Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Concept of Anthropology
A. Definition of Anthropology
Comes from the Greek words; anthropos (man) and logos (study).
Concerns explicitly and directly with all varieties of people throughout the world
and it traces human evolution and cultural development from millions of years
ago to present (Ember, 1993).
It looks into the attributes of a particular human population.
B.1 Physical Anthropology "concerns with human evolution and human variation
(Paleontology or paleoanthropology)
B.2 Cultural Anthropology - deals with the study of culture consists of three
areas as follows:
1. Linguistics- focuses on historical and descriptive or structural linguistics. It
looks into the emergence of language and variations of language over time.
2. Archaeology-deals with cultural history
3. Ethnology (cultural anthropology)-studies cultural variation
- Early Evolutionism (Edward B. Taylor and Lewis Henry Morgan) - states that
most societies were believed to pass through the same series of stages, to arrive
ultimately at a common end
- Historical Particularism - Franz Boas. the proponent, believed that it was
premature to formulate universal law since there is a need to study the context
of society in which they appeared.
- Diffusionism (British, German and Austrian Anthropologists) spread the idea
that most aspects of civilization had emerged in culture centers and later diffused
outward.
- Functionalism (Bronislaw Malinowski). It holds that all culture traits serve
the needs of individuals in a society; the function of culture traits is the ability to
satisfy some basic or derived need.
- Structural-functionalist approach (Arthur Reginald Radcliffe-Brown)
assumes that the various aspects of social behavior maintain a society's social
structure- its total network of social relationships - rather than satisfying
individual needs. It works in the following assumption: stability, harmony,
equilibrium and evolution.
- Psychological Approaches (Edward Sapir, Ruth Benedict and Margaret
Mead) seek to understand how psychological factors and processes may help us
explain cultural practices.
- Later Evolutionism (Leslie White) states that culture evolves as the amount
of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased or as the efficiency of the
instrumental means of putting the energy to work increased.
- Structuralism- Claude Levi-Strauss sees culture as it is expressed in art, ritual,
and the patterns of daily life, as a surface representation of the underlying
patterns of the human mind.
- Ethno science (ethnography) explains culture from the way people used to
describe their activities.
- Cultural Ecology seeks to understand the relationship between culture and
social environments
- Political economy centers on the impact of external political and economic
processes, particularly as connected to colonialism and imperialism, on local
events and cultures in the underdeveloped countries.
- Sociobiology involves the application of biological evolutionary principles to
the social behavior of animals, including humans.
- Interpretive approaches consider cultures as texts to be analyzed for their
meanings.
- Feminist Anthropology includes women's issues in the study of culture and
society.
- Conflict Theory-advocates of this theory ask this question: "Who controls the
scarce resources of a given society"? It assumes that society can be explained
based on the following assumptions: economic determinism, dialectism and
social action.
10,000(8.000 Neolithic
B.C.)
Mesolithic
700,000
1,500,000 Homo Habilis
1.800,000 Earliest hominids Lower
Pliocene Australopithe-cus Paleolithic
2,000,000
Diversification of Apes
Sivapithecus
Dryopithecus
Proconsu
5,000,000 Miocene Earliest apes (?)
Propliopithe-cus
e.g. Aegyptopithe-cus
22,500,000 Earliest anthropoids
29,000,000 Parapithecids
e.g. Apldium
32,000.000 Oligocene Ampipithecus tetonius
Earliest Primates
Purgaforius
38,000,000 Eocene
50,000,000 Paleocene
53,500,000 Late
Cretaceous
70,000.000
Ember: 1996
- Homo erectus begun to evolve into Homo sapiens after about 500,000 years
ago.
- Pro-modem Homo sapiens have been found in Africa, Asia and Europe.
- The oldest fossil remains of a modem looking human have been found in
South Africa.
- Two theories about the origins of modem humans:
1. Single-origin theory- modem humans emerged in just one part of the Old
World (the near east and recently South Africa.
2. Continuous Evolution Theory-modem humans emerged gradually in various
parts of the Old World
B. The Ability of Human Beings to Produce and Acquire Culture Can be attributed
to the
Following Biological Characteristics:
Large brain
Bipedal
Opposable thumb
Well developed vocal chords
Long period of dependency
Reproduction is not seasonal; human beings can reproduce during fertile period
V. Social Stratification
A. Definition
Social Stratification pertains to division in society due to access or right to certain
advantages. The advantages may be in the form of economic resources, power
and prestige
B. Type of Societies
1. Egalitarian societies are societies in which many positions of prestige in any
given age-sex grade could be filled by those who are capable.
2. Rank societies are characterized by social groups having unequal access to
prestige or status but not significantly unequal access to economic resources or
power
3. Class societies are characterized by having unequal access to economic
resources and power. Class society ranges from open class system to close class
system.
A. Definition of Religion
Religion is any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural
power
E. Magic is the belief that actions can compel the supernatural to act in a
particular and intended way. Sorcery and witchcraft are attempts to make the
spirits work harm against people.
B. Visual Art
Artistic Differences in Egalitarian and Stratified Societies
Egalitarian Society Stratified Society
Repetition of simple elements Much empty or Integration of unlike elements Little empty sp
"irrelevant" space Symmetrical design Unenclosed Asymmetrical design Enclosed figures
figures
C. Music
D. Folklore
X. Culture Changes
A. Discovery and Invention
B. Diffusion
C. Acculturation
D. Revolution
E. Types of Culture Change
Commercialization
Religious Change
Economic Change
Social Philosophy
Philosophy
- From two Greek words: Philein which means "to love", and Sophia which
means "wisdom". According to Manuel Velasquez, philosophy is "the pursuit of
wisdom about what it means to be a human being, what the fundamental nature
of God and reality is. what the sources and limits of our knowledge are, and what
is good and right In our lives and in our societies,
- Traditionally defined as the sciences of all things studied from the viewpoint
of their ultimate causes under the light of human reason alone. (According to
Bertram/ Russel, philosophy is the no man's land between theology and science.)
Social Philosophy is the study of society and its processes and activities with
particular emphasis on the basic principles underlying social structures and
functions. It is the study of the rightness or wrongness of societal orders,
institutions, structures, systems, functions, and processes.
(Thomas Hobbes first used the term "social philosophy". He is also widely
considered as the father of social philosophy.)
