Plant Soil (2013) 372:2737

DOI 10.1007/s11104-013-1696-y

REGULAR ARTICLE

The critical soil P levels for crop yield, soil fertility

and environmental safety in different soil types
Zhaohai Bai & Haigang Li & Xueyun Yang &
Baoku Zhou & Xiaojun Shi & Boren Wang &
Dongchu Li & Jianbo Shen & Qing Chen & Wei Qin &
Oene Oenema & Fusuo Zhang

Received: 5 October 2012 / Accepted: 18 March 2013 / Published online: 2 April 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract Results The critical levels of soil Olsen-P for optimal

Background and aims Sufficient soil phosphorus (P)
is important for achieving optimal crop production,
but excessive soil P levels may create a risk of P losses
and associated eutrophication of surface waters. The
aim of this study was to determine critical soil P levels
for achieving optimal crop yields and minimal P losses
in common soil types and dominant cropping systems
in China.
Methods Four long-term experiment sites were selected
in China. The critical level of soil Olsen-P for crop yield
was determined using the linear-plateau model. The re-
lationships between the soil total P, Olsen-P and CaCl2-P
were evaluated using two-segment linear model to deter-
mine the soil P fertility rate and leaching change-point.
crop yield ranged from 10.9 mg kg1 to 21.4 mg kg1,
above which crop yield response less to the increasing of
soil Olsen-P. The P leaching change-points of Olsen-P
ranged from 39.9 mg kg1 to 90.2 mg kg1, above which
soil CaCl2-P greatly increasing with increasing soil
Olsen-P. Similar change-point was found between soil
total P and Olsen-P. Overall, the change-point ranged
from 4.6 mg kg1 to 71.8 mg kg1 among all the four
sites. These change-points were highly affected by crop
specie, soil type, pH and soil organic matter content.
Conclusions The three response curves could be used
to access the soil Olsen-P status for crop yield, soil P
fertility rate and soil P leaching risk for a sustainable
soil P management in field.

Responsible Editor: Philip John White.

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this

article (doi:10.1007/s11104-013-1696-y) contains
supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Z. Bai : H. Li (*) : J. Shen : Q. Chen : F. Zhang X. Shi

Center for Resources, Environment and Food security College of Resources and Environment, Southwest
(CREFS), China Agricultural University, University, Chongqing 400716, China
Beijing 100193, China
B. Wang : D. Li
e-mail: haigangli@cau.edu.cn
Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning,
X. Yang
Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 100081
College of Resources and Environment, Northwest
Beijing, China
A & F University, 712100 Yangling, China

