65REPUBLIC ACT NO. 386
Real property as well as personal
AN ACT TO ORDAIN AND INSTITUTE
THE CIVIL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
A. INTRO
PRELIMINARY TITLE
CHAPTER I
EFFECT AND APPLICATION OF LAWS
Art. 2. Laws shall take effect after fifteen days
following the completion of their publication in the
Official Gazette, unless it is otherwise
provided. This Code shall take effect one year
after such publication. (1a)
Art. 3. Ignorance of the law excuses no one from
compliance therewith. (2)
Art. 4. Laws shall have no retroactive effect,
unless the contrary is provided. (3)
Art. 5. Acts executed against the provisions of
mandatory or prohibitory laws shall be void,
except when the law itself authorizes their validity.
(4a)
Art. 7. Laws are repealed only by subsequent
ones, and their violation or non-observance shall
not be excused by disuse, or custom or practice
to the contrary.
When the courts declared a law to be inconsistent
with the Constitution, the former shall be void and
the latter shall govern.
Administrative or executive acts, orders and
regulations shall be valid only when they are not
contrary to the laws or the Constitution. (5a)
Art. 8. Judicial decisions applying or interpreting
the laws or the Constitution shall form a part of
the legal system of the Philippines. (n)
Art. 10. In case of doubt in the interpretation or
application of laws, it is presumed that the
lawmaking body intended right and justice to
prevail. (n)
Art. 13. When the laws speak of years, months,
days or nights, it shall be understood that years
are of three hundred sixty-five days each;
months, of thirty days; days, of twenty-four hours;
and nights from sunset to sunrise.
If months are designated by their name, they shall
be computed by the number of days which they
respectively have.
In computing a period, the first day shall be
excluded, and the last day included. (7a)
Art. 14. Penal laws and those of public security
and safety shall be obligatory upon all who live or
sojourn in the Philippine territory, subject to the
principles of public international law and to treaty
stipulations. (8a)
Art. 15. Laws relating to family rights and duties,
or to the status, condition and legal capacity of
persons are binding upon citizens of the
Philippines, even though living abroad. (9a)
Art. 16.
property is subject to the law of the country where
it is stipulated.
However, intestate and testamentary
successions, both with respect to the order of
succession and to the amount of successional
rights and to the intrinsic validity of testamentary
provisions, shall be regulated by the national law
of the person whose succession is under
consideration, whatever may be the nature of the
property and regardless of the country wherein
said property may be found. (10a)
Art. 17. The forms and solemnities of contracts,
wills, and other public instruments shall be
governed by the laws of the country in which they
are executed.
When the acts referred to are executed before the
diplomatic or consular officials of the Republic of
the Philippines in a foreign country, the
solemnities established by Philippine laws shall
be observed in their execution.
Prohibitive laws concerning persons, their acts or
property, and those which have, for their object,
public order, public policy and good customs shall
not be rendered ineffective by laws or judgments
promulgated, or by determinations or conventions
agreed upon in a foreign country. (11a)
Art. 18. In matters which are governed by the
Code of Commerce and special laws, their
deficiency shall be supplied by the provisions of
this Code. (16a)
CHAPTER 2
HUMAN RELATIONS (n)
Art. 19. Every person must, in the exercise of his
rights and in the performance of his duties, act
with justice, give everyone his due, and observe
honesty and good faith.
Art. 20. Every person who, contrary to law, wilfully
or negligently causes damage to another, shall
indemnify the latter for the same.
Art. 21. Any person who wilfully causes loss or
injury to another in a manner that is contrary to
morals, good customs or public policy shall
compensate the latter for the damage.
Art. 22. Every person who through an act of
performance by another, or any other means,
acquires or comes into possession of something
at the expense of the latter without just or legal
ground, shall return the same to him.
Art. 23. Even when an act or event causing
damage to another's property was not due to the
fault or negligence of the defendant, the latter
shall be liable for indemnity if through the act or
event he was benefited.
Art. 24. In all contractual, property or other
relations, when one of the parties is at a
disadvantage on account of his moral
dependence, ignorance, indigence, mental
weakness, tender age or other handicap, the
courts must be vigilant for his protection.
CHAPTER 3
JURIDICAL PERSONS
Art. 44. The following are juridical persons:
(1) The State and its political
subdivisions;
(2) Other corporations, institutions and
entities for public interest or purpose,
created by law; their personality
begins as soon as they have been
constituted according to law;
(3) Corporations, partnerships and
associations for private interest or
purpose to which the law grants a
juridical personality, separate and
distinct from that of each
shareholder, partner or member.
(35a)
B. CONSTI PROV:
THE 1987 CONSTITUTION
OF THE
REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
Section 1. The Philippines is a democratic and
republican State. Sovereignty resides in the
people and all government authority emanates
from them.
Section 4. The prime duty of the Government is to
serve and protect the people. The Government
may call upon the people to defend the State and,
in the fulfillment thereof, all citizens may be
required, under conditions provided by law, to
render personal, military or civil service.
Section 20. The State recognizes the
indispensable role of the private sector,
encourages private enterprise, and provides
incentives to needed investments.
ARTICLE III
BILL OF RIGHTS
Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life,
liberty, or property without due process of law, nor
shall any person be denied the equal protection of
the laws.
Section 9. Private property shall not be taken for
public use without just compensation.
Section 10. No law impairing the obligation of
contracts shall be passed.
Section 11. Free access to the courts and quasi-
judicial bodies and adequate legal assistance
shall not be denied to any person by reason of
poverty.
Section 16. All persons shall have the right to a
speedy disposition of their cases before all
judicial, quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies.
Section 20. No person shall be imprisoned for
debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
ARTICLE IV
CITIZENSHIP
Section 1. The following are citizens of the
Philippines:
(1) Those who are citizens of the Philippines
at the time of the adoption of this
Constitution;
(2) Those whose fathers or mothers are
citizens of the Philippines;
(3) Those born before January 17, 1973, of
Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine
citizenship upon reaching the age of
majority; and
(4) Those who are naturalized in accordance
with law.
Section 2. Natural-born citizens are those who
are citizens of the Philippines from birth without
have to perform any act to acquire or perfect their
citizenship. Those who elect Philippine citizenship
in according with paragraph (3), Section 1 hereof
shall be deemed natural-born citizens.
Section 3. Philippine citizenship may be lost or
reacquired in the manner provided by law.
Section 4. Citizens of the Philippines who marry
aliens shall retain their citizenship, unless by their
act or omission, they are deemed, under the law,
to have renounced it.
Section 5. Dual allegiance of citizens is inimical to
the national interest and shall be dealt with by
law.
ARTICLE VI
THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT
Section 1. The legislative power shall be vested in
the Congress of the Philippines which shall
consist of a Senate and a House of
Representatives, except to the extent reserved to
the people by the provision on initiative and
referendum.
ARTICLE VII
EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT
Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in
the President of the Philippines.
ARTICLE VIII
JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
Section 1. The judicial power shall be vested in
one Supreme Court and in such lower courts as
may be established by law.
Judicial power includes the duty of the courts of
justice to settle actual controversies involving
rights which are legally demandable and
enforceable, and to determine whether or not
there has been a grave abuse of discretion
amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction on the
part of any branch or instrumentality of the
Government.
ARTICLE IX
A. COMMON PROVISIONS
Section 1. The Constitutional Commissions,
which shall be independent, are the Civil Service
Commission, the Commission on Elections, and
the Commission on Audit.
ARTICLE XI
ACCOUNTABILITY OF PUBLIC OFFICE
Section 1. Public office is a public trust. Public
officers and employees must, at all times, be
accountable to the people, serve them with
uttermost responsibility, integrity, loyalty, and
efficiency; act with patriotism and justice, and
lead modest lives.
ARTICLE XII
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND PATRIMONY
Section 1. The goals of the national economy are
a more equitable distribution of opportunities,
income, and wealth; a sustained increase in the
amount of goods and services produced by the
nation for the benefit of the people; and an
expanding productivity as the key to raising the
quality of life for all, especially the under-
privileged.
The State shall promote industrialization and full
employment based on sound agricultural
development and agrarian reform, through
industries that make full and efficient use of
human and natural resources, and which are
competitive in both domestic and foreign markets.
However, the State shall protect Filipino
enterprises against unfair foreign competition and
trade practices.
In the pursuit of these goals, all sectors of the
economy and all regions of the country shall be
given optimum opportunity to develop. Private
enterprises, including corporations, cooperatives,
and similar collective organizations, shall be
encouraged to broaden the base of their
ownership.
Section 2. All lands of the public domain, waters,
minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils,
all forces of potential energy, fisheries, forests or
timber, wildlife, flora and fauna, and other natural
resources are owned by the State. With the
exception of agricultural lands, all other natural
resources shall not be alienated. The exploration,
development, and utilization of natural resources
shall be under the full control and supervision of
the State. The State may directly undertake such
activities, or it may enter into co-production, joint
venture, or production-sharing agreements with
Filipino citizens, or corporations or associations at
least sixty per centum of whose capital is owned
by such citizens. Such agreements may be for a
period not exceeding twenty-five years,
renewable for not more than twenty-five years,
and under such terms and conditions as may be
provided by law. In cases of water rights for
irrigation, water supply fisheries, or industrial uses
other than the development of water power,
beneficial use may be the measure and limit of
the grant.
The State shall protect the nation's marine wealth
in its archipelagic waters, territorial sea, and
exclusive economic zone, and reserve its use and
enjoyment exclusively to Filipino citizens.
The Congress may, by law, allow small-scale
utilization of natural resources by Filipino citizens,
as well as cooperative fish farming, with priority to
subsistence fishermen and fish- workers in rivers,
lakes, bays, and lagoons.
The President may enter into agreements with
foreign-owned corporations involving either
technical or financial assistance for large-scale
exploration, development, and utilization of
minerals, petroleum, and other mineral oils
according to the general terms and conditions
provided by law, based on real contributions to
the economic growth and general welfare of the
country. In such agreements, the State shall
promote the development and use of local
scientific and technical resources.
The President shall notify the Congress of every
contract entered into in accordance with this
provision, within thirty days from its execution.
Section 3. Lands of the public domain are
classified into agricultural, forest or timber,
mineral lands and national parks. Agricultural
lands of the public domain may be further
classified by law according to the uses to which
they may be devoted. Alienable lands of the
public domain shall be limited to agricultural
lands. Private corporations or associations may
not hold such alienable lands of the public domain
except by lease, for a period not exceeding
twenty-five years, renewable for not more than
twenty-five years, and not to exceed one
thousand hectares in area. Citizens of the
Philippines may lease not more than five hundred
hectares, or acquire not more than twelve
hectares thereof, by purchase, homestead, or
grant.
Taking into account the requirements of
conservation, ecology, and development, and
subject to the requirements of agrarian reform,
the Congress shall determine, by law, the size of
lands of the public domain which may be
acquired, developed, held, or leased and the
conditions therefor.
Section 7. Save in cases of hereditary
succession, no private lands shall be transferred
or conveyed except to individuals, corporations,
or associations qualified to acquire or hold lands
of the public domain.
Section 8. Notwithstanding the provisions of
Section 7 of this Article, a natural-born citizen of
the Philippines who has lost his Philippine
citizenship may be a transferee of private lands,
subject to limitations provided by law.
C. OBLIGATIONS
OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS
Title. I. - OBLIGATIONS
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1156. An obligation is a juridical necessity to
give, to do or not to do. (n)
Art. 1157. Obligations arise from:
(1) Law;
(2) Contracts;
(3) Quasi-contracts;
(4) Acts or omissions punished by law; and
(5) Quasi-delicts. (1089a)
Art. 1158. Obligations derived from law are not
presumed. Only those expressly determined in
this Code or in special laws are demandable, and
shall be regulated by the precepts of the law
which establishes them; and as to what has not
been foreseen, by the provisions of this Book.
(1090)
Art. 1159. Obligations arising from contracts have
the force of law between the contracting parties
and should be complied with in good faith.
(1091a)
CHAPTER 2
NATURE AND EFFECT OF OBLIGATIONS
Art. 1163. Every person obliged to give something
is also obliged to take care of it with the proper
diligence of a good father of a family, unless the
law or the stipulation of the parties requires
another standard of care. (1094a)
Art. 1164. The creditor has a right to the fruits of
the thing from the time the obligation to deliver it
arises. However, he shall acquire no real right
over it until the same has been delivered to him.
(1095)
Art. 1165. When what is to be delivered is a
determinate thing, the creditor, in addition to the
right granted him by Article 1170, may compel the
debtor to make the delivery.
If the thing is indeterminate or generic, he may
ask that the obligation be complied with at the
expense of the debtor.
If the obligor delays, or has promised to deliver
the same thing to two or more persons who do
not have the same interest, he shall be
responsible for any fortuitous event until he has
effected the delivery. (1096)
Art. 1166. The obligation to give a determinate
thing includes that of delivering all its accessions
and accessories, even though they may not have
been mentioned. (1097a)
Art. 1167. If a person obliged to do something
fails to do it, the same shall be executed at his
cost.
This same rule shall be observed if he does it in
contravention of the tenor of the obligation.
Furthermore, it may be decreed that what has
been poorly done be undone. (1098)
Art. 1168. When the obligation consists in not
doing, and the obligor does what has been
forbidden him, it shall also be undone at his
expense. (1099a)
Art. 1169. Those obliged to deliver or to do
something incur in delay from the time the obligee
judicially or extrajudicially demands from them the
fulfillment of their obligation.
However, the demand by the creditor shall not be
necessary in order that delay may exist:
(1) When the obligation or the law expressly
so declare; or
(2) When from the nature and the
circumstances of the obligation it appears
that the designation of the time when the
thing is to be delivered or the service is to
be rendered was a controlling motive for
the establishment of the contract; or
(3) When demand would be useless, as when
the obligor has rendered it beyond his
power to perform.
In reciprocal obligations, neither party incurs in
delay if the other does not comply or is not ready
to comply in a proper manner with what is
incumbent upon him. From the moment one of
the parties fulfills his obligation, delay by the other
begins. (1100a)
Art. 1170. Those who in the performance of their
obligations are guilty of fraud, negligence, or
delay, and those who in any manner contravene
the tenor thereof, are liable for damages. (1101)
Art. 1171. Responsibility arising from fraud is
demandable in all obligations. Any waiver of an
action for future fraud is void. (1102a)
Art. 1172. Responsibility arising from negligence
in the performance of every kind of obligation is
also demandable, but such liability may be
regulated by the courts, according to the
circumstances. (1103)
Art. 1173. The fault or negligence of the obligor
consists in the omission of that diligence which is
required by the nature of the obligation and
corresponds with the circumstances of the
persons, of the time and of the place. When
negligence shows bad faith, the provisions of
Articles 1171 and 2201, paragraph 2, shall apply.
If the law or contract does not state the diligence
which is to be observed in the performance, that
which is expected of a good father of a family
shall be required. (1104a)
Art. 1174. Except in cases expressly specified by
the law, or when it is otherwise declared by
stipulation, or when the nature of the obligation
requires the assumption of risk, no person shall
be responsible for those events which could not
be foreseen, or which, though foreseen, were
inevitable. (1105a)
Art. 1175. Usurious transactions shall be
governed by special laws. (n)
Art. 1176. The receipt of the principal by the
creditor without reservation with respect to the
interest, shall give rise to the presumption that
said interest has been paid.
The receipt of a later installment of a debt without
reservation as to prior installments, shall likewise
raise the presumption that such installments have
been paid. (1110a)
Art. 1177. The creditors, after having pursued the
property in possession of the debtor to satisfy
their claims, may exercise all the rights and bring
all the actions of the latter for the same purpose,
save those which are inherent in his person; they
may also impugn the acts which the debtor may
have done to defraud them. (1111)
Art. 1178. Subject to the laws, all rights acquired
in virtue of an obligation are transmissible, if there
has been no stipulation to the contrary. (1112)
thing, in accordance with Articles 1385 and 1388
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENT KINDS OF OBLIGATIONS
SECTION 1. - Pure and Conditional Obligations
Art. 1179. Every obligation whose performance
does not depend upon a future or uncertain
event, or upon a past event unknown to the
parties, is demandable at once.
Every obligation which contains a resolutory
condition shall also be demandable, without
prejudice to the effects of the happening of the
event. (1113)
Art. 1189. When the conditions have been
imposed with the intention of suspending the
efficacy of an obligation to give, the following
rules shall be observed in case of the
improvement, loss or deterioration of the thing
during the pendency of the condition:
(1) If the thing is lost without the fault of the
debtor, the obligation shall be
extinguished;
(2) If the thing is lost through the fault of the
debtor, he shall be obliged to pay
damages; it is understood that the thing is
lost when it perishes, or goes out of
commerce, or disappears in such a way
that its existence is unknown or it cannot
be recovered;
(3) When the thing deteriorates without the
fault of the debtor, the impairment is to be
borne by the creditor;
(4) If it deteriorates through the fault of the
debtor, the creditor may choose between
the rescission of the obligation and its
fulfillment, with indemnity for damages in
either case;
(5) If the thing is improved by its nature, or by
time, the improvement shall inure to the
benefit of the creditor;
(6) If it is improved at the expense of the
debtor, he shall have no other right than
that granted to the usufructuary. (1122)
Art. 1191. The power to rescind obligations is
implied in reciprocal ones, in case one of the
obligors should not comply with what is
incumbent upon him.
The injured party may choose between the
fulfillment and the rescission of the obligation,
with the payment of damages in either case. He
may also seek rescission, even after he has
chosen fulfillment, if the latter should become
impossible.
The court shall decree the rescission claimed,
unless there be just cause authorizing the fixing
of a period.
This is understood to be without prejudice to the
rights of third persons who have acquired the
and the Mortgage Law. (1124)
Art. 1197. If the obligation does not fix a period,
but from its nature and the circumstances it can
be inferred that a period was intended, the courts
may fix the duration thereof.
The courts shall also fix the duration of the period
when it depends upon the will of the debtor.
In every case, the courts shall determine such
period as may under the circumstances have
been probably contemplated by the parties. Once
fixed by the courts, the period cannot be changed
by them. (1128a)
CHAPTER 4
EXTINGUISHMENT OF OBLIGATIONS
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1231. Obligations are extinguished:
(1) By payment or performance:
(2) By the loss of the thing due:
(3) By the condonation or remission of the
debt;
(4) By the confusion or merger of the rights of
creditor and debtor;
(5) By compensation;
(6) By novation.
Other causes of extinguishment of obligations,
such as annulment, rescission, fulfillment of a
resolutory condition, and prescription, are
governed elsewhere in this Code. (1156a)
Art. 1249. The payment of debts in money shall
be made in the currency stipulated, and if it is not
possible to deliver such currency, then in the
currency which is legal tender in the Philippines.
The delivery of promissory notes payable to
order, or bills of exchange or other mercantile
documents shall produce the effect of payment
only when they have been cashed, or when
through the fault of the creditor they have been
impaired.
In the meantime, the action derived from the
original obligation shall be held in the abeyance.
(1170)
Art. 1250. In case an extraordinary inflation or
deflation of the currency stipulated should
supervene, the value of the currency at the time
of the establishment of the obligation shall be the
basis of payment, unless there is an agreement to
the contrary. (n)
SECTION 2. - Loss of the Thing Due
Art. 1262. An obligation which consists in the
delivery of a determinate thing shall be
extinguished if it should be lost or destroyed
without the fault of the debtor, and before he has
incurred in delay.
When by law or stipulation, the obligor is liable
even for fortuitous events, the loss of the thing
does not extinguish the obligation, and he shall
be responsible for damages. The same rule
applies when the nature of the obligation requires
the assumption of risk. (1182a)
Art. 1265. Whenever the thing is lost in the
possession of the debtor, it shall be presumed
that the loss was due to his fault, unless there is
proof to the contrary, and without prejudice to the
provisions of article 1165. This presumption does
not apply in case of earthquake, flood, storm, or
other natural calamity. (1183a)
SECTION 5. - Compensation
Art. 1278. Compensation shall take place when
two persons, in their own right, are creditors and
debtors of each other. (1195)
Art. 1279. In order that compensation may be
proper, it is necessary:
(1) That each one of the obligors be bound
principally, and that he be at the same
time a principal creditor of the other;
(2) That both debts consist in a sum of
money, or if the things due are
consumable, they be of the same kind,
and also of the same quality if the latter
has been stated;
(3) That the two debts be due;
(4) That they be liquidated and demandable;
(5) That over neither of them there be any
retention or controversy, commenced by
third persons and communicated in due
time to the debtor. (1196)
Art. 1280. Notwithstanding the provisions of the
preceding article, the guarantor may set up
compensation as regards what the creditor may
owe the principal debtor. (1197)
Art. 1281. Compensation may be total or partial.
