 f t f ro m . o ne o f t h e pillars .
ft ;. ft . 12 . miles .

30 15 . m il es pe r h o ur .
ft ; ft .
ft . 19 . 1 0 m iles per h o ur .
ards 21 d
y . .
y ar s .
IX .
(Page
81
an d 1 r ra dl an s

77 .
331
20 2
iv TRI GON OME TRY .

23
29031
23
2x2

y
"
8 . t an A

. 9 . 0
10 . I n 1 1} min ute s .
36 6

5 .
0; 2 . 7 .
2 an d

- 9 . 45 1 35
and

1 20 11 1 35 an d

l 50 and d

13 1 50

. an

21 0 an d

330 15 . co s 25
sin 17 . t an 18 . sin

sin 20 . co t 21 . co s 33 .
co s s30

24

23 . co t 25 . co .

co t 26 . co sec 27 .
o o seo 36
n egat ive, 29 . n egat i ve . 30 .

po si t ive .
z e ro . 32 . 33 .
po s it i ve .
and
2 - 1
n d J 2
7 7

3 3
XI .
( Pag e s 83,
l ( 2 l)

n
. n1 r + . nT o
2
3 . n ar +
( E
- .
;
5 . 21 m =l= 6 . 2n1 r 7 . ou r
8 . mar 9 . mar
11 . mr+ ( 12 . mr -
k
vi TRI GON OM ETRY .
s f .
( 2n + 1 ) 1r
5
1 77

11
- or 2n1 r
21 27215 or
5
.
2
1 1
( (
'
17

71
22
or 22
2 713 4-15 2 m n
2 u + 1
m r 1 11

4
l 7?
2 3 3
mr 1
( 2)
'
17

a. 11
il 3l 30 r+
3 3 m n
t an 0 2 .
(
n er 1:
W -
2 ii
21 7
- -
( eu
5 3 5
1 5
60 36
o
. .
uh

--
J ;
5 a h
1 33 1 5 96 3444
.
2 .
3445
'

205 3445
220 1 71 .
220

221 22 1 21
XI V .
(Pages 96,
3st
2 sin ( 0 mt ) sin . 31 . 2 sin (0 co s
A NSWERS . vii
XV .
(Pages 98 ,
co s 20 co s 1 20 . 2 .
co s 1 40 co s 80 . 4 .
XVI .
(Pag e
8 . 1 .
XVI I .
(Pages 1 09 ,
24 1 20 201 6
( )
1
5
2 ( )
2 a
n ( )
3
4225

1 61 7 119
( )
l
28 9 ( )
2 .
23
-
( )
3
1 69
0 3. a.
XVI I I .
(Pages 1 23
6 2 J2 -
1- 3
J .
6 18
13 .
J 1 3 J 1 3 .
1 69
12

T

3 1 20
16 49

4 5
305 305
4
4+ 2+ 6
4 a b
23 . and 24
. and
a

+ b
an d - o
an d 2m + ( )
2 2n 1r + an d 2m r +
1T
an d 4
( ) 27l 1 r+ and 2mr +
Z
viii TRI GON OM ETRY .
'
18
and 2m r
4
xxx .
(Page
Th e sin e of the angle is equ al t o 2 sin 1 8
1
2
( -
)
3
or 270 1 Z : '
3 8
XXI .
(Pages 1 43,
1 1
( ) (
M 17
'
17 1r

-
227 m u 2 or 242
T g
. .
or 27m i n
1
3: or
(
n 6
) 1r. 9 . 2M 01 '
n1 r + ( l) " 7?
o r n 1r +
( 1) "
1 r
o r ou r
6 10
1
( (
1r
- 01

n
13
Q 2
.
8
1
mar or 13 . 2mm or
15 .
( 2r + 1 )
m n
1
( )
r
16 ma or or m + -- z
2
.
17 . 2m x
TRI GONOM ETRY .
9 . 8 6 41 5 . 10 . 9 6 1 92 .
12 . 13 .

41 431 .
XXI V .
( Pages 1 68
4 5 5 27375 ; 1 5 5 27394 .
4 7 6 8 95 29 ; 37 6 8 95 02 .
4784 75 ; 0 0478 4777 . 4 . 2 5 836 74 ; 0 258 36 2 .
( )
1 47 2048 1 5 ; ( )
2 2 7 22046 2 ; ( )
3 47 240079;
-3
( )
4 5 273 6 ; ( )
5 0 5 296 726 ; ( )
6 5 26 06 4 .
6 87041 7 . 7.
8 455 1 04 ; 8 45 45 09 . 9.
-
4 1 20306 0 4 1 2 1 8748 .
4 399326 3 ; 4 3 9768 23 . 12 .
99 1 47334 . 14 .
95 25 4497 ; 16 . 1 00 22941 4 .
18 .
XXV .
(Pages 1 72 ,