B. Zhou W. Qin : O. Oenema

Institute of Soil and Fertilizer, Heilongjiang Academy of Department of Soil Quality, Wageningen University, P.O.
Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150086, China Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
28
Keywords Critical level . Response curve . P leaching .
Olsen-P . CaCl2-P
Introduction
Phosphorus (P) is firmly bound in soils, due to precipita-
tion of P with calcium ions in calcareous soil, and due to
adsorption of P by Fe- and Al- oxides in acidic soil
(Hinsinger 2001). As a result, only a relatively small
fraction of soil P is available to plants. In response,
massive amounts of fertilizer P have been applied to
increase available soil P during the last century.
However, increasing soil P also increases the risk of P
loss via erosion, overland flow and leaching, which con-
tributes to eutrophication of surface waters. Moreover, P
rock resources used for the manufacturing of P fertilizers
are finite and may become depleted. These contrasting
issues necessitate to manage P in a judicious manner
(e.g., Sims and Sharpley 2005; Johnston and Syers 2006).
Until 1980, the bio-availability of soil P was a limit-
ing factor for crop yield in more than 70 % of arable land
in China; Olsen-P was on average less than 10 mg kg1
(Li et al. 2011). Concomitant with the rapid economic
development, P fertilizers increased 20 fold between
1980 and 2009, to more than 6.0 million metric tons
(Mt) (China Statistical Yearbook 2010). By 2006, the
average soil Olsen-P had risen to 20.7 mg kg1, almost
three times higher than that of 1980. However, the
variation of soil P status between fields is large. Olsen-
P exceeded 40 mg kg1 on 9.3 % of the arable land, but
was below 20 mg kg1on 60 % of arable land (Li et al.
2011). An Olsen-P value of 40 mg kg1 has been con-
sidered a critical level for having a risk of P leaching loss
(Zhong et al. 2004), whereas an Olsen-P values of
20 mg kg1 has been considered as a threshold for
optimal plant growth (Li et al. 2011). Previous studies
have demonstrated that excessive Olsen-P values above
the critical P leaching level greatly increases the risk of P
losses to water bodies through runoff and erosion, which
may lead to serious environment problems such as
eutrophication of surface waters (Sharpley et al. 2000;
McDowell and Sharpley 2004; Aulakh et al. 2007).
In P deficient soil, additional P is needed to raise
Olsen-P to target levels, depending on soil type.
Estimates indicate that total reserves of high-grade
phosphate rock in China (around 4.1 billion metric
tons); will be depleted in two decades when current
rates of consumption continue (Vaccari 2009). Once
Plant Soil (2013) 372:2737
high-grade phosphate rocks depleted, China will have
to resort on low-grade phosphate rock, which will lead
to increasing fertilizer prices and a possible collapse of
the fertilizer P market. Evidently, the limited P reserves
cannot sustain the high current rate of P fertilizer con-
sumption. To realize a sustainable P use in agriculture, it
is important to optimize soil P management to achieve
optimal crop yield and to decrease P losses simulta-
neously by improving soil P status in P deficient soils
and by limiting the accumulation of soil P to certain
target levels (Li et al. 2011). However, these target or
critical levels have not been determined yet.
This study aimed at the determination of critical
levels for optimal soil P management, using results of
long-term field experiments in China. Firstly, we deter-
mined the critical level of Olsen P, beyond which crop
yields do not respond to P application. Secondly, we
determined the critical level for total soil P, from the
relationship between total P and Olsen-P. Thirdly, we
determined the critical level of Olsen-P above which
CaCl2-P strongly increases. Critical levels were derived
from so-called change-points in the relationships be-
tween (i) crop yield and Olsen-P, (ii) Olsen-P and total
soil P, and (iii) CaCl2-P and Olsen-P. The latter change-
point was considered to be a critical threshold, beyond
which the risk of P leaching and overland flow increases
strongly (e.g., Heckrath et al. 1995).
Materials and methods
The conceptual model for examining relationships be-
tween total P, Olsen-P, CaCl2-P and crop yield is shown
in Fig. 1. Three hypothetical curves are presented, i.e.,
(i) total soil P versus Olsen-P, (ii) Olsen-P versus relative
crop yield, and (iii) Olsen P versus CaCl2-P. Optimal
Olsen-P levels are between the critical level for crop
yield and that for CaCl2-P, as indicator for the risk of P
leaching. We used empirical data from four long-term
fertilizer experiments on major soil types in China to
evaluate the three hypothetical curves.
Site description and experimental design
The four long-term fertilizer experiments were located
in different ecological regions, i.e., Haerbin in south
China (45 40 N, 126 35 E, 151 m altitude);
Yanglingin northwest China (34 17 N, 108 00 E,
525 m altitude); Chongqing in southwest China (29
Plant Soil (2013) 372:2737
Fig. 1 The management
strategy of soil P in field
Crop yield
For X axis:
For Y axis:
48 N, 106 24 E, 266 m altitude), and Qiyang in
northeast China (26 45 N, 111 52 E, 120 m alti-
tude). Experiments began in 1979 at Haerbin and in
1990 at Qiyang, Yangling and Chongqing. The
cropping systems included a double crop rotation of
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) - maize (Zea mays L.) at
Qiyang and Yangling, a double crop rotation of rice
(Oryza sativa L.)wheat at Chongqing, and a single
crop rotation of wheat-soybean-maize at Haerbin.
The soil properties of the experimental sites are
summarized in Table 1. Total P (TP) ranged from
0.45 g kg1 to 1.07 g kg1 in the four soils types at
the start of the experiments.
Experimental design
All experimental sites had a factorial design with
various combinations of fertilizer nitrogen (N), P and
potassium (K), animal manure (M) and straw (S), in
triplicate. To avoid the effects of N deficiency on crop
yield, the data of added N treatments were only inves-
tigated to determine of the curve for soil Olsen-P
versus crop relative yield in all the long-term experi-
ment sites. Main treatments included: (1) N (only N
fertilizer), (2) NP (N and P fertilizer), (3) NK (N and K
fertilizer), (4) NPK (N, P and K fertilizer), (5) NM1
and NM2 (N fertilizer combined with manure at two
rates), (6) NPM1 and NPM2 (N and P fertilizer
29
P utilization P utilization
P accumulation rate and leaching possibility
efficient inefficient
Criticall evel for
crop yield
Critical level for soil P Critical level
fertility rate for P leaching
potential
P fertility
slowly P fertility quickly
Low environmental High environmental
risk risk
Olsen-P Total P Olsen-P
Yield Olsen-P CaCl2-P
combined manure at two rates), (7) NKM1 and
NKM2 (N and K fertilizer combined with manure at
two rates), (8) NPKM1 and NPKM2 (N, P, K fertilizer
combined with manure at two rates), and (9) NPKS
(N, P, K fertilizer combined with straw). Annual ap-
plication of fertilizers, manures and straw differed per
site (Table 2). Fertilizer application rates ranged from
70 kg ha1 to 210 kg ha1 for N, from 7 kg ha1 to
33 kg ha1 for P, and from 30 kg ha1 to 78 kg ha1 for
K, per crop per year. The ratio of fertilizer N to manure
N was about 7:3 in manure treatments. Various fertil-
izer sources were used, urea, triple superphosphate,
ammonium phosphate, KCl and K2SO4. Most P and
K fertilizers were applied as basal fertilizer.
Soil sampling and analysis
At all experiment sites, soil samples were collected
from the 020 cm layer each autumn, after harvesting
and before fertilizer application. Five soil cores (5 cm
diameter) were collected for each treatment each year.
Soil samples were air-dried, sieved (2.0 mm), and
stored for analysis. Olsen-P was extracted using
0.5 mol.L1 NaHCO3 (2.5 g soil, 50 ml solution,
25 C, shaken for 30 min), followed by the colorimet-
ric measurement of inorganic phosphorus (Pi) using
the molybdate-ascorbic acid method (Murphy and
Riley 1962). Total P was measured from H2SO4-
30 Plant Soil (2013) 372:2737

