Functions

of the Nervous System

1. Receiving sensory input
2. Integrating information
3. Controlling muscles and glands
4. Maintaining homeostasis
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity

Divisions of the Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System
- consists of all the nervous tissue outside the CNS (nerves and ganglia)
- functions to link the CNS with the various parts of the body
- carries information about the different tissues of the body to the CNS
- carries commands from the CNS that alter body activities
Sensory (afferent) division
- conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS
- sensory neurons neurons that transmit action potentials from the periphery to the CNS
Motor (efferent) division
- conducts action potentials from the CNS to effector organs (such as muscles and glands)
- motor neurons neurons that transmit action potentials from the CNS toward the periphery
- somatic nervous system transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles
- autonomic nervous system (ANS) transmits action potentials from the CNS to cardiac
muscle, smooth muscles and glands
Enteric nervous system (ENS)
- unique subdivision of the PNS that has both sensory and motor neurons contained wholly
within the digestive tract
- can function without input from the CNS or other parts of the PNS

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Cells of the Nervous System
The two types of cells that make up the nervous system are neurons and glial cells
Neurons (nerve cells)
- receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
transmit signals to other neurons or effector organs
- 3 parts to a neuron cell body, 2 types of
processes called dendrites and axons
- dendrites receive information from other
neurons from sensory receptors and transmit the
information toward the neuron cell body
- axon of sensory neuron conduct action
potentials towards the CNS
- axon of motor neuron conduct action
potentials away from the CNS
- axon conduct action potentials from one
part of the brain/spinal cord to another part
- the axon receives sensory information at the
periphery and transmits that information in the form of
action potentials to the CNS
- Neurons communicate with each other by
releasing neurotransmitters across synapses between
the axon of one neuron and the dendrite/cell body of
another




Glial cells (neuroglia)
- primarily supportive cells of the CNS and PNS; they do not conduct action potentials
- Five types of glial cells:
1. astrocytes major supporting cells in the CNS, can stimulate/inhibit the signalling activity
of nearby neurons, help limit damage to neural tissue
2. ependymal cells help move the cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS
3. microglia act as immune cells of the CNS, help protect the brain by removing bacteria
and cell debris
4. Oligodendrocytes in the CNS
5. Schwann cells in the PNS provide an insulating material that surround axons

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Myelin sheath an insulator that prevents almost all ion movement across the cell membrane
Nodes of Ranvier gaps in the myelin sheath, ion movement can occur at nodes of Ranvier
Myelination of an axon increases the speed and efficiency of action potential generation along the
axon.

Gray matter
- consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their dendrites, where there is little myelin
- gray matter on the surface of the brain is called the cortex
- clusters of gray matter location deeper within the brain are called nuclei
- ganglion a cluster of neuron cell bodies in the PNS

White matter
- consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin sheaths, which are whitish in color
- white matter of the CNS form nerve tracts (conduction pathways) which propagate action
potentials from one area of the CNS to another

Types of Neurons

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Generation of the Resting Membrane Potential

Resting Membrane Potential
- the inside of most cell membranes is negatively charged compared to outside of the cell
membrane, which is positively charged
- the uneven distribution of charge means the cell membrane is polarized
- in an unstimulated (or resting) cell, the uneven charged distribution is called the resting
membrane potential
- gated channels are closed until opened by specific signals
- chemically gated channels are opened by neurotransmitters or other chemicals
- voltage-gated channels are opened by a change in membrane potential
- to compensate for the constant leakage of ions across the membrane, the sodium-potassium
pump (Na+ - K+ pump) is required to maintain the greater concentration of Na+ outside the cell
membrane and K+ inside.
- The pump actively transports K+ into the cell and Na+ out of the cell

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Voltage-Gated Ion Channels and the Action Potential

Action Potentials
- muscle and nerve cells are excitable cells meaning that the resting membrane potential
changes in response to stimuli that activate gated ion channels
- opening and closing of gated channels can change the permeability characteristics of the cell
membrane which changes the membrane potential
- the movement of Na+ (local current) causes the inside of the cell membrane to become
positive, a change called depolarization depolarization results in a local potential
- depolarization and repolarization constitutes an action potential

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Continuous Conduction in an Unmyelinated Axon
1. An action potential generates local currents that depolarize the membrane immediately
adjacent to the action potential
2. When depolarization caused by local currents reaches threshold, a new action potential is
produced adjacent to where the original action potential occurred.
3. The action potential is conducted along the axon cell membrane.
Synapse
- synapse junction where the axon of one neuron interacts with another neuron or with cells
of an effector organ (such as muscle/gland)
- presynaptic terminal formed by the end of the axon
- postsynaptic membrane the membrane of the dendrite or effector cell
- synaptic cleft the space separating the presynaptic and postsynaptic membrane
- synaptic vesicles where chemical substances called neurotransmitters are stored
- best known neurotransmitters are acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine
A synapse consists of the end of a neuron (presynaptic terminal), a small space (synaptic cleft), and the
postsynaptic membrane of another neuron/an effector cell, such as a muscle or gland cell.

