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5 1 INTRODUCTION
Because mathematics is an integral part of physics, it is essential that we have a clear under-
>tanding of vectors and are capable of using them frequently and with ease. To make sure that
ve understand vector terminology and symbolism, we start with a brief review of vector analy-
sis, establishing a thorough understanding of vector operators such as vector differential oper-
ators (gradient, divergence, and curl). In the process of doing this, we will make sure to use ex-
ifflp-totornsMtom t&OTtti m C\MO\ medma Mty w mil aflita U m of
matrices in coordinate transformations.
5 2 VECTOR PROPERTIES
Most of the physical quantities we encounter in physics and engineering may be classed as one
of two types: scalar or vector. A scalar quantity is completely specified by stating its magni-
:ude only, together with units, if any. Examples of such quantities are mass, volume, energy,
:ime, and number. These quantities may be treated as ordinary numbers and may be added, sub-
r
jacted, multiplied, or divided by simple arithmetic rules. A vector quantity is completely spec-
ified by stating both magnitude and direction. Examples include displacement, velocity, accel-
eration, force, and electric field strength, to name a few. Vector quantities follow the rules of
vector algebra.
The vectors may be treated by either a geometrical or an analytical approach (see Sec-
tion 5.3); each has its advantages and disadvantages. We will briefly discuss both approaches in
this chapter.
139
140 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
s = -4
s=4
Geometrical Approach
F i g u r e 5.1 (continued)
One advantage of vector formulation as applied to any particular situation is that vectors can be
used without reference to any particular coordinate system. But there are two main reasons that
eventually compel us to use a proper set of coordinate system: (1) the geometrical method of
obtaining the resultant of several vectors is cumbersome and not very accurate, and (2) to make
a proper interpretation, it is always helpful to present the results in a suitable set of coordinate
system. An alternative is to use an analytical method using the components of vectors.
Again, an analytical approach uses the components of vectors. Figure 5.2 illustrates the
components of a vector R in two dimensions. The two quantities Rx and Ry are the rectangular
components of vector R, and the magnitudes of these are given by (see Fig. 5.2)
, x o\+ RXH x
If R and 6 are given, we can find Rx and Ry. On the other hand, if Rx and Ry are given, R
and 6 can be calculated by the relations
R
R = VRi + Rl and tan 6 = (5.2)
Thus a vector is completely defined in a plane (two dimensions) provided we know R and 6 or
Rx and Ry.
We shall use the component method for adding several vectors. Suppose we have three
vectors R b R2, and R 3 [see Fig. 5.3(a)], making angles 6U 62, and G3, respectively, with the X-
+
(a)
axis [Fig. 5.3(b)]. We are interested in finding the resultant. First, we draw the XYcoordinate [as
in Fig. 5.3(b)], and then, at point O, draw Ru R2, and R3 parallel to the vectors in part (a) Next
each vector is resolved into its components as shown. Let Rx and RY denote the sum of the X and
Y components. Thus
(5.3a)
1=1
where Rix - R1 cos 0,, RXy - Rx sin 8X, and the summation sign indicates the sum of all the
components from i = 1 to i = 3. Treating Rx and RY as single components, we find the resul-
tant to be
Ry
and tan 8 = - ^ (5.4)
It may be pointed out that we need not draw the diagram in Fig. 5.3(b). The calculations are sim-
ple, quick, and accurate and may be extended to any number of vectors.
We can extend this procedure to n vectors in three dimensions. As shown in Fig. 5.4 vec-
tor R may be resolved into three components: Rx, Ry, and Rz along the X-, Y-, and Z-axes, re-
spectively. Thus the resultant R of vectors R1; R 2 , . . . , Rn may be written as
+R3+ (5.5)
D
Figure 5.4 Rectangular components
Rx, Ry, and Rz of a vector R in three
dimensions.
144 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
n
where
1=1
with similar expressions for RY and Rz. Referring to Fig. 5.4, we obtain the resultant
R = R2y + R\ (5.7)
Rv
t m 6 (5.8)
Rz
Since the components of a vector equally define a vector, it should be possible to corre-
late the two by extending the analytical method to the geometrical method discussed in the pre-
vious section. Also,
Using Eqs. (5.10) and (5.11), we may write the properties of vectors in component form as
follows:
Equality of vectors:
Ax = Bx, Ay = By Az = Bz (5.12b)
Scalar multiplication:
0 = [0, 0, 0] (5.14)
Vector addition:
A + B = B + A (5.17)
Sec. 5.4 Scalar and Vector Products of Vectors 145
Associative law:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (5.18)
and similarly,
= n(sA) (5.19)
Distributive law:
(n + s)A = nA + sA (5.20)
and
s(A + B) = sA + sK (5.21)
Unlike vector addition and subtraction, there are several ways of defining multiplication of two
vectors. Two types of vector products are commonly used and we shall discuss them at some
length; they are called (1) the scalar product of two vectors and (2) the vector product of two
vectors. A third and fourth product type we shall also introduce are (3) the scalar triple product
and (4) the vector triple product.
The scalar or dot product of two vectors A and B is defined to be a scalar quantity S obtained
by taking the magnitude of A multiplied by the magnitude of B and then multiplied by the co-
sine of the angle between these two vectors; that is,
A B = AB cos 0 (5.23)
Let us consider some special cases of the scalar products.
The dot product is zero. Suppose pp the scalar orr the dot product of two vectors is zero;
s A
that is, A B
B== 0.