Table 1 The initial soil properties in long-term experiment sites

Item Sites

Chongqing Qiyang Yangling Haerbin

Soil classification in China Purple soil Red earth Loessial soil Black soil
Soil classification in FAO Luvic Xerosols Eutric Cambisol Calcaric Regosol Humic Andosols
Beginning years 1990 1990 1990 1979
Soil pH (2.5,water/soil) 7.7 5.7 8.6 7.2
1
Soil organic carbon (g kg ) 23.9 13.6 7.44 26.7
Total N (g N kg1) 1.32 1.07 0.84 1.47
Total P (g P kg1) 0.61 0.45 0.60 0.47
Total K (g K kg1) 20.7 13.7 22.8 20.9
Alkaline hydrolysable N 93.8 79.0 62.5 151.1
(mg N kg1)
Olsen-P (mg P kg1) 4.3 13.9 9.8 22.2
1
NH4OAc-K (mg K kg ) 87.2 104.0 192.0 166

HClO4 digestion, using the molybdate-ascorbic acid
method.
Additional soil analyses
Because CaCl2-P was not measured during the course of
the experiments, additional soil incubations and soil
analyses were conducted in the laboratory to determine
CaCl2-P as function of added P. Soils of the control
treatments were selected for this experiment. Portions
of 20.0 g soil were put in 50.0 ml incubation vials and
pre-incubated at a soil moisture content of 30 % (wt/wt)
for 7 days at 25 C. Then, P was added as KH2PO4 at
rates of 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 150, 250 and
400 mg P kg1, and soil moisture content adjusted to
30 %. Samples were incubated for another 7 days. The
experiment was repeated for four times. CaCl2-P was
determined using 0.01 mol L1 CaCl2 as extract (2.5 g

Table 2 Rate of fertilizer application each year for all experimental sites
a b c d
Site Chongqing Qiyang Yangling Haerbin