When the two debts are of the same amount,
there is a total compensation. (n)
Art. 1282. The parties may agree upon the
compensation of debts which are not yet due. (n)
Art. 1283. If one of the parties to a suit over an
obligation has a claim for damages against the
other, the former may set it off by proving his right
to said damages and the amount thereof. (n)
Art. 1284. When one or both debts are rescissible
or voidable, they may be compensated against
each other before they are judicially rescinded or
avoided. (n)
Art. 1285. The debtor who has consented to the
assignment of rights made by a creditor in favor
of a third person, cannot set up against the
assignee the compensation which would pertain
to him against the assignor, unless the assignor
was notified by the debtor at the time he gave his
consent, that he reserved his right to the
compensation.
If the creditor communicated the cession to him
but the debtor did not consent thereto, the latter
may set up the compensation of debts previous to
the cession, but not of subsequent ones.
If the assignment is made without the knowledge
of the debtor, he may set up the compensation of
all credits prior to the same and also later ones
until he had knowledge of the assignment.
(1198a)
Art. 1286. Compensation takes place by
operation of law, even though the debts may be
payable at different places, but there shall be an
indemnity for expenses of exchange or
transportation to the place of payment. (1199a)
SECTION 6. - Novation
Art. 1291. Obligations may be modified by:
(1) Changing their object or principal
conditions;
(2) Substituting the person of the debtor;
(3) Subrogating a third person in the rights of
the creditor. (1203)
D. CONTRACTS
Title II. - CONTRACTS
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1305. A contract is a meeting of minds
between two persons whereby one binds himself,
with respect to the other, to give something or to
render some service. (1254a)
Art. 1306. The contracting parties may establish
such stipulations, clauses, terms and conditions
as they may deem convenient, provided they are
not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public
order, or public policy. (1255a)
Art. 1307. Innominate contracts shall be regulated
by the stipulations of the parties, by the provisions
of Titles I and II of this Book, by the rules
governing the most analogous nominate
contracts, and by the customs of the place. (n)
Art. 1308. The contract must bind both
contracting parties; its validity or compliance
cannot be left to the will of one of them. (1256a)
Art. 1309. The determination of the performance
may be left to a third person, whose decision shall
not be binding until it has been made known to
both contracting parties. (n)
Art. 1310. The determination shall not be
obligatory if it is evidently inequitable. In such
case, the courts shall decide what is equitable
under the circumstances. (n)
Art. 1311. Contracts take effect only between the
parties, their assigns and heirs, except in case
where the rights and obligations arising from the
contract are not transmissible by their nature, or
by stipulation or by provision of law. The heir is
not liable beyond the value of the property he
received from the decedent.
If a contract should contain some stipulation in
favor of a third person, he may demand its
fulfillment provided he communicated his
acceptance to the obligor before its revocation. A
mere incidental benefit or interest of a person is
not sufficient. The contracting parties must have
clearly and deliberately conferred a favor upon a
third person. (1257a)
Art. 1312. In contracts creating real rights, third
persons who come into possession of the object
of the contract are bound thereby, subject to the
provisions of the Mortgage Law and the Land
Registration Laws. (n)
Art. 1313. Creditors are protected in cases of
contracts intended to defraud them. (n)
Art. 1314. Any third person who induces another
to violate his contract shall be liable for damages
to the other contracting party. (n)
Art. 1315. Contracts are perfected by mere
consent, and from that moment the parties are
bound not only to the fulfillment of what has been
expressly stipulated but also to all the
consequences which, according to their nature,
may be in keeping with good faith, usage and law.
(1258)
Art. 1316. Real contracts, such as deposit, pledge
and Commodatum, are not perfected until the
delivery of the object of the obligation. (n)
Art. 1317. No one may contract in the name of
another without being authorized by the latter, or
unless he has by law a right to represent him.
A contract entered into in the name of another by
one who has no authority or legal representation,
or who has acted beyond his powers, shall be
unenforceable, unless it is ratified, expressly or
impliedly, by the person on whose behalf it has
been executed, before it is revoked by the other
contracting party. (1259a)
CHAPTER 2
ESSENTIAL REQUISITES OF CONTRACTS
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1318. There is no contract unless the
following requisites concur:
(1) Consent of the contracting parties;
(2) Object certain which is the subject matter
of the contract;
(3) Cause of the obligation which is
established. (1261)
SECTION 1. - Consent
Art. 1319. Consent is manifested by the meeting
of the offer and the acceptance upon the thing
and the cause which are to constitute the
contract. The offer must be certain and the
acceptance absolute. A qualified acceptance
constitutes a counter-offer.
Acceptance made by letter or telegram does not
bind the offerer except from the time it came to
his knowledge. The contract, in such a case, is
presumed to have been entered into in the place
where the offer was made. (1262a)
Art. 1320. An acceptance may be express or
implied. (n)
Art. 1321. The person making the offer may fix
the time, place, and manner of acceptance, all of
which must be complied with. (n)
Art. 1322. An offer made through an agent is
accepted from the time acceptance is
communicated to him. (n)
Art. 1323. An offer becomes ineffective upon the
death, civil interdiction, insanity, or insolvency of
either party before acceptance is conveyed. (n)
Art. 1324. When the offerer has allowed the
offeree a certain period to accept, the offer may
be withdrawn at any time before acceptance by
communicating such withdrawal, except when the
option is founded upon a consideration, as
something paid or promised. (n)
Art. 1325. Unless it appears otherwise, business
advertisements of things for sale are not definite
offers, but mere invitations to make an offer. (n)
Art. 1326. Advertisements for bidders are simply
invitations to make proposals, and the advertiser
is not bound to accept the highest or lowest
bidder, unless the contrary appears. (n)
Art. 1327. The following cannot give consent to a
contract:
(1) Unemancipated minors;
(2) Insane or demented persons, and deaf-
mutes who do not know how to write.
(1263a)
Art. 1328. Contracts entered into during a lucid
interval are valid. Contracts agreed to in a state of
drunkenness or during a hypnotic spell are
voidable. (n)
Art. 1329. The incapacity declared in Article 1327
is subject to the modifications determined by law,
and is understood to be without prejudice to
special disqualifications established in the laws.
(1264)
Art. 1330. A contract where consent is given
through mistake, violence, intimidation, undue
influence, or fraud is voidable. (1265a)
SECTION 2. - Object of Contracts
Art. 1347. All things which are not outside the
commerce of men, including future things, may be
the object of a contract. All rights which are not
intransmissible may also be the object of
contracts.
No contract may be entered into upon future
inheritance except in cases expressly authorized
by law.
All services which are not contrary to law, morals,
good customs, public order or public policy may
likewise be the object of a contract. (1271a)
Art. 1348. Impossible things or services cannot be
the object of contracts. (1272)
Art. 1349. The object of every contract must be
determinate as to its kind. The fact that the
quantity is not determinate shall not be an
obstacle to the existence of the contract, provided
it is possible to determine the same, without the
need of a new contract between the parties.
(1273)
SECTION 3. - Cause of Contracts
Art. 1350. In onerous contracts the cause is
understood to be, for each contracting party, the
prestation or promise of a thing or service by the
other; in remuneratory ones, the service or benefit
which is remunerated; and in contracts of pure
beneficence, the mere liberality of the benefactor.
(1274)
Art. 1351. The particular motives of the parties in
entering into a contract are different from the
cause thereof. (n)
Art. 1352. Contracts without cause, or with
unlawful cause, produce no effect whatever. The
cause is unlawful if it is contrary to law, morals,
good customs, public order or public policy.
(1275a)
Art. 1353. The statement of a false cause in
contracts shall render them void, if it should not
be proved that they were founded upon another
cause which is true and lawful. (1276)
Art. 1354. Although the cause is not stated in the
contract, it is presumed that it exists and is lawful,
unless the debtor proves the contrary. (1277)
Art. 1355. Except in cases specified by law, lesion
or inadequacy of cause shall not invalidate a
contract, unless there has been fraud, mistake or
undue influence. (n)
CHAPTER 3
FORM OF CONTRACTS
Art. 1357. If the law requires a document or other
special form, as in the acts and contracts
enumerated in the following article, the
contracting parties may compel each other to
observe that form, once the contract has been
perfected. This right may be exercised
simultaneously with the action upon the contract.
(1279a)
Art. 1358. The following must appear in a public
document:
(1) Acts and contracts which have for their
object the creation, transmission,
modification or extinguishment of real
rights over immovable property; sales of
real property or of an interest therein a
governed by Articles 1403, No. 2, and
1405;
(2) The cession, repudiation or renunciation
of hereditary rights or of those of the
conjugal partnership of gains;
(3) The power to administer property, or any
other power which has for its object an act
appearing or which should appear in a
public document, or should prejudice a
third person;
(4) The cession of actions or rights
proceeding from an act appearing in a
public document.
All other contracts where the amount involved
exceeds five hundred pesos must appear in
writing, even a private one. But sales of goods,
chattels or things in action are governed by
Articles, 1403, No. 2 and 1405. (1280a)
CHAPTER 5
INTERPRETATION OF CONTRACTS
Art. 1370. If the terms of a contract are clear and
leave no doubt upon the intention of the
contracting parties, the literal meaning of its
stipulations shall control.
If the words appear to be contrary to the evident
intention of the parties, the latter shall prevail over
the former. (1281)
Art. 1371. In order to judge the intention of the
contracting parties, their contemporaneous and
subsequent acts shall be principally considered.
(1282)
Art. 1372. However general the terms of a
contract may be, they shall not be understood to
comprehend things that are distinct and cases
that are different from those upon which the
parties intended to agree. (1283)
Art. 1373. If some stipulation of any contract
should admit of several meanings, it shall be
understood as bearing that import which is most
adequate to render it effectual. (1284)
Art. 1374. The various stipulations of a contract
shall be interpreted together, attributing to the
doubtful ones that sense which may result from
all of them taken jointly. (1285)
Art. 1375. Words which may have different
significations shall be understood in that which is
most in keeping with the nature and object of the
contract. (1286)
Art. 1376. The usage or custom of the place shall
be borne in mind in the interpretation of the
ambiguities of a contract, and shall fill the
omission of stipulations which are ordinarily
established. (1287)
Art. 1377. The interpretation of obscure words or
stipulations in a contract shall not favor the party
who caused the obscurity. (1288)
Art. 1378. When it is absolutely impossible to
settle doubts by the rules established in the
preceding articles, and the doubts refer to
incidental circumstances of a gratuitous contract,
the least transmission of rights and interests shall
prevail. If the contract is onerous, the doubt shall
be settled in favor of the greatest reciprocity of
interests.
If the doubts are cast upon the principal object of
the contract in such a way that it cannot be known
what may have been the intention or will of the
parties, the contract shall be null and void. (1289)
Art. 1379. The principles of interpretation stated in
Rule 123 of the Rules of Court shall likewise be
observed in the construction of contracts. (n)
ratification if, with knowledge of the reason which
CHAPTER 6
RESCISSIBLE CONTRACTS
Art. 1380. Contracts validly agreed upon may be
rescinded in the cases established by law. (1290)
Art. 1381. The following contracts are rescissible:
(1) Those which are entered into by
guardians whenever the wards whom they
represent suffer lesion by more than one-
fourth of the value of the things which are
the object thereof;
(2) Those agreed upon in representation of
absentees, if the latter suffer the lesion
stated in the preceding number;
(3) Those undertaken in fraud of creditors
when the latter cannot in any other
manner collect the claims due them;
(4) Those which refer to things under litigation
if they have been entered into by the
defendant without the knowledge and
approval of the litigants or of competent
judicial authority;
(5) All other contracts specially declared by
law to be subject to rescission. (1291a)
Art. 1382. Payments made in a state of
insolvency for obligations to whose fulfillment the
debtor could not be compelled at the time they
were effected, are also rescissible. (1292)
CHAPTER 7
VOIDABLE CONTRACTS
Art. 1390. The following contracts are voidable or
annullable, even though there may have been no
damage to the contracting parties:
(1) Those where one of the parties is
incapable of giving consent to a contract;
(2) Those where the consent is vitiated by
mistake, violence, intimidation, undue
influence or fraud.
These contracts are binding, unless they are
annulled by a proper action in court. They are
susceptible of ratification. (n)
Art. 1391. The action for annulment shall be
brought within four years.
This period shall begin:
In cases of intimidation, violence or undue
influence, from the time the defect of the
consent ceases. In case of mistake or
fraud, from the time of the discovery of the
same.
And when the action refers to contracts entered
into by minors or other incapacitated persons,
from the time the guardianship ceases. (1301a)
Art. 1392. Ratification extinguishes the action to
annul a voidable contract. (1309a)
Art. 1393. Ratification may be effected expressly
or tacitly. It is understood that there is a tacit
renders the contract voidable and such reason
having ceased, the person who has a right to
invoke it should execute an act which necessarily
implies an intention to waive his right. (1311a)
Art. 1394. Ratification may be effected by the
guardian of the incapacitated person. (n)
Art. 1395. Ratification does not require the
conformity of the contracting party who has no
right to bring the action for annulment. (1312)
Art. 1396. Ratification cleanses the contract from
all its defects from the moment it was constituted.
(1313)

CHAPTER 8
UNENFORCEABLE CONTRACTS (n)
Art. 1403. The following contracts are
unenforceable, unless they are ratified:
(1) Those entered into in the name of another
person by one who has been given no
authority or legal representation, or who
has acted beyond his powers;
(2) Those that do not comply with the Statute
of Frauds as set forth in this number. In
the following cases an agreement
hereafter made shall be unenforceable by
action, unless the same, or some note or
memorandum, thereof, be in writing, and
subscribed by the party charged, or by his
agent; evidence, therefore, of the
agreement cannot be received without the
writing, or a secondary evidence of its
contents:
(a) An agreement that by its terms is not
to be performed within a year from the
making thereof;
(b) A special promise to answer for the
debt, default, or miscarriage of
another;
(c) An agreement made in consideration
of marriage, other than a mutual
promise to marry;
(d) An agreement for the sale of goods,
chattels or things in action, at a price
not less than five hundred pesos,
unless the buyer accept and receive
part of such goods and chattels, or the
evidences, or some of them, of such
things in action or pay at the time
some part of the purchase money; but
when a sale is made by auction and
entry is made by the auctioneer in his
sales book, at the time of the sale, of
the amount and kind of property sold,
terms of sale, price, names of the
purchasers and person on whose
account the sale is made, it is a
sufficient memorandum;
(e) An agreement of the leasing for a
longer period than one year, or for the
sale of real property or of an interest
therein;
(f) A representation as to the credit of a
third person.
(3) Those where both parties are incapable of
giving consent to a contract.
Art. 1404. Unauthorized contracts are governed
by Article 1317 and the principles of agency in
Title X of this Book.
Art. 1405. Contracts infringing the Statute of
Frauds, referred to in No. 2 of Article 1403, are
ratified by the failure to object to the presentation
of oral evidence to prove the same, or by the
acceptance of benefit under them.
Art. 1406. When a contract is enforceable under
the Statute of Frauds, and a public document is
necessary for its registration in the Registry of
Deeds, the parties may avail themselves of the
right under Article 1357.
Art. 1407. In a contract where both parties are
incapable of giving consent, express or implied
ratification by the parent, or guardian, as the case
may be, of one of the contracting parties shall
give the contract the same effect as if only one of
them were incapacitated.
If ratification is made by the parents or guardians,
as the case may be, of both contracting parties,
the contract shall be validated from the inception.
Art. 1408. Unenforceable contracts cannot be
assailed by third persons.
CHAPTER 9
VOID AND INEXISTENT CONTRACTS
Art. 1409. The following contracts are inexistent
and void from the beginning:
(1) Those whose cause, object or purpose is
contrary to law, morals, good customs,
public order or public policy;
(2) Those which are absolutely simulated or
fictitious;
(3) Those whose cause or object did not exist
at the time of the transaction;
(4) Those whose object is outside the
commerce of men;
(5) Those which contemplate an impossible
service;
(6) Those where the intention of the parties
relative to the principal object of the
contract cannot be ascertained;
(7) Those expressly prohibited or declared
void by law.
These contracts cannot be ratified. Neither can
the right to set up the defense of illegality be
waived.
E. NATURAL OBLIGATIONS
Title III. - NATURAL OBLIGATIONS
Art. 1423. Obligations are civil or natural. Civil
obligations give a right of action to compel their
performance. Natural obligations, not being based
on positive law but on equity and natural law, do
not grant a right of action to enforce their
performance, but after voluntary fulfillment by the
obligor, they authorize the retention of what has
been delivered or rendered by reason thereof.
Some natural obligations are set forth in the
following articles.
Art. 1424. When a right to sue upon a civil
obligation has lapsed by extinctive prescription,
the obligor who voluntarily performs the contract
cannot recover what he has delivered or the value
of the service he has rendered.
Art. 1425. When without the knowledge or against
the will of the debtor, a third person pays a debt
which the obligor is not legally bound to pay
because the action thereon has prescribed, but
the debtor later voluntarily reimburses the third
person, the obligor cannot recover what he has
paid.
Art. 1428. When, after an action to enforce a civil
obligation has failed the defendant voluntarily
performs the obligation, he cannot demand the
return of what he has delivered or the payment of
the value of the service he has rendered.
F. SALES AND LEASE
Title VI. - SALES
CHAPTER 1
NATURE AND FORM OF THE CONTRACT
Art. 1458. By the contract of sale one of the
contracting parties obligates himself to transfer
the ownership and to deliver a determinate thing,
and the other to pay therefor a price certain in
money or its equivalent.
A contract of sale may be absolute or conditional.
(1445a)
Art. 1459. The thing must be licit and the vendor
must have a right to transfer the ownership
thereof at the time it is delivered. (n)
Art. 1460. A thing is determinate when it is
particularly designated or physical segregated
from all other of the same class.
The requisite that a thing be determinate is
satisfied if at the time the contract is entered into,
the thing is capable of being made determinate
without the necessity of a new or further
agreement between the parties. (n)
Art. 1461. Things having a potential existence
may be the object of the contract of sale.
The efficacy of the sale of a mere hope or
expectancy is deemed subject to the condition
that the thing will come into existence.
The sale of a vain hope or expectancy is void. (n)
Art. 1462. The goods which form the subject of a
contract of sale may be either existing goods,
owned or possessed by the seller, or goods to be
manufactured, raised, or acquired by the seller
after the perfection of the contract of sale, in this
Title called "future goods."
There may be a contract of sale of goods, whose
acquisition by the seller depends upon a
contingency which may or may not happen. (n)
Art. 1463. The sole owner of a thing may sell an
undivided interest therein. (n)
Art. 1470. Gross inadequacy of price does not
affect a contract of sale, except as it may indicate
a defect in the consent, or that the parties really
intended a donation or some other act or contract.
(n)
Art. 1473. The fixing of the price can never be left
to the discretion of one of the contracting parties.
However, if the price fixed by one of the parties is
accepted by the other, the sale is perfected.
(1449a)
Art. 1475. The contract of sale is perfected at the
moment there is a meeting of minds upon the
thing which is the object of the contract and upon
the price.