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 1. Action potentials arriving at the
presynaptic terminal cause voltage-gated Ca2+
channels to open.
2. Ca2+ diffuse into the cell and causes
synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter
molecules.
3. Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse from
the presynaptic terminal across the synaptic
cleft.
4. Neurotransmitter molecules combine
with their receptor sites and cause chemically
gated Na+ channels to open. Na+ diffuses into the
cell or out of the cell and causes a change in
membrane potential.







Reflexes
- reflex an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and
transmitted to the CNS
- reflex arc neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs; basic functional unit of the nervous
system because it is the smallest, simplest pathway capable of receiving a stimulus and
yielding a response
- five basic components of a reflex arc
1. sensory receptor
2. sensory neuron
3. in some reflexes, interneurons
neurons located between and
communication with two other neurons
4. motor neuron
5. effector organ
- most reflexes occur in the spinal cord of brainstem

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Neuronal Pathways
- converging pathway two or more neurons synapse with (converge on) the same neuron
- diverging pathway the axon from one neuron divides (diverges) and synapses with more
than one other neuron

Spinal Cord
- spinal cord extends from the foramen
magnum at the base of the skull to the second
lumbar vertebra
- cauda equina inferior end of the spinal
cord and the spinal nerves exiting there
- spinal cord consists of a superficial white
matter portion and a deep gray matter portion
- the white matter in each half of the spinal
cord is organized into 3 columns:
dorsal (posterior)
ventral (anterior)
lateral
- each column of the spinal cord contains
ascending and descending tracts/pathways
- ascending tracts consist of axons that
conduct action potentials towards the brain
- descending tracts consist of axons that conduct action potentials away from the brain
- gray matter of the spinal cord is shaped like the letter H with posterior horns and anterior
horns
- small lateral horns exist in levels of the cord associated with the autonomic nervous system
- central canal fluid-filled spaces in the centre of the cord
- somatic motor neurons are located in the anterior horn
- autonomic neurons are located in the lateral horn
- the dorsal root contains sensory axons
- ventral root contains motor axons

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How sensory information is conducted to & motor information is conducted from the brain

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Pain Reflex
1. Pain receptors detect a painful
stimulus
2. Sensory neurons conduct action
potentials to the spinal cord
3. Sensory neurons synapse with
interneurons that synapse with motor
neurons
4. Excitation of the motor neurons
results in contraction of the flexor muscles
and withdrawal of the limb from the
painful stimulus

Brain

Brainstem
- connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain
- consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons and the midbrain
- damage to small areas of the brainstem can cause death
Medulla Oblongata
- extends from the level of the foramen magnum to the pons
- contains discrete nuclei with specific functions
- pyramids on the anterior surface that extend the length of the medulla oblongata
- the pyramids consist of descending nerve tracts, which transmit action potentials from the
brain to motor neurons of the spinal cord and are involved in the conscious control of skeletal
muscles

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Pons
- superior to the medulla oblongata
- contains ascending and descending nerve tracts as well as several nuclei
- some of the nuclei relay information between the cerebrum and the cerebellum
- functions such as breathing, swallowing and balance are controlled in the lower pons as well as
in the medulla oblongata
- other nuclei in the pons control functions such as chewing and salivation
Midbrain
- superior to the pons ; smallest region of the brainstem
- dorsal part of the midbrain consists of four mounds called the colliculi
2 inferior colliculi are major relay centres for the auditory nerve pathways in the CNS
2 superior colliculi are involved in visual reflexes and receive touch and auditory input
- contains nuclei involved in coordinating eye movements, controlling pupil diameter & lens
shape
- contains a black nuclear mass called the substantia nigra which is part of the basal nuclei and
involved in regulating general body movements
- consists largely of ascending tracts from the spinal cord to the cerebrum and descending tracts
from the cerebrum to the spinal cord or cerebellum
Reticular Formation
- reticular formation a group of nuclei scattered throughout the brainstem
- particularly involved in regulating cyclical motor functions, such as respiration, walking, and
chewing
- a major component of the reticular activating system, which plays an important role in
arousing and maintaining consciousness and in regulating the sleep-wake cycle
- damage to cells of the reticular formation can cause coma

Cerebellum
- cerebellum is attached to the brainstem by several large connections called cerebellar
peduncles; these connections provide routes of communication between the cerebellum and
other parts of the CNS
- internally, the cerebellum consists of gray nuclei and white nerve tracts
- involved in maintaining balance and muscle tone and in coordinating fine motor movement
- major function of the cerebellum is that of a comparator a sensing device that compares
the data from 2 sources: the motor cortex and peripheral structures
- cerebellum compares information about the intended movement from the motor cortex to
sensory information from the moving structures
- another function of the cerebellum involves participating with the cerebrum in learning motor
skills