Crop Wheat Rice Wheat Maize Wheat Maize Wheat Maize

Fertilizer N (kg ha1 yr1) 150 150 90 210 165 187 150 150
Fertilizer P (kg ha1 yr1) 26 26 7 16 58 25 33 33
Fertilizer K (kg ha 1 yr1) 50 50 25 58 68 77 62 62
1 1 1
Manure (t ha yr ) 22.5 210 kg N ha equivalent N equivalent M1=75 /M2=150 N kg ha1 equivalent
1 1
Straw (t ha yr ) 7.5 Half of the harvested straw N equivalent
a
For Chongqing 150 kg N, 33 kg P, 14 kg K, M 22.5 t ha1 swine manure before 1997. After 1997(including) the M (manure) was
changed into straw (S 7.5 t ha1 ) and the total inorganic P and K fertilizer applied rate were changed into 26 and 55 kg ha1 . 70 % of
the total N and total P, K and manure were applied as basal fertilizers prior to seeding; the remaining N fertilizer was applied as top
dressing later during the growing season
b
The ratio of swine manure N and fertilizer N was 7:3, while the total N applied in NPKM treatment was the same as in N (P, PK)
treatments. All of the fertilizer and manure were applied as basal fertilizer prior to seeding
c
The ratio of cattle manure N and fertilizer N was 7:3, about 22.7 t ha1 cattle manure was applied. The total amount of N applied in
MNPK treatment was the same as in N (P, PK) treatments. For straw treatment, about 4.5 t ha1 straw was applied, also the amount of N
applied in SNPK treatment was the same as in N (P, PK) treatments. All of the fertilizer and manure were applied as basal fertilizer
d
The75 N kg ha1 equivalent horse manure (M1) was only applied in maize system for every 3 years. For M2 treatment, about
150 N kg ha1 manure was applied. All of the fertilizer and manure were applied as basal fertilizer
Plant Soil (2013) 372:2737
soil, 12.5 mL solution, 25 C, and shaken 15 min)
(Heckrath et al. 1995; Hesketh and Brookes 2000), and
the molybdate-ascorbic acid method for the colorimetric
measurement of Pi (Murphy and Riley 1962). Total P and
Olsen-P were determined as described before.
Data analyses and statistics
For the purpose of this study, we selected data from
specific treatments to establish the aforementioned
curves. For establishing the relationship between
Olsen-P and relative crop yield, we selected treatments
with a wide range of P applications, but only when N
was applied in sufficient amounts. For establishing
relationships between total soil P and Olsen-P, we
used data from all treatments. For the relationships
between Olsen P and CaCl2-P, we used the results of
the additional incubation study.
The linear-plateau model was used in this study. To
eliminate the variability among years and sites, the
relative yield was calculated as (Colwell 1963):
Ry Yf  Ym 1
where Ry is the relative yield, Yf is the yield of
treatments (kg ha1); and Ym is the maximum yield
(kg ha1) of each year.
The linear-plateau model was defined by Eqs. (2)
and (3) as
y a bx if x < C 2 and Olsen-P
y Yp if x  C 3
where y is the predicted yield; a is the intercept pa-
rameter; b is the slope parameter; x is the concentra-
tion of soil Olsen-P (mg P kg1); C is the critical value
of soil Olsen-P (mg P kg1); and Yp is the predicted
plateau yield (%).
The two segment linear model of Sigma-plot was
used to analysis the relationship among TP, Olsen-P
and CaCl2-P. The two segment linear model was de-
fined by Eqs. (4) and (5) as
y1 a 1 x b1 x<T 4
y2 a 2 x b2 xT 5
where a1, b1, a2 and b2 are the parameters of the
equations, T is the critical level for Olsen-P or
CaCl2-P, respectively.
31
Results
Critical level of Olsen-P for crop yield
The linear-plateau model described the relationship
between Olsen-P and relative crop yield well at
Yangling (R2 =0.790.91), Chongqing (R2 = 0.87
0.93), and Qiyang (R 2 = 0.690.71) (Fig. 2).
However, yields of maize and wheat showed no
significant response to Olsen-P at Haerbin, proba-
bly because of the relatively high initial Olsen-P
value (Table 1). The critical Olsen-P value, i.e.,
the change-point of the linear-plateau curve, for
crop yield was greatly affected by crop species
and soil types. For summer maize, the critical
Olsen-P level ranged from 14.6 mg kg 1 at
Yangling to 28.2 mg kg1at Qiyang. In contrast,
the critical Olsen-P level for wheat only ranged
from 11.1 mg kg1 at Chongqing, to 12.7 mg kg1
at Qiyang and 16.1 mg kg1 at Yangling. On
average the critical Olsen-P level for wheat was
13.3 mg kg1, which was much lower than that to
maize (21.4 mg kg1). Rice was only grown at
Chongqing, and had a critical Olsen-P value of
10.9 mg kg 1 (Fig. 2). Additional information
about the crop yields can be found in the supplementary
information.
Change-point in relation between total soil P
The two-segment model described the relationship
between soil total P and Olsen-P well (R2 =0.63
0.83, Fig. 3). A change-point in the relation between
soil total P and Olsen-P was found at all four experi-
ment sites. Below the change-point, Olsen-P exhibited
a lower increase with soil total P than above the
change-point. The response curve of Olsen-P versus
total P may be used to estimate the amount of P
needed to enhance Olsen-P to optimal levels for plant
growth.
The change-point differed between soil types. It
was lowest in the Humic Adosol at Haerbin
(0.44 g kg 1 for soil TP, 21.4 mg kg 1 for
Olsen-P) and highest in calcaric Regosol at
Yangling (1.32 g kg1 for soil TP, 71.8 mg kg1
for Olsen-P). Olsen-P increased much less before
the change-point than after the change-point, indi-
cating that much less P is needed to increase
32 Plant Soil (2013) 372:2737