1 3 27 3 l 2
'
. 22

65

1 0 l 5 34 6 .
( )
1 97 27 9043 ; ( )
2 99 27085 7 ( )
3
( )
4 907 ( )
5 1 02 001 337
( )
6 25 027 ( 7 245 1 6 2 .
( ) ( )

( )
1 24 2 3 32
( )

5 7 6 39

4
5 3736 02 .
( )
1 (
cos x
( )
2
( )
3 (
co s a: y) co sec a: sec 31
co s (a:
( )
4 y) co sec a: se c 3
;

( )
5 t an a:
( )
6 t an a: t an y .
A NSWERS . xi
XXVI .
(Pages 1 80 ,
7
4 3 8 40 24

1 d .

J 4 1 5 5 J 4 l 41 25
gg , , an d 1 .
56
5 12
n d
4
_
_ 1 2
5
'

12 5 65 13
7
and 7 . an d 75
41
23
.
XXVI I I .
(Pag e
and l 93 1 8
.
ft .

an d 94

75 an d
XXI X . P
( g
a es 1 94,

1 20

2 . 30 4 .

1 20 and 6
"
.
77

l9 l l 9
'
8 . .
an d

an d 93

23 an d
xxx .
(Pages 1 99
2 .
fee t ;
-
5
xii TRI GONOM ETRY .
5 .

J 7 : 2 .
6 . 7 .
8 .

9 . A = 45 ; 10 .
11 . 8 96 5 . 14 . 40 y ds .

15 7 5 8946 7 5 3 7 48

.

18
226 8 7 ; 73

16 . 2 5 298 23 . 17 .
18 . A = ; B =
; c= 1 99 099
19 . B :
C=

a : 93 5 1 92
.
20 . 51 and
21 an d

. 88 33
XXXI .
(Pages 207
1 . Th ere is no t riangle .
2 . B1 01 an d 61 2 3
J ; 2 : 0
an d b G
J .
Bl Cl

3 C

. an d 5x 1 00 ; B, =
an d b, = 2 00 .
5 . 4 J 3 uh 2J 5 .
6 . 1 00 J 3 t h e t rian gle is ri
gh t -
an gled .
8 33

. an d 9 . or
10 ( )
1 Th e t riangle is righ t -angle d and B

. 60
B1 8 41 and C, 1 41
'
( )
2 b

.
11

. an d an d 38
12 . an d m ile s pe r h o ur .

13 . 63 or
an d 23

14 . an d 1 02 l 7 37 or 37
15 .
XXXI I .
( Page
1 . 7 9 11 . 4 .
5 . 1 m ile ; m ile s . 7 . 20 ft .
8 . and feet . 9 .
it .
10 . 233 2 883 yards . 11 . 2229 yards .

TRI GON OMETRY .
XXI V .
(Pages 229 ,
1 . 84 . 2. 21 6 . 3 . 6 30 . 4 . 3720 .
5 . 270 . 6 . 1 1 7096 . 7 . 1 470 .
8 . 12 . 35 yds and 26 y ds . .
13 i n ch 14 5 , 7, an d 8 ft

. . . 15 . . 1 20
17 an d and

45 1 05

. 1 35
18 . 17 sq . in s .
XXXVI .
( Pages 237 ,
3 . 1 5, 8, 2, an d 24 respect ive ly .
XXXVI I .
(Pages 247
35 . 21 5 47 or 1 5 47 t im es t h e radi us o f each circle .
39 . A,
XXXVI I I .
(Pag es 255
1 .
( ) J
l 3 I O5 s
q ft 5 ( )
2 1 OJ q
7 s ft . . . . 3 . I ; an d 21} ft .
XXI II .
(Pag es 259
1 . in s . 2 .

5 35 9 .
3 .
( )
1 sq ft ; . .
( )
2 sq ft ;. .
3
( ) sq ft ; . .
( )
4 s q ft ;. .
( )
5 s
q f t . .
4 . sq . ft . 5 . 3 sq . ft .
6 . 12 . 3 .
14 . 6 . 15 . 9 . 16 . 20 an d 10 .
17 . 6 an d 5, 1 2 an d 8, 1 8 an d 1 0, 22 an d 1 1 , 27 an d 1 2,
42 an d 1 4, 5 4 an d 1 5 , 72 an d 1 6 , 1 02 an d 1 7, 1 6 2 an d 1 8,
342 and 1 9 sides re s pect iv e l

y . 19 .
J 3 , J6 .
I L .
(Pages 266,
1 .

00204 . 2 . 0 0007 . 3 .

000 29 .
4 .

