5 | Cargo Firefighting n o Liquefied Gas Carriers Film/Video Study Notes VIDEOTELf | ) Marine international ital J in association with the Society of International Gas Tanker & Terminal Operators LtdFirst published in 1986 by Witherby & Co. Ltd., 32-36 Aylesbury Street, London ECIR OET Reprinted 1992 Reprinted 1995 © Videote! Marine International, London and SIGTTO, Bermuda 1986 ISBN 0 948691 018 While the information given has been gathered from what is believed to be the best sources available and the deductions made and recommendations put forward are considered to be soundly based, this film/video and support ‘material is intended purely as helpful guidance and as a stimulation 10 the ‘evelopment of more experience on the subject. No responsiblity is accepted bby Videotel Marine International, The Society of International Gas Tanker and ‘Terminal Operators Lid., Witherby & Co. Lid., or by any person, firm, corporation or organisation who or which has been in any way concerned with ‘the compilation, publication, supply or sale ofthis training package, for the accuracy of any information or soundness of any advice given hercia or for ‘any omission herefrom or for any consequence whatsoever resulting directly or indirectly from the adoption of the guidance contained herein. Printed in England by Witherby & Co. Ltd., 32-36 Aylesbury Street, London, ECIR OET ‘Tel No. 0171-251 5341 Fax No. 0171-251 1296 International Tel No. +44 171 251 5341 International Fax No. +44 171 251 1296Acknowledgements Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following for their contribution and assistance in developing this training, package. The Film Producer R. Blinch-Edwards Director H. Orton Technical Co-ordinators A. Lowson and S.C. Bond ‘Commentator A. Jones ‘The Study Notes Author F.G.M. Evans P.B. Marriott British Petroleum F.G.M. Evans College of Maritime Studies, Warsash J.A. Carter/E. Blogg Marine Safety Services P.E. Cooke/R.J. Price Phillips Petroleum P.J. Ryan Shell International Marine K. Itoh Tokyo Gas Additionally, acknowledgement is made to the many organisations involved with the marine transportation and terminalling industries who have co-operated so willingly in making available their personnel, facilities and expertise, Film: ‘Cargo Firefighting on Liquefied Gas Carriers” produced and distributed by and available from Videotel Marine International in 16mm film and video format. Videotel Marine International Ramillies House 1/2 Ramillies Street LONDON WIV IDF (Tel. No:: 0171-439 6301) Support Material: “Cargo Firefighting on Liquefied Gas Carriers. Study Notes" published by Witherby and Co Ltd. Witherby and Company Ltd 32:35 Aylesbury Street LONDON ECIR OET (Tel. No.: 0171-251 $341 or 0171-253 5413) (Fax. No; 0171-251 1296)List of Contents Section Title Page No. 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 PREPARATION 1 3 DEFINITION OF TERMS 2 4, NON-CARGO FIRES 3 5 THE NATURE OF LIQUEFIED GAS FIRES. 5 Pressure Fires 3 Pool Fires 3 Fires in Enclosed Spaces 6 Radiation 6 Expansion of Boiling Liquids 6 6. ACTION ON DISCOVERING A FIRE OR SPILLAGE, 7 “FLLRE.” Emergency Shut Down (ESD) 7 Restrict 8 1 CONTROL OR EXTINGUISH? 8 General Considerations 8 The Riser Fire 9 8 CONTROL AND EXTINGUISHMENT TECHNIQUES 9 CONTROL Isolation of Fuel 9 Preventing the Expansion of Contained Boiling Liquids 10 Flame Bending 10 Running Fires 10 ‘The Unignited Leak 10 EXTINGUISHMENT 10 Cooling 10 Smothering 10 Starvation i Flame Inhibition i 9, EMERGENCY PLANNING AND PROCEDURES. 2 Protective Clothing 2 Breathing Apparatus 12 Ammonia 12 APPENDIX |: THE PROPERTIES OF LIQUEFIED GASES B APPENDIX 2: GAS CARRIER AND TERMINAL EQUIPMENT 19 APPENDIX 3: GAS CARRIER DESIGN AND LAYOUT aLiquefied Gas Firefighting Film Support Documentation 1, INTRODUCTION The objective of the film is to demonstrate the correct procedures to be followed when a spillage or fire on board a liquefied gas carrier involves the cargo and to emphasise the need for regular exercises and adequate pre-planning, It should be appreciated, however, that procedures followed in terminals are similar to those used on board ship. The film should not, however, be shown in isolation. The audience should be prepared for the showing, motivated to want to watch it and, subsequent to the screening, be able to reinforce the learning objectives by reviewing the film’s content and by studying the support material ‘The purpose of the support documentation is to enlarge upon some of the topics in the film and revise topics which have been assumed knowledge for watching the film. It will enable those watching, without the benefit of an instructor, to answer the inevitable questions raised by the film. Similarly, the documentation is intended to provide the necessary background information to an instructor showing the film, be it ship's officer, shore based lecturer, terminal safety adviser or the like. With the complete training package it is hoped that the lessons to be learnt will be of benefit to the personnel of gas carriers and terminals, port authorities, and the fire and emergency services. In this way an incident involving liquefied gases should, with the personnel and resources available, be contained and controlled e' 2. PREPARATION ‘The key to an interesting and