From that moment, the parties may reciprocally
demand performance, subject to the provisions of
the law governing the form of contracts. (1450a)
Art. 1477. The ownership of the thing sold shall
be transferred to the vendee upon the actual or
constructive delivery thereof. (n)
Art. 1483. Subject to the provisions of the Statute
of Frauds and of any other applicable statute, a
contract of sale may be made in writing, or by
word of mouth, or partly in writing and partly by
word of mouth, or may be inferred from the
conduct of the parties. (n)
Art. 1484. In a contract of sale of personal
property the price of which is payable in
installments, the vendor may exercise any of the
following remedies:
(1) Exact fulfillment of the obligation, should
the vendee fail to pay;
(2) Cancel the sale, should the vendee's
failure to pay cover two or more
installments;
(3) Foreclose the chattel mortgage on the
thing sold, if one has been constituted,
should the vendee's failure to pay cover
two or more installments. In this case, he
shall have no further action against the
purchaser to recover any unpaid balance
of the price. Any agreement to the
contrary shall be void. (1454-A-a)
Art. 1487. The expenses for the execution and
registration of the sale shall be borne by the
vendor, unless there is a stipulation to the
contrary. (1455a)
CHAPTER 2
CAPACITY TO BUY OR SELL
Art. 1489. All persons who are authorized in this
Code to obligate themselves, may enter into a
contract of sale, saving the modifications
contained in the following articles.
Where necessaries are those sold and delivered
to a minor or other person without capacity to act,
he must pay a reasonable price therefor.
Necessaries are those referred to in Article 290.
(1457a)
CHAPTER 4
 OBLIGATIONS OF THE VENDOR
SECTION 1. - General Provisions
Art. 1495. The vendor is bound to transfer the
ownership of and deliver, as well as warrant the
thing which is the object of the sale. (1461a)
Art. 1496. The ownership of the thing sold is
acquired by the vendee from the moment it is
delivered to him in any of the ways specified in
Articles 1497 to 1501, or in any other manner
signifying an agreement that the possession is
transferred from the vendor to the vendee. (n)
SECTION 2. - Delivery of the Thing Sold
Art. 1497. The thing sold shall be understood as
delivered, when it is placed in the control and
possession of the vendee. (1462a)
Art. 1498. When the sale is made through a
public instrument, the execution thereof shall be
equivalent to the delivery of the thing which is the
object of the contract, if from the deed the
contrary does not appear or cannot clearly be
inferred.
With regard to movable property, its delivery may
also be made by the delivery of the keys of the
place or depository where it is stored or kept.
(1463a)
Art. 1499. The delivery of movable property may
likewise be made by the mere consent or
agreement of the contracting parties, if the thing
sold cannot be transferred to the possession of
the vendee at the time of the sale, or if the latter
already had it in his possession for any other
reason. (1463a)
Art. 1500. There may also be tradition constitutum
possessorium. (n)
Art. 1501. With respect to incorporeal property,
the provisions of the first paragraph of article
1498 shall govern. In any other case wherein said
provisions are not applicable, the placing of the
titles of ownership in the possession of the
vendee or the use by the vendee of his rights,
with the vendor's consent, shall be understood as
a delivery. (1464)
Art. 1504. Unless otherwise agreed, the goods
remain at the seller's risk until the ownership
therein is transferred to the buyer, but when the
ownership therein is transferred to the buyer the
goods are at the buyer's risk whether actual
delivery has been made or not, except that:
(1) Where delivery of the goods has been
made to the buyer or to a bailee for the
buyer, in pursuance of the contract and
the ownership in the goods has been
retained by the seller merely to secure
performance by the buyer of his
obligations under the contract, the goods
are at the buyer's risk from the time of
such delivery;
(2) Where actual delivery has been delayed
through the fault of either the buyer or
seller the goods are at the risk of the party
in fault. (n)
Art. 1547. In a contract of sale, unless a contrary
intention appears, there is:
(1) An implied warranty on the part of the
seller that he has a right to sell the thing at
the time when the ownership is to pass,
and that the buyer shall from that time
have and enjoy the legal and peaceful
possession of the thing;
(2) An implied warranty that the thing shall be
free from any hidden faults or defects, or
any charge or encumbrance not declared
or known to the buyer.
This Article shall not, however, be held to render
liable a sheriff, auctioneer, mortgagee, pledgee,
or other person professing to sell by virtue of
authority in fact or law, for the sale of a thing in
which a third person has a legal or equitable
interest. (n)
SUBSECTION 2.
Warranty Against Hidden Defects
of or Encumbrances Upon the Thing Sold
Art. 1561. The vendor shall be responsible for
warranty against the hidden defects which the
thing sold may have, should they render it unfit for
the use for which it is intended, or should they
diminish its fitness for such use to such an extent
that, had the vendee been aware thereof, he
would not have acquired it or would have given a
lower price for it; but said vendor shall not be
answerable for patent defects or those which may
be visible, or for those which are not visible if the
vendee is an expert who, by reason of his trade
or profession, should have known them. (1484a)
Title VIII. - LEASE
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1643. In the lease of things, one of the parties
binds himself to give to another the enjoyment or
use of a thing for a price certain, and for a period
which may be definite or indefinite. However, no
lease for more than ninety-nine years shall be
valid. (1543a)
SECTION 2. - Rights and Obligations of the
Lessor and the Lessee
Art. 1654. The lessor is obliged:
(1) To deliver the thing which is the object of
the contract in such a condition as to
render it fit for the use intended;
 (2) To make on the same during the lease all
the necessary repairs in order to keep it
suitable for the use to which it has been
devoted, unless there is a stipulation to
the contrary;
(3) To maintain the lessee in the peaceful and
adequate enjoyment of the lease for the
entire duration of the contract. (1554a)
Art. 1655. If the thing leased is totally destroyed
by a fortuitous event, the lease is extinguished. If
the destruction is partial, the lessee may choose
between a proportional reduction of the rent and a
rescission of the lease. (n)
Art. 1656. The lessor of a business or industrial
establishment may continue engaging in the
same business or industry to which the lessee
devotes the thing leased, unless there is a
stipulation to the contrary. (n)
Art. 1657. The lessee is obliged:
(1) To pay the price of the lease according to
the terms stipulated;
(2) To use the thing leased as a diligent father
of a family, devoting it to the use
stipulated; and in the absence of
stipulation, to that which may be inferred
from the nature of the thing leased,
according to the custom of the place;
(3) To pay expenses for the deed of lease.
(1555)
Art. 1658. The lessee may suspend the payment
of the rent in case the lessor fails to make the
necessary repairs or to maintain the lessee in
peaceful and adequate enjoyment of the property
leased. (n)
Art. 1670. If at the end of the contract the lessee
should continue enjoying the thing leased for
fifteen days with the acquiescence of the lessor,
and unless a notice to the contrary by either party
has previously been given, it is understood that
there is an implied new lease, not for the period of
the original contract, but for the time established
in Articles 1682 and 1687. The other terms of the
original contract shall be revived. (1566a)
Art. 1676. The purchaser of a piece of land which
is under a lease that is not recorded in the
Registry of Property may terminate the lease,
save when there is a stipulation to the contrary in
the contract of sale, or when the purchaser knows
of the existence of the lease.
If the buyer makes use of this right, the lessee
may demand that he be allowed to gather the
fruits of the harvest which corresponds to the
current agricultural year and that the vendor
indemnify him for damages suffered.
If the sale is fictitious, for the purpose of
extinguishing the lease, the supposed vendee
cannot make use of the right granted in the first
paragraph of this article. The sale is presumed to
be fictitious if at the time the supposed vendee
demands the termination of the lease, the sale is
not recorded in the Registry of Property. (1571a)
SECTION 4. - Special Provisions of the Lease of
Urban Lands
Art. 1687. If the period for the lease has not been
fixed, it is understood to be from year to year, if
the rent agreed upon is annual; from month to
month, if it is monthly; from week to week, if the
rent is weekly; and from day to day, if the rent is
to be paid daily. However, even though a monthly
rent is paid, and no period for the lease has been
set, the courts may fix a longer term for the lease
after the lessee has occupied the premises for
over one year. If the rent is weekly, the courts
may likewise determine a longer period after the
lessee has been in possession for over six
months. In case of daily rent, the courts may also
fix a longer period after the lessee has stayed in
the place for over one month. (1581a)
G. SINGLE PROPRIETORSHIP AND
PARTNERSHIP
Title IX. - PARTNERSHIP
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1767. By the contract of partnership two or
more persons bind themselves to contribute
money, property, or industry to a common fund,
with the intention of dividing the profits among
themselves.
Two or more persons may also form a partnership
for the exercise of a profession. (1665a)
Art. 1768. The partnership has a judicial
personality separate and distinct from that of each
of the partners, even in case of failure to comply
with the requirements of Article 1772, first
paragraph. (n)
Art. 1769. In determining whether a partnership
exists, these rules shall apply:
(1) Except as provided by Article 1825,
persons who are not partners as to each
other are not partners as to third persons;
(2) Co-ownership or co-possession does not
of itself establish a partnership, whether
such-co-owners or co-possessors do or
do not share any profits made by the use
of the property;
(3) The sharing of gross returns does not of
itself establish a partnership, whether or
not the persons sharing them have a joint
or common right or interest in any property
from which the returns are derived;
(4) The receipt by a person of a share of the
profits of a business is prima facie
evidence that he is a partner in the
 business, but no such inference shall be
drawn if such profits were received in
payment:
(a) As a debt by installments or otherwise;
(b) As wages of an employee or rent to a
landlord;
(c) As an annuity to a widow or
representative of a deceased partner;
(d) As interest on a loan, though the
amount of payment vary with the
profits of the business;
(e) As the consideration for the sale of a
goodwill of a business or other
property by installments or otherwise.
(n)
Art. 1770. A partnership must have a lawful object
or purpose, and must be established for the
common benefit or interest of the partners.
When an unlawful partnership is dissolved by a
judicial decree, the profits shall be confiscated in
favor of the State, without prejudice to the
provisions of the Penal Code governing the
confiscation of the instruments and effects of a
crime. (1666a)
Art. 1771. A partnership may be constituted in
any form, except where immovable property or
real rights are contributed thereto, in which case a
public instrument shall be necessary. (1667a)
Art. 1772. Every contract of partnership having a
capital of three thousand pesos or more, in
money or property, shall appear in a public
instrument, which must be recorded in the Office
of the Securities and Exchange Commission.
Failure to comply with the requirements of the
preceding paragraph shall not affect the liability of
the partnership and the members thereof to third
persons. (n)
Art. 1773. A contract of partnership is void,
whenever immovable property is contributed
thereto, if an inventory of said property is not
made, signed by the parties, and attached to the
public instrument. (1668a)
Art. 1774. Any immovable property or an interest
therein may be acquired in the partnership name.
Title so acquired can be conveyed only in the
partnership name. (n)
Art. 1775. Associations and societies, whose
articles are kept secret among the members, and
wherein any one of the members may contract in
his own name with third persons, shall have no
juridical personality, and shall be governed by the
provisions relating to co-ownership. (1669)
Art. 1776. As to its object, a partnership is either
universal or particular. As regards the liability of
the partners, a partnership may be general or
limited. (1671a)
Art. 1777. A universal partnership may refer to all
the present property or to all the profits. (1672)
Art. 1778. A partnership of all present property is
that in which the partners contribute all the
property which actually belongs to them to a
common fund, with the intention of dividing the
same among themselves, as well as all the profits
which they may acquire therewith. (1673)
Art. 1779. In a universal partnership of all present
property, the property which belongs to each of
the partners at the time of the constitution of the
partnership, becomes the common property of all
the partners, as well as all the profits which they
may acquire therewith.
A stipulation for the common enjoyment of any
other profits may also be made; but the property
which the partners may acquire subsequently by
inheritance, legacy, or donation cannot be
included in such stipulation, except the fruits
thereof. (1674a)
Art. 1780. A universal partnership of profits
comprises all that the partners may acquire by
their industry or work during the existence of the
partnership.
Movable or immovable property which each of the
partners may possess at the time of the
celebration of the contract shall continue to
pertain exclusively to each, only the usufruct
passing to the partnership. (1675)
Art. 1781. Articles of universal partnership,
entered into without specification of its nature,
only constitute a universal partnership of profits.
(1676)
Art. 1782. Persons who are prohibited from giving
each other any donation or advantage cannot
enter into universal partnership. (1677)
Art. 1783. A particular partnership has for its
object determinate things, their use or fruits, or
specific undertaking, or the exercise of a
profession or vocation. (1678)
CHAPTER 2
OBLIGATIONS OF THE PARTNERS
SECTION 1. - Obligations of the Partners Among
Themselves
Art. 1784. A partnership begins from the moment
of the execution of the contract, unless it is
otherwise stipulated. (1679)
Art. 1789. An industrial partner cannot engage in
business for himself, unless the partnership
expressly permits him to do so; and if he should
do so, the capitalist partners may either exclude
him from the firm or avail themselves of the
benefits which he may have obtained in violation
of this provision, with a right to damages in either
case. (n)
Art. 1794. Every partner is responsible to the
partnership for damages suffered by it through his
fault, and he cannot compensate them with the
profits and benefits which he may have earned for
the partnership by his industry. However, the
courts may equitably lessen this responsibility if
through the partner's extraordinary efforts in other
activities of the partnership, unusual profits have
been realized. (1686a)
Art. 1796. The partnership shall be responsible to
every partner for the amounts he may have
disbursed on behalf of the partnership and for the
corresponding interest, from the time the expense
are made; it shall also answer to each partner for
the obligations he may have contracted in good
faith in the interest of the partnership business,
and for risks in consequence of its management.
(1688a)
Art. 1797. The losses and profits shall be
distributed in conformity with the agreement. If
only the share of each partner in the profits has
been agreed upon, the share of each in the
losses shall be in the same proportion.
In the absence of stipulation, the share of each
partner in the profits and losses shall be in
proportion to what he may have contributed, but
the industrial partner shall not be liable for the
losses. As for the profits, the industrial partner
shall receive such share as may be just and
equitable under the circumstances. If besides his
services he has contributed capital, he shall also
receive a share in the profits in proportion to his
capital. (1689a)
Art. 1800. The partner who has been appointed
manager in the articles of partnership may
execute all acts of administration despite the
opposition of his partners, unless he should act in
bad faith; and his power is irrevocable without just
or lawful cause. The vote of the partners
representing the controlling interest shall be
necessary for such revocation of power.
A power granted after the partnership has been
constituted may be revoked at any time. (1692a)
Art. 1801. If two or more partners have been
intrusted with the management of the partnership
without specification of their respective duties, or
without a stipulation that one of them shall not act
without the consent of all the others, each one
may separately execute all acts of administration,
but if any of them should oppose the acts of the
others, the decision of the majority shall prevail.
In case of a tie, the matter shall be decided by the
partners owning the controlling interest. (1693a)
Art. 1802. In case it should have been stipulated
that none of the managing partners shall act
without the consent of the others, the
concurrence of all shall be necessary for the
validity of the acts, and the absence or disability
of any one of them cannot be alleged, unless
there is imminent danger of grave or irreparable
injury to the partnership. (1694)
Art. 1803. When the manner of management has
not been agreed upon, the following rules shall be
observed:
(1) All the partners shall be considered
agents and whatever any one of them
may do alone shall bind the partnership,
without prejudice to the provisions of
Article 1801.
(2) None of the partners may, without the
consent of the others, make any important
alteration in the immovable property of the
partnership, even if it may be useful to the
partnership. But if the refusal of consent
by the other partners is manifestly
prejudicial to the interest of the
partnership, the court's intervention may
be sought. (1695a)
SECTION 3. - Obligations of the Partners
With Regard to Third Persons
Art. 1815. Every partnership shall operate under a
firm name, which may or may not include the
name of one or more of the partners.
Those who, not being members of the
partnership, include their names in the firm name,
shall be subject to the liability of a partner. (n)
Art. 1816. All partners, including industrial ones,
shall be liable pro rata with all their property and
after all the partnership assets have been
exhausted, for the contracts which may be
entered into in the name and for the account of
the partnership, under its signature and by a
person authorized to act for the partnership.
However, any partner may enter into a separate
obligation to perform a partnership contract. (n)
Art. 1817. Any stipulation against the liability laid
down in the preceding article shall be void, except
as among the partners. (n)
Art. 1818. Every partner is an agent of the
partnership for the purpose of its business, and
the act of every partner, including the execution in
the partnership name of any instrument, for
apparently carrying on in the usual way the
business of the partnership of which he is a
member binds the partnership, unless the partner
so acting has in fact no authority to act for the
partnership in the particular matter, and the
person with whom he is dealing has knowledge of
the fact that he has no such authority.
An act of a partner which is not apparently for the
carrying on of business of the partnership in the
usual way does not bind the partnership unless
authorized by the other partners.
Except when authorized by the other partners or
unless they have abandoned the business, one or
more but less than all the partners have no
authority to:
(1) Assign the partnership property in trust for
creditors or on the assignee's promise to
pay the debts of the partnership;
(2) Dispose of the good-will of the business;
(3) Do any other act which would make it
impossible to carry on the ordinary
business of a partnership;
 (4) Confess a judgment;
(5) Enter into a compromise concerning a
partnership claim or liability;
(6) Submit a partnership claim or liability to
arbitration;
(7) Renounce a claim of the partnership.
No act of a partner in contravention of a
restriction on authority shall bind the partnership
to persons having knowledge of the restriction. (n)
CHAPTER 3
DISSOLUTION AND WINDING UP
Art. 1828. The dissolution of a partnership is the
change in the relation of the partners caused by
any partner ceasing to be associated in the
carrying on as distinguished from the winding up
of the business. (n)
Art. 1829. On dissolution the partnership is not
terminated, but continues until the winding up of
partnership affairs is completed. (n)
Art. 1830. Dissolution is caused:
(1) Without violation of the agreement
between the partners:
(a) By the termination of the definite term
or particular undertaking specified in
the agreement;
(b) By the express will of any partner, who
must act in good faith, when no
definite term or particular is specified;
(c) By the express will of all the partners
who have not assigned their interests
or suffered them to be charged for
their separate debts, either before or
after the termination of any specified
term or particular undertaking;
(d) By the expulsion of any partner from
the business bona fide in accordance
with such a power conferred by the
agreement between the partners;
(2) In contravention of the agreement
between the partners, where the
circumstances do not permit a dissolution
under any other provision of this article, by
the express will of any partner at any time;
(3) By any event which makes it unlawful for
the business of the partnership to be
carried on or for the members to carry it
on in partnership;
(4) When a specific thing which a partner had
promised to contribute to the partnership,
perishes before the delivery; in any case
by the loss of the thing, when the partner
who contributed it having reserved the
ownership thereof, has only transferred to
the partnership the use or enjoyment of
the same; but the partnership shall not be
dissolved by the loss of the thing when it
occurs after the partnership has acquired
the ownership thereof;
(5) By the death of any partner;
(6) By the insolvency of any partner or of the
partnership;
(7) By the civil interdiction of any partner;
(8) By decree of court under the following
article. (1700a and 1701a)
H. AGENCY
Title X. - AGENCY
CHAPTER 1
NATURE, FORM AND KINDS OF AGENCY
Art. 1868. By the contract of agency a person
binds himself to render some service or to do
something in representation or on behalf of
another, with the consent or authority of the latter.
(1709a)
Art. 1869. Agency may be express, or implied
from the acts of the principal, from his silence or
lack of action, or his failure to repudiate the
agency, knowing that another person is acting on
his behalf without authority.