Fig. 2 The crop relative 1.2 1.2

yield response to soil
Olsen-P
0.8 0.8
Yangling Maize Yangling Wheat
y=0.05x+0.22 x<14.6 y=0.06x-0.5 x<16.1
0.4 0.4
y=0.90 x 14.6 y=0.90 x 16.1
R2=0.79**, n=72 R2=0.91**, n=72
0.0 0.0
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300

1.2
1.2

0.8 Maize 0.8 Rice

Chongqing Chongqing
0.4 y=0.05x+0.76 x<11.1 0.4 y=0.02x+0.75 x<10.9
y=0.87 x 11.1 y=0.93 x 10.9
Relative yield

R2=0.78**, n=91 R2=0.46**, n=91

0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80

1.2 1.2

0.8 Maize 0.8 Wheat

Qiyang Qiyang
0.4 y=0.02x+0.22 x<28.2 0.4 y=0.04x+0.19 x<12.7
y=0.71 x 28.2 y=0.69 x 12.7
R2=0.48**, n=88 R2=0.20**, n=88
0.0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400

1.2 1.2

0.8 0.8
Maize Wheat
0.4 Haerbin 0.4 Haerbin
y=0.89 n=24 y=0.86 n=85
0.0 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100 150 200
Olsen-P mg kg-1

Olsen-P after the change-point. Again, the ratio of the
regression coefficients of the two curves differed
greatly between soil types; the ratio increased in
the order Yangling (3) <Chongqing (6) <Haerbin
(9) <Qiyang (44).
Critical level of Olsen-P for CaCl2-P
A change-point was observed in the relationship between
Olsen-P and CaCl2-P for all the soil types (Fig. 4). Above
the change-point, CaCl2-P increased dramatically with
increasing soil Olsen-P. The mean critical levels of
Olsen-P and CaCl2-P were 55.5 and 0.60 mg kg1 at
the four experiment sites. Critical Olsen-P was lowest at
Yangling (39.9 mg kg 1 ) and highest at Qiyang
(90.2 mg kg1). In contrast, critical CaCl2-P was lowest
at Qiyang (0.39 mg kg1), and the highest at Yangling
(0.87 mg kg1). Critical CaCl2-P was much higher in
calcareous soil (0.65 mg kg 1 ) and neutral soil
(0.69 mg kg1) than in acidic soil (0.39 mg kg1). The
ratio of the regression coefficients of the two curves
differed greatly between soil types; the ratio increased
Plant Soil (2013) 372:2737 33

Fig. 3 The relationship be- 400 400

tween soil TP and soil y1=3.5x+ 2.8 x<0.51 y1=93.1x -51.1 x<1.32
Olsen-P. The arrows mean 300 y22=152.8x- 73.3 x 0.51 300 y22=257.6x -268.4 x>1.32
the change-point of the re- R =0.83** n=70 R =0.81** n=27
sponse curve 200 200

Olsen-P mg kg-1
100 100
Qiyang Yangling
0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

200 60
y1=31.4x+ 7.6 x<0.44 y1=11.6x- 0.59 x<0.56
y =287.3x- 105.0 x 0.44 y2=74.8x- 36.0 x 0.56
150 R22=0.69** 2
n=167 40 R =0.73** n=49