0 This
This is
is possible
possible if
if att least
l t one off three
th dii
conditions i satisfied:
is fi A = 0, B =
0. or A is perpendicular to B (that is, 0 = 90). If A is perpendicular to B, vector A is said to be
orthogonal to vector B. Thus it is possible to obtain a scalar product of zero, even though nei-
ther of the two vectors is zero.
146 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
BcosO
(a)
Law of cosines. The proof of the law of cosines becomes trivial if we make use of the
dot product. In Fig. 5.6, let
R = A+ B
(a)
Figure 5.6 (a) Law of cosines as applied to R = A + B. (b) Law of cosines as
applied to D = A - B.
Sec. 5.4 Scalar and Vector Products of Vectors 147
R2 = R R = (A + B) (A + B)
= A A + B B + 2AB
= A2 + B2 + 2ABcos(A, B)
That is,
R2 = A2 + B2 + lABcosd (5.26)
Since cos 9 = COS(TT 4>) = - c o s 4>,
R2 = A2 + B2 - 2ABcos<f> (5.27)
Similarly,
D = A - B
^nd D2 = A2 + B2 - 2AB cos 9 (5.28)
Since cos 9 = cos(77 - <j>) = cos <j>,
D2 = A2 + B2 + 2ABcos(f) (5.29)
The vector or cross product of two vectors A and B is defined to be a vector C.The magnitude
?i this vector is obtained by taking the magnitude of A multiplied by the magnitude of B and
:hen multiplied by the sine of the angle between A and B, while the direction of C is such that
:; is perpendicular to both A and B: that is, C is perpendicular to the plane containing both A
md B. We denote the cross product as
C - A x B (5.30)
vhere A X B reads as "A cross B " and is as shown in Fig. 5.7. Thus the magnitude of C is
C = |C| = |A||B|sin(A, B) = AB sin d, for 0 < 0 < IT (5.31)
Hence C will be zero if A = 0, B = 0, or the angle 9 is zero. The direction of C is given by the
nght-hand rule or right-hand screw, as illustrated in Fig. 5.7. By drawing simple diagrams, we
;an draw several conclusions about the cross product.
That is, vector multiplication is not commutative; it is anticommutative. From Eq. (5.32), it is
also clear that
A x A = 0 (5.33)
148 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
That is, the vector product of any vector with itself is zero. Also, by definition, sin 6 = sin 0 =
0; that is, A X A = 0, and if the angle between A and B is zero, then |A X B| = AB sin 0 =
0. Note that the right side of Eq. (5.33) is a null vector, which obeys the rule
A + 0 = A, A x 0 = 0, A 0 = 0 (5.34)
A x ( B + C) = A x B + A x C (5.35)
and
s(A x B) = (sA) x B = A x OB) (5.36)
= BC sin 6= |B||c|sin0
A =B x C
C
D
ilSlS
O ^ B
Figure 5.8 Area of a parallelogram.
A - SCsinfl /
= area /
Thus the area of a parallelogram of sides B and C is B X C. Since the direction of B X C is nor-
mal or perpendicular to the plane of the parallelogram, vector A is as shown in Fig. 5.9. That is,
the area is assigned a direction of A.
C = A+ B (5.38)
Take the vector product of both the sides by A; that is
AxC=AxA+AxB (5.39)
Since A X A = 0, Eq. (5.39) takes the form
A x C=AxB
or AC sin(A, C) = AB sin(A, B)
_ t. sin(A, C) sin(A, B)
That is,
B C
150 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
The quantity (A x B) C is a scalar quantity. We can show that if A, B, and C are the sides of
a parallelepiped then such a product represents the volume of the parallelepiped. From Fig. 5.10,
the volume V is
V = (base area)(height) = |A X B\h
= |A X B||C| sin[(A X B), C]
or V = (A x B) C (5.41)
If the vectors in the product follow a cyclic order, we may write V to be
V = (A x B) C = (B x C) A = (C X A) B (5.42)
or, since a scalar product is commutative,
V = A (B x C) = B (C x A) = C (A x B) (5.43)
That is, the scalar triple product remains unchanged if the vectors are interchanged in a cyclic
order. We may also show that
A (B x C) = - A (C x B) (5.44)
There are two different ways in which three vectors may be multiplied so that the resulting prod-
uct is a vector in each case. One such product is
A(B C) = B(C A) = C(A B) (5.45)
Ax B
W;i l \ X HI
The interpretation of this is: (B C) is a scalar; hence A(B C) is vector A multiplied by a scalar
quantity (B C). The direction of the new vector is that of A. Similarly, B(C A) is a vector in
the direction of B, and C(A B) is a vector in the direction of C.
The second vector triple product is
A x (B X C) (5.46)
PI = 111 = (5.48)
in component form
3--
2--
j
-H-
A B = AB cos 6
and of a vector product
we can arrive at the following results, remembering that unit vectors are orthogonal:
l l = ] - j = k - k = l (5.51)
Sec. 5.5 Unit Vectors or Base Vectors 153
(5.54)
We shall prove two of these results; the remaining ones can be proved similarly.
t -I = [i||i|cosO = (1)(1)(1) = 1
| l x t | = |l||!|sin0o =
Scalar and vector products may be rewritten in a more compact form by making use of
unit vector notation and their properties. Using Eq.(5.50), we may write
A = Ax\ + Ay] + (5.55)
B = Bxi (5.56)
1 J K
A x B = Ax Ay A, (5.62)
Br fi B
Note that if A = B or A = sB, where s is a scalar number, s can be taken out of the determinant,
thereby making two rows identical; hence the whole determinant will be zero. This is as it should
be for 6 = 0, that is, when the two vectors are parallel.