To sum up, the study of social philosophy revolves around these six lectors:
associations, values, power, rights, obligations and justice.
SOCIAL PHILSOPHIES
A. Classical Realism
Realism is the philosophy that regards the universe as composed of beings
existing independently but related and forming a hierarchical structure called
cosmos or totality.
B. Positivism
Positivism as a philosophy is based primarily on science and scientific discoveries.
Auguste Comte came up with the term when he developed his philosophical idea
regarding the laws of societal growth. He maintains that there are three
ascending levels of explanation of natural phenomena:
Theological level - explains natural phenomena by involving spiritual or
anthromorphic beings.
Metaphysical level- depersonalizes these beings into forces and essences
Positive level - relies mainly on sciences and scientific descriptions.
Comte contends that as the new society develops in the positive level (or
positivist society); performing one's duties to society and of serving the interests
of humanity will prevail over the concept of society as existing to serve the
interests of individuals. In other words, he maintains that the development of
industrial society based on sciences and industry, when properly organized, will
be accompanied by a moral regeneration involving the substitution of concern
with the welfare of humanity for concern with the individual's private
interests.
Intellectual Phase Material Phase Type of Social Unit Type of Order Prevailing Se
Theological Military Family Domestic Att
Metaphysical Legalistic State Collective Veneration
Positive Industrial Race (Humanity) Universal Ben
* Comte framed the term sociology.
C. Pragmatism
Pragmatism is the acknowledged contribution of America to philosophy. Three
American thinkers figured prominently in the development of pragmatism:
- Charles Sanders Peirce (pronounced as "purse")
- William James
- John Dewey
Dewey defined pragmatism as the "theory that the processes and the materials
of knowledge are determined by practical or purposive consideration". According
to Peirce the pragmatists' view is supported by the practices of experimental
sciences specifically the laboratory method in which the hypotheses are ideas or
proposed solutions to felt problems. These are tested and either rejected or
confirmed. Truth, therefore, is that which works and is successful in solving
problems.
The pragmatists' focus on consequences and how they are controlled through
intelligence is the foundation of their concepts of person and society. A person is
a social animal because association rather than isolation is the Law that governs
everything that exists.
Almost every other kind of achievable value is acquired because of social process
in which each value individual valuer is when he is normally fitted to his sphere.
In essence, for pragmatism society is not just a conglomeration of individuals but
an organic process upon which individuals depend and by which they live. As the
soil is to plants and trees, so society is to the individual which nurtures human life
in its individual forms and makes possible of all the flowerings of
personality.
The pragmatists also claim that human society is much more commonly the
context in which concepts are formed.
The ends of associative life such as survival, habits of action and thought, and,
choice of consequences are served by numerous social groups To the
pragmatists, society is pluralistic, not an entity in itself, but a collection of
interacting primary groups. These smaller groups however produce
consequences on persons other than those who directly participate in these
primary groups.
D. Naturalism
Naturalism is a philosophy that denies anything as having supernaturality. It
contends, especially its earlier versions, that the common context in which
concepts are formed is the physical universe (unlike pragmatism which maintains
that the human society is the common context where ideas are formed). A
human being is a transitory product of physical processes. Thus, human beings
and society are dependent on the natural order. Society therefore is received as
less organic. It is an aspect or portion of nature, not so much an organism that
has rhythms and patterns. The individual is therefore considered as nature's
offspring, not a child of society or a segment whose very being depends upon the
social organism. Although dependent upon nature, he stands on his own feet,
more or less, as far as his relations to society are concerned. There are what
might be called certain necessities which make it expedient for him to relate
himself somewhat effectively socially; but these are not necessities arising from
the operation of society as an organism, so much as they are accidents or
exigencies to be avoided by working out some kind of social organization to
correct them.
Thomas Hobbes viewed the individual and his native state as at war with himself.
He is competitive, he grasps for honor and dignity, he is troublesome, and he is
hungry for power. Human beings left to them selves without some kind of control
will kill themselves in the chaos and anarchy of selfish struggle. The only way that
man can be saved from himself sociologically is for individual man to surrender
his freedom to some superior social power or organization to which he must give
absolute obedience as to a moral god.
It seems that for naturalism social values are synthetic values, which result from
agreements in which human beings bind themselves together. Such are inferior
goods, not so much preferred as individual goods, which result indirectly as a
consequence of the desire to avoid the greater evils which accompany anarchy.
They are not organic values which are determined in part by the very nature of
society and which would never be possessed by humans separately, even if they
did not need to be saved from conflict and chaos by some kind of social
groupings.
E. Liberalism
Liberalism is a philosophy or movement that has as its aim the development of
individual freedom and adheres to the idea that the society is one in which
individuals are left free to pursue their own interests and fulfillment as each
chooses. As Mill argued, the only restraints to which adult individuals should be
subjected are those necessary to keep an individual from harming others.
However, because the concepts of liberty or freedom change in different
historical periods its specific programs also change. The final aim of liberalism,
though, remains fixed, as does its characteristic belief not only in essential human
goodness but also in human rationality. Liberalism assumes that people, having a
rational intellect, have the ability to recognize problems and solve them and thus
can achieve systematic improvement in the human condition. Often opposed to
liberalism is the doctrine of conservatism, which simply states, supports the
maintenance of the status quo. Liberalism, which seeks what it considers to be
improvement or progress, necessarily desires to change the existing order.
It is in the works of John Locke that the soul of philosophical liberalism is found.
Locke claims that freedom and equality of all human beings are governed by a
(aw of nature that necessitates everyone to respect the freedom of self-
determination in others and to treat others as equals. Reason defines the rights
and duties that constitute and sustain everyone's freedom.
Rawls claims that the most important question about society is whether it is just
or not. According to Rawls, the laws and institutions of a society must embody
justice and be based on these two principles of justice: first, that everyone in
society must have political rights and duties, and second, that the only justifiable
economic inequalities are those required to make everyone better off by serving
as incentives. If this will not be the case, then it must be reformed.
F. Idealism
Idealism grew out as a reaction to naturalism. According to naturalism, truth or
reality exists in Ideas or in the spirit or in the mind. Material objects are merely
representations of the idea. While idealism emphasizes that the will governs
one's conduct, naturalism says that impulse, instincts, and experience govern
one's conduct. While idealism judges behavior in terms of motives, naturalism
judges behavior on the basis of results. Naturalism would say that the end
justifies the means. Idealism would say that the knowledge is obtained by
speculation and reasoning, naturalism regards scientific observation. Naturalism
regards scientific knowledge as final.