Agency may be oral, unless the law requires a
specific form. (1710a)
Art. 1870. Acceptance by the agent may also be
express, or implied from his acts which carry out
the agency, or from his silence or inaction
according to the circumstances. (n)
Art. 1871. Between persons who are present, the
acceptance of the agency may also be implied if
the principal delivers his power of attorney to the
agent and the latter receives it without any
objection. (n)
Art. 1872. Between persons who are absent, the
acceptance of the agency cannot be implied from
the silence of the agent, except:
(1) When the principal transmits his power of
attorney to the agent, who receives it
without any objection;
(2) When the principal entrusts to him by
letter or telegram a power of attorney with
respect to the business in which he is
habitually engaged as an agent, and he
did not reply to the letter or telegram. (n)
Art. 1874. When a sale of a piece of land or any
interest therein is through an agent, the authority
of the latter shall be in writing; otherwise, the sale
shall be void. (n)
Art. 1875. Agency is presumed to be for a
compensation, unless there is proof to the
contrary. (n)
Art. 1878. Special powers of attorney are
necessary in the following cases:
(1) To make such payments as are not
usually considered as acts of
administration;
(2) To effect novations which put an end to
obligations already in existence at the time
the agency was constituted;
 (3) To compromise, to submit questions to
arbitration, to renounce the right to appeal
from a judgment, to waive objections to
the venue of an action or to abandon a
prescription already acquired;
(4) To waive any obligation gratuitously;
(5) To enter into any contract by which the
ownership of an immovable is transmitted
or acquired either gratuitously or for a
valuable consideration;
(6) To make gifts, except customary ones for
charity or those made to employees in the
business managed by the agent;
(7) To loan or borrow money, unless the latter
act be urgent and indispensable for the
preservation of the things which are under
administration;
(8) To lease any real property to another
person for more than one year;
(9) To bind the principal to render some
service without compensation;
(10) To bind the principal in a contract of
partnership;
(11) To obligate the principal as a guarantor or
surety;
(12) To create or convey real rights over
immovable property;
(13) To accept or repudiate an inheritance;
(14) To ratify or recognize obligations
contracted before the agency;
(15) Any other act of strict dominion. (n)
Art. 1879. A special power to sell excludes the
power to mortgage; and a special power to
mortgage does not include the power to sell. (n)
Art. 1880. A special power to compromise does
not authorize submission to arbitration. (1713a)
Art. 1881. The agent must act within the scope of
his authority. He may do such acts as may be
conducive to the accomplishment of the purpose
of the agency. (1714a)
Art. 1882. The limits of the agent's authority shall
not be considered exceeded should it have been
performed in a manner more advantageous to the
principal than that specified by him. (1715)
Art. 1883. If an agent acts in his own name, the
principal has no right of action against the
persons with whom the agent has contracted;
neither have such persons against the principal.
In such case the agent is the one directly bound
in favor of the person with whom he has
contracted, as if the transaction were his own,
except when the contract involves things
belonging to the principal.
The provisions of this article shall be understood
to be without prejudice to the actions between the
principal and agent. (1717)
CHAPTER 2
OBLIGATIONS OF THE AGENT
Art. 1884. The agent is bound by his acceptance
to carry out the agency, and is liable for the
damages which, through his non-performance,
the principal may suffer.
He must also finish the business already begun
on the death of the principal, should delay entail
any danger. (1718)
CHAPTER 3
OBLIGATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL
Art. 1910. The principal must comply with all the
obligations which the agent may have contracted
within the scope of his authority.
As for any obligation wherein the agent has
exceeded his power, the principal is not bound
except when he ratifies it expressly or tacitly.
(1727)
Art. 1911. Even when the agent has exceeded his
authority, the principal is solidarily liable with the
agent if the former allowed the latter to act as
though he had full powers. (n)
CHAPTER 4
MODES OF EXTINGUISHMENT OF AGENCY
Art. 1919. Agency is extinguished:
(1) By its revocation;
(2) By the withdrawal of the agent;
(3) By the death, civil interdiction, insanity or
insolvency of the principal or of the agent;
(4) By the dissolution of the firm or
corporation which entrusted or accepted
the agency;
(5) By the accomplishment of the object or
purpose of the agency;
(6) By the expiration of the period for which
the agency was constituted. (1732a)
Art. 1920. The principal may revoke the agency at
will, and compel the agent to return the document
evidencing the agency. Such revocation may be
express or implied. (1733a)
Art. 1921. If the agency has been entrusted for
the purpose of contracting with specified persons,
its revocation shall not prejudice the latter if they
were not given notice thereof. (1734)
Art. 1922. If the agent had general powers,
revocation of the agency does not prejudice third
persons who acted in good faith and without
knowledge of the revocation. Notice of the
revocation in a newspaper of general circulation
is a sufficient warning to third persons. (n)
Art. 1923. The appointment of a new agent for the
same business or transaction revokes the
previous agency from the day on which notice
thereof was given to the former agent, without
prejudice to the provisions of the two preceding
articles. (1735a)
Art. 1924. The agency is revoked if the principal
directly manages the business entrusted to the
agent, dealing directly with third persons. (n)
Art. 1925. When two or more principals have
granted a power of attorney for a common
transaction, any one of them may revoke the
same without the consent of the others. (n)
Art. 1926. A general power of attorney is revoked
by a special one granted to another agent, as
regards the special matter involved in the latter.
(n)
Art. 1927. An agency cannot be revoked if a
bilateral contract depends upon it, or if it is the
means of fulfilling an obligation already
contracted, or if a partner is appointed manager
of a partnership in the contract of partnership and
his removal from the management is unjustifiable.
(n)
Art. 1928. The agent may withdraw from the
agency by giving due notice to the principal. If the
latter should suffer any damage by reason of the
withdrawal, the agent must indemnify him
therefor, unless the agent should base his
withdrawal upon the impossibility of continuing
the performance of the agency without grave
detriment to himself. (1736a)
Art. 1929. The agent, even if he should withdraw
from the agency for a valid reason, must continue
to act until the principal has had reasonable
opportunity to take the necessary steps to meet
the situation. (1737a)
Art. 1930. The agency shall remain in full force
and effect even after the death of the principal, if
it has been constituted in the common interest of
the latter and of the agent, or in the interest of a
third person who has accepted the stipulation in
his favor. (n)
I. EXTRA CONTRACTUAL OBLIGATIONS
SECTION 1. - Negotiorum Gestio
Art. 2144. Whoever voluntarily takes charge of
the agency or management of the business or
property of another, without any power from the
latter, is obliged to continue the same until the
termination of the affair and its incidents, or to
require the person concerned to substitute him, if
the owner is in a position to do so. This juridical
relation does not arise in either of these
instances:
(1) When the property or business is not
neglected or abandoned;
(2) If in fact the manager has been tacitly
authorized by the owner.
In the first case, the provisions of Articles 1317,
1403, No. 1, and 1404 regarding unauthorized
contracts shall govern.
In the second case, the rules on agency in Title X
of this Book shall be applicable. (1888a)
SECTION 2. - Solutio Indebiti
Art. 2154. If something is received when there is
no right to demand it, and it was unduly delivered
through mistake, the obligation to return it arises.
(1895)
CHAPTER 2
QUASI-DELICTS
Art. 2176. Whoever by act or omission causes
damage to another, there being fault or
negligence, is obliged to pay for the damage
done. Such fault or negligence, if there is no pre-
existing contractual relation between the parties,
is called a quasi-delict and is governed by the
provisions of this Chapter. (1902a)
Art. 2177. Responsibility for fault or negligence
under the preceding article is entirely separate
and distinct from the civil liability arising from
negligence under the Penal Code. But the plaintiff
cannot recover damages twice for the same act
or omission of the defendant. (n)
Art. 2178. The provisions of Articles 1172 to 1174
are also applicable to a quasi-delict. (n)
Art. 2179. When the plaintiff's own negligence
was the immediate and proximate cause of his
injury, he cannot recover damages. But if his
negligence was only contributory, the immediate
and proximate cause of the injury being the
defendant's lack of due care, the plaintiff may
recover damages, but the courts shall mitigate the
damages to be awarded. (n)
Art. 2180. The obligation imposed by Article 2176
is demandable not only for one's own acts or
omissions, but also for those of persons for whom
one is responsible.
The father and, in case of his death or incapacity,
the mother, are responsible for the damages
caused by the minor children who live in their
company.
Guardians are liable for damages caused by the
minors or incapacitated persons who are under
their authority and live in their company.
The owners and managers of an establishment or
enterprise are likewise responsible for damages
caused by their employees in the service of the
branches in which the latter are employed or on
the occasion of their functions.
Employers shall be liable for the damages caused
by their employees and household helpers acting
within the scope of their assigned tasks, even
though the former are not engaged in any
business or industry.
The State is responsible in like manner when it
acts through a special agent; but not when the
damage has been caused by the official to whom
the task done properly pertains, in which case
what is provided in Article 2176 shall be
applicable.
Lastly, teachers or heads of establishments of
arts and trades shall be liable for damages
caused by their pupils and students or
apprentices, so long as they remain in their
custody.
The responsibility treated of in this article shall
cease when the persons herein mentioned prove
that they observed all the diligence of a good
father of a family to prevent damage. (1903a)
Art. 2181. Whoever pays for the damage caused
by his dependents or employees may recover
from the latter what he has paid or delivered in
satisfaction of the claim. (1904)
Art. 2182. If the minor or insane person causing
damage has no parents or guardian, the minor or
insane person shall be answerable with his own
property in an action against him where a
guardian ad litem shall be appointed. (n)
Art. 2183. The possessor of an animal or whoever
may make use of the same is responsible for the
damage which it may cause, although it may
escape or be lost. This responsibility shall cease
only in case the damage should come from force
majeure or from the fault of the person who has
suffered damage. (1905)
Art. 2184. In motor vehicle mishaps, the owner is
solidarily liable with his driver, if the former, who
was in the vehicle, could have, by the use of the
due diligence, prevented the misfortune. It is
disputably presumed that a driver was negligent,
if he had been found guilty or reckless driving or
violating traffic regulations at least twice within the
next preceding two months.
If the owner was not in the motor vehicle, the
provisions of Article 2180 are applicable. (n)
Art. 2185. Unless there is proof to the contrary, it
is presumed that a person driving a motor vehicle
has been negligent if at the time of the mishap, he
was violating any traffic regulation. (n)
Art. 2186. Every owner of a motor vehicle shall
file with the proper government office a bond
executed by a government-controlled corporation
or office, to answer for damages to third persons.
The amount of the bond and other terms shall be
fixed by the competent public official. (n)
Art. 2187. Manufacturers and processors of
foodstuffs, drinks, toilet articles and similar goods
shall be liable for death or injuries caused by any
noxious or harmful substances used, although no
contractual relation exists between them and the
consumers. (n)
Art. 2188. There is prima facie presumption of
negligence on the part of the defendant if the
death or injury results from his possession of
dangerous weapons or substances, such as
firearms and poison, except when the possession
or use thereof is indispensable in his occupation
or business. (n)
Art. 2189. Provinces, cities and municipalities
shall be liable for damages for the death of, or
injuries suffered by, any person by reason of the
defective condition of roads, streets, bridges,
public buildings, and other public works under
their control or supervision. (n)
Art. 2190. The proprietor of a building or structure
is responsible for the damages resulting from its
total or partial collapse, if it should be due to the
lack of necessary repairs. (1907)
Art. 2191. Proprietors shall also be responsible
for damages caused:
(1) By the explosion of machinery which has
not been taken care of with due diligence,
and the inflammation of explosive
substances which have not been kept in a
safe and adequate place;
(2) By excessive smoke, which may be
harmful to persons or property;
(3) By the falling of trees situated at or near
highways or lanes, if not caused by force
majeure;
(4) By emanations from tubes, canals, sewers
or deposits of infectious matter,
constructed without precautions suitable
to the place. (1908)
Art. 2192. If damage referred to in the two
preceding articles should be the result of any
defect in the construction mentioned in Article
1723, the third person suffering damages may
proceed only against the engineer or architect or
contractor in accordance with said article, within
the period therein fixed. (1909)
Art. 2193. The head of a family that lives in a
building or a part thereof, is responsible for
damages caused by things thrown or falling from
the same. (1910)
J. DAMAGES
Title XVIII. - DAMAGES
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 2195. The provisions of this Title shall be
respectively applicable to all obligations
mentioned in Article 1157.
Art. 2196. The rules under this Title are without
prejudice to special provisions on damages
formulated elsewhere in this Code. Compensation
for workmen and other employees in case of
death, injury or illness is regulated by special
laws. Rules governing damages laid down in
other laws shall be observed insofar as they are
not in conflict with this Code.
Art. 2197. Damages may be:
(1) Actual or compensatory;
(2) Moral;
(3) Nominal;
 (4) Temperate or moderate;
(5) Liquidated; or
(6) Exemplary or corrective.
Art. 2198. The principles of the general law on
damages are hereby adopted insofar as they are
not inconsistent with this Code.
CHAPTER 2
ACTUAL OR COMPENSATORY DAMAGES
Art. 2199. Except as provided by law or by
stipulation, one is entitled to an adequate
compensation only for such pecuniary loss
suffered by him as he has duly proved. Such
compensation is referred to as actual or
compensatory damages.
Art. 2200. Indemnification for damages shall
comprehend not only the value of the loss
suffered, but also that of the profits which the
obligee failed to obtain. (1106)
Art. 2201. In contracts and quasi-contracts, the
damages for which the obligor who acted in good
faith is liable shall be those that are the natural
and probable consequences of the breach of the
obligation, and which the parties have foreseen or
could have reasonably foreseen at the time the
obligation was constituted.
In case of fraud, bad faith, malice or wanton
attitude, the obligor shall be responsible for all
damages which may be reasonably attributed to
the non-performance of the obligation. (1107a)
Art. 2202. In crimes and quasi-delicts, the
defendant shall be liable for all damages which
are the natural and probable consequences of the
act or omission complained of. It is not necessary
that such damages have been foreseen or could
have reasonably been foreseen by the defendant.
Art. 2203. The party suffering loss or injury must
exercise the diligence of a good father of a family
to minimize the damages resulting from the act or
omission in question.
Art. 2204. In crimes, the damages to be
adjudicated may be respectively increased or
lessened according to the aggravating or
mitigating circumstances.
Art. 2205. Damages may be recovered:
(1) For loss or impairment of earning capacity
in cases of temporary or permanent
personal injury;
(2) For injury to the plaintiff's business
standing or commercial credit.
Art. 2206. The amount of damages for death
caused by a crime or quasi-delict shall be at least
three thousand pesos, even though there may
have been mitigating circumstances. In addition:
(1) The defendant shall be liable for the loss
of the earning capacity of the deceased,
and the indemnity shall be paid to the
heirs of the latter; such indemnity shall in
every case be assessed and awarded by
the court, unless the deceased on account
of permanent physical disability not
caused by the defendant, had no earning
capacity at the time of his death;
(2) If the deceased was obliged to give
support according to the provisions of
Article 291, the recipient who is not an heir
called to the decedent's inheritance by the
law of testate or intestate succession, may
demand support from the person causing
the death, for a period not exceeding five
years, the exact duration to be fixed by the
court;
(3) The spouse, legitimate and illegitimate
descendants and ascendants of the
deceased may demand moral damages
for mental anguish by reason of the death
of the deceased.
Art. 2207. If the plaintiff's property has been
insured, and he has received indemnity from the
insurance company for the injury or loss arising
out of the wrong or breach of contract complained
of, the insurance company shall be subrogated to
the rights of the insured against the wrongdoer or
the person who has violated the contract. If the
amount paid by the insurance company does not
fully cover the injury or loss, the aggrieved party
shall be entitled to recover the deficiency from the
person causing the loss or injury.
Art. 2208. In the absence of stipulation, attorney's
fees and expenses of litigation, other than judicial
costs, cannot be recovered, except:
(1) When exemplary damages are awarded;
(2) When the defendant's act or omission has
compelled the plaintiff to litigate with third
persons or to incur expenses to protect his
interest;
(3) In criminal cases of malicious prosecution
against the plaintiff;
(4) In case of a clearly unfounded civil action
or proceeding against the plaintiff;
(5) Where the defendant acted in gross and
evident bad faith in refusing to satisfy the
plaintiff's plainly valid, just and
demandable claim;
(6) In actions for legal support;
(7) In actions for the recovery of wages of
household helpers, laborers and skilled
workers;
(8) In actions for indemnity under workmen's
compensation and employer's liability
laws;
(9) In a separate civil action to recover civil
liability arising from a crime;
(10) When at least double judicial costs are
awarded;
(11) In any other case where the court deems
it just and equitable that attorney's fees
and expenses of litigation should be
recovered.
In all cases, the attorney's fees and expenses of
litigation must be reasonable.
Art. 2209. If the obligation consists in the payment
of a sum of money, and the debtor incurs in
delay, the indemnity for damages, there being no
stipulation to the contrary, shall be the payment of
the interest agreed upon, and in the absence of
stipulation, the legal interest, which is six per cent
per annum. (1108)
Art. 2210. Interest may, in the discretion of the
court, be allowed upon damages awarded for
breach of contract.
Art. 2211. In crimes and quasi-delicts, interest as
a part of the damages may, in a proper case, be
adjudicated in the discretion of the court.
Art. 2212. Interest due shall earn legal interest
from the time it is judicially demanded, although
the obligation may be silent upon this point.
(1109a)
Art. 2213. Interest cannot be recovered upon
unliquidated claims or damages, except when the
demand can be established with reasonably
certainty.
Art. 2214. In quasi-delicts, the contributory
negligence of the plaintiff shall reduce the
damages that he may recover.
Art. 2215. In contracts, quasi-contracts, and
quasi-delicts, the court may equitably mitigate the
damages under circumstances other than the
case referred to in the preceding article, as in the
following instances:
(1) That the plaintiff himself has contravened
the terms of the contract;
(2) That the plaintiff has derived some benefit
as a result of the contract;
(3) In cases where exemplary damages are to
be awarded, that the defendant acted
upon the advice of counsel;
(4) That the loss would have resulted in any
event;
(5) That since the filing of the action, the
defendant has done his best to lessen the
plaintiff's loss or injury.
CHAPTER 3
OTHER KINDS OF DAMAGES
Art. 2216. No proof of pecuniary loss is necessary
in order that moral, nominal, temperate, liquidated
or exemplary damages, may be adjudicated. The
assessment of such damages, except liquidated
ones, is left to the discretion of the court,
according to the circumstances of each case.
SECTION 1. - Moral Damages
Art. 2217. Moral damages include physical
suffering, mental anguish, fright, serious anxiety,
besmirched reputation, wounded feelings, moral
shock, social humiliation, and similar injury.
Though incapable of pecuniary computation,
moral damages may be recovered if they are the
proximate result of the defendant's wrongful act
for omission.
Art. 2218. In the adjudication of moral damages,
the sentimental value of property, real or
personal, may be considered.
Art. 2219. Moral damages may be recovered in
the following and analogous cases:
(1) A criminal offense resulting in physical
injuries;
(2) Quasi-delicts causing physical injuries;
(3) Seduction, abduction, rape, or other
lascivious acts;
(4) Adultery or concubinage;
(5) Illegal or arbitrary detention or arrest;
(6) Illegal search;
(7) Libel, slander or any other form of
defamation;
(8) Malicious prosecution;
(9) Acts mentioned in Article 309;
(10) Acts and actions referred to in Articles 21,
26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34, and 35.
The parents of the female seduced, abducted,
raped, or abused, referred to in No. 3 of this
article, may also recover moral damages.
The spouse, descendants, ascendants, and
brothers and sisters may bring the action
mentioned in No. 9 of this article, in the order
named.
Art. 2220. Willful injury to property may be a legal
ground for awarding moral damages if the court
should find that, under the circumstances, such
damages are justly due. The same rule applies to
breaches of contract where the defendant acted
fraudulently or in bad faith.
SECTION 2. - Nominal Damages
Art. 2221. Nominal damages are adjudicated in
order that a right of the plaintiff, which has been
violated or invaded by the defendant, may be
vindicated or recognized, and not for the purpose
of indemnifying the plaintiff for any loss suffered
by him.
Art. 2222. The court may award nominal
damages in every obligation arising from any
source enumerated in Article 1157, or in every
case where any property right has been invaded.
Art. 2223. The adjudication of nominal damages
shall preclude further contest upon the right
involved and all accessory questions, as between
the parties to the suit, or their respective heirs
and assigns.
SECTION 3. - Temperate or Moderate Damages
Art. 2224. Temperate or moderate damages,
which are more than nominal but less than
compensatory damages, may be recovered when
the court finds that some pecuniary loss has been
suffered but its amount can not, from the nature
of the case, be provided with certainty.
Art. 2225. Temperate damages must be
reasonable under the circumstances.
SECTION 4. - Liquidated Damages
Art. 2226. Liquidated damages are those agreed
upon by the parties to a contract, to be paid in
case of breach thereof.
Art. 2227. Liquidated damages, whether intended
as an indemnity or a penalty, shall be equitably
reduced if they are iniquitous or unconscionable.