Finally, let us once again consider vector A as shown in Fig. 5.13. The component of this
vector along the X-axis is given by
Ax = A cos 6
Another way of writing this is to take the dot product of A with i ; that is,
A = A i (5.63)
The result of Eq. (5.63) may be written in a general form. Suppose we want to find component
A,, of A along an arbitrary axis N that has a unit vector en along this axis, as shown in Fig. 5.14.
We may write
An = A eB (5.64)
5 6 DIRECTIONAL COSINES
Let us start with vector A expressed in the form of Eq. (5.50) written in a slightly different
form as
A = AJ = A ^ f c ) = AeA (5.65)
where eA is a unit vector in the direction of A. AJA is equal to the cosine of the angle between
A and the X-axis. Thus
= c o s ( A , Y ) = cos(A,j) = /3 (5.67)
A
A
1 = cos(A, Z) = cos(A, k) = y (5.68)
where a, /3, and y are called the directional cosines of the line representing A. Thus Eq. (5.65)
may be written as
A = A(ai + /3j yk) = Ae (5.69)
That is, e + yk (5.70)
A = <*t +
which expresses the unit vector eA along A in terms of the directional cosines of A and the unit
vectors. From Eq. (5.65), we may also write
(5.71)
= 1 (5.72)
* ) *)"(*
a2 + (32 + y2 = 1 (5.73)
That is, the sum of the squares of the directional cosines of any line is equal to 1.
156 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
Example 5.1
For the vectors A = (6,4,-7) andB = (2,-2,3), calculate the expressions (a) to (j) given
below. The two vectors are expressed in matrix form. Make the calculations and then
express the results in terms of unit vectors where possible.
6 2
Solution A := 4 B : = -2
-7 3
(d) 4-A - 2 B 20
(d) 4-A - 2-B = 20 4-A - 2 + B = 20-i + 20-j - 34-1
-34
^ A - A = 10.05 ^ B - B = 4.123
A := 10.05 B := 4.123
A 2 +- B 2 = 118.002
A X B = -2 i - 32-j - 20-k
Alternate approach: A
Bal := B
A Bal = - 1 . 6 9 2
Bx := 2 By := - 2 Bz := 3
Bx
B := By B = 4.123
Bz
0.485
As shown, the sum of the squares
of the three directional cosines of P= -0.485
0.728
each vector should be unity, and
the sum of the two should be 2.
( a ) =i ( B ) =i
EXERCISE 5.1 Repeat the calculations for the vectors A = (3,4,-9) and B = (4,-3,6).
158 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
Differentiation of Vectors
Let us consider a vector that is a function of a scalar quantity, say s, where s may be time /,
angle 0, or some other quantity. An example is the velocity v(t) of a particle or the position r(0)
of a particle as a function of an angle. The vector A, which is a function of time t, may be writ-
ten algebraically in component form as
A = A(f) = Ax(tfi + Ay(f)j + Az{t)k (5.74)
The derivative of A with respect to t is defined in a manner similar to the derivative of a scalar
function. That is,
dk A(f
= limit ^ P.)
dt A'^o
This is illustrated in Fig. 5.15, where AA or AA/Ar becomes tangent to the curve as A? ap-
proaches zero. If A is replaced by r, then Ar/Af represents the average velocity, while drldt is
the instantaneous velocity. We can also write the derivative of a vector in terms of its compo-
nents as
dA y dA ^ dA^,
(5.76)
dt dt' d ' dt I d tl +' d dt *t i +' dt
As an example, if A = r, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration vectors are
r = xi + yj + zfi (5.77)
v = r = ii + j j + zlt (5.78)
a = r = v = xi + y] + zk (5.79)
Note that the magnitudes of the velocity and the acceleration are
v = = Vx 2 + v' (5.80)
2 2
a = = Vx + y + z (5.81)
Thus the differentiation of a vector follows the same procedure used in the differentiation
of a scalar function. We can extend these rules to the following particular cases:
(5.82)
ds ds
A J A
f
ds +
fir
a\ (5.83)
dA n -u dsA . dB
B T A (5.84)
ds ds ' ds
(5.85)
ds
It is important to note that in the last equation the order of the factors in the cross product must
not be changed.
We can use these results to discuss the concepts of relative position, velocity, and accel-
eration. Let point P\ be at a distance rt and point P2 at a distance r 2 , both with respect to the ori-
gin O (Fig. 5.16). The relative position of P2 with respect to P} is r21 and is given by
(5.86)
Since points P, and P2 are in motion, the relative velocity of P2 with respect to Px is
_ dr2l _ dx2
Vrel
~ ^/T ~ltt ~ ~dt
That is, V
21 r
21 r
2 r
i (5.87)
By definition, for a particle moving in a curved path, its velocity vector v is equal to the prod-
uct of the speed v and a unit vector u, (in the direction of the tangent); that is,
V = VU, (5.89)
As the particle moves, the speed as well as the direction may change; hence the acceleration of
the particle is written as
dv d(vut) dv du,
du,
or a = vu, + v- (5.90)
dt
Since the unit vector u, is of constant magnitude, the derivative dut/dt means that the direction
of u, is changing with time. As shown in Fig. 5.17(a), initially the particle is at point P and
in time At it travels a distance A.? reaching a point Q. Let the unit vectors at P and Q be u, and
u't. As shown in Fig. 5.17(b), the two unit vectors differ by an angle Ad; the magnitude of the
diffence in the two unit vectors is
Also in the limit, Au, becomes perpendicular to u r and is called the unit normal vector un, as
shown in Fig. 5.17(a); that is,
a. = (5.9D
dO
Now, using the chain rule, we may write
du1_du1d6 _ A dd(h
dt d6 dt "ds dt
But dsldt = v and dsldO = p = the radius of curvature of the path; thus
(5.92)
dt
Substituting this in Eq. (5.90) yields
a = uu, + un (5.93)
P
Thus the acceleration is described in terms of two components, tangential and normal, where
(5.94)
dt1
(5.95)
The normal component of the acceleration is always directed toward the concave side of the path
and is called the centripetal acceleration. The magnitude of the acceleration a is
,4\ 1/2
(5.96)
Integration of Vectors
An alternative way of expressing the line integral is in terms of s, where s is the distance mea-
sured along the curve from some fixed point, as shown in Fig. 5.18. Thus, if 6 is the angle be-
tween A and the tangent to the curve at each point,
Ax + Ay + Ax ds (5.105)
This and other methods of evaluating the line integral will be illustrated in subsequent examples.