G. Communism
Karl Marx believed that the human being, apart from some obvious biological
factors, has no essential human nature that is, something that it is true of
every human being at all times everywhere. However, he believes that human
beings are social beings, that to speak of human nature is really to speak about
the totality of social relations. Accordingly, whatever any of us does is a social act.
which presupposes the existence of other people standing in certain relations to
us. In short, everything is socially (earned. He further claims that it is not the
consciousness of individuals that defines their beings, but it is their social being
that determines their consciousness.
Marx also claimed that the history of the world should be viewed as a history of
class struggles. He believed that the universal laws operating in history are
economic in nature. Moreover, he saw a causal connection between the
economic structure and everything in society such that the mode of production
of material life determines the general character of the social, political and
spiritual processes of life.
H. Communitariansm
Communitarianism is the view that the actual community in which we live should
be at the center of our analysis of society and government. Communitarians
emphasize the social nature of human beings. They argue that our very identity -
who we are ~ depends on our relationships to others in our communities. We are
embedded in our community and its cultural practices. Thus, we cannot
understand our selves apart from our community and its cultural practices.
According to communitarians, the state is natural. It is, like the family and the
tribe, the natural outgrowth of the human beings' natural tendency to live
together. They also believe that the human being can only fully develop within
the state. Thus, it is obvious that communitarians do not claim that the state is an
artificial construct. They also do not claim that the individual is prior to the
development of the state. But they do claim that the state and its cultural
practices are the source of the identity of all human beings. That is, it is in the
state that human beings acquire the cultures and traditions that they use to
define themselves.
I. Fascism
The term fascism was first used by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in 1919. The
term comes from the Italian word fascio, which means "union".
J. Stoicism
Stoicism is a philosophy that flourished in Greek and Roman antiquity. The goal
of all inquiry is to provide man with a mode of conduct characterized by
tranquility of mind and certainty of moral growth. They also believed that some
matters were within a person's power to control and others were not. Within a
person's power to control is the will to act or not to act, to do or to avoid. Not
within a person's power is the nature of things and the laws that govern them.
People should therefore obey the rules of nature and respect the natural order of
things. Stoicism also preached the equality of all people since all of them are
rational beings.
The stoics developed the idea of cosmopolitanism, the idea that all persons are
citizens of the same human community. Human relations for them have the
greatest significance, for human beings shared a common element. That is, since
Logos (God) is in everything, then the Logos (reason). Is also the same saying the
reason is common to both God and person
K. Existentialism
Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine that focuses on the existing individual
person.
It is concerned with the authentic concerns of concrete existing individuals as
they face choices and decisions in daily life. It emphasizes the freedom of all
persons to make choices in a universe where there are no absolute values
outside man himself. Soren Kierkegaard, who argued that human existence was
marked off from all other kinds ofn man's power to choose, founded it. The
decision that man makes will make him the kind of person that he will and will
make him distinct totally from every other person. Thus, every value is always
dependent upon the free choices of every man.
I. Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism - theory of what is good and a theory of what is right
1. Theory of what is right
Utilitarianism's theory of what is right is known as consequentalism. It claims that
what is a morally right option on any circumstance is that option, which brings
about the most good, or the best consequences,
2. Theory of what is good
Utilitarian agree that what is good is utility - human well-being or welfare.
However, they disagree as to how well-being or welfare is defined.
B. Confucianism
Confucianism aims for the restoration of political order and social harmony and
such will be possible if only people would observe the following formula:
Also, according to this philosophy the way to attain virtues is through natural
means: (a) being true to one's nature, and (2) applying those principles in
relationship. The objective is central harmony. Confucianism is founded on the
experience of the all-embracing harmony between man and nature and is highly
conservative. Confucius teaches that man is the ruler since ft constitutes a social
morality. Confucianism outlawed speculation and emphasized practical ethics.
Man's obligation is to preserve right human relationships.
Founded by Kung Fu Tzu, which means the Grand Master, also called "Ch'iu"
(hill), Confucianism strongly emphasizes the individual's place in society. It is
interested in reforming social life to rid government of its repressive tendencies.
Confucius propagated the idea of democracy. According to him, rulers must serve
the people's interests. He contends that the rulers and officials should make the
people affluent and then educate them. He also provides primarily moral reasons
for caring for the masses. The majority of the masses is simple and thus will be
loyal as long as they are treated with authoritative humanity and live in material
prosperity. That is, as long as the government works to promote their interests,
the masses will be peaceful and do their work.
C. Taoism
Taoism is a philosophical system strongly emphasizing man's place in nature. In
contrast to Confucianism, it is not concerned with society, except as something to
move away from.
Lao Tzu taught that the Tao is most fully revealed in tranquility neither through
action nor religious living. Virtue is attained by quiet submission to the power of
the Tao. The Tao cannot be defined.
Taoism stresses man's passive role in nature. Founded on the experience of the
dynamic force immanent in the universe, which gives order and life and meaning
to the totality of reality it adhered to the vision of the human being's harmony
with nature. However, it viewed man as essentially passive called upon to
harmonize himself with the natural rhythms of things.
D. Islam
The word Islam means submission or surrender to the will of God, and the
word Muslim means "given to God." Islam is a community, a way of life, a culture
and a civilization. Central to its teaching is the belief that there is only one all-
powerful, all-knowing God (Allah), and this God created the universe. Islam also
emphasizes that all Muslims are equal before God thus providing a basis for a
collective sense of loyalty to God that transcends class, race, nationality, and
even differences in religious practice. Also, unlike most Christian sects, Islam
clings to the idea of faith plus good works.
Islam believes that no society can survive without rules and social regulations. It
also believes that the goal of law Is not only to bring about social order and
discipline, but to maintain social justice because without justice the order would
not be durable and the masses of the people would not tolerate injustice and
oppression for ever, and in a society not governed by justice most people would
not have the opportunity for desired growth and development and hence, the
goal of man's creation and social life would not be realized.