Art. 2228. When the breach of the contract
committed by the defendant is not the one
contemplated by the parties in agreeing upon the
liquidated damages, the law shall determine the
measure of damages, and not the stipulation.
In commodatum the bailor retains the ownership
SECTION 5. - Exemplary or Corrective Damages
Art. 2229. Exemplary or corrective damages are
imposed, by way of example or correction for the
public good, in addition to the moral, temperate,
liquidated or compensatory damages.
Art. 2230. In criminal offenses, exemplary
damages as a part of the civil liability may be
imposed when the crime was committed with one
or more aggravating circumstances. Such
damages are separate and distinct from fines and
shall be paid to the offended party.
Art. 2231. In quasi-delicts, exemplary damages
may be granted if the defendant acted with gross
negligence.
Art. 2232. In contracts and quasi-contracts, the
court may award exemplary damages if the
defendant acted in a wanton, fraudulent, reckless,
oppressive, or malevolent manner.
Art. 2233. Exemplary damages cannot be
recovered as a matter of right; the court will
decide whether or not they should be adjudicated.
Art. 2234. While the amount of the exemplary
damages need not be proved, the plaintiff must
show that he is entitled to moral, temperate or
compensatory damages before the court may
consider the question of whether or not
exemplary damages should be awarded. In case
liquidated damages have been agreed upon,
although no proof of loss is necessary in order
that such liquidated damages may be recovered,
nevertheless, before the court may consider the
question of granting exemplary in addition to the
liquidated damages, the plaintiff must show that
he would be entitled to moral, temperate or
compensatory damages were it not for the
stipulation for liquidated damages.
Art. 2235. A stipulation whereby exemplary
damages are renounced in advance shall be null
and void.
K. LOAN, PLEDG AND MORTGAGE
Title XI. - LOAN
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1933. By the contract of loan, one of the
parties delivers to another, either something not
consumable so that the latter may use the same
for a certain time and return it, in which case the
contract is called a commodatum; or money or
other consumable thing, upon the condition that
the same amount of the same kind and quality
shall be paid, in which case the contract is simply
called a loan or mutuum.
Commodatum is essentially gratuitous.
Simple loan may be gratuitous or with a
stipulation to pay interest.
of the thing loaned, while in simple loan,
ownership passes to the borrower. (1740a)
CHAPTER 1
COMMODATUM
SECTION 1 - Nature of Commodatum
Art. 1935. The bailee in commodatum acquires
the used of the thing loaned but not its fruits; if
any compensation is to be paid by him who
acquires the use, the contract ceases to be a
commodatum. (1941a)
CHAPTER 2
SIMPLE LOAN OR MUTUUM
Art. 1953. A person who receives a loan of money
or any other fungible thing acquires the ownership
thereof, and is bound to pay to the creditor an
equal amount of the same kind and quality.
(1753a)
CHAPTER 1
DEPOSIT IN GENERAL
AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS
Art. 1962. A deposit is constituted from the
moment a person receives a thing belonging to
another, with the obligation of safely keeping it
and of returning the same. If the safekeeping of
the thing delivered is not the principal purpose of
the contract, there is no deposit but some other
contract. (1758a)
Title XV. - GUARANTY
CHAPTER 1
NATURE AND EXTENT OF GUARANTY
Art. 2047. By guaranty a person, called the
guarantor, binds himself to the creditor to fulfill the
obligation of the principal debtor in case the latter
should fail to do so.
If a person binds himself solidarily with the
principal debtor, the provisions of Section 4,
Chapter 3, Title I of this Book shall be observed.
In such case the contract is called a suretyship.
(1822a)
CHAPTER 2
EFFECTS OF GUARANTY
SECTION 1. - Effects of Guaranty
Between the Guarantor and the Creditor
Art. 2058. The guarantor cannot be compelled to
pay the creditor unless the latter has exhausted
all the property of the debtor, and has resorted to
all the legal remedies against the debtor. (1830a)
Art. 2059. The excussion shall not take place:
(1) If the guarantor has expressly renounced
it;
(2) If he has bound himself solidarily with the
debtor;
(3) In case of insolvency of the debtor;
(4) When he has absconded, or cannot be
sued within the Philippines unless he has
left a manager or representative;
(5) If it may be presumed that an execution
on the property of the principal debtor
would not result in the satisfaction of the
obligation. (1831a)
Art. 2060. In order that the guarantor may make
use of the benefit of exclusion, he must set it up
against the creditor upon the latter's demand for
payment from him, and point out to the creditor
available property of the debtor within Philippine
territory, sufficient to cover the amount of the
debt. (1832)
Art. 2061. The guarantor having fulfilled all the
conditions required in the preceding article, the
creditor who is negligent in exhausting the
property pointed out shall suffer the loss, to the
extent of said property, for the insolvency of the
debtor resulting from such negligence. (1833a)
Art. 2062. In every action by the creditor, which
must be against the principal debtor alone, except
in the cases mentioned in Article 2059, the former
shall ask the court to notify the guarantor of the
action. The guarantor may appear so that he
may, if he so desire, set up such defenses as are
granted him by law. The benefit of excussion
mentioned in Article 2058 shall always be
unimpaired, even if judgment should be rendered
against the principal debtor and the guarantor in
case of appearance by the latter. (1834a)
Art. 2071. The guarantor, even before having
paid, may proceed against the principal debtor:
(1) When he is sued for the payment;
(2) In case of insolvency of the principal
debtor;
(3) When the debtor has bound himself to
relieve him from the guaranty within a
specified period, and this period has
expired;
(4) When the debt has become demandable,
by reason of the expiration of the period
for payment;
(5) After the lapse of ten years, when the
principal obligation has no fixed period for
its maturity, unless it be of such nature
that it cannot be extinguished except
within a period longer than ten years;
(6) If there are reasonable grounds to fear
that the principal debtor intends to
abscond;
(7) If the principal debtor is in imminent
danger of becoming insolvent.
In all these cases, the action of the guarantor is to
obtain release from the guaranty, or to demand a
security that shall protect him from any
proceedings by the creditor and from the danger
of insolvency of the debtor. (1834a)
Title XVI. - PLEDGE, MORTGAGE AND
ANTICHRESIS
CHAPTER 1
PROVISIONS COMMON TO PLEDGE AND
MORTGAGE
Art. 2085. The following requisites are essential to
the contracts of pledge and mortgage:
(1) That they be constituted to secure the
fulfillment of a principal obligation;
(2) That the pledgor or mortgagor be the
absolute owner of the thing pledged or
mortgaged;
(3) That the persons constituting the pledge
or mortgage have the free disposal of their
property, and in the absence thereof, that
they be legally authorized for the purpose.
Third persons who are not parties to the principal
obligation may secure the latter by pledging or
mortgaging their own property. (1857)
Art. 2088. The creditor cannot appropriate the
things given by way of pledge or mortgage, or
dispose of them. Any stipulation to the contrary is
null and void. (1859a)
CHAPTER 2
PLEDGE
Art. 2093. In addition to the requisites prescribed
in Article 2085, it is necessary, in order to
constitute the contract of pledge, that the thing
pledged be placed in the possession of the
creditor, or of a third person by common
agreement. (1863)
Art. 2115. The sale of the thing pledged shall
extinguish the principal obligation, whether or not
the proceeds of the sale are equal to the amount
of the principal obligation, interest and expenses
in a proper case. If the price of the sale is more
than said amount, the debtor shall not be entitled
to the excess, unless it is otherwise agreed. If the
price of the sale is less, neither shall the creditor
be entitled to recover the deficiency,
notwithstanding any stipulation to the contrary. (n)
CHAPTER 3
MORTGAGE
Art. 2124. Only the following property may be the
object of a contract of mortgage:
(1) Immovables;
(2) Alienable real rights in accordance with
the laws, imposed upon immovables.
Nevertheless, movables may be the object of a
chattel mortgage. (1874a)
Art. 2125. In addition to the requisites stated in
Article 2085, it is indispensable, in order that a
mortgage may be validly constituted, that the
document in which it appears be recorded in the
Registry of Property. If the instrument is not
recorded, the mortgage is nevertheless binding
between the parties.
The persons in whose favor the law establishes a
mortgage have no other right than to demand the
execution and the recording of the document in
which the mortgage is formalized. (1875a)
Art. 2126. The mortgage directly and immediately
subjects the property upon which it is imposed,
whoever the possessor may be, to the fulfillment
of the obligation for whose security it was
constituted. (1876)
Art. 2127. The mortgage extends to the natural
accessions, to the improvements, growing fruits,
and the rents or income not yet received when
the obligation becomes due, and to the amount of
the indemnity granted or owing to the proprietor
from the insurers of the property mortgaged, or in
virtue of expropriation for public use, with the
declarations, amplifications and limitations
established by law, whether the estate remains in
the possession of the mortgagor, or it passes into
the hands of a third person. (1877)
Art. 2128. The mortgage credit may be alienated
or assigned to a third person, in whole or in part,
with the formalities required by law. (1878)
Art. 2129. The creditor may claim from a third
person in possession of the mortgaged property,
the payment of the part of the credit secured by
the property which said third person possesses,
in the terms and with the formalities which the law
establishes. (1879)
Art. 2130. A stipulation forbidding the owner from
alienating the immovable mortgaged shall be
void. (n)
Art. 2131. The form, extent and consequences of
a mortgage, both as to its constitution,
modification and extinguishment, and as to other
matters not included in this Chapter, shall be
governed by the provisions of the Mortgage Law
and of the Land Registration Law. (1880a)
CHAPTER 5
CHATTEL MORTGAGE
Art. 2140. By a chattel mortgage, personal
property is recorded in the Chattel Mortgage
Register as a security for the performance of an
obligation. If the movable, instead of being
recorded, is delivered to the creditor or a third
person, the contract is a pledge and not a chattel
mortgage. (n)
Art. 2141. The provisions of this Code on pledge,
insofar as they are not in conflict with the Chattel
Mortgage Law shall be applicable to chattel
mortgages. (n)
L. CORPORATIONS ( CORPORATIONS COD )
THE
CORPORATION CODE
OF THE
PHILIPPINES
[Batas Pambansa Blg. 68]
Sec. 2. Corporation defined. - A corporation is an
artificial being created by operation of law, having
the right of succession and the powers, attributes
and properties expressly authorized by law or
incident to its existence.
Sec. 3. Classes of corporations. - Corporations
formed or organized under this Code may be
stock or non-stock corporations. Corporations
which have capital stock divided into shares and
are authorized to distribute to the holders of such
shares dividends or allotments of the surplus
profits on the basis of the shares held are stock
corporations. All other corporations are non-stock
corporations.
Sec. 4. Corporations created by special laws or
charters. - Corporations created by special laws
or charters shall be governed primarily by the
provisions of the special law or charter creating
them or applicable to them, supplemented by the
provisions of this Code, insofar as they are
applicable.
Sec. 5. Corporators and incorporators,
stockholders and members. - Corporators are
those who compose a corporation, whether as
stockholders or as members. Incorporators are
those stockholders or members mentioned in the
articles of incorporation as originally forming and
composing the corporation and who are
signatories thereof.
Corporators in a stock corporation are called
stockholders or shareholders. Corporators in a
non-stock corporation are called members.
Sec. 6. Classification of shares. - The shares of
stock of stock corporations may be divided into
classes or series of shares, or both, any of which
classes or series of shares may have such rights,
privileges or restrictions as may be stated in the
articles of incorporation: Provided, That no share
may be deprived of voting rights except those
classified and issued as "preferred" or
"redeemable" shares, unless otherwise provided
in this Code: Provided, further, That there shall
always be a class or series of shares which have
complete voting rights. Any or all of the shares or
series of shares may have a par value or have no
par value as may be provided for in the articles of
incorporation: Provided, however, That banks,
trust companies, insurance companies, public
utilities, and building and loan associations shall
not be permitted to issue no-par value shares of
stock.
Preferred shares of stock issued by any
corporation may be given preference in the
distribution of the assets of the corporation in
case of liquidation and in the distribution of
dividends, or such other preferences as may be
stated in the articles of incorporation which are
not violative of the provisions of this Code:
Provided, That preferred shares of stock may be
issued only with a stated par value. The board of
directors, where authorized in the articles of
incorporation, may fix the terms and conditions of
preferred shares of stock or any series thereof:
Provided, That such terms and conditions shall be
effective upon the filing of a certificate thereof
with the Securities and Exchange Commission.
Shares of capital stock issued without par value
shall be deemed fully paid and non-assessable
and the holder of such shares shall not be liable
to the corporation or to its creditors in respect
thereto: Provided; That shares without par value
may not be issued for a consideration less than
the value of five (P5.00) pesos per share:
Provided, further, That the entire consideration
received by the corporation for its no-par value
shares shall be treated as capital and shall not be
available for distribution as dividends.
A corporation may, furthermore, classify its
shares for the purpose of insuring compliance
with constitutional or legal requirements.
Except as otherwise provided in the articles of
incorporation and stated in the certificate of stock,
each share shall be equal in all respects to every
other share.
Where the articles of incorporation provide for
non-voting shares in the cases allowed by this
Code, the holders of such shares shall
nevertheless be entitled to vote on the following
matters:
(1) Amendment of the articles of
incorporation;
(2) Adoption and amendment of by-laws;
(3) Sale, lease, exchange, mortgage, pledge
or other disposition of all or substantially
all of the corporate property;
(4) Incurring, creating or increasing bonded
indebtedness;
(5) Increase or decrease of capital stock;
(6) Merger or consolidation of the corporation
with another corporation or other
corporations;
(7) Investment of corporate funds in another
corporation or business in accordance
with this Code; and
(8) Dissolution of the corporation.
Except as provided in the immediately preceding
paragraph, the vote necessary to approve a
particular corporate act as provided in this Code
shall be deemed to refer only to stocks with voting
rights.
Sec. 9. Treasury shares. - Treasury shares are
shares of stock which have been issued and fully
paid for, but subsequently reacquired by the
issuing corporation by purchase, redemption,
donation or through some other lawful means.
Such shares may again be disposed of for a
reasonable price fixed by the board of directors.
TITLE II
INCORPORATION AND ORGANIZATION
OF PRIVATE CORPORATIONS
Sec. 10. Number and qualifications of
incorporators. - Any number of natural persons
not less than five (5) but not more than fifteen
(15), all of legal age and a majority of whom are
residents of the Philippines, may form a private
corporation for any lawful purpose or purposes.
Each of the incorporators of s stock corporation
must own or be a subscriber to at least one (1)
share of the capital stock of the corporation.
Sec. 11. Corporate term. - A corporation shall
exist for a period not exceeding fifty (50) years
from the date of incorporation unless sooner
dissolved or unless said period is extended. The
corporate term as originally stated in the articles
of incorporation may be extended for periods not
exceeding fifty (50) years in any single instance
by an amendment of the articles of incorporation,
in accordance with this Code; Provided, That no
extension can be made earlier than five (5) years
prior to the original or subsequent expiry date(s)
unless there are justifiable reasons for an earlier
extension as may be determined by the Securities
and Exchange Commission.
Sec. 14. Contents of the articles of incorporation.
- All corporations organized under this code shall
file with the Securities and Exchange Commission
articles of incorporation in any of the official
languages duly signed and acknowledged by all
of the incorporators, containing substantially the
following matters, except as otherwise prescribed
by this Code or by special law:
(1) The name of the corporation;
(2) The specific purpose or purposes for
which the corporation is being
incorporated. Where a corporation has
more than one stated purpose, the articles
of incorporation shall state which is the
primary purpose and which is/are he
secondary purpose or purposes: Provided,
That a non-stock corporation may not
include a purpose which would change or
contradict its nature as such;
(3) The place where the principal office of the
corporation is to be located, which must
be within the Philippines;
(4) The term for which the corporation is to
exist;
(5) The names, nationalities and residences
of the incorporators;
(6) The number of directors or trustees, which
shall not be less than five (5) nor more
than fifteen (15);
(7) The names, nationalities and residences
of persons who shall act as directors or
trustees until the first regular directors or
trustees are duly elected and qualified in
accordance with this Code;
(8) If it be a stock corporation, the amount of
its authorized capital stock in lawful
money of the Philippines, the number of
shares into which it is divided, and in case
the share are par value shares, the par
value of each, the names, nationalities
and residences of the original subscribers,
and the amount subscribed and paid by
each on his subscription, and if some or
all of the shares are without par value,
such fact must be stated;
(9) If it be a non-stock corporation, the
amount of its capital, the names,
nationalities and residences of the
contributors and the amount contributed
by each; and
(10) Such other matters as are not inconsistent
with law and which the incorporators may
deem necessary and convenient.
The Securities and Exchange Commission shall
not accept the articles of incorporation of any
stock corporation unless accompanied by a sworn
statement of the Treasurer elected by the
subscribers showing that at least twenty-five
(25%) percent of the authorized capital stock of
the corporation has been subscribed, and at least
twenty-five (25%) of the total subscription has
been fully paid to him in actual cash and/or in
property the fair valuation of which is equal to at
least twenty-five (25%) percent of the said
subscription, such paid-up capital being not less
than five thousand (P5,000.00) pesos.
Sec. 17. Grounds when articles of incorporation
or amendment may be rejected or disapproved. -
The Securities and Exchange Commission may
reject the articles of incorporation or disapprove
any amendment thereto if the same is not in
compliance with the requirements of this Code:
Provided, That the Commission shall give the
incorporators a reasonable time within which to
correct or modify the objectionable portions of the
articles or amendment. The following are grounds
for such rejection or disapproval:
(1) That the articles of incorporation or
any amendment thereto is not
substantially in accordance with
the form prescribed herein;
(2) That the purpose or purposes of
the corporation are patently
unconstitutional, illegal, immoral, or
contrary to government rules and
regulations;
(3) That the Treasurer's Affidavit
concerning the amount of capital
stock subscribed and/or paid if
false;
(4) That the percentage of ownership
of the capital stock to be owned by
citizens of the Philippines has not
been complied with as required by
existing laws or the Constitution.
No articles of incorporation or amendment to
articles of incorporation of banks, banking and
quasi-banking institutions, building and loan
associations, trust companies and other financial
intermediaries, insurance companies, public
utilities, educational institutions, and other
corporations governed by special laws shall be
accepted or approved by the Commission unless
accompanied by a favorable recommendation of
the appropriate government agency to the effect
that such articles or amendment is in accordance
with law.
Sec. 18. Corporate name. - No corporate name
may be allowed by the Securities and Exchange
Commission if the proposed name is identical or
deceptively or confusingly similar to that of any
existing corporation or to any other name already
protected by law or is patently deceptive,
confusing or contrary to existing laws. When a
change in the corporate name is approved, the
Commission shall issue an amended certificate of
incorporation under the amended name.
Sec. 19. Commencement of corporate existence.
- A private corporation formed or organized under
this Code commences to have corporate
existence and juridical personality and is deemed
incorporated from the date the Securities and
Exchange Commission issues a certificate of
incorporation under its official seal; and thereupon
the incorporators, stockholders/members and
their successors shall constitute a body politic
and corporate under the name stated in the
articles of incorporation for the period of time
mentioned therein, unless said period is extended
or the corporation is sooner dissolved in
accordance with law.
TITLE III
BOARD OF
DIRECTORS/TRUSTEES/OFFICERS
Sec. 23. The board of directors or trustees. -
Unless otherwise provided in this Code, the
corporate powers of all corporations formed under
this Code shall be exercised, all business
conducted and all property of such corporations
controlled and held by the board of directors or
trustees to be elected from among the holders of
stocks, or where there is no stock, from among
the members of the corporation, who shall hold
office for one (1) year until their successors are
elected and qualified.
Every director must own at least one (1) share of
the capital stock of the corporation of which he is
a director, which share shall stand in his name on
the books of the corporation. Any director who
ceases to be the owner of at least one (1) share
of the capital stock of the corporation of which he
is a director shall thereby cease to be a director.
Trustees of non-stock corporations must be
members thereof. a majority of the directors or
trustees of all corporations organized under this
Code must be residents of the Philippines.