Sec. 5.7 Vector Calculus 163
Example 5.2
Calculate the line integral of F = an + bxyj from (-R, 0) to (+/J, 0) along the semicircle shown ir
Fig. Ex. 5.2 using the parameter d.
Solution
As the force F is applied, the
F=axi-)-bxyj
angle 9 changes from n to 0 and the radius
vector sweeps out a semicircle as shown.
Express x and y in terms of R and 9. x(e)=R-cos(6) dx=-Rsin(G)de
In terms of R and 9, the x and y
force components, Fx and Fy (F = Fxi + y(9)=R-sin(9) dy=Rcos(6)d9
Fyj), take the form Fx=a-x=a-R-cos(9) Fy=bx-y=b-R cos(6)-sin(9)
After substituting for Fx, Fy, dx, and dy,
the line integral A takes the form Fdr= Fx dx -|- Fy dy
-a-R2cos(G)-sin(9) + b-R3-cos(9)2-sin(e))de
(i)
Alternative approach
The alternative approach to the integration above is to substitute u = cos(9) in Eq. (i), as
shown below. The integration limits used are from 0 to 1 instead of from 1 to 1.
We are now ready to introduce new tools of mathematics that will enable us to study physics in
depth. It is not expected that one should grasp these concepts in the first reading; but as they are
applied, one becomes familiar with them and can appreciate their usefulness. These new tools
are the vector differential operators, and we will study them under the headings gradient, di-
vergence, and curl.
The vector differential operator denoted by grad or V (del) is not a vector; it is a vector
operator. This vector operator, in Cartesian coordinates, is represented by
_ 4. d /> d f, d / 3 5 3
grad = V = l h j + k = , , (5.106)
dx dy dz \dx dy dz,
We will write this operator in other coordinates later. When this operates on a scalar function,
it forms a vector. When it operates on a product of functions, it must be treated as a differential
operator.
We can perform three different operations with this operator:
The div A and curl A will be discussed shortly. For the time being, let us concentrate on un-
derstanding the meaning and usefulness of the grad u.
Sec. 5.8 Vector Differential Operators: Gradient, Divergence, and Curl 165
Consider a scalar function u that is an explicit function of the coordinates x, y, and z, that is, u
u(x, y, z) and this function is continuous and single valued. This scalar function has three com-
ponents, which may be considered to be the components of a vector called grad u or VM (del u).
That is, even though u is a scalar, grad u is a vector with three components given by
* du du f. du du du du
grad u = = \ hk = , , (5.107)
dx dy dz dx dy dz
du , du du
du = dx + dy + dz (5.108)
dx dy dz
which may be written as
du * du / du.
du = i + k {dx\ + dy] + dzk)
dx dy dz
The first term on the right is guard u and the second term is dr. Hence, we may write this equa-
tion as
du grad u dx (5.109)
Thus this equation allows us to define the change in the function u induced by the changes
in its variables. Actually, Eq. (5.109) is the definition of the vector operator gradient. It states
that grad u is a vector such that the change du in u, for an arbitrary small change of position
dx, is given by the relation in Eq. (5.109). Equation (5.109) may also be written as
du will be maximum when grad u and dx are in the same direction so that cos 6 = cos 0 =
1. and
(du)m = I grad u\ dr when grad u is parallel to dx
Grad u is in the direction in which the change in u is most rapid, and its magnitude is the
directional derivative of u, that is, the rate of increase of u per unit distance in that
direction.
166 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
Let us consider a line path or a surface for which u = constant. Let dr be directed tan-
gentially along this path of constant u so that du = 0. From Eq. (5.109), since neither grad u
nor dr is, in general, zero, they must be normal to each other so that cos 90 = 0 gives du = 0.
Thus grad u is normal to the line {in two dimensions) or to the surface {in three dimensions) for
which u = constant.
Thus the properties of grad u may be summarized as follows:
1. Grad u is, at any point, normal to the line (in two dimensions) or surface (in three di-
mensions) for which u is constant.
2. Grad u has direction in which u changes most rapidly, and its magnitude is the directional
derivative of u.
Once we know grad u, the rate of change of u in an arbitrary direction n is given by (the
directional derivative)
du
n grad u = (5.112)
dn
Let us illustrate the preceding points with the help of an example. Suppose u stands for a
potential function V{x, y, z). Consider two contour lines of constant potential, as shown in
Fig. 5.19(a), such that Vx{x, y, z) = C1 and V2{x, y, z) = C2. Consider a change in V{x, y, z) due
to displacement dr along a contour line. This gives
dV = grad u dr = dr (5.113)
Since on a contour line V = constant, dV = 0, and V V dr = 0, if dr is along the line of con-
stant V. Since neither W n o r dr are zero, the vector Wmust be normal to dr. This is the gen-
eral result discussed above; that is, at every point in space, W i s perpendicular to the constant
potential surface (or energy surface) passing through that point.