effective training session is thorough preparation. An instructor should read the support documentation and watch the film before presen- tation to an audience. The subject is important and the ideas and principles which the film contains should be thoroughly understood by the instructor in order that audience questions can be answered positively and correctly. The equipment should be prepared and checked—attention is soon lost if the room is too light, the film is broken, etc. Because of the stress made on the need for sound operational procedures and the impressive gas carrier safety record, the student may say ““Why bother?”” It is imper: ative to dispel this complacency and to stress that he should expect the unexpected, The film shows that, if the correct procedures are taught, planned and exercised in advance, an incident can be controlled using ship resources and prevented from escal- ating. It also shows how this control can be enhanced by planned and proper use of terminal resources when such resources are available. While film is effective since it is a visual training medium, it is, however, a passive learning situation. Subsequent to the screening, active audience participation such {as question and answer sessions, discussions on scenarios on board ships with which they are familiar, the techniques of cargo firefighting, etc. should be encouraged. Ideally, within a short time of showing the film, audiences should practise lessons learned, working out the best approach for various situations in differing conditions appropriate to their own working environment, be it ship or terminal. KEYWORDS, ETC. OBJECTIVE MOTIVATION ARE YOU SITTING COMFORTABLY? THEN WE WILL BEGIN... PREPARATION ‘XPECT THE UNEXPECTED PASSIVE LEARNING ACTIVE PARTICIPATION3. DEFINITION OF TERMS, Acoustic Velocity ‘The speed at which a pressure wave is propagated up and down a pipeline: it is the speed of sound in the liquid being transferred and is typically 850/1600 metres per second for hydrocarbon/ammonia liquid. Air Lock A separation area used to maintain adjacent areas at a pressure differential, e.g. a motor room air-lock on a ‘gas carrier is used to maintain pressure segregation between a gas-dangerous zone on the open weather deck and the pressurised gas-safe space within the motor room. Auto-Ignition Temperature ‘The lowest temperature to which a solid, liquid or gas requires to be raised to cause self-sustained combustion without initiation by a spark, flame or other source of ignition. Bar A unit of pressure equal to 14.5 Ibf/inch? or 1.020 kgf/cm’. Boi ing-Point ‘The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals that of the atmosphere above its surface; this temperature varies with pressure. Cargo Area ‘That part of the ship which contains the cargo containment system, cargo pump and compressor rooms, and includes the full beam deck area over the length of the ship above the cargo containment. Where fitted, cofferdams, ballast or void spaces at the after end of the aftermost hold space or the forward end of the forwardmost hold space are excluded from the cargo area. Cargo Containment System ‘The arrangement for containment of cargo including, where fitted, a primary and secondary barrier, associated insulation, interbarrier spaces and structure required for the support of these elements. Certificate of Fitness ‘A certificate issued by the Administration of a country confirming that the structure, equipment, fittings, ‘arrangements and materials used in the construction of a gas carrier are in compliance with the relevant IMO Gas Codes, Such certification may be issued on behalf of the Administration by approved Classification Societies. Certified Gas Free A tank, compartment or container is deemed to be certified gas free when it has been tested using approved testing instruments and proved to be, at the time of the test, sufficiently free of toxic or flammable or inert gas for a specified purpose and a certificate to this effect has been issued. Combustible Gas Detector An instrument used to detect combustible hydrocarbon gases, generally using a heated filament of a special metal to oxidise the gas catalytically and measure the gas concentration as a percentage of its Lower Flammable Limit. No single instrument is suitable for all combustible vapours. Requires frequent calibration using correct cali- bration gas mixture. Critical Pressure ‘The pressure of a saturated vapour at the critical temperature, i.e. the pressure required to cause liquefaction at that temperature. Critical Temperature ‘The temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied by pressure alone.Cryogenics The study of the behaviour of matter at very low temperatures. Density The mass per unit volume of a substance at specified conditions of temperature and pressure. (See also relative vapour density). Dewpoint The temperature at which the water vapour present in a gas saturates the gas and begins to condense Flammable Capable of being ignited and burning, Flammable Range ‘The range of combustible gas concentrations in air over which the mixture is flammable. That is the range of concentrations between the LFL (Lower Flammable Limit) and the UFL (Upper Flammable Limit) Flash Point ‘The lowest temperature at which a combustible