Also, from the Islamic viewpoint, social laws should be such as to prepare the
ground and context for the spiritual growth and eternal felicity of the people. At
the very least they should not be inconsistent with spiritual development, for, in
the view of Islam, the life of this world is but a passing phase of the entire human
life, which despite its short duration, has a fundamental role in human
destiny.
E. Hinduism
The word Hindu was derived from the Sanskrit word sindhu ("river"), the Persians
called the Hindus by that name, identifying them as the people of the land of the
Indus. The Hindus define their community as "those who believe in the Vedas" or
"those who follow the way (dharma) of the four classes (varnas) and stages of life
(ashramas).
PHILOSOPHY
Nature of Philosophy
Nominal meaning: love of wisdom. (It was derived from the Greek terms Philo,
which means love, and Sophia, which means wisdom.)
Real meaning: The science and art of all things naturally knowable to man's
unaided powers in so far as these things are studied in their deepest causes and
reasons The human being's attempt to think speculatively, reflectively, and
systematically about the universe and the human relationship to the universe. It
is the human being's search for the ultimate explanations of the realities of life.
Axiology- the area of Philosophy that specifically deals with the problem of
human values
Fundamental concepts: What are Values? What are the important values to be
desired in living? Are these values rooted in reality? How can these values be
realized in our daily experience?
Social and Political Philosophy - deals with the nature of society and socialization
process.
Fundamental Concepts: Society, State, Governance, Laws and Culture, Social
Justice
Theodicy- the study of the nature, essence and existence of God using human
reason
Fundamental concepts: Deism, Agnosticism, Theism, Attributes of God
Criteria of truth
1. Native realism (James Me Cosh, Thomas Reid) - believes that reality is precisely
what as it appear to be. Adheres to the belief that "seeing is believing"
2. Feelings - the belief that what one feels is the truth, that the best criterion of
truth is a hunch.
3, Custom and tradition - this is used by many as a criterion of truth in matters
pertaining to morals, politics, dress etc.
4. Time - is regarded as an excellent test if not the final test of truth.
5. Intuition - "truth that comes from one knows not where". It is not a test of
truth but a source of truth
6. Revelation Truth which comes from God". A source of truth and not a test of
it
7. Instinct - What is instinctive must by virtue of that fact be true since nature
deem it so. But most knowledge is beyond the bounds of instinct. It is not
therefore a test of truth
8. Majority, Plurality, Consensus Gentium - The number of people who believes in
the truth determines its truthfulness, but truth is not necessarily dependent on
how many believes it to be true
9. Authority - certain individuals who have mastered a field of study may be a
criterion of truth but authority gives only opinions which could be true or which
could be false
10. Correspondence - a belief that when an idea agrees with its object, it is proof
of its truth. However, it is a definition of truth not a criterion
11. Pragmatism - If an idea works then it is true, but not all truths works. It
cannot be the ultimate criterion of truth
12. Consistency - means the absence of contradiction
13. Coherence- a systematic consistent explanation of all the facts of experience.
Its technical name is reason, this is believe to be the ultimate criterion of truth
1. Idealism
1.1 Nature
- Idealism is a philosophy that proclaims the spiritual nature of men and the
universe, its basic viewpoint stresses the human spirit, soul, or mind as the most
important element in life.
- It holds that the good, true and beautiful are permanently part of the
structure of the related coherent, orderly, and unchanging universe.
1.3 Curriculum
- The curriculum of Idealism is a body of intellectual subject-matter, which is
ideational and conceptual on subjects, which are essential for the realization of
mental and moral development
- Subject matter should be made constant for all. Mathematics, History and
Literature rank high in relevance since they are not only cognitive but value-
laden
1.4 Methodology
- Idealists encourage accumulation of knowledge and thinking and must apply
criteria for moral evaluation- Suggested methods are questioning and discussion,
lecture and the project, whether done singly or in group. Although learning is a
product of the learner's own activity, the teaming process is made more efficient
by the stimulation, which comes from the teacher and school environment. The
learner is immature and is seeking the perspective into his own personality.
- This is because of the concern for perennial and ultimate truths and the
notion that education is largely a matter of passing on to the young the nation's
cultural heritage.
- Pupils must have their lessons ready on time, rise and sit at a given signal,
learn habits of silence and cleanliness.
Realism
2.1 Nature
- Realism may be defined as any philosophical position that asserts the
objective existence of the world and beings in it and relations between these
beings independent of human knowledge and desires. The knowability of these
objects as they are in themselves and the need for conformity to the objective
reality in man's conduct.
- Realism holds that reality, knowledge and value exist independent of the
human mind. For the realist, matter is real.
- The most important part of realism is the thesis of independence. Sticks,
stones, trees exist whether or not there is a human mind to perceive them.
- Realists refer to those universal elements of man that are unchanging
regardless of time, place and circumstance.
- Realists generally maintain a materialistic concept of human nature biased
toward social control and social order.
- They tend to see the universe in terms of an independent reality with its
internal and systematic order; therefore, human beings must adopt and adjust to
this reality, and dreams and desires have to be subsumed under its demand.
2.2 Aim
- The aim of a realist education is to provide the students with the essential
knowledge that he will need to survive in the natural world.
2.3 Curriculum
- The curriculum is called the subject-matter approach, which is composed of
two basic components, the body of knowledge, and the appropriate pedagogy to
fit the readiness of the learner. The liberal arts curriculum and the math science
disciplines consist of a number of related concepts that constitute the structure
of the discipline.
2.4 Methodology
- The teacher is expected to be skilled in both the subject matter that he
teaches and the method of teaching it to students.
- Formal schooling means, transmission of knowledge from experts to the
young and immature.
- The school's task is primarily an intellectual one
- The administrator's role is to see to it that the teachers are not distracted by
recreational and social functions from performing their intellectual task of
cultivating and stimulating the teaming of students.
- In the elementary level, emphasis is on the development of skills for reading,
writing, arithmetic, and study habits.
- In the secondary and collegiate level, the body of knowledge regarded as
containing the wisdom of the human race with have to be transmitted in an
authoritarian manner.
- Students will be required to recall, explain, compare, interpret, and make
inferences. Evaluation is essential, making use of objective measures.
- Motivation will be in the form of rewards to reinforce what has been learned.
3. Essentialism
3.1 Nature
- Essentialism, a conservative educational theory rooted in idealism and
realism, arose in response to progressive education. The essentialists were
concerned with a revival of efforts in the direction of teaching the fundamental
tools of learning as the most indispensable type of education.