As shown in Fig. 5.19(b), suppose dr points in the direction of increasing potential energy.
Thus, for change dV > 0, VV dr = 0, which is possible only if W is in the direction in which
V increases most rapidly. Furthermore, if F = W , then F is also normal to the constant en-
ergy surface everywhere, except that it points from a higher to a lower potential energy. Also,
the closer the energy surfaces, the larger will be the gradient; that is, the force is larger where
the potential energy is changing rapidly, VV = (dV/dr)max.
Remember that u(x, y, z) is a scalar function and hence defines a scalar field. Examples are
temperature and pressure changes in certain volumes of matter. These regions of space may be
defined by means of a temperature gradient VT(x, y, z) or pressure gradient VP(x, y, z). Every
point in space may be described by means of one value of temperature if we are dealing with a
temperature scalar field or one value of pressure if dealing with a pressure scalar field.
As stated earlier, when the gradient operator performs a scalar product with a vector point func-
tion A, it results in divergence A. That is, in Cartesian coordinates,
(5.115)
dx
(x + dx)
The net outward flow parallel to the X-axis through volume element-rfV = dxdy dz is
with similar expressions for the other two sets of parallel faces:
(5.119b)
(5.119c)
dz
Thus the net outward flow rate out of a small rectangular volume element dV = dx dy dz is ob-
tained by summing these three equations; that is,
where n is the unit vector normal to the surface pointing outward. From Eqs. (5.120) and
(5.121), summing over all the volume and the surface, and replacing by integrations (through-
out the whole volume and the entire surface area), we get
[ f [ V A J V = f f n -AdS (5.122)
v s
which is the mathematical statement of Gauss's theorem or the divergence theorem.
Gauss's Theorem or the Divergence Theorem. The divergence of a vector field multi-
plied by a volume is equal to the net flow of that vector field across the surface bounding
that volume.
That is, since n A = the component of A normal to S, Eq. (5.122) states that
(5.123)
It is assumed that the fluid is incompressible. Also, V v is positive at the source from which
the fluid is flowing out, while V v is negative at the sink into which the fluid is flowing. On the
other hand, if
n -(pv)dS (5.124)
V 5
Again depending on the sign of V v, there will be a source or sink. (A numerical example il-
lustrating the preceding material is given next.) An incompressible fluid must flow out of a given
volume element as rapidly as it flows in; that is, there are no sources or sinks and div A = 0, and
the flow field is said to be solenoidal.
y Example 5.3
Consider a box of sides 8 cm by 6 cm by 4 cm, as shown in Fig. Ex. 5.3. Fluid enters the bottom of the
box and leaves through the left, right, and top surfaces. No fluid flows out of the front or back surfaces.
Calculate the net outward flow through the box for the velocities shown.
V
3
fl
3'
Az = 4 cm ,
/ /
7
>
/
\ /
\ /
>
\ 30
) w
A4 A2 fl2
,y = 6 cm
n /
X
/> <
/
/ An
/ /
/ 1
/ 1 1
.,J
Ax = 8 cm
f
n
l = -j Ax = 8 cm = 50j cm/s
n2 = +1 Ay = 6 cm V
2 = (20.8T + 12j) cm/s
"3 = +J Az = 4 cm V3 = 20j cm/s
n4 = i AxA>> = 48 cm 2 v4 = ( - 15i + 26]) cm/s
n
5 = + k AJCAZ = 32 cm 2
"6 = -k AJCAZ = 24 cm 2
"l = 50 cm/s
A y = AxAyAz V2 = 24 cm/s
= ( 8 X 6 X 4 ) cm 3 v3 = 20 cm/s
D4 = 30 cm/s
Solution
Using the divergence theorem as applied to an incompressiblefluidflowfrom Eq. (5.123),
n v dS (i)
We can solve the problem either by using the left or right side of this equation. We shall do both to show
them to be equal. Also note that only normal components of the velocity contribute to the netflow.We
start with the right side of Eq. (i) which may be written as
ffn (ii)
where A, represents the areas of the different faces of the box. Note that the fluid isflowingin only from
surface 1.
-1
v2 =24.013'cnrsec |v4| =30.017'cnvsec
Al, A2, A3, and A4 are
the areas of the four surfaces that x:=8-cm y: = 6-cm z :=4-cm
are needed to calculate the flow
rate. A1 :=x . z A2 :=yz A3 :=xz A4 :=y-z
AO :=n2- (20.8-i + 12-j)- -A2-i-n3- 20-j- -A3 + n4- (- 15-i + 26-j)- -A4
172 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
Alternative approach
The same result can be obtained by using the left side of Eq. (i) rewritten,
Ax Ay
Fnet=-100.8-cm3-sec '
EXERCISE 5.3: Repeat the calculations if in addition there is afluidflowingin from the front surface
at a speed of 10 cm/s normal to the surface and also leaving from the back surface with a speed of 10 cm/s,
making an angle of 45 with the normal.
We now take the vector or cross product of the gradient operator with a vector, resulting in a
vector called the curl A or rot A (meaning the rotation of a vector field). Thus (in Cartesian
coordinates)
_ (* d * d * d \ ~ /v >v
curl A = V x A = i + Jj + k x (Axri + AA
yi + Az It)
dx dy dz) '
dAy dAI
, (5.126)
dz dz dx dx dy
Sec. 5.8 Vector Differential Operators: Gradient, Divergence, and Curl 173
To understand the physical signficance of the curl of a vector quantity, let us consider a
fluid flow described by the velocity vector v. Place a small paddle wheel in the fluid. In addi-
tion to being carried in the fluid, the wheel will tend to rotate in the regions where curl A # 0.