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Diencephalon
- part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum
- main components are the thalamus, epithalamus and the hypothalamus
Thalamus
- consists of a cluster of nuclei and the two large, lateral parts are connected in the center by a
small interthalamic adhesion
- most sensory input that ascends through the spinal cord and brainstem projects to the
thalamus, where ascending neurons synapse with thalamic neurons
- thalamic neurons send their axons to the cerebral cortex
- thalamus also influences mood and registers an unlocalized, uncomfortable perception of pain
Epithalamus
- small area superior and posterior to the thalamus
- consists of a few small nuclei, which are involved in the emotional and visceral response to
odours, and the pineal gland
- pineal gland an endocrine gland that may influence the onset of puberty and play a role in
controlling some long-term cycles that are influenced by the light-dark cycles
Hypothalamus
- most inferior part that contains several small nuclei that are very important in maintaining
homeostasis
- plays a central role in the control of body temperature, hunger and thirst
- sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear and relaxation after a meal are related to
hypothalamic functions

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 - emotional responses that seem inappropriate to the circumstances also involve the
hypothalamus
- infundibulum a funnel-shaped stalk that extends from the floor of the hypothalamus to the
pituitary gland
- hypothalamus also plays a major role in controlling the secretion of hormones from the
pituitary gland
- mammillary bodies form externally visible swellings on the posterior portion of the
hypothalamus and are involved in emotional responses to odours and in memory

Cerebrum
- largest part of the brain; divided into left and right hemispheres by a longitudinal fissure ;
each cerebral hemisphere is divided into lobes
- gyri numerous folds on the surface of each hemisphere which greatly increase the surface
area of the cortex
- sulci intervening grooves
- frontal lobe important in the control of voluntary motor functions, motivation, aggression,
mood, and olfactory (smell) reception
- parietal lobe principal centre for receiving and consciously perceiving most sensory
information, such as touch, pain, temperature and balance
- frontal and parietal lobes separated by the central sulcus
- occipital lobe functions in receiving and perceiving visual input
- temporal lobe involved in olfactory (smell) and auditory (hearing) sensations and play an
important role in memory. Its anterior and inferior portions (psychic cortex) are associated
with functions such as abstract thought and judgement
- most of the temporal lobe is separate from the rest of the cerebrum by the lateral fissure and
deep within the fissure is the insula (fifth lobe)

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Ascending Tracts
- spinal cord & brainstem contains a number of ascending (sensory) tracts that transmit
information via action potentials from the periphery to various parts of the brain
- each tract contains axons from specific sensory receptors specialized to detect a particular
type of stimulus
- spinothalamic tract transmits action potentials dealing with pain and temperature to the
thalamus and on to the cerebral cortex
- dorsal column transmits action potentials dealing with touch, position, and pressure
- sensory tracts typically cross from one side of the body in the spinal cord/brainstem to the
other side of the body
- ascending tracts terminate in the brainstem or cerebellum
- anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts transmit information about body position to
the cerebellum

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Cerebellar Comparator Function

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Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
- primary sensory areas specific regions of the cerebral cortex where sensations are
perceived
- primary somatic sensory cortex located in the parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus

Motor Functions
- responsible for maintaining the bodys posture and balance, as well as moving the trunk, head,
limbs, tongue and eyes and communicating through facial expressions and speech
- involuntary movements occur without conscious thought; reflexes mediated through the
spinal cord and brainstem are responsible for some body movements
- voluntary movements consciously activated to achieve a specific goal; result froom the
stimulation of upper and lower motor neurons.
- Upper motor neurons have cell bodies in the cerebral cortex
- Lower motor neurons have cell bodies in the anterior horn of the spinal cord gray matter
or in cranial nerve nuclei

Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
- primary motor cortex located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe, directly anterior
to the central sulcus
- premotor area of the frontal lobe where motor functions are organized before they are
actually initiated in the primary motor cortex
- prefrontal area anterior portions of the frontal lobes, involved in motivation and
regulation of emotional behaviour and mood
Descending Tracts
- direct extend directly from upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex to lower motor
neurons in the spinal cord

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 - indirect no direct connection exists between the cortical and spinal neurons; tracts that are
indirectly controlled by the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and cerebellum
- tracts in the lateral columns are most important in controlling goal-directed limb movements
- lateral corticospinal tracts important in controlling speed and precision of skilled
movements of the hands
- tracts in the ventral columns are most important for maintaining posture, balance, and limb
position through their control of neck, trunk, and proximal limb muscles

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Cranial Nerves
- from brain to head and organs of the body
- there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves

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Autonomic Nervous System
- contains preganglionic and postganglionic neurons
- all autonomic preganglionic and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons secrete acetylcholine
- most sympathetic postganglionic neurons secrete norepinephrine
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
- the sympathetic division prepares a person for action by increasing heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, and release of glucose for energy
- the parasympathetic division is involved in involuntary activities at rest, such as the digestion
of food, defecation and urination

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