3.2 Aims
- The essentialist have as their ultimate aim " to fit the man to perform justly,
skillfully and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and
war"'
- The indispensable cultural objectives of humanity, the essentials, are goals
that must be achieve -sometimes incidentally- but more often by direct
instruction. Informal learning helps, but this should only be supplementary and
secondary.
- The essentialist believed that the essential skills, knowledge and attitude
needed by the individual in making has adjustment to the realities of life should
be systematically planned so that these recognized essentials will be recognized.
- The essentialists emphasize the need for a curriculum that transmits
significant race experiences and the need to present this racial experience
through organized subject matter courses.
- Thus, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, history, geography, hygiene,
elementary science, drawing, language, art .manual training, and domestic arts -
all traditional subjects of the elementary school- are given a new justification and
emphasis as basic essential in the training of children.
- Among the common themes found in the essentialist point of view are:
1. The elementary school curriculum should aim to cultivate basic tool skills
that contribute to literacy and mastery of arithmetical computation.
2. The secondary curriculum should cultivate competencies in History,
Mathematics, Science, English, and foreign languages. Mastering all these
subjects and skills prepare the student to function as a member of a civilized
society
3. Schooling requires discipline and a respect for legitimate authority; and
4. Learning requires hard work and disciplined attention
3.4 Methodology
4.1 Nature
- Perennialism is an educational theory that Is greatly influenced by the
principles of realism. It has a conservative/ traditional view of human nature and
education.
- Perenniaiists contend that truth is universal and unchanging, and. therefore,
a good education is also universal and constant.
4.2 Aim
- The perennialists have for their aim the education of the rational person. The
central aim of education should be to develop the power of thought.
- They view the universal aim of education as the search for and dissemination
of truth. They look up to the school as an institution designed to develop human
intelligence.
4.3 Curriculum
- The perennialist view education as a recurring process based on eternal
truths; thus, the school's curriculum should emphasize the recurrent themes of
human life
- It should contain cognitive subjects that cultivate rationality and the study of
moral, aesthetics, and religious principles to develop the attitudinal dimension.
- The perrenialist prefers a subject matter curriculum, which includes history,
language, mathematics, logic, literature, the humanities, and science.
4.4 Methodology
- As for the methods of teaching, the curriculum of a perenniallst education
would be subject-centered, drawing heavily upon the disciplines of literature,
mathematics, language, history, and the humanities.
- The perenniaiists suggest that the best means to attaining this enduring
knowledge is through the study of great books of Western Civilization
- The method of study would be the reading and discussion of these great
works which, in turn, discipline the mind.
5. Sociological Movement
Sociological movement focused on the contribution of education to the
preservation and progress of society; this is called the social function of
education. Social educationists were concerned with the individual's
development and his relationship to the social structure.
Types
- Social education, in its broadest sense, covered all types of education that
would prepare the individual for adjustment to society.
- In its narrowest sense, social education referred to the development of social
communication skills, etiquette, and harmonious human relationships.
- The latter included training in the physical, vocational, civic, domestic,
vocational, moral, and religious, all essential in the development of social
efficiency.
Content
- The school curriculum was supposed to teach for real social living.
- School activities were drawn from varied activities in life.
- The lower school level was expected to teach the essentials of social living
and the rudiments of etiquette.
- Drills in arithmetic calculation, oral and written language, hygiene, good
manners, and art appreciation were important.
- The high schools had to give experience in science and math, language and
history but emphasis should be on health, moral conduct, home and leisure and
the vocations.
- In college, work travel and study replaced the traditional academic subjects.
- The results of social education brought about extra-curricular activities in the
school program. Extra-curricular activities, when properly controlled and
directed, were of value in providing experience in various phases in life.
- Athletics, dramatics, public speaking activities, musical activities, and
assemblies were all sources of training for the various aspects of social life.
Method
- Social communication, social cooperation, and social science were the
methods used in teaching the child to adjust to life.
- The teacher worked with the social interests of the child in mind to develop
social consciousness.
- Student's participations in school activities and school government were
effective methods of teaching leadership and responsibility.
- Students were taught cooperation rather than competition; to face the class
rather than the teacher, and to deal with small groups for cooperative effort.
Content
- The social sciences came to the foreground among the experimentalists
because of the emphasis put on the teaching of controversial issues; the social,
economic and political activities of the local community were used as materials
for teaching.
- Extra -curricular activities and field trips were dominant strategies of teaching
since they were pupil-planned, pupil dominated and centered. Their purpose was
to prepare students for social planning.
6. Progressivism.
- The educational theory of progressivism is in contrast to the traditional views
of essentialism and perennialism.
- This movement is based largely in the philosophy of pragmatism or as Dewey
puts it instrumentalism.
- It stressed the view that all learning should center on the child's interests and
needs.
- Progressive education is based on a philosophy based on experience, the
interaction of the person with his environment.
- The end product of education was growth- an on-going experience which led
to the direction and control of subsequent experience.
- Progressive education must use the past experiences to direct future
experiences.
Aim
- The aim of progressive education is to meet the need of a growing child.
- The school should be a pleasant place for learning.
- It objects to extreme reliance on bookish methods of instruction,
memorization of factual data, the use of fear as a form of discipline and the four -
walled philosophy of education that isolated the school from the realities of life .
Content
- Progressive education was not interested in a prepared, prescribed
curriculum to transmit knowledge to students
- Curriculum must come from the child so that learning would be active,
exciting, and varied.
- The contents of the subject are done by the teacher and the students as a
group project or a cooperative effort. The teacher served as facilitator.
- Progressive education is characterized by the following contributions to
education:
1. Emphasis on the child as the learner, rather than the subject matter
2. Stress on activities and experiences, rather than on textbook reliance and
memorization
3. Cooperative learning, rather than competitive lesson learning
4. Absence of fear and punishment for disciplinary purposes
7. Reconstructionism.
- Reconstructionism is more concerned with social change rather than the
individuality of the child.
- It believes that schools should originate policies and progress, which would
bring about reform of the social order. Teachers should use their power to lead
the young in the program of social reform.
- Educational philosophies must be culturally based and man can re-shape his
culture so that it promotes optimum possibilities for development.