Sec. 24. Election of directors or trustees. - At all
elections of directors or trustees, there must be
present, either in person or by representative
authorized to act by written proxy, the owners of a
majority of the outstanding capital stock, or if
there be no capital stock, a majority of the
members entitled to vote. The election must be by
ballot if requested by any voting stockholder or
member. In stock corporations, every stockholder
entitled to vote shall have the right to vote in
person or by proxy the number of shares of stock
standing, at the time fixed in the by-laws, in his
own name on the stock books of the corporation,
or where the by-laws are silent, at the time of the
election; and said stockholder may vote such
number of shares for as many persons as there
are directors to be elected or he may cumulate
said shares and give one candidate as many
votes as the number of directors to be elected
multiplied by the number of his shares shall
equal, or he may distribute them on the same
principle among as many candidates as he shall
see fit: Provided, That the total number of votes
cast by him shall not exceed the number of
shares owned by him as shown in the books of
the corporation multiplied by the whole number of
directors to be elected: Provided, however, That
no delinquent stock shall be voted. Unless
otherwise provided in the articles of incorporation
or in the by-laws, members of corporations which
have no capital stock may cast as many votes as
there are trustees to be elected but may not cast
more than one vote for one candidate.
Candidates receiving the highest number of votes
shall be declared elected. Any meeting of the
stockholders or members called for an election
may adjourn from day to day or from time to time
but not sine die or indefinitely if, for any reason,
no election is held, or if there not present or
represented by proxy, at the meeting, the owners
of a majority of the outstanding capital stock, or if
there be no capital stock, a majority of the
member entitled to vote.
Sec. 25. Corporate officers, quorum. -
Immediately after their election, the directors of a
corporation must formally organize by the election
of a president, who shall be a director, a treasurer
who may or may not be a director, a secretary
who shall be a resident and citizen of 2the
Philippines, and such other officers as may be
provided for in the by-laws. Any two (2) or more
positions may be held concurrently by the same
person, except that no one shall act as president
and secretary or as president and treasurer at the
same time.
The directors or trustees and officers to be
elected shall perform the duties enjoined on them
by law and the by-laws of the corporation. Unless
the articles of incorporation or the by-laws provide
for a greater majority, a majority of the number of
directors or trustees as fixed in the articles of
incorporation shall constitute a quorum for the
transaction of corporate business, and every
decision of at least a majority of the directors or
trustees present at a meeting at which there is a
quorum shall be valid as a corporate act, except
for the election of officers which shall require the
vote of a majority of all the members of the board.
Directors or trustees cannot attend or vote by
proxy at board meetings.
Sec. 27. Disqualification of directors, trustees or
officers. - No person convicted by final judgment
of an offense punishable by imprisonment for a
period exceeding six (6) years, or a violation of
this Code committed within five (5) years prior to
the date of his election or appointment, shall
qualify as a director, trustee or officer of any
corporation.
Sec. 28. Removal of directors or trustees. - Any
director or trustee of a corporation may be
removed from office by a vote of the stockholders
holding or representing at least two-thirds (2/3) of
the outstanding capital stock, or if the corporation
be a non-stock corporation, by a vote of at least
two-thirds (2/3) of the members entitled to vote:
Provided, That such removal shall take place
either at a regular meeting of the corporation or at
a special meeting called for the purpose, and in
either case, after previous notice to stockholders
or members of the corporation of the intention to
propose such removal at the meeting. A special
meeting of the stockholders or members of a
corporation for the purpose of removal of
directors or trustees, or any of them, must be
called by the secretary on order of the president
or on the written demand of the stockholders
representing or holding at least a majority of the
outstanding capital stock, or, if it be a non-stock
corporation, on the written demand of a majority
of the members entitled to vote. Should the
secretary fail or refuse to call the special meeting
upon such demand or fail or refuse to give the
notice, or if there is no secretary, the call for the
meeting may be addressed directly to the
stockholders or members by any stockholder or
member of the corporation signing the demand.
Notice of the time and place of such meeting, as
well as of the intention to propose such removal,
must be given by publication or by written notice
prescribed in this Code. Removal may be with or
without cause: Provided, That removal without
cause may not be used to deprive minority
stockholders or members of the right of
representation to which they may be entitled
under Section 24 of this Code.
Sec. 29. Vacancies in the office of director or
trustee. - Any vacancy occurring in the board of
directors or trustees other than by removal by the
stockholders or members or by expiration of term,
may be filled by the vote of at least a majority of
the remaining directors or trustees, if still
constituting a quorum; otherwise, said vacancies
must be filled by the stockholders in a regular or
special meeting called for that purpose. A director
or trustee so elected to fill a vacancy shall be
elected only or the unexpired term of his
predecessor in office.
A directorship or trusteeship to be filled by reason
of an increase in the number of directors or
trustees shall be filled only by an election at a
regular or at a special meeting of stockholders or
members duly called for the purpose, or in the
same meeting authorizing the increase of
directors or trustees if so stated in the notice of
the meeting.
Sec. 31. Liability of directors, trustees or officers.
- Directors or trustees who willfully and knowingly
vote for or assent to patently unlawful acts of the
corporation or who are guilty of gross negligence
or bad faith in directing the affairs of the
corporation or acquire any personal or pecuniary
interest in conflict with their duty as such directors
or trustees shall be liable jointly and severally for
all damages resulting therefrom suffered by the
corporation, its stockholders or members and
other persons.
When a director, trustee or officer attempts to
acquire or acquires, in violation of his duty, any
interest adverse to the corporation in respect of
any matter which has been reposed in him in
confidence, as to which equity imposes a
disability upon him to deal in his own behalf, he
shall be liable as a trustee for the corporation and
must account for the profits which otherwise
would have accrued to the corporation.
Sec. 32. Dealings of directors, trustees or officers
with the corporation. - A contract of the
corporation with one or more of its directors or
trustees or officers is voidable, at the option of
such corporation, unless all the following
conditions are present:
(1) That the presence of such director or
trustee in the board meeting in which the
contract was approved was not necessary
to constitute a quorum for such meeting;
(2) That the vote of such director or trustee
was nor necessary for the approval of the
contract;
(3) That the contract is fair and reasonable
under the circumstances; and
(4) That in case of an officer, the contract has
been previously authorized by the board
of directors.
Where any of the first two conditions set forth in
the preceding paragraph is absent, in the case of
a contract with a director or trustee, such contract
may be ratified by the vote of the stockholders
representing at least two-thirds (2/3) of the
outstanding capital stock or of at least two-thirds
(2/3) of the members in a meeting called for the
purpose: Provided, That full disclosure of the
adverse interest of the directors or trustees
involved is made at such meeting: Provided,
however, That the contract is fair and reasonable
under the circumstances.
Sec. 33. Contracts between corporations with
interlocking directors. - Except in cases of fraud,
and provided the contract is fair and reasonable
under the circumstances, a contract between two
or more corporations having interlocking directors
shall not be invalidated on that ground alone:
Provided, That if the interest of the interlocking
director in one corporation is substantial and his
interest in the other corporation or corporations is
merely nominal, he shall be subject to the
provisions of the preceding section insofar as the
latter corporation or corporations are concerned.
Stockholdings exceeding twenty (20%) percent of
the outstanding capital stock shall be considered
substantial for purposes of interlocking directors.
Sec. 34. Disloyalty of a director. - Where a
director, by virtue of his office, acquires for
himself a business opportunity which should
belong to the corporation, thereby obtaining
profits to the prejudice of such corporation, he
must account to the latter for all such profits by
refunding the same, unless his act has been
ratified by a vote of the stockholders owning or
representing at least two-thirds (2/3) of the
outstanding capital stock. This provision shall be
applicable, notwithstanding the fact that the
director risked his own funds in the venture.
Sec. 35. Executive committee. - The by-laws of a
corporation may create an executive committee,
composed of not less than three members of the
board, to be appointed by the board. Said
committee may act, by majority vote of all its
members, on such specific matters within the
competence of the board, as may be delegated to
it in the by-laws or on a majority vote of the board,
except with respect to: (1) approval of any action
for which shareholders' approval is also required;
(2) the filing of vacancies in the board; (3) the
amendment or repeal of by-laws or the adoption
of new by-laws; (4) the amendment or repeal of
any resolution of the board which by its express
terms is not so amendable or repealable; and (5)
a distribution of cash dividends to the
shareholders.
TITLE IV
POWERS OF CORPORATIONS
Sec. 36. Corporate powers and capacity. - Every
corporation incorporated under this Code has the
power and capacity:
(1) To sue and be sued in its corporate name;
(2) Of succession by its corporate name for
the period of time stated in the articles of
incorporation and the certificate of
incorporation;
(3) To adopt and use a corporate seal;
(4) To amend its articles of incorporation in
accordance with the provisions of this
Code;
(5) To adopt by-laws, not contrary to law,
morals, or public policy, and to amend or
repeal the same in accordance with this
Code;
(6) In case of stock corporations, to issue or
sell stocks to subscribers and to sell
stocks to subscribers and to sell treasury
stocks in accordance with the provisions
of this Code; and to admit members to the
corporation if it be a non-stock
corporation;
(7) To purchase, receive, take or grant, hold,
convey, sell, lease, pledge, mortgage and
otherwise deal with such real and
personal property, including securities and
bonds of other corporations, as the
transaction of the lawful business of the
corporation may reasonably and
necessarily require, subject to the
limitations prescribed by law and the
Constitution;
(8) To enter into merger or consolidation with
other corporations as provided in this
Code;
(9) To make reasonable donations, including
those for the public welfare or for hospital,
charitable, cultural, scientific, civic, or
similar purposes: Provided, That no
corporation, domestic or foreign, shall give
donations in aid of any political party or
candidate or for purposes of partisan
political activity;
(10) To establish pension, retirement, and
other plans for the benefit of its directors,
trustees, officers and employees; and
(11) To exercise such other powers as may be
essential or necessary to carry out its
purpose or purposes as stated in the
articles of incorporation.
Sec. 39. Power to deny pre-emptive right. - All
stockholders of a stock corporation shall enjoy
pre-emptive right to subscribe to all issues or
disposition of shares of any class, in proportion to
their respective shareholdings, unless such right
is denied by the articles of incorporation or an
amendment thereto: Provided, That such pre-
emptive right shall not extend to shares to be
issued in compliance with laws requiring stock
offerings or minimum stock ownership by the
public; or to shares to be issued in good faith with
the approval of the stockholders representing
two-thirds (2/3) of the outstanding capital stock, in
exchange for property needed for corporate
purposes or in payment of a previously contracted
debt.
Sec. 42. Power to invest corporate funds in
another corporation or business or for any other
purpose. - Subject to the provisions of this Code,
a private corporation may invest its funds in any
other corporation or business or for any purpose
other than the primary purpose for which it was
organized when approved by a majority of the
board of directors or trustees and ratified by the
stockholders representing at least two-thirds (2/3)
of the outstanding capital stock, or by at least two
thirds (2/3) of the members in the case of non-
stock corporations, at a stockholder's or
member's meeting duly called for the purpose.
Written notice of the proposed investment and the
time and place of the meeting shall be addressed
to each stockholder or member at his place of
residence as shown on the books of the
corporation and deposited to the addressee in the
post office with postage prepaid, or served
personally: Provided, That any dissenting
stockholder shall have appraisal right as provided
in this Code: Provided, however, That where the
investment by the corporation is reasonably
necessary to accomplish its primary purpose as
stated in the articles of incorporation, the approval
of the stockholders or members shall not be
necessary. (17 1/2a)
Sec. 43. Power to declare dividends. - The board
of directors of a stock corporation may declare
dividends out of the unrestricted retained
earnings which shall be payable in cash, in
property, or in stock to all stockholders on the
basis of outstanding stock held by them:
Provided, That any cash dividends due on
delinquent stock shall first be applied to the
unpaid balance on the subscription plus costs and
expenses, while stock dividends shall be withheld
from the delinquent stockholder until his unpaid
subscription is fully paid: Provided, further, That
no stock dividend shall be issued without the
approval of stockholders representing not less
than two-thirds (2/3) of the outstanding capital
stock at a regular or special meeting duly called
for the purpose. (16a)
Stock corporations are prohibited from retaining
surplus profits in excess of one hundred (100%)
percent of their paid-in capital stock, except: (1)
when justified by definite corporate expansion
projects or programs approved by the board of
directors; or (2) when the corporation is prohibited
under any loan agreement with any financial
institution or creditor, whether local or foreign,
from declaring dividends without its/his consent,
and such consent has not yet been secured; or
(3) when it can be clearly shown that such
retention is necessary under special
circumstances obtaining in the corporation, such
as when there is need for special reserve for
probable contingencies. (n)
Sec. 45. Ultra vires acts of corporations. - No
corporation under this Code shall possess or
exercise any corporate powers except those
conferred by this Code or by its articles of
incorporation and except such as are necessary
or incidental to the exercise of the powers so
conferred. (n)
TITLE V
BY LAWS
Sec. 46. Adoption of by-laws. - Every corporation
formed under this Code must, within one (1)
month after receipt of official notice of the
issuance of its certificate of incorporation by the
Securities and Exchange Commission, adopt a
code of by-laws for its government not
inconsistent with this Code. For the adoption of
by-laws by the corporation the affirmative vote of
the stockholders representing at least a majority
of the outstanding capital stock, or of at least a
majority of the members in case of non-stock
corporations, shall be necessary. The by-laws
shall be signed by the stockholders or members
voting for them and shall be kept in the principal
office of the corporation, subject to the inspection
of the stockholders or members during office
hours. A copy thereof, duly certified to by a
majority of the directors or trustees countersigned
by the secretary of the corporation, shall be filed
with the Securities and Exchange Commission
which shall be attached to the original articles of
incorporation.
Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding
paragraph, by-laws may be adopted and filed
prior to incorporation; in such case, such by-laws
shall be approved and signed by all the
incorporators and submitted to the Securities and
Exchange Commission, together with the articles
of incorporation.
In all cases, by-laws shall be effective only upon
the issuance by the Securities and Exchange
Commission of a certification that the by-laws are
not inconsistent with this Code.
The Securities and Exchange Commission shall
not accept for filing the by-laws or any
amendment thereto of any bank, banking
institution, building and loan association, trust
company, insurance company, public utility,
educational institution or other special
corporations governed by special laws, unless
accompanied by a certificate of the appropriate
government agency to the effect that such by-
laws or amendments are in accordance with law.
(20a)
Sec. 47. Contents of by-laws. - Subject to the
provisions of the Constitution, this Code, other
special laws, and the articles of incorporation, a
private corporation may provide in its by-laws for:
(1) The time, place and manner of
calling and conducting regular or
special meetings of the directors or
trustees;
(2) The time and manner of calling
and conducting regular or special
meetings of the stockholders or
members;
(3) The required quorum in meetings
of stockholders or members and
the manner of voting therein;
(4) The form for proxies of
stockholders and members and
the manner of voting them;
(5) The qualifications, duties and
compensation of directors or
trustees, officers and employees;
(6) The time for holding the annual
election of directors of trustees and
the mode or manner of giving
notice thereof;
(7) The manner of election or
appointment and the term of office
of all officers other than directors
or trustees;
 (8) The penalties for violation of the
by-laws;
(9) In the case of stock corporations,
the manner of issuing stock
certificates; and
(10) Such other matters as may be
necessary for the proper or
convenient transaction of its
corporate business and affairs.
(21a)
Sec. 48. Amendments to by-laws. - The board of
directors or trustees, by a majority vote thereof,
and the owners of at least a majority of the
outstanding capital stock, or at least a majority of
the members of a non-stock corporation, at a
regular or special meeting duly called for the
purpose, may amend or repeal any by-laws or
adopt new by-laws. The owners of two-thirds (2/3)
of the outstanding capital stock or two-thirds (2/3)
of the members in a non-stock corporation may
delegate to the board of directors or trustees the
power to amend or repeal any by-laws or adopt
new by-laws: Provided, That any power delegated
to the board of directors or trustees to amend or
repeal any by-laws or adopt new by-laws shall be
considered as revoked whenever stockholders
owning or representing a majority of the
outstanding capital stock or a majority of the
members in non-stock corporations, shall so vote
at a regular or special meeting.
Whenever any amendment or new by-laws are
adopted, such amendment or new by-laws shall
be attached to the original by-laws in the office of
the corporation, and a copy thereof, duly certified
under oath by the corporate secretary and a
majority of the directors or trustees, shall be filed
with the Securities and Exchange Commission
the same to be attached to the original articles of
incorporation and original by-laws.
The amended or new by-laws shall only be
effective upon the issuance by the Securities and
Exchange Commission of a certification that the
same are not inconsistent with this Code. (22a
and 23a)
TITLE VI
MEETINGS
Sec. 49. Kinds of meetings. - Meetings of
directors, trustees, stockholders, or members
may be regular or special. (n)
Sec. 50. Regular and special meetings of
stockholders or members. - Regular meetings of
stockholders or members shall be held annually
on a date fixed in the by-laws, or if not so fixed,
on any date in April of every year as determined
by the board of directors or trustees: Provided,
That written notice of regular meetings shall be
sent to all stockholders or members of record at
least two (2) weeks prior to the meeting, unless a
different period is required by the by-laws.
Special meetings of stockholders or members
shall be held at any time deemed necessary or as
provided in the by-laws: Provided, however, That
at least one (1) week written notice shall be sent
to all stockholders or members, unless otherwise
provided in the by-laws.
Notice of any meeting may be waived, expressly
or impliedly, by any stockholder or member.
Whenever, for any cause, there is no person
authorized to call a meeting, the Secretaries and
Exchange Commission, upon petition of a
stockholder or member on a showing of good
cause therefor, may issue an order to the
petitioning stockholder or member directing him to
call a meeting of the corporation by giving proper
notice required by this Code or by the by-laws.
The petitioning stockholder or member shall
preside thereat until at least a majority of the
stockholders or members present have been
chosen one of their number as presiding officer.
(24, 26)
Sec. 51. Place and time of meetings of
stockholders or members. - Stockholders' or
members' meetings, whether regular or special,
shall be held in the city or municipality where the
principal office of the corporation is located, and if
practicable in the principal office of the
corporation: Provided, That Metro Manila shall,
for purposes of this section, be considered a city
or municipality.
Notice of meetings shall be in writing, and the
time and place thereof stated therein.
All proceedings had and any business transacted
at any meeting of the stockholders or members, if
within the powers or authority of the corporation,
shall be valid even if the meeting be improperly
held or called, provided all the stockholders or
members of the corporation are present or duly
represented at the meeting. (24 and 25)
Sec. 52. Quorum in meetings. - Unless otherwise
provided for in this Code or in the by-laws, a
quorum shall consist of the stockholders
representing a majority of the outstanding capital
stock or a majority of the members in the case of
non-stock corporations. (n)
Sec. 53. Regular and special meetings of
directors or trustees. - Regular meetings of the
board of directors or trustees of every corporation
shall be held monthly, unless the by-laws provide
otherwise.
Special meetings of the board of directors or
trustees may be held at any time upon the call of
the president or as provided in the by-laws.
Meetings of directors or trustees of corporations
may be held anywhere in or outside of the
Philippines, unless the by-laws provide otherwise.
