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Technical Articles
A Boiler: The Explosive Potential of a
Bomb
Acoustic Emission Examination of
Metal Pressure Vessels
Anatomy of a Catastrophic Boiler
Accident
Austenitic Stainless Steel
Auto-Refrigeration
Basic Weld Inspection - Part 1
Basic Weld Inspection - Part 2
Black Liquor Recovery Boilers - An
Introduction
Boiler Efciency and Steam Quality:
The Challenge of Creating Quality
Steam Using Existing Boiler
Efciencies
Boiler Logs Can Reduce Accidents
Boiler/Burner Combustion Air Supply
Requirements and Maintenance
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Preventable With Complete
Inspection
Combustion Air Requirements:The
Forgotten Element In Boiler Rooms
Creep and Creep Failures
Description of Construction and
Inspection Procedure for Steam
Locomotive and Fire Tube Boilers
Ensuring Safe Operation Of Vessels
With Quick-Opening Closures
Environmental Heat Exchangers
Factors Affecting Inservice Cracking
of Weld Zone in Corrosive Service
Failure Avoidance in Welded
Fabrication
Finite Element Analysis of Pressure
Vessels
Fuel Ash Corrosion
Fuel Firing Apparatus - Natural Gas
Grain Boundaries
Heat Treatment - What Is It?
How to Destroy a Boiler -- Part 1
How to Destroy a Boiler -- Part 2
How to Destroy a Boiler -- Part 3
Identifying Pressure Vessel Nozzle
Problems
Inspection, Repair, and Alteration of
Yankee Dryers
Inspection, What Better Place to
Begin
Laminations Led to Incident
Lay-up of Heating Boilers
Owner-User Inspection Organizations Review Team Leaders Test Lab
Grain Boundaries
David N. French, Sc.D.
President of David N. French, Inc., Metallurgists, Northborough, MA
October 1991
Category: Design/Fabrication
Summary: The following article is a part of National Board Classic Series and it was published in the National
Board BULLETIN. (3 printed pages)
Metals, like everything else, are made up of atoms, and for explanations used here, are assumed to be solid
spheres. For our general purposes, atoms within a metallic crystal or grain are regularly arranged over great
distances, distances that are huge when compared with atomic dimensions. There is then, long-range atomic
order within individual crystals. Where adjacent crystals join is a crystal boundary, a zone of short-range
disorder. These crystal boundaries determine in no small way the useful properties of engineering materials
when applied to steam generators.
All boiler alloys are made up of many crystals of various individual orientations. These individual crystals are
called"grains." In any one grain, all atoms are arranged with one particular orientation and one particular
pattern. The juncture between adjacent grains is called a "grain boundary." The grain boundary is a transition
region in which some atoms are not exactly aligned with either grain.
Individual grains are viewed as being made up of the cube faces of face-centered cubic or body-centered cubic
iron. Grain boundaries are usually considered to be two dimensional, but are actually a nite thickness, perhaps
2-10 atomic distances. The mismatch of the orientation of neighboring grains leads to a less efcient atomic
packing within the grain boundary. Hence the atoms in the boundary have a less ordered structure and a slightly
higher internal energy. The disordered atomic arrangement and higher energy can explain several features
associated with material degradation found in the high-temperature operation of boilers.
Grain size can vary greatly depending on the alloy and heat treatment. For reference, a grain diameter is about
0.001" across. Thus there may be a billion (109) grains per cubic inch of alloy. Within any one grain are a large
number of individual atoms. The diameter of an iron atom is about 10-8 (0.00000001) inch. So across a one-mil
(0.001") grain are 100,000 (105) iron atoms. With a grain boundary perhaps 2-10 atomic dimensions thick, the
grains are clearly seen to be regions of long-range atomic order, and the grain boundaries, regions of short-
range atomic disorder.
The ASTM grain-size number is one standard for determining the average grain size. The ASTM grain size
number "N" is dened by:
n=2N-1
where "n" is the number of grains per square inch when viewed at l00x. The usual range is from 1-9. Note
that as the grains get smaller, the grain-size number gets larger.
The shape of a grain is governed by its neighbors. No grain is ever a sphere, but an irregular polyhedron
that when packed together with others completely lls the space. Its characteristic dimension is referred
to as a "diameter." At equilibrium the shape tends to minimize the grain-boundary surface area for a
given volume of metal within a grain. (For example, this attempt to minimize the surface-to- volume ratio,
or surface energy, is the driving force to the spheroidization of iron carbide in ferritic steels.) Grains are
said to be equiaxed when the characteristic dimensions are the same in all directions. Grains are said to
be elongated when the characteristic dimensions are not the same, but one direction is much longer
than the others.
Grain boundaries play an important role in the operational behavior of boiler steels. The next several
examples will illustrate the damage done along the grain boundaries in preference to the bulk of the
grains themselves.
ETCHING:
In order to observe the microstructure, a piece of the metal is smoothly polished to a plane and mirror-
like nish. The prepared surface is chemically attacked with dilute acid for a short period, a process
called "etching." The grain-boundary atoms are more easily and rapidly dissolved or "corroded" than the
atoms within the grains. A small groove is left at the grain boundaries. Since a groove will not reflect
light as do the flat, polished grains; the grain boundaries appear as black lines, and the structural details
are visible.
DIFFUSION:
Liquid Penetrant Examination
Low Voltage Short Circuiting-GMAW
Low Water Cut-Off Technology
Low-Water Cutoff: A Maintenance
Must
Grain boundaries are regions of atomic mismatch and less dense atomic packing. Less density on an
atomic scale implies bigger atomic-sized holes through which atoms can more easily move. Such
atomic mobility is called "diffusion." Thus grain boundaries will oxidize or corrode more rapidly, usually
referred to as "grain-boundary penetration" or "intergranular attack." Oxygen diffuses along the grain
boundaries, reacts with the steel, and forms iron oxide preferentially at the grain boundaries.