100
20
50
Chongqing
Haerbin
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Total phosphorus g kg-1

in the order Yangling (3) <Chongqing (9) <Haerbin average critical Olsen-P values for maize, wheat and rice
(10) <Qiyang (27). were 18, 14 and 11 mg kg1, respectively. Tang et al.
(2009) reported similar critical Olsen-P values for wheat
(1115 mg kg1), but somewhat lower values for maize
Discussion (1315 mg kg1). Reported critical Olsen-P values for
wheat in Europe ranged from 7 mg kg1 to 18 mg kg1
Critical levels of Olsen-P for crop yield (Poulton et al. 2013; Colomb et al. 2007; Bollons and
Barraclough 1999). Critical Olsen-P values for maize in
A critical Olsen-P value can be defined as a soil P status France and US ranged from 7 mg kg1 to 11 mg kg1
above which crop yield does not respond to P applica- (Colomb et al. 2007; Mallarino and Atia 2005). Zhang et
tion (Mallarino and Blackmer 1992). In this study, the al. (2008) found that the critical Olsen-P value for rice
Fig. 4 The change-point 25 25
between soil Olsen-P and y1=0.024x-0.087 x<39.9 y1=0.012x+0.00 x<51.6
CaCl2-P of different soil 20 y2=0.072x-2.0 x>39.9 20 y2=0.114x-5.27 x 51.6
type. The arrows mean the R2=0.99** n=36 2
change-point of the response
15 15 R =0.98** n=36
curve 10 10
CaCl2-P mgkg-1