A fluid that has a nonvanishing curl is said to have a vortex field; a fluid that everywhere has a
vanishing curl has an irrotational field.
Consider a vector field that has a nonvanishing curl. Let this field be represented by a
velocity vector v at any point in the field. Suppose the component vy increases with z, while the
component vz increases with y, as shown in Fig. 5.21. Both dvy/dz and dvjdy are positive; but
rivjdz results in a negative curling (clockwise rotation) about the X-axis, whereas dvjdy results
in a positive curling (counterclockwise rotation) about the X-axis. Thus the X component of
curl v is
dvz dvy
(curl v) = (5.128)
dy dz
= ff A dr (5.129)
Zi
v
- y
t dy
h
Stokes' Theorem. The line integral of a vector field along a closed path is equal to the
surface integral over an area bounded by the path.
In Eq. (5.129), C is a curve bounding the surface S in space, n is a unit vector normal to
S, and dr is taken along the path C. Thus the integral on the right is taken around the path, that
is, the boundary enclosing any surface that appears on the left. For a small surface AS, we may
write Stokes' theorem as
n (V x A)AS = Ar (5.130)
v2
V v = div grad (5.131)
L d
11 _i_
d d yj d /j d /v d
i i i + j + k
J dy + K dz dx dy dz
\ dx
>
d7 i d2' \
I"2 2 1 dy2 + dz2, 1
[dx '
must be a scalar, and V2, called the Laplacian operator, is such a scalar operator. On the other
hand, the cross product of V with itself is zero by definition because the two vectors are paral-
lel to each other; that is,
V x V = 0 (5.132)
y Example 5.4
Consider a 8 cm by 8 cm path ABCD located in a velocity field shown in Fig. Ex. 5.4. Evaluate the left
and right side of Stokes' theorem; that is,
x v) iidS = [v dr (i)
The integration on the right is along the path of the surface used in the left side. We may write Eq. (i) as
(V X v) nAS =
2." Ar (ii)
Let us consider the left side first.
9Vy\ IdVy
k(o - *) (iii)
\dy dz) +-J {dx dy 1
+
\ dy)
*\dz
or, in an approximate form, we may write
_ f. dvx f. Av,
Vx v= -k (iv)
dy = - k Ay
Sec. 5.8 Vector Differential Operators: Gradient, Divergence, and Curl 175
v = 4 cm/s
8 cm
i:=0..3 Ar:=8-cm
cm
sec
From the right side of Eq.(ii),
V " v.-Ar =128-cm 2 -sec ' cm
(while going around the surface) 0
sec
i=0
cm
Alternative treatment -4
sec
Second alternative treatment is cm
0
vfx : = 4- vix: = 20-- sec
176 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
The results of the application of any physical law to a given system must be independent of the
coordinate system and the location of the origin of the coordinate system as well. Vectors have
this special feature and hence are frequently used in various situations. Thus it becomes rele-
vant to know the procedure by which vectors transfer from one coordinate system to another,
that is, to investigate the properties of such transformations. Futhermore, it is convenient and
useful to describe these vectors as well as their transformations in matrix notation.
We start with the description of a scalar in different coordinate systems. Suppose mass M
is placed at point P and its coordinates are (x, y) in the XY system and (x\ y') in the X' Y' sys-
tem, as shown in Fig. 5.22. The coordinates of the mass are different in the two coordinate sys-
tems, but the mass remains constant; that is,
x\ = Oa = Ob + be + ca
= xx cos 6 + ce sin 6 + cP sin 6
Y,
r M
y
p( x,y)
\ x', /)
y'\ i ^
x
/>(*!, X2,
(x\, X2,
= Xj cos 6 + eP sin d
= x{ cos 6 + x2 sin 6
[it
x, = x, cos 6 + x2 cos ( (5.134)
[it \
or x2 = X] cosl 1- 6\ + x2 cos (5.135)
P{xvx2)
Thus we have been able to express x\ and x'2 in terms of xx, x2 and the cosines of angle 6. The
notation can be simplified by using directional cosines. Let ax be the cosine of the angle be-
tween the Xj-axis and X r axis or between the unit vectors xj and xx; that is,
ax = cos(Xj,X,) = cos(x[, x,) = x[ x{ = cos 6
Similarly,
(IT \
a2 = cos(XJ,X2) = cos(x2, x 2 ) = x 2 x 2 = cosl 61 = sin 6
(v \
/5l = cos(X2,X,) = cos(x 2 ,x,) = x 2 Xj = cosl + 6\ = - s i n 6
x2 = (5.138)
(5.141)
where yx is the cosine of the angle between x 3 and x,. y2, y3, a3, and (33 have similar meanings.
The reverse transformation, that is, xx, x2, x3 in terms of x[, x'2, x'3, may be written as
xx = (5.142)
x2 = a2x[ + f32x'2 (5.143)
where ax is the cosine of the angle between the X r axis and Xj-axis, and the other directional
cosines have similar meaning.