Magnetic Particle Examination In stainless steel, the diffusion of carbon along the austenite grain boundaries leads to the formation of
Maintaining Proper Boiler
chromium carbides. As these carbides form, they deplete the region immediately adjacent to the grain
boundary of chromium. As chromium decreases, so does the corrosion resistance. Thus the grain-
Inspections Through Proper
boundary region is more easily corroded, a condition called "sensitization."
Relationships

Microstructural Degradation
Once these steels have been sensitized, they are subject to an intergranular corrosion attack known as
Miracle Fluid? (IGA). The location from which the sample was taken is the bottom of a pendant where condensate
collects during shutdown. When the boiler is opened to the atmosphere, water and oxygen preferentially
Organizing A Vessel, Tank, and
corrode the sensitized grain boundaries. The resultant appearance is corrosion debris, essentially metal
Piping Inspection Program oxides, along the grain boundaries.
Paper Machine Failure Investigation:
Inspection Requirements Should Be
HYDROGEN DAMAGE:
Changed For Dryer Can

Pipe Support Performance as It

Applies to Power Plant Safety and
Reliability
Polymer Use for Boilers and Pressure
Vessels
Pressure Vessel Fatigue
Pressure Vessels: Analyzing Change
Hydrogen damage occurs in waterwall tubes of high pressure utility boilers under thick, water-side
corrosion deposits. Under-deposit corrosion usually occurs under acid conditions. One of the products
of under-deposit corrosion is atomic hydrogen, a small atom, which easily diffuses into the steel.
Hydrogen reacts with iron carbide to form ferrite and methane. The methane molecule is large, cannot
diffuse through the steel, and so collects at the ferrite grain boundaries. When the methane pressure is
sufciently great, intergranular cracks form along the ferrite grain boundaries. There are two
characteristic features to hydrogen damage: 1) intergranular cracks, and 2) loss of iron carbide
(decarburization).

Preventing Corrosion Under

Insulation
CREEP:

Preventing Steam/Condensate
System Accidents
Proper Boiler Care Makes Good
Business Sense:Safety Precautions
for Drycleaning Businesses
Putting a Stop to Steam Kettle
Failure
Quick Actuating Closures
At elevated temperatures, the strength of a grain is greater than the strength of a grain boundary. At
room temperature the strength of a grain boundary is greater than the strength of a grain. Where the
grain-boundary strength equals the grain strength is known as the "equi-cohesive temperature." Elevated
temperature failures tend to follow the grain boundaries and are referred to as "intergranular (between
the grains) failures." Elevated-temperature deformation occurs by one grain moving past its neighbor, a
process known as "creep." Voids form rst at the juncture of several grains where deformation by grain-
boundary sliding is limited. Individual voids then link up to form grain-boundary cracks, often referred to
as "grain-boundary separation."

Quick-Actuating Door Failures
Real-Time Radioscopic Examination
Recommendations For A Safe Boiler
Room
Recovering Boiler Systems After A
Flood
In summary, atomic arrangement at a crystal or grain boundary dictates the service behavior. Grain
boundaries, being a zone of higher internal energy, may be more readily corroded or oxidized. At elevated
temperatures, the grain boundaries are weaker, the grains slip past one another, and creep damage
collects at grain boundaries. In under-deposit corrosion and hydrogen damage, grain boundaries are the
site at which the methane collects that leads to the intergranular cracking characteristic of hydrogen
damage.

Rendering Plants Require Safety
Repair or Alteration of Pressure
Vessels
Editor's note: Some ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code requirements may have changed because of
advances in material technology and/or actual experience. The reader is cautioned to refer to the latest
edition and addenda of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for current requirements.

Residential Water Heater Safety

School Boiler Maintenance

Programs: How Safe Are The
Children?

Secondary Low-Water Fuel Cutoff

Probe: Is It as Safe as You Think?

Short-Term High Temperature

Failures

Specication of Rupture Disk Burst

Pressure

Steam Traps Affect Boiler Plant

Efciency

Steps to Safety: Guide for Restarting

Boilers after Summer Lay-Up

Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel in

Liqueed Ammonia Service - A
Recapitulation

Suggested Daily Boiler Log Program

Suggested Maintenance Log

 Program

System Design, Specications,

Operation, and Inspection of
Deaerators

Tack Welding

Temperature And Pressure Relief

Valves Often Overlooked

Temperature Considerations for

Pressure Relief Valve Application

The Authorized Inspector's

Responsibility for Dimensional
Inspection

The Effects of Erosion-Corrosion on

Power Plant Piping

The Forgotten Boiler That Suddenly

Isn't

The Trend of Boiler/Pressure Vessel

Incidents: On the Decline?

The Use of Pressure Vessels for

Human Occupancy in Clinical
Hyberbaric Medicine

Thermally Induced Stress Cycling

(Thermal Shock) in Firetube Boilers

Top Ten Boiler and Combustion

Safety Issues to Avoid

Typical Improper Repairs of Safety

Valves

Wasted Superheat Converted to Hot,

Sanitary Water

Water Maintenance Essential to

Prevent Boiler Scaling

Water Still Flashes to Steam at 212

Welding Consideration for Pressure

Relief Valves

Welding Symbols: A Useful System

or Undecipherable Hieroglyphics?

What Should You Do Before Starting

Boilers After Summer Lay-Up?

Why? A Question for All Inspectors

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