- Society has to reconstruct its values, and education has a major role to play in
bridging the gap between the values of culture and technology.
- It is the task of the school to encourage the critical examination of the
cultural heritage and find the elements that are to be discarded and those that
have to be modified.
Aim
- The aim of Reconstructionism is to awaken the student's consciousness about
social problems and to actively engage them in problem solving.
- Teachers and schools should initiate a critical examination of their own
culture and should identify controversies and inconsistencies and try to solve real
life problems.
- The Curriculum should include learning to live in a global milieu.
- Reconstructionism proposes educational policies related to national and
international problems as a means of reducing world conflict.
- The school becomes the center of discussions of controversies
Method
- The methodology employed is problem oriented.
- Students and teachers participate in discussion of issues and in a definite
program of social, educational, political, and economic change as a means to
total cultural renewal so that they will learn to live in a global village.
1. Philosophical Analysis.
- Philosophical analysis is a method of examining the language used in making
statements about knowledge, education and schooling and of seeking to classify
it by establishing its meaning with the formulation of educational goals and
policies.
- The aim is to reduce statements about education to empirical terms. The
function of philosophy is to formulate the rules that are the bases of language.
For education should be attuned to the logical complexities of language.
- The analysts prefer to look at what we mean by education in the first place
and what advantages may accrue from the clarified concepts of education.
2. Existentialism
- Existentialism is a way of viewing and thinking about life in the world so that
priority is given to individualism and subjectivity.
- The existentialists believe that the human being is the creator of his own
essence; he creates his own values through freedom of choice or individual
preference.
- The most important kind of knowledge is about the realities of human life
and the choices that each person has to make.
- Education is the process of developing awareness about the freedom of
choice and the meaning and responsibility for one's choice.
2. Man as a being in the world. Each embodied spirit is in his own world, which
form a network of meanings, in and on and around which man organizes his life it
is different from environment for this is only proper to animals. When we speak
of man we speak of his world not environment for it is only man that gives
meaning to an environment through intentionality of consciousness.
Social Sciences Education likes to dwell on cumulative justice or injustice yet
contemporary man is more aware of a complex world of social justice or injustice
and of unjust structures. We should therefore address in the social sciences an
awareness of unjust structures, of internal change that need to be situated, of
the need to humanize the world we live in by our work.
3. Man as Being - with: the interhuman and the socius. The worid of man is not
just a world of things but also the worid of fellowmen. True education if it is to be
different from propaganda is such an unfolding to bring out in the other, the
student, a certain disposition of him to see for himself the true, the good and the
beautiful. Society is not something that one enters into by contract to achieve
some common end, as Rousseau and other social contract theorists put it The
social is within each man: man does not live in society, society lives in man. It is
borne out of the historicity of man. Man carves a meaning from his past in view
of some project in the future thus man is a cultural being. Thus social
consciousness must have a bearing in the philosophy of education for education
cannot just be based simply on ultimate ends, on absolute, eternal truths as the
perreniatists put it. Neither can we be simply content with a general formulation
of educational objective as preparing the student to become good citizen in a
democracy, since the universal truth exists in the particular. Thus any Philosophy
of education must be predicated on a clearly formulated conception of a way of
life in a definite society as Isaac Berkson says.
4. Man as a person and his crowning activity is love, which presupposes justice.
The final aim of education, formal or informal is becoming a person. The
individuality of man is one that he has become freely and consciously in time, in
the worid. This task consists in integration, in becoming whole and in the
fundamental option to love. Thus we can no longer conceive of educational
objectives in terms of personal development or self-realization with no end
beyond itself. Education must include social aims for self-realization is no longer
possible apart from socialization. Our educational policies must aim at specific
personal and social values: of justice, love, and honesty. Total development is not
just the education of the mind but also the heart and we can educate the heart
only by being exemplars of what we teach. The bearer of moral values is the
person himself.
The task of man is man himself. All other tasks, responsibilities and obligations
are simply to support man become the person he has the potential to become.
Man is an embodied spirit and thus he is obligated to develop the total man. His
having a body makes him an individual with material needs and desires. He is a
self who relates with other selves in order to satisfy these material needs, in the
quest for things that will satisfy his needs, he develops social relationships for he
lives through-the-other and he is not only a self but a self in communitya
person who transcends materiality. Thus he develops interhuman relationships,
the I-thou or the relationship of a neighbor. This relationship is not limited to the
sharing of material things but the sharing of persons In a genuine dialogue.
Person making, present. A man must be open and willing to freely give himself in
an interhuman relation. He must b "there" to the other. The "thereness" may
not be physical. It may be empathy or sympathy with the other, or simply the
willingness to be one with the other - a commitment of unity and mutual
support.
Genuine Dialogue. This is the turning to the partner that takes place in all truth
that is turning of being. Genuine dialogue is the mutual sharing between persons.
This happens when one person beyond the world of seeming centers into
communication with the other being.
4. A human being exists through the other by using the products that are fruit of
the labors of others. However, he also works for others as manifested in the
service oriented work like the teaching profession.
5. Thus, human beings relate to each one not only for material things but for
the sharing of persons that ultimately actualizes his potentials. The interhuman
relationship is achieved by transcending seemingness and entering into a genuine
dialogue with the other through an I-thou relationship. This relationship is
founded on the true nature of person, the willingness to make himself present
and the unfolding of the true self in the mutual sharing of persons. It is through
this relationship that he fulfills his nature and helps others fulfill theirs in a
community of persons journeying towards their actualization.
7. Our existence is an existence for one another. We exist for others, we strive
to be significant to others, and our existence is meaningful only If others accept it
as meaningful,
8. The family system is the locus of interaction between the individual and the
society. If development is to be a human development st must foster the
integration of the family. Participative decision making process and a feedback
mechanism is imperative.
9. According to Habermas, economic development cannot be divorced from
moral development
10. Social formation or transformation cannot be brought about by class
conflicts but by bi-dimensional leaning process. Economic liberation is only a
step to total liberation
11. Peace and order situation is built on freedom not on constraint; it is built on
human values which, is essential to moral quests and to politics. Truth, love,
freedom and its practice.
12. Thus, there is a need for equal and equitable distribution of wealth-Social
Justice.
13 Social Justice was traditionally equated with legal justice- but what is legal
may not necessarily be just, then justice was equated with the reasonable and
understood now in the context of passion.