5 Yangling 5 Haerbin
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250

20 5
y1=0.010x+0.11 x<40.2 y1=0.002x+0.21 x<90.2
15 y2=0.087x-2.99 x 40.2 4 y2=0.053x -4.35 x 90.2
R2=0.98** n=33 2
3 R =0.94** n=36
10
2
5 1
Chongqing Qiyang
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Olsen-P mgkg-1
34
ranged from 10 mg kg1 to 20 mg kg1, while Bado et
al. (2008) reported a value of 17 mg kg1 for rice in
Africa.
Variation in critical levels may also originate from
differences in models that have been used for estimat-
ing critical levels. Cox (1992) found lower critical
levels for Mehlich-3 extractable P with the linear-
plateau function than with the exponential model. A
theoretical underpinning of the various possible
models that are being used for calibration of the crit-
ical soil P values can be found in Colwell (1994).
Recently, Jordan-Meille et al. (2012) reviewed P fer-
tilization recommendations in Europe. They found
much variation between the 18 countries examined in
(i) the procedures for the measurement of soil-P avail-
ability, (ii) calibration of the critical soil P status, and
(iii) the estimation of recommended P doses. Critical
Olsen-P values ranged from 10 mg kg 1 to
40 mg kg1, depending on country, crop type and soil
type. They concluded that there is little theoretical
underpinning for such wide ranges.
Critical Olsen-P level may vary due to differences in
soil type, including soil structure, pH, depth and organic
C (Johnston et al. 2013; Poulton et al. 2013). We found
that critical Olsen-P for maize differed by a factor of 2
between experimental sites, with the highest value for
the slightly acidic soil in Qiyang. The plateaus for maize
and wheat in Qiyang soil do not seem to fit the data well,
this may due to the lower extremely lower pH of single
fertilizer treatment, which the crop growth was
suppressed (Zhang et al. 2009). Olsen-P in Haerbin
(22 mg kg1) was above the critical level; this site has
a relatively high soil organic matter content
(26.7 g kg1), which may enhance the mobilization of
soil inorganic P (Weng et al. 2006). Soil organic matter
may also improve soil structure and hence the ability of
roots to grow and search for P (Johnston et al. 2013).
The Olsen P method may have overestimated bio-
available P in acidic soil, because the high pH (8.5) of
NaHCO3 extract may solve non-bioavailable P, such as
Fe-P and Al-P. Thus, a relatively low critical Olsen-P
values were recorded for maize in the calcareous soil of
Yangling (14 mg kg1) and a relatively high value
(28 mg kg1) the acidic soil of Qiyang. A relatively
low critical value in carbonate-rich soils might also be
due to the release of proton and carboxylates exudation
by maize roots, as a mechanism to acidify the rhizo-
sphere and mobilize soil inorganic P in calcareous soil
(Neumann and Rmheld 2002; Zhang et al. 2010).
Plant Soil (2013) 372:2737
Furthermore, low temperatures may suppress P uptake
of crops by reducing root activity and P diffusion in soil,
especially in early spring (Engels 1993; Havlin et al.
2005). The mean annual temperature is indeed lower in
Qiyang (13 C) than in Yangling (18 C).
Critical Olsen-P values may differ between years
because of differences in weather conditions, especial-
ly temperature and soil moisture (Poulton et al. 2013).
However, our data do not allow estimating accurately
annual differences in critical Olsen-P values, due to
limitation of data. We conclude that the critical Olsen-
P value for maize, wheat and rice, which are often
grown in rotation, is in the range of 1028 mg kg1.
Change-point in relation between total soil P
and Olsen-P
The response curve of Olsen-P versus total P is very
useful for estimating the amount of P needed to build up
Olsen-P to the critical level. Alternatively, the relation-
ship may be used to estimate the duration that soil P is
able to sustain crop production without P input, assum-
ing that the relationship remains constant over time. Our
results indicate that a two-segment model describes the
relationship between total soil P and Olsen-P well, indi-
cating that P in soil is held at different affinities. In acidic
soil, phosphorus is likely adsorbed by soil clay minerals
and oxi-hydroxides (such as goethite, hematite and
boehmite) via ligand exchange (Hingston et al. 1972;
Ryden et al. 1977; Parfitt 1989; Arai and Sparks 2007).
Inorganic P and goethite may form a protonated or
nonprotonatedbidentate complex (Arai and Sparks
2001; Luengo et al. 2006; Zenobi et al. 2010). The
affinity is much higher at relatively low Olsen P than
at high Olsen-P values; the ratio of the regression co-
efficients for the two curves is 44. In calcareous soil, the
retention of P was dominated by the precipitation of
calcium phosphates and by sorption on calcium carbon-
ates and clay minerals (Lindsay et al. 1989). This P is
easily extracted with 0.5 M NaHCO3 (Holford and
Mattingly 1975; Sato et al. 2005; Khorasgani et al.
2009). Also, the affinity does not change much with
total soil P in the soils with pH>7; the ratio of the
regression coefficients for the two curves varies from 3
to 9, with the lowest ratio for the soil with highest soil
pH (Yangling).
Evidently, P was retained much stronger in the
acidic soil than in the calcareous soils. Liming acidic
soils alleviates the fixation of P in soil, and hence is
Plant Soil (2013) 372:2737
widely practiced to improve the bio-availability of soil
P in agriculture production (Hinsinger 2001; Holford
et al. 1994). Manure application is also an efficient
strategy to build soil P fertility, as it may block ad-
sorption sites and may interfere with the reaction be-
tween Ca2+ and phosphate ion (Aziz et al. 2010; Heidi
et al. 2011).
Critical level of Olsen-P for CaCl2-P
Total loss of P via runoff, erosion and leaching from
agricultural land in China in 2005 has been estimated at
299 to 490 kt P, which is as high as 10 % of total
fertilizer P input (Ma et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2011).
To predict the soil P leaching potential, a leaching
change-point index was proposed by Heckrath et al.
(1995), based in part on the work of Ryden et al.
(1977) who were among the first with the observation
of two change-points in the phosphate adsorption curve.