liquid gives off sufficient vapour to form a flammable mixture with air near the surface of the liquid. Flash Point is determined by laboratory testing in a prescribed apparatus. Gauge Pressure ‘The pressure above that of the surrounding atmosphere. Hard Arm An articulated pipework arm used in terminals to connect shore pipework to ship manifold. Heat of Fusion Quantity of heat required to effect a change of state of a substance from solid to liquid without change of temperature, (Latent heat of fusion). Heat of Vaporisation Quantity of heat required to effect a change of state of a substance from liquid to vapour without change of temperature. (Latent heat of vaporisation). IMO International Maritime Organization. The United Nations specialised agency dealing with maritime affairs. Formerly the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO). Latent Heat ‘The heat required to cause a change in phase of a substance from solid to liquid (latent heat of fusion) or from liquid to vapour (latent heat of vaporisation). These phase changes for single component systems occur without change of temperature at the melting point and boiling point respectively. Liquefied Gas A liquid which has a saturated vapour pressure exceeding 2.8 bar absolute at 37.8°C (as defined in the IMO gas codes) LNG Liquefied Natural Gas, the principal constituent of which is methane. Lower Flammable Li (FL) ‘The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air below which there is insufficient hydrocarbon to support combustion.LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas. Propane and butanes and can be mixtures of the two. NGL Natural Gas Liquids. Hydrocarbons found in association with natural gas. Ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes and pentanes plus are constituents of NGL. Relative Vap wr Density ‘The mass of a vapour compared with the mass of an equal volume of air, both at standard conditions of temperature and pressure. Saturated Vapour Pressure (SVP) ‘The pressure at which a vapour is in equilibrium with its liquid at a specified temperature. The SVP increases when liquid temperature increases. Short Term Exposure mit (STEL) The maximum concentration of toxic contaminated atmospheres at which itis generally considered that workers will not be affected if working four periods of 15 minutes each per day with at least 60 minutes between each period. Spontaneous Combustion The ignition of material brought about by a heat producing (exothermic) chemical reaction within the material itself without exposure to an external source of ignition, Surge Pressure A phenomenon generated in a pipeline sytem when there is any change in the rate of flow of liquid in the line. Surge pressures can be dangerously high if the change of flow rate is too rapid and the resultant shock waves can damage pumping equipment and cause rupture of pipelines and associated equipment Threshold imit Value (TLV) Concentration of gases in air to which it is believed personne! may be exposed eight hours per day or 40 hours per week throughout their working life without adverse effects. The basic TLV is a Time Weighted Average (TWA) and may be supplemented by a TLV-STEL (Short Term Exposure Limit) or TLV-C (Ceiling exposure limit, which should not be exceeded even instantaneously). Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) ‘The concentration of a hydrocarbon gas in air above which there is insufficient air to support and propagate combustion, Vapour Density ‘The mass per unit volume of a gas or vapour under specified conditions of temperature and pressure. Vapour Pressure See Saturated Vapour Pressure.4, NON-CARGO FIRES Recognising that the intended audience will have undergone training at shore-based establishments and on board, the techniques involved in fighting ships’ accommo- dation, machinery, enclosed space and clectrical fires and terminal facility fires are assumed known. Neither the film nor the accompanying documentation therefore examine in any detail the fire management, control and extinguishing techniques of “conventional”, non-cargo firefighting, In addition to the gas carrier's cargo hazards in the compressor room it is necessary to emphasise that itis also a machinery space in which, for example, oil might accum- ulate in the bilges; that motor rooms have comprehensive electrical control and power circuits and that flammable, non-cargo, materials are ever present in store rooms, and that itis in these areas that previous knowledge and experience will need to be used. 5. THE NATURE OF LIQUEFIED GAS FIRES ‘The properties of liquefied gases is assumed knowledge for those watching the film. A brief summary of these properties are, however, contained in Appendix 1 Cargo and stored product fires may be broadly categorised as follows: — pressure fires from liquid or vapour leaks, at pump glands, pipe flanges, relief valves or vent headers, — fires from confined liquid pools, — fires fron unconfined spillages, and — fires in confined spaces. Pressure Fires Leaks from pump glands, pipe flanges, relief valves, mast head vent headers, etc will initially produce vapour and/or possibly liquid which will rapidly vaporise. This will not ignite spontaneously. Should a gas cloud occur, initial effort should