Notice of regular or special meetings stating the
date, time and place of the meeting must be sent
to every director or trustee at least one (1) day
prior to the scheduled meeting, unless otherwise
provided by the by-laws. A director or trustee may
waive this requirement, either expressly or
impliedly. (n)
Sec. 54. Who shall preside at meetings. - The
president shall preside at all meetings of the
directors or trustee as well as of the stockholders
or members, unless the by-laws provide
otherwise. (n)
Sec. 57. Voting right for treasury shares. -
Treasury shares shall have no voting right as long
as such shares remain in the Treasury. (n)
Sec. 58. Proxies. - Stockholders and members
may vote in person or by proxy in all meetings of
stockholders or members. Proxies shall in writing,
signed by the stockholder or member and filed
before the scheduled meeting with the corporate
secretary. Unless otherwise provided in the proxy,
it shall be valid only for the meeting for which it is
intended. No proxy shall be valid and effective for
a period longer than five (5) years at any one
time. (n)
TITLE VII
STOCKS AND STOCKHOLDERS
Sec. 60. Subscription contract. - Any contract for
the acquisition of unissued stock in an existing
corporation or a corporation still to be formed
shall be deemed a subscription within the
meaning of this Title, notwithstanding the fact that
the parties refer to it as a purchase or some other
contract. (n)
Sec. 61. Pre-incorporation subscription. - A
subscription for shares of stock of a corporation
still to be formed shall be irrevocable for a period
of at least six (6) months from the date of
subscription, unless all of the other subscribers
consent to the revocation, or unless the
incorporation of said corporation fails to
materialize within said period or within a longer
period as may be stipulated in the contract of
subscription: Provided, That no pre-incorporation
subscription may be revoked after the submission
of the articles of incorporation to the Securities
and Exchange Commission. (n)
Sec. 62. Considering for stocks. - Stocks shall not
be issued for a consideration less than the par or
issued price thereof. Consideration for the
issuance of stock may be any or a combination of
any two or more of the following:
(1) Actual cash paid to the corporation;
(2) Property, tangible or intangible, actually
received by the corporation and necessary
or convenient for its use and lawful
purposes at a fair valuation equal to the
par or issued value of the stock issued;
(3) Labor performed for or services actually
rendered to the corporation;
(4) Previously incurred indebtedness of the
corporation;
(5) Amounts transferred from unrestricted
retained earnings to stated capital; and
(6) Outstanding shares exchanged for stocks
in the event of reclassification or
conversion.
Where the consideration is other than actual
cash, or consists of intangible property such as
patents of copyrights, the valuation thereof shall
initially be determined by the incorporators or the
board of directors, subject to approval by the
Securities and Exchange Commission.
Shares of stock shall not be issued in exchange
for promissory notes or future service.
The same considerations provided for in this
section, insofar as they may be applicable, may
be used for the issuance of bonds by the
corporation.
The issued price of no-par value shares may be
fixed in the articles of incorporation or by the
board of directors pursuant to authority conferred
upon it by the articles of incorporation or the by-
laws, or in the absence thereof, by the
stockholders representing at least a majority of
the outstanding capital stock at a meeting duly
called for the purpose. (5 and 16)
Sec. 63. Certificate of stock and transfer of
shares. - The capital stock of stock corporations
shall be divided into shares for which certificates
signed by the president or vice president,
countersigned by the secretary or assistant
secretary, and sealed with the seal of the
corporation shall be issued in accordance with the
by-laws. Shares of stock so issued are personal
property and may be transferred by delivery of the
certificate or certificates endorsed by the owner or
his attorney-in-fact or other person legally
authorized to make the transfer. No transfer,
however, shall be valid, except as between the
parties, until the transfer is recorded in the books
of the corporation showing the names of the
parties to the transaction, the date of the transfer,
the number of the certificate or certificates and
the number of shares transferred.
No shares of stock against which the corporation
holds any unpaid claim shall be transferable in
the books of the corporation. (35)
Sec. 64. Issuance of stock certificates. - No
certificate of stock shall be issued to a subscriber
until the full amount of his subscription together
with interest and expenses (in case of delinquent
shares), if any is due, has been paid. (37)
TITLE VIII
CORPORATE BOOKS AND RECORDS
Sec. 74. Books to be kept; stock transfer agent. -
Every corporation shall keep and carefully
preserve at its principal office a record of all
business transactions and minutes of all meetings
of stockholders or members, or of the board of
directors or trustees, in which shall be set forth in
detail the time and place of holding the meeting,
how authorized, the notice given, whether the
meeting was regular or special, if special its
object, those present and absent, and every act
done or ordered done at the meeting. Upon the
demand of any director, trustee, stockholder or
member, the time when any director, trustee,
stockholder or member entered or left the
meeting must be noted in the minutes; and on a
similar demand, the yeas and nays must be taken
on any motion or proposition, and a record
thereof carefully made. The protest of any
director, trustee, stockholder or member on any
action or proposed action must be recorded in full
on his demand.
The records of all business transactions of the
corporation and the minutes of any meetings shall
be open to inspection by any director, trustee,
stockholder or member of the corporation at
reasonable hours on business days and he may
demand, writing, for a copy of excerpts from said
records or minutes, at his expense.
Any officer or agent of the corporation who shall
refuse to allow any director, trustees, stockholder
or member of the corporation to examine and
copy excerpts from its records or minutes, in
accordance with the provisions of this Code, shall
be liable to such director, trustee, stockholder or
member for damages, and in addition, shall be
guilty of an offense which shall be punishable
under Section 144 of this Code: Provided, That if
such refusal is made pursuant to a resolution or
order of the board of directors or trustees, the
liability under this section for such action shall be
imposed upon the directors or trustees who voted
for such refusal: and Provided, further, That it
shall be a defense to any action under this
section that the person demanding to examine
and copy excerpts from the corporation's records
and minutes has improperly used any information
secured through any prior examination of the
records or minutes of such corporation or of any
other corporation, or was not acting in good faith
or for a legitimate purpose in making his demand.
Stock corporations must also keep a book to be
known as the "stock and transfer book", in which
must be kept a record of all stocks in the names
of the stockholders alphabetically arranged; the
installments paid and unpaid on all stock for
which subscription has been made, and the date
of payment of any installment; a statement of
every alienation, sale or transfer of stock made,
the date thereof, and by and to whom made; and
such other entries as the by-laws may prescribe.
The stock and transfer book shall be kept in the
principal office of the corporation or in the office of
its stock transfer agent and shall be open for
inspection by any director or stockholder of the
corporation at reasonable hours on business
days.
No stock transfer agent or one engaged
principally in the business of registering transfers
of stocks in behalf of a stock corporation shall be
allowed to operate in the Philippines unless he
secures a license from the Securities and
Exchange Commission and pays a fee as may be
fixed by the Commission, which shall be
renewable annually: Provided, That a stock
corporation is not precluded from performing or
making transfer of its own stocks, in which case
all the rules and regulations imposed on stock
transfer agents, except the payment of a license
fee herein provided, shall be applicable. (51a and
32a; B. P. No. 268.)
Sec. 75. Right to financial statements. - Within ten
(10) days from receipt of a written request of any
stockholder or member, the corporation shall
furnish to him its most recent financial statement,
which shall include a balance sheet as of the end
of the last taxable year and a profit or loss
statement for said taxable year, showing in
reasonable detail its assets and liabilities and the
result of its operations.
At the regular meeting of stockholders or
members, the board of directors or trustees shall
present to such stockholders or members a
financial report of the operations of the
corporation for the preceding year, which shall
include financial statements, duly signed and
certified by an independent certified public
accountant.
However, if the paid-up capital of the corporation
is less than P50,000.00, the financial statements
may be certified under oath by the treasurer or
any responsible officer of the corporation. (n)
M. NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS
( NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS LAW)
ACT NO. 2031
February 03, 1911
THE NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENTS LAW
I. FORM AND INTERPRETATION
Section 1. Form of negotiable instruments. - An
instrument to be negotiable must conform to the
following requirements:
(a) It must be in writing and signed by
the maker or drawer;
(b) Must contain an unconditional
promise or order to pay a sum
certain in money;
(c) Must be payable on demand, or at
a fixed or determinable future time;
 (d) Must be payable to order or to
bearer; and
(e) Where the instrument is addressed
to a drawee, he must be named or
otherwise indicated therein with
reasonable certainty.
Sec. 23. Forged signature; effect of. - When a
signature is forged or made without the authority
of the person whose signature it purports to be, it
is wholly inoperative, and no right to retain the
instrument, or to give a discharge therefor, or to
enforce payment thereof against any party
thereto, can be acquired through or under such
signature, unless the party against whom it is
sought to enforce such right is precluded from
setting up the forgery or want of authority.
III. NEGOTIATION
Sec. 30. What constitutes negotiation. - An
instrument is negotiated when it is transferred
from one person to another in such manner as to
constitute the transferee the holder thereof. If
payable to bearer, it is negotiated by delivery; if
payable to order, it is negotiated by the
indorsement of the holder and completed by
delivery.
Sec. 31. Indorsement; how made. - The
indorsement must be written on the instrument
itself or upon a paper attached thereto. The
signature of the indorser, without additional
words, is a sufficient indorsement.
Sec. 33. Kinds of indorsement. - An indorsement
may be either special or in blank; and it may also
be either restrictive or qualified or conditional.
Sec. 34. Special indorsement; indorsement in
blank. - A special indorsement specifies the
person to whom, or to whose order, the
instrument is to be payable, and the indorsement
of such indorsee is necessary to the further
negotiation of the instrument. An indorsement in
blank specifies no indorsee, and an instrument so
indorsed is payable to bearer, and may be
negotiated by delivery.
Sec. 35. Blank indorsement; how changed to
special indorsement. - The holder may convert a
blank indorsement into a special indorsement by
writing over the signature of the indorser in blank
any contract consistent with the character of the
indorsement.
Sec. 36. When indorsement restrictive. - An
indorsement is restrictive which either:
(a) Prohibits the further negotiation of
the instrument; or
(b) Constitutes the indorsee the agent
of the indorser; or
(c) Vests the title in the indorsee in
trust for or to the use of some
other persons.
But the mere absence of words implying power to
negotiate does not make an indorsement
restrictive.
Sec. 37. Effect of restrictive indorsement; rights of
indorsee. - A restrictive indorsement confers upon
the indorsee the right:
(a) to receive payment of the instrument;
(b) to bring any action thereon that the
indorser could bring;
(c) to transfer his rights as such indorsee,
where the form of the indorsement
authorizes him to do so.
But all subsequent indorsees acquire only the title
of the first indorsee under the restrictive
indorsement.
Sec. 38. Qualified indorsement. - A qualified
indorsement constitutes the indorser a mere
assignor of the title to the instrument. It may be
made by adding to the indorser's signature the
words "without recourse" or any words of similar
import. Such an indorsement does not impair the
negotiable character of the instrument.
Sec. 39. Conditional indorsement. - Where an
indorsement is conditional, the party required to
pay the instrument may disregard the condition
and make payment to the indorsee or his
transferee whether the condition has been fulfilled
or not. But any person to whom an instrument so
indorsed is negotiated will hold the same, or the
proceeds thereof, subject to the rights of the
person indorsing conditionally.
Sec. 40. Indorsement of instrument payable to
bearer. - Where an instrument, payable to bearer,
is indorsed specially, it may nevertheless be
further negotiated by delivery; but the person
indorsing specially is liable as indorser to only
such holders as make title through his
indorsement.
IV. RIGHTS OF THE HOLDER
Sec. 52. What constitutes a holder in due course.
- A holder in due course is a holder who has
taken the instrument under the following
conditions:
(a) That it is complete and regular upon
its face;
(b) That he became the holder of it
before it was overdue, and without
notice that it has been previously
dishonored, if such was the fact;
(c) That he took it in good faith and for
value;
(d) That at the time it was negotiated to
him, he had no notice of any infirmity
in the instrument or defect in the title
of the person negotiating it.
Sec. 57. Rights of holder in due course. - A holder
in due course holds the instrument free from any
defect of title of prior parties, and free from
defenses available to prior parties among
themselves, and may enforce payment of the
instrument for the full amount thereof against all
parties liable thereon.
V. LIABILITIES OF PARTIES
Sec. 60. Liability of maker. - The maker of a
negotiable instrument, by making it, engages that
he will pay it according to its tenor, and admits the
existence of the payee and his then capacity to
indorse.
Sec. 61. Liability of drawer. - The drawer by
drawing the instrument admits the existence of
the payee and his then capacity to indorse; and
engages that, on due presentment, the instrument
will be accepted or paid, or both, according to its
tenor, and that if it be dishonored and the
necessary proceedings on dishonor be duly
taken, he will pay the amount thereof to the
holder or to any subsequent indorser who may be
compelled to pay it. But the drawer may insert in
the instrument an express stipulation negativing
or limiting his own liability to the holder.
Sec. 62. Liability of acceptor. - The acceptor, by
accepting the instrument, engages that he will
pay it according to the tenor of his acceptance
and admits:
(a) The existence of the drawer, the
genuineness of his signature, and
his capacity and authority to draw
the instrument; and
(b) The existence of the payee and his
then capacity to indorse.
Sec. 63. When a person deemed indorser. - A
person placing his signature upon an instrument
otherwise than as maker, drawer, or acceptor, is
deemed to be indorser unless he clearly indicates
by appropriate words his intention to be bound in
some other capacity.
Sec. 64. Liability of irregular indorser. - Where a
person, not otherwise a party to an instrument,
places thereon his signature in blank before
delivery, he is liable as indorser, in accordance
with the following rules:
(a) If the instrument is payable to the
order of a third person, he is liable to
the payee and to all subsequent
parties.
(b) If the instrument is payable to the
order of the maker or drawer, or is
payable to bearer, he is liable to all
parties subsequent to the maker or
drawer.
(c) If he signs for the accommodation of
the payee, he is liable to all parties
subsequent to the payee.
Sec. 65. Warranty where negotiation by delivery
and so forth. Every person negotiating an
instrument by delivery or by a qualified
indorsement warrants:
(a) That the instrument is genuine and in
all respects what it purports to be;
(b) That he has a good title to it;
(c) That all prior parties had capacity to
contract;
(d) That he has no knowledge of any fact
which would impair the validity of the
instrument or render it valueless.
But when the negotiation is by delivery only, the
warranty extends in favor of no holder other than
the immediate transferee.
The provisions of subdivision (c) of this section do
not apply to a person negotiating public or
corporation securities other than bills and notes.
Sec. 66. Liability of general indorser. - Every
indorser who indorses without qualification,
warrants to all subsequent holders in due course:
(a) The matters and things mentioned in
subdivisions (a), (b), and (c) of the next
preceding section; and
(b) That the instrument is, at the time of his
indorsement, valid and subsisting;
And, in addition, he engages that, on due
presentment, it shall be accepted or paid, or both,
as the case may be, according to its tenor, and
that if it be dishonored and the necessary
proceedings on dishonor be duly taken, he will
pay the amount thereof to the holder, or to any
subsequent indorser who may be compelled to
pay it.
BILLS OF EXCHANGE
IX. FORM AND INTERPRETATION
Sec. 126. Bill of exchange, defined. - A bill of
exchange is an unconditional order in writing
addressed by one person to another, signed by
the person giving it, requiring the person to whom
it is addressed to pay on demand or at a fixed or
determinable future time a sum certain in money
to order or to bearer.
XVI. PROMISSORY NOTES AND CHECKS
Sec. 184. Promissory note, defined. - A
negotiable promissory note within the meaning of
this Act is an unconditional promise in writing
made by one person to another, signed by the
maker, engaging to pay on demand, or at a fixed
or determinable future time, a sum certain in
money to order or to bearer. Where a note is
drawn to the maker's own order, it is not complete
until indorsed by him.
Sec. 185. Check, defined. - A check is a bill of
exchange drawn on a bank payable on demand.
Except as herein otherwise provided, the
provisions of this Act applicable to a bill of
exchange payable on demand apply to a check.
Sec. 186. Within what time a check must be
presented. - A check must be presented for
payment within a reasonable time after its issue
or the drawer will be discharged from liability
thereon to the extent of the loss caused by the
delay.
Sec. 187. Certification of check; effect of. - Where
a check is certified by the bank on which it is
drawn, the certification is equivalent to an
acceptance.
Sec. 188. Effect where the holder of check
procures it to be certified. - Where the holder of a
check procures it to be accepted or certified, the
drawer and all indorsers are discharged from
liability thereon.
XVII. GENERAL PROVISIONS
Sec. 191. Definition and meaning of terms. - In
this Act, unless the contract otherwise requires:
(a) "Acceptance" means an acceptance
completed by delivery or notification;
(b) "Action" includes counterclaim and set-
off;
(c) "Bank" includes any person or association
of persons carrying on the business of
banking, whether incorporated or not;
(d) "Bearer" means the person in possession
of a bill or note which is payable to bearer;
(e) "Bill" means bill of exchange, and "note"
means negotiable promissory note;
(f) "Delivery" means transfer of possession,
actual or constructive, from one person to
another;
(g) "Holder" means the payee or indorsee of
a bill or note who is in possession of it, or
the bearer thereof;
(h) "Indorsement" means an indorsement
completed by delivery;
(i) "Instrument" means negotiable
instrument;
(j) "Issue" means the first delivery of the
instrument, complete in form, to a person
who takes it as a holder;
(k) "Person" includes a body of persons,
whether incorporated or not;
(l) "Value" means valuable consideration;
(m) "Written" includes printed, and "writing"
includes print.
Sec. 192. Persons primarily liable on instrument. -
The person "primarily" liable on an instrument is
the person who, by the terms of the instrument, is
absolutely required to pay the same. All other
parties are "secondarily" liable.
N. LABOR CODE
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 442
THE LABOR CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
Title I
WORKING CONDITIONS AND REST PERIODS
Chapter I HOURS OF WORK
ARTICLE 82. Coverage. - The provisions of this
Title shall apply to employees in all
establishments and undertakings whether for
profit or not, but not to government employees,
managerial employees, field personnel, members
of the family of the employer who are dependent
on him for support, domestic helpers, persons in
the personal service of another, and workers who
are paid by results as determined by the
Secretary of Labor in appropriate regulations.
As used herein, managerial employees refer to
those whose primary duty consists of the
management of the establishment in which they
are employed or of a department or subdivision
thereof, and to other officers or members of the
managerial staff.
Field personnel shall refer to non-agricultural
employees who regularly perform their duties
away from the principal place of business or
branch office of the employer and whose actual
hours of work in the field cannot be determined
with reasonable certainty.
ARTICLE 83. Normal hours of work. - The
normal hours of work of any employee shall not
exceed eight (8) hours a day.
personnel in cities and municipalities with a
population of at least one million (1,000,000) or in
hospitals and clinics with a bed capacity of at
least one hundred (100) shall hold regular office
hours for eight (8) hours a day, for five (5) days a
week, exclusive of time for meals, except where
the exigencies of the service require that such
personnel work for six (6) days or forty-eight (48)
hours, in which case, they shall be entitled to an
additional compensation of at least thirty percent
(30%) of their regular wage for work on the sixth
day. For purposes of this Article, health
personnel shall include resident physicians,
nurses, nutritionists, dietitians, pharmacists,
social workers, laboratory technicians,
paramedical technicians, psychologists,
midwives, attendants and all other hospital or
clinic personnel.
ARTICLE 84. Hours worked. - Hours worked shall
include (a) all time during which an employee is
required to be on duty or to be at a prescribed
workplace; and (b) all time during which an
employee is suffered or permitted to work.
Rest periods of short duration during working
hours shall be counted as hours worked.
ARTICLE 85. Meal periods. - Subject to such
regulations as the Secretary of Labor may
prescribe, it shall be the duty of every employer to
give his employees not less than sixty (60)
minutes time-off for their regular meals.
ARTICLE 86. Night shift differential. - Every
employee shall be paid a night shift differential of
not less than ten percent (10%) of his regular
wage for each hour of work performed between
ten oclock in the evening and six oclock in the
morning.
ARTICLE 87. Overtime work. - Work may be
performed beyond eight (8) hours a day provided
that the employee is paid for the overtime work,
an additional compensation equivalent to his
regular wage plus at least twenty-five percent
(25%) thereof. Work performed beyond eight
hours on a holiday or rest day shall be paid an
additional compensation equivalent to the rate of
the first eight hours on a holiday or rest day plus
at least thirty percent (30%) thereof.
ARTICLE 88. Undertime not offset by overtime. -
Undertime work on any particular day shall not be
offset by overtime work on any other day.
Permission given to the employee to go on leave
on some other day of the week shall not exempt
the employer from paying the additional
compensation required in this Chapter.
ARTICLE 89. Emergency overtime work. - Any
employee may be required by the employer to
perform overtime work in any of the following
cases:
(a) When the country is at war or when
any other national or local emergency
has been declared by the National
Assembly or the Chief Executive;
(b) When it is necessary to prevent loss of
life or property or in case of imminent
danger to public safety due to an
actual or impending emergency in the
locality caused by serious accidents,
fire, flood, typhoon, earthquake,
epidemic, or other disaster or calamity;
(c) When there is urgent work to be
performed on machines, installations,
or equipment, in order to avoid serious
loss or damage to the employer or
some other cause of similar nature;
(d) When the work is necessary to prevent
loss or damage to perishable goods;
and
(e) Where the completion or continuation
of the work started before the eighth
hour is necessary to prevent serious
obstruction or prejudice to the
business or operations of the
employer.