99999 . 5 . 25 78 3 1 0077
. 6 . 1 0 00001 1 .
7 . 8 . 9
.
10 . 11 . in ch es .
AN SWERS . XV
XLI .
( Pag es 269,
435 7 7 sq ft . . 2 . s
q.f t .
4. 6 s
q f t . .
l l 0004 in ch es

. 6 .

000446 25 in ch .
XLI I . (Pag es 271 ,

2. m iles .
.
6 1 m iles ; n early .
A bo ut 6 1 800 m et res = abo u t 38 4 mile s .
396 0 miles .
xmn .
(Pages 279
4
J sin 2/3 . 29 . 30 . 31 .
1 7r
-8 o r
4
33 . m r, o r n 1 r + -
4
34 .
J 3 .
5
. 36 .
J 3 or 37 .

n, o r n n 1 . 39 . 40 . 13 .
2
a: is given by t h e e
quat io n

w
x = ab
a b
[J
T
ab 4 u

1 Jb 44 .
1 + ab
'
XLI V
.
(Pages 287
sm co se c 0 .
3n 1
A sh co se c -
E A . 6 .
sin
[ ( c + u 8 .
sin 2m : 2m :
( co s sin 2m )( co s a: si n x
) co sec 2x .
i u n 1 ) sin 2a . sin ( 2n 2) a ] co se c a .

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A T R EATI SE ON ELEM E N TA R Y DYN AM I CS .

Cro w n 8vo . Th ird Edi t io n, Reprint ed . 78 6d . .

S O LUT I ON S TO THE E XAM PLES IN THE

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PLA N E T R I GO N O M ET R Y Part s Cro wn 8v o . I n t wo . .

Seco nd Edit io n, revised and e nl arged Part L , up t o .

and in cluding t h e So lut io n o f Triangles 58 Pa rt I I . . .

D e M o ivre s Th eo rem and t h e

S O L UTI O N S T O T H E E XAM PLES I N T H E PLA N E

LON D ON C J . . CLAY AN D SON S,

AVE MARI A LAN E .

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L ON D ON : MACMI LLAN AN D 0 0 . LTD .

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AN E L E M E N TARY C OURSE , E XCL UD I N G TH E US E 0 1?

H E fo llo wing wo rk will I ho pe be fo und t o be

fairl y co mple t e elem ent ary b k o n Plane Trigo

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H no u classes o f U niversit ies

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litt le t o un learn wh en h e co m men ces t o e ad t reat ises o f

As Trigo no m e try co nsist s la gely o f fo rmu la and t h e

applicat io ns t h ere o f I h av e pre xed a list o f t h e principal

fo rm ula wh ich t h e st u dent sh o u ld co m mit t o m e mo y r .

Th e se m o e im po rt ant fo rm ula are dist inguish ed in t h e

t ext by t h e u se o f t hick t ype Ot h er fo rm ula are s ub

sidiary and o f less im po rt ance .

Th e num be r o f exam ples is very large A se lect io n

o n ly sh o uld be so lved by t h e st u dent o n a rst reading .

Co nsiderable at t e nt io n h as be e n paid to the print ing

Syndics of t he Press fo r t h eir liberality in t his m at t e r ,

and to t he o f cers and wo rk m e n o f t h e Press fo r t h e

For any co rre ct io ns and su ge st io ns

PREF ACE T O TH E S ECON D ED I TI ON .

Th e S eco nd Edit io n h as be en care full y revised , and it

h anges have been made in t h e ch apt er o n

lo garit hms and logarit h m ic t ables and an addi t io nal ,

chapt er h as be en added o n Proj ect io ns .

Principle o f Pro po rt io nal Parts

Ort h ocent re and Pedal t riangle

sin 0< 8< t an 0

I nverse circular functi o ns

So me sim ple t rigo no met rical Series

I . Circumfe ren ce o f a circle 2m m

sin A sin B sin 0

A rea of a q uadril ate ral inscribable in a circle

3 . On t his her syst em o f m eas urem ent

calle d t h e C e nt e sim nl o r F re nch syst e m h as been , ,

pro po sed I n t his syst em t h e right angle is divided int o

1 00 e qu al part s called G ra d e s ; each grade is subdivided

in t o 1 00 M i n u t e s and e ach m in u t e int o 1 00 S e c o n d s

a Minu t e an d a S eco n d re spe ct iv e ly

Thu s 1 00 Se co nds make One Minu t e

4 . T his yst e m wo u ld be m uch m o re o nvenient t o

u se t han t h e o rdinary S e xage sim al Sys t e m .

AS a p e lim inary h o we ve t o it s pract ical ado pt io n a

large nu mbe o f t ables wo u ld h ave t o b e re calculat e d