be directed, using water sprays, to deflecting the cloud away from potential ignition sources and to protect the equipment with water spray against heat damage should ignition occur. If ignition does occur it will probably flash back to the source of leakage, giving a jet or torch fire. If the liquefied gas is being carried refrigerated and the emergency shutdown system and isolating valves are closed, a high pressure may be caused by heat radiated upon a pipeline until the trapped liquid has been expelled through the leak, either as liquid or vapour. Whether the cargo is liquefied under pressure or refrigeration the end result is the same—a fire in which the fuel is being fed under pressure with possibly a pool or a running fire on the deck beneath it, Pool Fires Prompt initiation of the ESD will do much to limit the amount of liquid spilled and because the ship’s deck, with its camber and open scuppers, will quickly pass liquid spillage over the ship’s side, the size and duration of pool fires would be limited. A liquid spillage on shore from tank or pipeline ruptures may however be in larger quantities and will generally be contained within bunds. Should the vapours from either type of spillage reach an ignition source a resultant pool fire will burn, like petrol, with tall flames and some black smoke. Evaporation will maintain the liquid temperature at, or slightly below, its boiling point. It is important to remember that the addition of water will increase the rate of vaporisation and intensify the fire. NON-CARGO FIRE HAZARDS PRESSURE FIRES, SOMETIMES CALLED JET OR TORCH FIRES POOL FIRES ISOLATE! BUNDSWhen using water to disperse spilled liquid, to prevent possible brittle fracture, the water should, wherever possible, be introduced a little at a time. Jets of water should never be directed into burning liquid gas as this will cause a violent increase in flame. When contained in drip-trays, the cold liquid may also be spilled on to the deck and should therefore be avoided. Fires in Enclosed Spaces Leaking gases may form a flammable mixture within an enclosed space which may cause an explosion if a source of ignition is found. However, once a fire is burning such an explosion is unlikely unless the heat can affect, ‘and cause failure 10, containment vessels or adjacent tanks. The supply of oxygen to the spaces should be minimised by closing openings where possible and shutting down mechanical ventilation. Enclosed spaces containing cargo related plant such as compressors, heat exchangers, ete. will normally be provided with a fixed and remotely operated fire suppressant system—CO,, Halon or medium/high expansion foam, Radiation The radiant heat from a flame is caused mostly by excited carbon particles in a flame which, unless they combine with oxygen soon after forming, radiate away their energy as heat and light, forming soot particles in the process. Whereas hydrogen flames are almost invisible, high levels of radiated heat are a feature of hydrocarbon fires, the soot density being dependent upon the fuel source. Where black smoke is profuse the smoke, to a limited extent, will shield the firefighters from radiation. Where some liquefied gas fires are concerned, rates of vaporisation are such that high burning rates are achieved with little black smoke (o absorb radiation and therefore it is essential when fighting a liquefied gas fire to wear full protective clothing and take advantage of water spray protection. Expansion of Contained Boiling Liquids When fires involve contained liquefied gases, (‘contained’ in this respect applying not only to pressure storage tanks but also to pipelines containing trapped liquid), the heat of the fire increases the internal pressure and the container’s metal may be weakened by high temperature to the point of failure, particularly at the top part of the container not internally wetted by the liquid product. The sudden release of the container’s contents to atmosphere and the immediate ignition of the resultant rapidly expanding vapour cloud can produce overpressures and heat radiation. A point to note is that if a vessel contains fully refrigerated liquefied gas, which would be liquid at atmospheric pressure, the chances of this phenomenon occurring are lessened and is dependant on heat input. Some fully refrigerated gas carriers, however, have deck storage pressure tanks and as mentioned above, a section of pipe between two closed valves, if heated, becomes a pressure vessel. Means of preventing this phenomenon are discussed in Section 7. QUESTION YOUR SHIP IS LYING AT A TERMINAL, LOADING LPG, WITH THE WIND FROM THE OFFSHORE BOW. IF YOU WERE FORWARD OF THE MANIFOLD WHEN A LEAK OCCURRED WOULD YOU RUN AFT TO THE ACCOMMODATION OR RUN FURTHER FORWARD? KEEP THOSE. JETS OUT OF FULL DRIP TRAYS DON'T FORGET: ENCLOSED SPACES MAY BE HARMFUL TO. THE UNWARY RADIANT HEAT HAZARDS OF CONTAINED LIQUEFIED GASESWere You Right? Every particular circumstance will be a little different but in the event of ‘an emergency it is best if you have anticipated what you might do. The formation of a large premixed cloud is a slow process and will probably only ‘occur near the source of the leak and at low wind velocities. Asa general principle you should run upwind to clear the area and