Any employee required to render overtime work
under this Article shall be paid the additional
compensation required in this Chapter.
ARTICLE 90. Computation of additional
compensation. - For purposes of computing
overtime and other additional remuneration as
required by this Chapter, the regular wage of an
employee shall include the cash wage only,
without deduction on account of facilities provided
by the employer.
Chapter II
WEEKLY REST PERIODS
ARTICLE 91. Right to weekly rest day
(a) It shall be the duty of every employer,
whether operating for profit or not, to
provide each of his employees a rest
period of not less than twenty-four (24)
consecutive hours after every six (6)
consecutive normal work days.
(b) The employer shall determine and
schedule the weekly rest day of his
employees subject to collective
bargaining agreement and to such
rules and regulations as the Secretary
of Labor and Employment may
provide. However, the employer shall
respect the preference of employees
as to their weekly rest day when such
preference is based on religious
grounds.
ARTICLE 92. When employer may require work
on a rest day. - The employer may require his
employees to work on any day:
(a) In case of actual or impending
emergencies caused by serious accident,
fire, flood, typhoon,earthquake, epidemic
or other disaster or calamity to prevent
loss of life and property, or imminent
danger to public safety;
(b) In cases of urgent work to be performed
on the machinery, equipment, or
installation, to avoid serious loss which the
employer would otherwise suffer;
(c) In the event of abnormal pressure of work
due to special circumstances, where the
employer cannot ordinarily be expected to
resort to other measures;
(d) To prevent loss or damage to perishable
goods;
(e) Where the nature of the work requires
continuous operations and the stoppage
of work may result in irreparable injury or
loss to the employer; and
(f) Under other circumstances analogous or
similar to the foregoing as determined by
the Secretary of Labor and Employment.
ARTICLE 93. Compensation for rest day, Sunday
or holiday work.
 (a) Where an employee is made or permitted
to work on his scheduled rest day, he shall
be paid an additional compensation of at
least thirty percent (30%) of his regular
wage. An employee shall be entitled to
such additional compensation for work
performed on Sunday only when it is his
established rest day.
(b) When the nature of the work of the
employee is such that he has no regular
workdays and no regular rest days can be
scheduled, he shall be paid an additional
compensation of at least thirty percent
(30%) of his regular wage for work
performed on Sundays and holidays.
(c) Work performed on any special holiday
shall be paid an additional compensation
of at least thirty percent (30%) of the
regular wage of the employee. Where
such holiday work falls on the employees
scheduled rest day, he shall be entitled to
an additional compensation of at least fifty
per cent (50%) of his regular wage.
(d) Where the collective bargaining
agreement or other applicable
employment contract stipulates the
payment of a higher premium pay than
that prescribed under this Article, the
employer shall pay such higher rate.
Chapter III
HOLIDAYS, SERVICE INCENTIVE LEAVES
AND SERVICE CHARGES
ARTICLE 94. Right to holiday pay
(a) Every worker shall be paid his regular
daily wage during regular holidays, except
in retail and service establishments
regularly employing less than ten (10)
workers;
(b) The employer may require an employee to
work on any holiday but such employee
shall be paid a compensation equivalent
to twice his regular rate; and
(c) As used in this Article, holiday includes:
New Years Day, Maundy Thursday, Good
Friday, the ninth of April, the first of May,
the twelfth of June, the fourth of July, the
thirtieth of November, the twenty- fifth and
thirtieth of December and the day
designated by law for holding a general
election.
ARTICLE 95. Right to service incentive leave
(a) Every employee who has rendered at
least one year of service shall be entitled
to a yearly service incentive leave of five
days with pay.
(b) This provision shall not apply to those who
are already enjoying the benefit herein
provided, those enjoying vacation leave
with pay of at least five days and those
employed in establishments regularly
employing less than ten employees or in
establishments exempted from granting
this benefit by the Secretary of Labor and
Employment after considering the viability
or financial condition of such
establishment.
(c) The grant of benefit in excess of that
provided herein shall not be made a
subject of arbitration or any court or
administrative action.
ARTICLE 96. Service charges. - All service
charges collected by hotels, restaurants and
similar establishments shall be distributed at the
rate of eighty-five percent (85%) for all covered
employees and fifteen percent (15%) for
management. The share of the employees shall
be equally distributed among them. In case the
service charge is abolished, the share of the
covered employees shall be considered
integrated in their wages.
Chapter II UNFAIR LABOR PRACTICES OF
EMPLOYERS
ARTICLE 248. Unfair labor practices of
employers. - It shall be unlawful for an employer
to commit any of the following unfair labor
practice:
(a) To interfere with, restrain or coerce
employees in the exercise of their right to
self- organization;
(b) To require as a condition of employment
that a person or an employee shall not join
a labor organization or shall withdraw from
one to which he belongs;
(c) To contract out services or functions being
performed by union members when such
will interfere with, restrain or coerce
employees in the exercise of their rights to
self-organization;
(d) To initiate, dominate, assist or otherwise
interfere with the formation or
administration of any labor organization,
including the giving of financial or other
support to it or its organizers or
supporters;
(e) To discriminate in regard to wages, hours
of work and other terms and conditions of
employment in order to encourage or
discourage membership in any labor
organization. Nothing in this Code or in
any other law shall stop the parties from
requiring membership in a recognized
collective bargaining agent as a condition
for employment, except those employees
who are already members of another
 union at the time of the signing of the
collective bargaining agreement.
Employees of an appropriate bargaining
unit who are not members of the
recognized collective bargaining agent
may be assessed a reasonable fee
equivalent to the dues and other fees paid
by members of the recognized collective
bargaining agent, if such non-union
members accept the benefits under the
collective bargaining agreement:
Provided, that the individual authorization
required under Article 242, paragraph (o)
of this Code shall not apply to the non-
members of the recognized collective
bargaining agent;
(f) To dismiss, discharge or otherwise
prejudice or discriminate against an
employee for having given or being about
to give testimony under this Code;
(g) To violate the duty to bargain collectively
as prescribed by this Code;
(h) To pay negotiation or attorneys fees to
the union or its officers or agents as part
of the settlement of any issue in collective
bargaining or any other dispute; or
(i) To violate a collective bargaining
agreement.
The provisions of the preceding paragraph
notwithstanding, only the officers and agents of
corporations, associations or partnerships who
have actually participated in, authorized or ratified
unfair labor practices shall be held criminally
liable. (As amended by Batas Pambansa Bilang
130, August 21, 1981).
Chapter III UNFAIR LABOR PRACTICES OF
LABOR ORGANIZATIONS
ARTICLE 249. Unfair labor practices of labor
organizations. - It shall be unfair labor practice for
a labor organization, its officers, agents or
representatives:
(a) To restrain or coerce employees in the
exercise of their right to self-organization.
However, a labor organization shall have
the right to prescribe its own rules with
respect to the acquisition or retention of
membership;
(b) To cause or attempt to cause an employer
to discriminate against an employee,
including discrimination against an
employee with respect to whom
membership in such organization has
been denied or to terminate an employee
on any ground other than the usual terms
and conditions under which membership
or continuation of membership is made
available to other members;
(c) To violate the duty, or refuse to bargain
collectively with the employer, provided it
is the representative of the employees;
(d) To cause or attempt to cause an employer
to pay or deliver or agree to pay or deliver
any money or other things of value, in the
nature of an exaction, for services which
are not performed or not to be performed,
including the demand for fee for union
negotiations;
(e) To ask for or accept negotiation or
attorneys fees from employers as part of
the settlement of any issue in collective
bargaining or any other dispute; or
(f) To violate a collective bargaining
agreement.
The provisions of the preceding paragraph
notwithstanding, only the officers, members of
governing boards, representatives or agents or
members of labor associations or organizations
who have actually participated in, authorized or
ratified unfair labor practices shall be held
criminally liable. (As amended by Batas
Pambansa Bilang 130, August 21, 1981).
Title VII COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AND
ADMINISTRATION OF AGREEMENTS
ARTICLE 250. Procedure in collective bargaining.
- The following procedures shall be observed in
collective bargaining:
(a) When a party desires to negotiate an
agreement, it shall serve a written notice
upon the other party with a statement of
its proposals. The other party shall make a
reply thereto not later than ten (10)
calendar days from receipt of such notice;
(b) Should differences arise on the basis of
such notice and reply, either party may
request for a conference which shall begin
not later than ten (10) calendar days from
the date of request.
(c) If the dispute is not settled, the Board shall
intervene upon request of either or both
parties or at its own initiative and
immediately call the parties to conciliation
meetings. The Board shall have the power
to issue subpoenas requiring the
attendance of the parties to such
meetings. It shall be the duty of the parties
to participate fully and promptly in the
conciliation meetings the Board may call;
(d) During the conciliation proceedings in the
Board, the parties are prohibited from
doing any act which may disrupt or
impede the early settlement of the
disputes; and
(e) The Board shall exert all efforts to settle
disputes amicably and encourage the
parties to submit their case to a voluntary
 arbitrator. (As amended by Section 20,
Republic Act No. 6715, March 21, 1989).
Title I TERMINATION OF EMPLOYMENT
ARTICLE 279. Security of tenure. - In cases of
regular employment, the employer shall not
terminate the services of an employee except for
a just cause or when authorized by this Title. An
employee who is unjustly dismissed from work
shall be entitled to reinstatement without loss of
seniority rights and other privileges and to his full
backwages, inclusive of allowances, and to his
other benefits or their monetary equivalent
computed from the time his compensation was
withheld from him up to the time of his actual
reinstatement. (As amended by Section 34,
Republic Act No. 6715, March 21, 1989).
ARTICLE 280. Regular and casual employment. -
The provisions of written agreement to the
contrary notwithstanding and regardless of the
oral agreement of the parties, an employment
shall be deemed to be regular where the
employee has been engaged to perform activities
which are usually necessary or desirable in the
usual business or trade of the employer, except
where the employment has been fixed for a
specific project or undertaking the completion or
termination of which has been determined at the
time of the engagement of the employee or where
the work or service to be performed is seasonal in
nature and the employment is for the duration of
the season.
An employment shall be deemed to be casual if it
is not covered by the preceding paragraph:
Provided, That any employee who has rendered
at least one year of service, whether such service
is continuous or broken, shall be considered a
regular employee with respect to the activity in
which he is employed and his employment shall
continue while such activity exists.
ARTICLE 281. Probationary employment - business losses or financial reverses, the
Probationary employment shall not exceed six (6)
months from the date the employee started
working, unless it is covered by an apprenticeship
agreement stipulating a longer period. The
services of an employee who has been engaged
on a probationary basis may be terminated for a
just cause or when he fails to qualify as a regular
employee in accordance with reasonable
standards made known by the employer to the
employee at the time of his engagement. An
employee who is allowed to work after a
probationary period shall be considered a regular
employee.
ARTICLE 282. Termination by employer. - An
employer may terminate an employment for any
of the following causes:
(a) Serious misconduct or willful
disobedience by the employee of the
lawful orders of his employer or
representative in connection with his
work;
(b) Gross and habitual neglect by the
employee of his duties;
chanroblespublishingcompany
(c) Fraud or willful breach by the employee
of the trust reposed in him by his
employer or duly authorized
representative;
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(d) Commission of a crime or offense by the
employee against the person of his
employer or any immediate member of
his family or his duly authorized
representatives; and
(e) Other causes analogous to the
foregoing
ARTICLE 283. Closure of establishment and
reduction of personnel. - The employer may also
terminate the employment of any employee due
to the installation of labor-saving devices,
redundancy, retrenchment to prevent losses or
the closing or cessation of operation of the
establishment or undertaking unless the closing is
for the purpose of circumventing the provisions of
this Title, by serving a written notice on the
workers and the Ministry of Labor and
Employment at least one (1) month before the
intended date thereof. In case of termination due
to the installation of labor-saving devices or
redundancy, the worker affected thereby shall be
entitled to a separation pay equivalent to at least
his one (1) month pay or to at least one (1) month
pay for every year of service, whichever is higher.
In case of retrenchment to prevent losses and in
cases of closures or cessation of operations of
establishment or undertaking not due to serious
separation pay shall be equivalent to one (1)
month pay or at least one-half (1/2) month pay for
every year of service, whichever is higher. A
fraction of at least six (6) months shall be
considered one (1) whole year.
ARTICLE 284. Disease as ground for termination.
- An employer may terminate the services of an
employee who has been found to be suffering
from any disease and whose continued
employment is prohibited by law or is prejudicial
to his health as well as to the health of his co-
employees: Provided, That he is paid separation
pay equivalent to at least one (1) month salary or
to one-half (1/2) month salary for every year of
service, whichever is greater, a fraction of at least
six (6) months being considered as one (1) whole
year.
ARTICLE 285. Termination by employee. -
(a) An employee may terminate without just
cause the employee-employer
relationship by serving a written notice on
the employer at least one (1) month in
advance. The employer upon whom no
such notice was served may hold the
employee liable for damages.
(b) An employee may put an end to the
relationship without serving any notice on
the employer for any of the following just
causes:
(1) Serious insult by the employer or his
representative on the honor and person
of the employee;
(2) Inhuman and unbearable treatment
accorded the employee by the
employer or his representative;
(3) Commission of a crime or offense by
the employer or his representative
against the person of the employee or
any of the immediate members of his
family; and
(4) Other causes analogous to any of the
foregoing.
ARTICLE 286. When employment not deemed
terminated. - The bona-fide suspension of the
operation of a business or undertaking for a
period not exceeding six (6) months, or the
fulfillment by the employee of a military or civic
duty shall not terminate employment. In all such
cases, the employer shall reinstate the employee
to his former position without loss of seniority
rights if he indicates his desire to resume his work
not later than one (1) month from the resumption
of operations of his employer or from his relief
from the military or civic duty.
Title II
RETIREMENT FROM THE SERVICE
ARTICLE 287. Retirement. - Any employee may
be retired upon reaching the retirement age
established in the collective bargaining
agreement or other applicable employment
contract. In case of retirement, the employee shall
be entitled to receive such retirement benefits as
he may have earned under existing laws and any
collective bargaining agreement and other
agreements: Provided, however, That an
employees retirement benefits under any
collective bargaining and other agreements shall
not be less than those provided herein.
In the absence of a retirement plan or agreement
providing for retirement benefits of employees in
the establishment, an employee upon reaching
the age of sixty (60) years or more, but not
beyond sixty-five (65) years which is hereby
declared the compulsory retirement age, who has
served at least five (5) years in the said
establishment, may retire and shall be entitled to
retirement pay equivalent to at least one-half (1/2)
month salary for every year of service, a fraction
of at least six (6) months being considered as one
whole year.
Unless the parties provide for broader inclusions,
the term one-half (1/2) month salary shall mean
fifteen (15) days plus one-twelfth (1/12) of the
13th month pay and the cash equivalent of not
more than five (5) days of service incentive
leaves.
An underground mining employee upon reaching
the age of fifty (50) years or more, but not beyond
sixty (60) years which is hereby declared the
compulsory retirement age for underground mine
workers, who has served at least five (5) years as
underground mine worker, may retire and shall be
entitled to all the retirement benefits provided for
in this Article.
Retail, service and agricultural establishments or
operations employing not more than ten (10)
employees or workers are exempted from the
coverage of this provision.
Violation of this provision is hereby declared
unlawful and subject to the penal provisions
provided under Article 288 of this Code.
Nothing in this Article shall deprive any employee
of benefits to which he may be entitled under
existing laws or company policies or practices.
(As amended by Republic Act No. 7641 [January
7, 1993] and Republic Act No. 8558 [February 26,
1998]).
Republic Act No. 7877
Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995
Section 3. Work, Education or Training-Related,
Sexual Harassment Defined. - Work, education
or training-related sexual harassment is
committed by an employer, employee, manager,
supervisor, agent of the employer, teacher,
instructor, professor, coach, trainor, or any
other person who, having authority, influence or
moral ascendancy over another in a work or
training or education environment, demands,
requests or otherwise requires any sexual
favor from the other, regardless of whether the
demand, request or requirement for submission
is accepted by the object of said act.
 (a) In a work-related or employment
environment, sexual harassment is
committed when:
(1) The sexual favor is made as a
condition in the hiring or in the
employment, re-employment or
continued employment of said
individual, or in granting said individual
favorable compensation, terms of
conditions, promotions, or
privileges; or the refusal to grant the
sexual favor results in limiting,
segregating or classifying the
employee which in any way would
discriminate, deprive or diminish
employment opportunities or otherwise
adversely affect said employee;
(2) The above acts would impair the
employee's rights or privileges under
existing labor laws; or
(3) The above acts would result in an
intimidating, hostile, or offensive
environment for the employee.
(b) In an education or training environment,
sexual harassment is committed:
(1) Against one who is under the care,
custody or supervision of
the offender;
(2) Against one whose education,
training, apprenticeship or
tutorship is entrusted to the
offender;
(3) When the sexual favor is made a
condition to the giving of a
passing grade, or the granting of
honors and scholarships, or the
payment of a stipend, allowance or
other benefits, privileges, or
consideration; or
(4) When the sexual advances result
in an intimidating, hostile or
offensive environment for the
student, trainee or apprentice.
Any person who directs or induces another to
commit any act of sexual harassment as herein
defined, or who cooperates in the commission
thereof by another without which it would not
have been committed, shall also be held liable
under this Act.
Section 4. Duty of the Employer or Head of Office
in a Work-related, Education or Training
Environment. - It shall be the duty of the employer
or the head of the work-related, educational or
training environment or institution, to prevent or
deter the commission of acts of sexual
harassment and to provide the procedures for the
resolution, settlement or prosecution of acts of
sexual harassment. Towards this end, the
employer or head of office shall:
(a) Promulgate appropriate rules and regulations
in consultation with and jointly approved by the
employees or students or trainees, through their
duly designated representatives, prescribing the
procedure for the investigation of sexual
harassment cases and the
administrative sanctions therefor.
Administrative sanctions shall not be a bar to
prosecution in the proper courts for unlawful acts
of sexual harassment.
The said rules and regulations issued pursuant to
this subsection (a) shall include, among others,
guidelines on proper decorum in the workplace
and educational or training institutions.
(b) Create a committee on decorum and
investigation of cases on sexual harassment. The
committee shall conduct meetings, as the case
may be, with officers and employees, teachers,
instructors, professors, coaches, trainors, and
students or trainees to increase understanding
and prevent incidents of sexual harassment. It
shall also conduct the investigation of alleged
cases constituting sexual harassment.
In the case of a work-related environment, the
committee shall be composed of at least one (1)
representative eachfrom the management, the
union, if any, the employees from the supervisory
rank, and from the rank and file employees.
In the case of the educational or training
institution, the committee shall be composed of at
least one (1)representative from the
administration, the trainors, instructors,
professors or coaches and students or trainees,
as the case may be.
The employer or head of office, educational or
training institution shall disseminate or post a
copy of this Act for the information of all
concerned.
Section 5. Liability of the Employer, Head of
Office, Educational or Training Institution. - The
employer or head of office, educational or training
institution shall be solidarily liable for damages
arising from the acts of sexual harassment
committed in the employment, education or
training environment if the employer or head of
office, educational or training institution is
informed of such acts by the offended party and
no immediate action is taken.
Section 6. Independent Action for Damages. -
Nothing in this Act shall preclude the victim of
work, education or training-related sexual
harassment from instituting a separate and
independent action for damages and other
affirmative relief.

Section 7. Penalties. - Any person who violates

the provisions of this Act shall, upon conviction,
be penalized by imprisonment of not less than
one (1) month nor more than six (6) months, or a
fine of not less than Ten
thousand pesos (P10,000) nor more than Twenty
thousand pesos (P20,000), or both such fine and
imprisonment at the discretion of the court.

Any action arising from the violation of the

provisions of this Act shall prescribe in three (3)
years.