14 Social Justice as a virtue means the habit whereby a man renders to each
one his due by a constant and perpetual will
15 As a value, Social Justice is properly the object of man's intentional; feeling
and is linked intimately with other values of truth, love and the dignity of
person.
16. Social Justice is legal justice guided by the spirit of love and the search for
truth and should be side by side with the value of a person.
17. Social Justice must become more important than commutative justice
World History
Ancient Period
3) India
Earliest inhabitants were Dravidians who had an organized system of settlements
in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Aryan invasion and their settlement along the
Indus River valley later gave them identity as Hindus.
Hinduism evolved from the merging of Dravidian and Aryan manner of worship,
main features of which are reincarnation and a rigid social class known as Caste
System.
4) China
Name derived from Chin dynasty founded by Shih Huang Ti who was also
responsible for the construction of the Great Walls. China is also credited for the
invention of printing press; for requiring civil service exams for government
officials; invented gun powder; produced silk and was known for its great
philosophers, Confucius (golden rule); Lao Tzu (Taoism) and Mencius.
b. Western World
1) Greece
A. Hellas - early name and its civilization was termed Hellenic
B. Athens and Sparta - famous city states (polis)
C. Homer - famous author of (Iliad and Odyssey)
D. Solon, Cleisthenes and Pericles - famous Athenian reformers who laid the
foundation of a democratic system of government
E. Famous / Significant events:
- Persian war - Athens led the Greeks in repulsing Persia
- Petoponnesian War" was fought between rival Greek states Athens and
Sparta. Sparta prevailed
- Macedonian invasion - invasion of "barbaric" Macedonians led by Philip II
who eventually became Master of Greece. His son Alexander the Great
succeeded him.
F. Golden Age of Greece - 5th to 4th Century BC) - attained by Athens after the
Persian War. Famous personalities: Pericles, statesman, Demosthenes, orator,
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, philosophers; Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes
(dramatists); Herodotus (Father of History), Thycydides and Xenophon -
historians; Colonium, architect of the famous Parthenon
G. Alexander the Great - Successor of Philip of Macedonia, tutored by Aristotle
and extended Greek empire to the East. He was responsible in blending Hellenic
culture with the East and such combination was referred to as Hellenistic culture.
After his death, the empire broke up into Egypt, Syria and Macedonia and by 150
BC the Romans conquered Greece.
2) Rome
A Romulus - legendary founder of Rome in 753 BC
B Etruscans - established a strong monarchy in the 6th century but their
autocratic rule led to their downfall when the Romans overthrew them
C Romany established a Republic
D Two classes of people: Patricians and Plebeians
E Senate - the ruling body in the Republic but dominated by Patricians (upper
class)
F Twelve Tables -a legislation which gave Plebeians (lower class) equal
participation in government
G Punic Wars-fought by Rome against Carthage and resulted in Rome's
acquisition of Spain a group of continued the
H First Triumvirate (Julius Caesar, Pompey, Cassius) military leaders responsible
for the expansion of Rome
I Second Triumvirate (Anthony, Lepidus, Octavius) work started by the First
Triumvirate
J Octavius (later known as Augustus Caesar) - was responsible for further
expansion of Rome; bestowed the title "Prince?" (First citizen); crowned
the first emperor of the Roman Empire under whose reign. PAX ROMANA
prevailed
K Weak successors later split the empire into two: Western Roman Empire and
Eastern Roman Empire (later known as Byzantine Empire.
L Fall of Rome (476 A.D.) was due to the attack of Teutonic Germanic tribes. Only
the Western Empire fell. Eastern Roman Empire gained strength and later
on flourished as the Byzantine Empire.
Medieval Period
1. Dark Ages - ushered in the Middle Ages. Barbarians from Germany dominated
the Western Roman Empire after Its fall thus the grandeur of Rome was lost.
2. Franks - barbaric tribe that settled in Gaul (presently France). Their conversion
to Christianity inspired them to restore Europe into a civilized world again.
Charles Martel defended Europe from being dominated by the Moslems, Under
Charlemagne; France expanded its territory at the same time spreading the
Christian faith. In recognition of his work for the Church, he was crowned by the
Pope and was given the title Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
4. Feudalism
social, economic and political system
characterized by strong lord and vassal relationship where the lord gave
protection to the vassal and the vassal rendered services to the lord (act of fealty)
Chivalry - in reference to the trait expected of a Knight where he had to manifest
refinement in manners and courage and commitment in the defense of his lord.
Manorial system - where economic activities revolve around agriculture to
generate income for the lord.
5 Crusades
A series of military expeditions by the Christians of Western Europe during the
11th and 13th century to take back the Holy Land (Jerusalem) from the Muslims.
6. Guild System
Modem Period
1. Renaissance - this movement to revive the study of Graeco-Roman classics
ushered in the modern times. Humanism of the Greeks and Romans was revived
such that liberalism characterized this period.
2. Age of Revolutions
a. Intellectual Revolution
started with the age of enlightenment or age of reason
b. Scientific Revolution
where discovery and inventions took place This ushered in the Age of
Discovery and exploration of territories.
c. Industrial Revolution
marked by change in economic life. Hard labor was replaced by machineries.
Industrial Revolution started in England and it is still in progress today.
Commercial Revolution was an offshoot of Industrial Revolution.
d. Political Revolution
This revolution is aimed at changing government. This was an offshoot of the
spread of liberal ideas. Two Famous revolutions; French Revolution (1789-1799);
American Revolution (1775-1783).
e. Religious Revolution
Reformation - a move started by Wycliffe and Hus and pursued by Martin
Luther aimed at reforming some practices of the Christian Church.
Counter-reformation - a movement undertaken by the Catholic Church to
reform its own ranks.
GLOBAL WARS
In 1949 Mainland China came under communist rule when Mao TseTung
successfully entrenched himself in power, President Chang Kai-Shek was forced
to go in exile in Taiwan (Formosa) and continued to administer the nationalist
government there. This conflict between Mainland China and Taiwan raised the
issue of "One China or Two China policy".
1991 saw the disintegration of USSR when Mikhail Gorbachev advocated the
"glasnost and "perestroika". East and West Germany also united.