The transformation equations, Eqs. (5.142) to (5.144), may be written in a much neater
and more compact form by using the following notation. Let A,-, be the cosine of the angle be-
tween the X;-axis and X^-axis; that is, the directional cosine Ay is
A^ s cos(X;,X7) = x; Xj (5.145)
Sec. 5.9 Coordinate Transformations 179
The coordinates x[, x'2, x'3 may be expressed in terms of xx, x2, x3 as
X^ =
AJJXJ ~r A12^2 13*^3 (5.147)
x2 - X22x2 + A 23 x 3 (5.148)
3
r = V A r' 1 = 1 9 3 (5.154)
An A,
A = A21 A23 (5.155)
31 A33
\
The matrix A. is called a transformation matrix or a rotation matrix and determines the proper-
ties of the coordinates of a point under transformation.
According to Eq. (5.155), we need nine quantities A,y to cause the coordinate transforma-
tion of a point. But looking further into the properties of A., we find that not all the quantities A,y
are independent. To understand this, we look at two geometrical relations. In Fig. 5.25, the line
OP makes angles 0,, 02, and 03 with the Xr, X2-, and X3-axes, respectively. Hence directional
cosines of the straight line OP are cos 0,, cos 02, and cos 03. As discussed in Section 5.6, the
sum of the squares of the direction cosines of any line is equal to unity; that is (after replacing
a. /3, and yby 6U 62, and 63, respectively)
cos 2 + cos 2 02 + cos 2 03 = 1 (5.156)
Now with reference to Fig. 5.26, if a line OP makes angles 0,, 02, 03 and line OQ makes angles
0[, 02, 03 with the axes ZjX2X3, the cosine of the angle between these lines is given by
cos 0 = cos 0, cos 0J + cos 02 cos 02 + cos 03 cos 03 (5.157)
180 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
Let us now consider a set of axes XYX2X3. Each of these, when rotated through an angle 6,
results in a new set of axes X\X'2X'y Let us describe the Xj-axis in the XXX2X3 system. Its direc-
tion cosines are A n , A12, A13, while for the X2-axis in the XXX2X3. system, they are A2i, A22, A23.
Since X[ is perpendicular to X'2, the angle 9 is 772; when we apply Eq. (5.157), we get
77
AnA21 + A12A22 + A]3A23 cos 6 = cos 0 (5.158)
(5.159)
Similarly, if we apply Eq. (5.156) to the three axes X[, X'2, X'3 separately described in theX1X2XJ
system, we get
(5.161)
Equations (5.160) and (5.162) are called orthogonality conditions and apply to any set of coor-
jinate systems in which the coordinate axes are mutually perpendicular; that is, the systems are
nhogonal. Equations (5.160) and (5.162) may be combined into one as
(5.163)
k=\
1, iii=j
(5.164)
0, if i + j
Thus Eq. (5.163) results in six relations between the directional cosines, thereby reducing the
".umber of independent quantities Ay in the matrix A. to only three.
The transformation matrix X described here can be used to describe two different but
.iosely related transformation:
1. Coordinate transformation: In this case, point P is fixed, while the base vectors are trans-
formed (say from Xl X2 to X\X'2), causing the coordinates of point P to change, as shown
in Fig. 5.27(a). This is the interpretation we have explained here.
2. Point transformation: The alternative is to keep the coordinates (or base vectors) fixed and
let point P rotate to point P', as shown in Fig. 5.27(b), always keeping the distance from
the origin constant.
Let us reconsider Fig. 5.27(a) and (b). In Fig. 5.27(a), axes Xx and X2 are fixed and are the
reference axes, while axes X[ and X2 are obtained by a rotation through an angle 6. Thus the co-
ordinates of point P (x[, x'2) in the rotated coordinate system are given in terms of the coordi-
nates (xu x2) in the fixed coordinate system as
= JC, cos 8 + x2 sin 8 (5.165a)
= JC, sin 6 + x, cos 0 (5.165b)
In this case the transformation acts on the axes and is called a coordinate transformation. The
>ame result can be obtained if we keep the axes fixed but rotate point P through an angle 8 (in
182 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
(a) (b)
the direction opposite to that in which the axes were rotated) to P'. The coordinates of P' are
again given by Eqs. (5.165). This type of transformation, which acts on a point, is called a point
transformation. The two types of transformations are completely equivalent.
Finally, a set of quantities A{{Ah A2, A3) in an unprimed system may be transformed to a
primed system by means of a transformation matrix A, resulting in [see Eqs. (5.153)]
Al = 2 KjAj (5.166)
j
The quantities that obey such transformation rules are called vectors; that is, A,{A\, A2, A3) =
A is a vector quantity.
We have considered a transformation matrix A that is a 3 by 3 square matrix; that is, the
number of rows is equal to the number of columns. The matrix may not always be a square. For
example, the coordinates Qt,, x2, x3) of a point may be represented by a column matrix x as
(5.167)
or a row matrix
x = (x. (5.168)
A common practice is to use the column matrix given by Eq. (5.167) for representing a vector,
and we shall use this convention. Thus the coordinates xt(xx, x2, x3) and x[{x\, x'2, x'3) of point P
with respect to the two reference coordinates, the XXX2X3 and X\, X2, X'3 systems, respectively,
may be expressed in matrix representation. Thus the transformation equations given by
Eq. (5.153)
A= i = 1, 2, 3 (5.153)
Problems 183
(5.171)
X
3 =
A31^ + + A33X3
Note that the multiplication in Eqs. (5.170) or (5.171) is possible only if (1) x and x' are column
matrices, and (2) the number of columns in A. must be equal to the number of rows in x. In gen-
eral, if we want to multiply matrix A with matrix B, the resulting matrix C is given by
C = AB (5.172)
where the number of columns in matrix A must be equal to the number of rows in B. Any ele-
ment Ctj of matrix C is given by
(5.173)
PROBLEMS
5.1. Prove the following inequalities:
(a) |A + B| * |A B (b) |A B| =s |A||B (c) A x B N A B
5.2 Find the resultant of three forces F b F2, and F 3 in terms of their magnitudes Fu F2, and F 3 and an-
gles 6U 62, and 03 between each pair of forces. Also find an expression for the angle a between the
resultant force F and the component force F].