The first change-point was regarded as the critical level
for soil P fertility, while the second level was used to
evaluate the leaching risk of soil P. The potential for use
as a leaching index was evaluated by Heckrath et al.
(1995) and Hesketh and Brookes (2000), they found
clear change-points in the relationships between Olsen-
P and CaCl2-P. Extraction of soils with 0.01 M CaCl2-P
is an indicator for the threat of soils to enrich water
bodies with P via overland flow and runoff (Sharpley
et al. 2003). Hence, the risk of P losses via overland flow
is much higher above the change-point, where CaCl2-P
increases much stronger with a change in Olsen-P than
below the critical value (Ryden et al. 1977; Sharpley et
al. 2000; McDowell and Sharpley 2004; Aulakh et al.
2007). In addition, a higher correlation showed between
soil Olsen-P and CaCl2-P in Fig. 4 than that of soil TP
and Olsen-P in Fig. 3. Critical level of Olsen-P for P
leaching was analysis by lab incubation, the variation of
soil sampling was lower than the yearly soil TP and
Olsen-P sampling in the field.
The critical Olsen-P value was much higher in
acidic soil (90 mg kg1) than neutral and calcare-
ous soil (rang 4052 mg kg 1). However, the
increase in CaCl2-P beyond the critical Olsen-P
values was also much larger in the acidic soil
(factor 27) than in the neutral and calcareous soils
(range 310). This indicates that the risk of P
losses via leaching and overland flow greatly in-
creases once the critical Olsen-P values has
surpassed in the acidic soil.
35
Main annual rainfall greatly varies in China. In north-
west China, annual precipitation is low (<400 mm)
while most rainfall occurs during a relatively short rainy
season and often in showers. In contrast, southeast
China has relatively high rainfall (>1,000 mm per year),
and the duration of the rainy season is much longer.
Erosion occurs especially during heavy showers, and
total P and Olsen-P will be good indicators for the risk of
P loss via erosion (e.g., Sharpley et al. 2003). Overland
flow occurs when the soil is wet and rainfall exceeds
infiltration into the soil; in this case CaCl2-P may be an
indicator for the loss of P via overland flow and runoff.
Also, CaCl2-P may be a good indicator for the down-
ward leaching of P from the top soil to the subsoil. As
the critical Olsen-P values for crop yield are lower that
the critical Olsen-P values for CaCl2-P, we conclude that
critical Olsen-P values for crop yield can be considered
as safe maximal threshold values for soil P.
Towards a regional P management strategy in China
Olsen-P is a routine soil-P test method in China, and an
agronomic P management strategy can be based on
critical Olsen-P levels (Fig. 1). When soil Olsen-P level
is below the critical level for crop yield, it is important to
increase Olsen-P to the agronomic level for food secu-
rity reasons. Through the relationship between TP and
Olsen-P, together with critical Olsen-P levels for crop
yield, the amount of P fertilizer can be calculated, which
is needed to build soil Olsen-P to the agronomic level.
When Olsen-P is above the change-point for P leaching,
P application must be withheld, considering the limited
P resources and the increased risks of P losses via
leaching and runoff (Hesketh and Brookes 2000;
Sharpley et al. 2003). If soil Olsen-P level is higher than
the critical level for crop yield but lower than critical
level for P leaching, P application should balance P
withdrawal in harvested crop (Li et al. 2011).
In the province Hunan, where Qiyang is located, 6 %
of the arable land had very low Olsen-P values
(< 5 mg kg1) and 74 % of below the critical level
(20 mg kg1) for crop production (Huang unpublished).
In order to increase Olsen-P of the 020 cm layer to
28 mg kg1, a total amount of 750 kt P would be needed.
Because the critical Olsen-P level for P leaching is as
high as 90 mg kg1, the crop land in Hunan can store
5400 kt P without a high risk of P leaching. Yet, control
measures are needed to prevent P losses via erosion,
especially because of the high precipitation in Hunan.
36
Conclusions
The relationships between (i) crop yield and Olsen-P, (ii)
Olsen-P and total soil P, and (iii) CaCl2-P and Olsen-P
observed in four long-term field experiments in China all
exhibit so-called change-points, above which the slop of
linear regressions significantly changes. These change-
points allows the us to estimate critical Olsen-P values
beyond which (i) crop yields do not show a response to P
application, and (ii) CaCl2-P values increase by a factor
of 3 to 30 compared to that before the change-points.
Critical Olsen-P values for crop yields ranged from
10 mg kg1 to 28 mg kg1, depending on crops and soil
types. Critical Olsen-P values at which CaCl2-P increased
strongly ranged from 40 mg kg1 to 90 mg kg1.
Though the long-term field experiments were carried
out in four contrasting regions with different soil types,
we recognize that the results of our study cannot be
transferred easily to all regions and all soil types in
China. In addition, these curves quantified the amount
of P fertilizer required to improve soil P fertility to
optimal levels or the amount of P potentially leached
from soil to minimize P loss. Chinese soil classification
system delineates in China 41 soil types. If the three
curves for all soil types were determined, the building-
up and maintenance approach would be quantitatively
supported, which would optimize soil P management in
field. However, to determine these curves, data from the
long-term fertilizer experiments or many field experi-
ments are required. Such research would incur high labor
and research costs. Therefore, to achieve this ultimate
goal of optimizing P use in the diverse agricultural
systems of China, collaboration of researchers, farmers,
and governmental bodies across China is required.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Na-
tional Basic Research Program of China (973-2013CB127402),
the Innovative Group Grant of the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (31121062), the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (31201691, 30925024) , and Chinese
Universities Scientific Fund (2012QJ160).
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