As the world moved towards the 21st century, globalization was pursued. The
five areas emphasized are:
1. Globalization of markets
2. Globalization of communication
3. Globalization of culture
4. Globalization of ideology
5. Political globalization
September 11, 2001 - the world was shaken when the World Trade Center in
New York City US was destroyed where thousand of people died. Suspected brain
of such terrorist attack was Osama Bin Laden who to this day is still being hunted.
Asian Studies
Geographical Features
World's largest continent (17,139,000 sq. miles nearly1/3 or the earths land).
Geographically it is compact and unified
Boundaries: Ural mountains from Europe; Red Sea and Suez Canal from Africa
It is a continent of physical contrast Mt. Everest, world's highest mountain
(29,028 ft); Dead Sea (1,292 ft. below sea level) as the lowest
Term Asia was derived from an early Aegean term ASER which meant "sunrise".
ASIA was first used by Pindar, a Greek poet.
C. Pre-historic Asia
1. Earliest man
- Asia is said to be the place which has yielded the greatest number of fossils of
simian species. Ramapithecus fossils were discovered in Pakistan and in the
Yunnan Province in China. Ramapithecus fossils is said to be the closest to man.
- Earliest man's capacity for production was Shown through the development
of tools. Technology divides the evolutionary period of culture into:
Stone Age
Bronze Age
Iron Age
- Activities engaged in during Stone Age: food gathering, hunting. Mastery of
fire was a great step in man's emancipation from the environment
2. Peopling of the Pacific was the greatest feat of colonization. Migration took
place in Southeast Asia, Australia and its island neighbors in the great Oceans
(Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia)
D. Birth of Civilization
Bronze Age (3,000 BC - 1800 BC) saw the birth of civilization
Early civilization started in the river valleys
Tigris-Euphrates - Mesopotamia
Nile - Egypt
Indus - India
Yellow River - China
Characteristics / Indicators of Civilization
existence of political system
division of labor / occupation became specialized
system of writing
organized trade
existence of class structure
monumental architecture
representational art
Development of religions
a. Hinduism - India
b. Buddhism - India
c. Christianity - Israel
d. Islamism - Saudi Arabia
e. Judaism - Israel
f. Zoroastrianism - Persia (presently Iran)
g. Shintoism - Japan
Horse riding people, semi-nomadic who attempted to move towards the fertile
lands of China. They were based in Mongolia then extended to Manchuria,
Central Asia and even reached as far as the Slavic territories to Germany and
Spain in the 5th century.
Greatest leader was Attila who upon reaching Rome was persuaded by Pope Leo
the Great to give up his plans to take Rome.
2. MONGOLS
Based in Central Asia (near Lake Baal), they lived in small groups of few families.
Basic social and political units were patriarchal dans: spiritual life was focused on
loyalty to cian. Polygamy necessitated the acquisition of wives outside of the clan
and in most cases, wives were obtained through seizure.
Genghis Khan (or Chinggis Khan) was formerly known as Temujen. He acquired
the name Genghis or Chinggis (meaning "universal ruler") after successful
conquest were made by him. His empire extended as far as Middle East and
Europe. They were noted for espionage and psychological warfare
F. Development of Empires
1. Persian Empire (West Asia)
Recognized as the first biggest empire, especially during the time of Cyrus,
Captivity of Babylon, the capital of the Chaldean empire in 539 BC signified the
ascendancy of this Aryan race over the older cultures. The empire included the
Iranian Plateau, the Fertile Crescent, Anatolia, Sogdania, Egypt (conquered by
Cambyses). Darius moved westward through the Balkans only to be repulsed by
the Greeks in the famous Battle of Marathon. Eastward, Persian reached as far as
Punjab in India.
- Persian empire was known for its organized political system where the
empire was divided into political units known as satrapes ruled by satraps. This
satrapes could be the equivalent of present day provinces.
- Zoroastrianism was advocated most especially during the time of Darius,
when he declared that sovereignty was granted to him by Ahura Mazda because
he advocated this god's teaching which was to act righteously and justly to all
men.
- Lengua franca was Aramaic, serving as language of official communication
- Persia developed a system of communication by providing road network
where messengers of the Great King rode back and forth from satrapes
G. Development of Trade
- Commerce between Europe and Asia began as early as the first century
A.D.
- Trade / Commerce was conducted through land routes and sea routes
- Trade centers between 200 AD to 1500 AD were:
1. Mediterranean - West Asian Trade Complex
2. Central Asia Trade Complex
3. Strait of Malacca - Indo China Trade Complex
4. Indian Ocean Trade Complex
- Effects of the expansion of Trade
1. Spread of sericulture or silk culture (The Chinese were called "Seres" or
"Serices" by the Romans. These two terms may have originated from the Chinese
word for silk)
By the 3rd century A.D. Korea and Japan acquired the knowledge of sericulture
and by the 6th century Byzantium teamed the secret of sericulture
2. Buddhism spread to China and to the rest of Southeast Asia and Far East
3. Christianity and Islamism found their way to China and other parts of Asia
4. By 7th century centers of power were:
Tang Dynasty - China
Islam - West Asia
Byzantine (Turkey) - West Asia
5. Trade played an important role in defining Asia and Asian civilization to the
Western word:
Earliest reference to Asia was made by Herodotus who wrote about the "nomad
synethians who dwelt in Asia"
Western world perceived Asia as the source of silk, spices and various exotic
products
Asia and Europe were linked. Goods were exchanged and migration of people
took place
Asian religions were spread to different parts of the world
Culture was enriched
II. Asia's Transition
A. Age of Exploration and Discovery in Europe
1. European countries set out to explore lands for economic and military
reasons.
2. Territories greatly affected were the Americas, Africa and Asia.
B. Imperialism in Asia
Most countries in Asia came under colonial rule particularly those in Southeast
Asia, except Thailand
China was under "sphere of influence."
Korea (hermit Kingdom) and Japan went out into isolation to avoid the influences
of western countries but eventually were opened to allow Western countries to
trade with them.
C. Asia's involvement with the West dragged her into 2 global wars. In World
War II Japan actively led the war in the Pacific on the side of the Axis Powers.
Japan occupied most of the territories in Southeast Asia.
D. After World War ft, colonies occupied by Japan came again under Western
rule but were eventually given independence. Korea was divided; so with
Vietnam due to ideology (Democracy advocated by USA and Communism by
USSR)
E. Experiences from colonial rule changed the outlook of most people in Asia.