5.3. Given the vectors A = (4, - 2 , 6) and B = (1, 3, -4), calculate (a) A + B, (b) A - B, (c) 3A +
2B, (d) 3A - 2B, (e) A, B, A2 + B2, (f) A B, (g) the angle between A and B, (h) A x B, (i) the
component of B in the direction of A, and (j) the directional cosines of A and B.
5.4. Given two vectors A = 2i + 3j + 4k and B = - 2 i - 3j - 4k, calculate (a) A + B, (b) A - B,
(c) 3A + 2B, (d) 3A - 2B, (e) A, B, A2 + B2, (f) A B, (g) the angle between A and B, (h) A x B,
(i) the component of B in the direction of A, and (j) the directional cosines of A and B.
5.5. Find the cosine of the angle between vectors A = 2i + 3 j + 2k and B = 2i - j + 2k\
5.6. Prove that the diagonals of an equilateral parallelogram are perpendicular.
5.7. Find a unit vector n that is perpendicular to vectors A = i + 2j + 3k* and B = 2i j + 2k.
5.8. A = 2! + cj + k is perpendicular to B = 1 + j + 2k. What is the value of c?
184 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
5.9. Show that vectors A = 1 - 2j - k and B = (M + 8j - 10k" are perpendicular to each other.
5.10. For what values of c will the following two vectors be perpendicular to each other: A = ci + 2cj
- 4k" and B = 2i - cj + 2cft?
5.11. Show that the vector r = 2i + 5j lies in a plane perpendicular to the OZ-axis.
5.12. Vectors A and B represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram. Show that the area of a parallel-
ogram is equal to |A X B .
5.13. A = i + j and B = i + j + k are vectors that represent diagonals along the face and through a
cube, respectively. Calculate the angle between these two vectors.
5.14. Let n be a unit vector in some fixed direction and A an arbitrary vector. Show that A = (A n )n
+ (n x A) x n.
5.15. For vectors A, B, and C as given, calculate the following quantities:
A = i + 2j + 3k, B = 3t - 2] + k, C =I +J - k
t ^ d A dB dk dB d
(a) (b) B B
dt dt dt dt dt dt
d d
(c) 0 (d) (A x B)
dt
dt
5.18. Show that a triple scalar product can be written in determinant form as follows:
Ay
(AxB)-C= By
c
5.19. Prove the following cyclic relation for a triple scalar product:
A (B X C) = B (C X A) = C (A x B) = (A x B) C
5.20. Prove the following identity:
A X B X C = (A C)B - (A B)C = B(A C) - C(A B)
5.21. Using the properties of the del operator, V, prove the following vector identity: grad(i;) =
u grad v + v grad u.
5.22. Using the properties of the del operator, V, prove the following vector identity: curl (curl A) =
grad (div A) - V2A.
5.23. Calculate grad S, where S = 1/r3 and r = (x1 + y2 + z2)1'2.
5.24. Find the gradient of the following functions:
(a)/=x + y + z (b) f=xy + xz + yz (c) / = xy2 + yx2 + xyz
5.25. The potential that represents an inverse-square force is V(r) = klr, where r2 = x2 + y2 + z2. Using
the definition F = W, calculate the components of this force.
Problems 185
5.26. For Problem 5.25, find a unit vector that points in the direction of the maximum increase in V at
the position r = i + 2j + k.
5.27. For Problem 5.23, find a unit vector that points in the direction of the maximum increase in S at
the position r = 1 + 2j + k.
5.28. Calculate the divergence of r, div r = V r, where:
(a) r = xl + y] (b) r = xi + yj + zfi
(c) r = yl - x] - z (d) r = 4x1 + 2j + 4yic
5.29. Calculate the divergence of the following vector fields:
(a) r = A + y2] (b) r = x\ - y2j - (c) r = xyi yzj + zxfi
5.30. The gravitational force between two masses may be written as
75 cm/s
100 cm/s
Figure P5.33
186 Vector Analysis, Vector Operators, and Transformations Chap. 5
Y i c
- 4 cm/s
12 cm/s
Figure P5.36
5.37 Repeat Problem 5.36 if the velocities (in cm/s) at points A, B, C, and D are
5.38. Using Stokes' theorem, calculate the average value of the curl of thefluidfor a square of side 10 cm,
as shown in Fig. P5.38.
40 cm/s
50 cm/s
Figure P5.38
5.39. Prove the following relation from trigonometric considerations: cos2 a + cos2 /3 + cos2 y = 1.
5.40. A plane formed by the XY-axes is rotated through an angle of 30 about the Z-axis. Find the matrix
of rotation.
Problems 187
5.41. A cube is rotated about the Z-axis through 60. Find the rotation matrix for the coordinate
transformation.
5.42. Consider X. to be a two-dimensional transformation matrix. Prove by direct expansion that | \ ] 2 = 1.
5.43. Find the transformation matrix that will cause the rotation of the rectangular coordinates XY sys-
tem through an angle of 120 about the Z-axis.
5.44. Find the transformation matrix that will cause the rotation of the rectangular coordinates XY sys-
tem through an angle of 120 about an axis that makes equal angles with the original three rectan-
gular coordinate axes.