seek shelter from possible flashback. You may, however, be able to pass upwind of the leak (0 gain the safety of the accommodation. ‘You should raise the alarm immediately and take action to stop the transfer of cargo. (eS ae A i eo ean) |ON ON DISCOVERING FIRE OR SPILLAGE, 6. ACI F.LR.E. There is @ well known reminder of the actions to be taken in successfully fighting a FIRE; Find Inform Restrict Extinguish Since this reminder was first considered, in the long and distant past, methods of finding, informing, restricting and extinguishing have advanced immeasurably. Nonetheless the same principles, modified where necessary, still apply. The first action to be taken on discovering a fire must be to raise the alarm and immediately alert others who may be in the vicinity. Since only cargo related fires are being considered in the film and support material, the discovery of a fire in the ship’s cargo area should be reported to the Bridge and Engine Room or the Cargo Control Room as appropriate. This may be by radio, talk-back system or similar. For terminal-related fires involving the terminal control centre and its communication facilities, similar considerations apply. Upon receiving advice of a fire, and dependant upon the pre-planned emergency procedures on the ship, an emergency control centre will be established. Simultaneously, in the event of a ship's fire with the ship alongside, the terminal will be informed of the fire and, in accordance with methods previously discussed al the pre-cargo transfer meeting between terminal and ship, the ESD system will be operated Both the ship and the terminal will have their own individual contingency plans for dealing with an incident but itis a necessary part of the ship/shore interface that such plans are mutually and fully discussed during pre-transfer mectings. Emergency Shut Down (ESD) Consideration should be given when activating ESD to the prevention of pressure surges in the transfer pipelines, both at the terminal and on board ship. A number of factors are relevant to this consideration: — whether the ship is loading, in which case the terminal ESD system should operate first, or discharging, when the ship ESD should be operated, — the liquid velocity in the pipeline, — the product being transferred. Surge pressures are influenced by the acoustic velocity of the liquid, — valve closure timings, and — length of transfer pipelines in use. FIND, IF YOU DISCOVER A FIRE, INFORM, RAISE THE ALARM RESTRICT, OPERATE AND ISOLATE OTHER VALVES EXTINGUISH, IN A SAFE AND CONTROLLED MANNERIt is often the case that, in the ship loading situation, the terminal supplies to the ship a cable pendant extension of their ESD to enable the ship to shut down the shore system. Similarly in the discharge situation, the ship may provide a pendant from their ESD system to allow the shore jetty operators to stop the transfer. Restrict ‘Once the ESD system has been activated and transfer stopped any other valves should be closed which will limit the further supply of fuel to the fire or reduce the length of pipeline affected by the incident In order to protect the terminal during an incident on board, terminals are frequently fitted with water spray systems to protect their hardarms, surge suppression tanks, and other jetty head equipment. These would normally be activated immediately, Foam equipment is not generally considered suitable for attacking liquefied gas fires but a foam monitor can be used effectively for cooling and may assist in vapour dispersal. Gas carriers are fitted with comprehensive water spray systems for cooling in the event of fires. The appropriate spray systems should be activated to restrict further the effects of the fire. To limit the dangers of a cargo fire spreading to other parts of the ship, accommodation front and control room water spray systems should be activated, 7. CONTROL OR EXTINGUISH? General Considerations If a leak is unignited a cloud forms which might find a source of ignition. Because the vapour cloud is so cold, the air in contact with it will be cooled below its dewpoint and a visible white cloud is seen. There is a temptation to think that this is the limit of the gas cloud. It must be remembered, however, that the flammable cloud may extend beyond the visible cloud. Ifa fire involving liquefied gas is extinguished without isolation of the fuel source a vapour cloud may form which, upon finding a source of ignition, would re-ignite and flash back to the leakage. This is an important point to remember since, having extinguished the initial fire, the fire teams may be in the process of, for example, cooling down hot areas when the flash back occurs. The film states that those in charge must make a positive decision as to whether to control or extinguish the fire. The prime factors on which to base such a decision are: — wind strength and direction. Is there plenty of wind to disperse the vapours after extinction? Will the wind carry the vapours out into open water? — potential ignition sources. Are they isolated or removed from the downwind area? (Potential sources of ignition include hot surfaces; people operating machinery or electrical equipment outside the safe area; private housing; pleasure boats or service craft—a compression ignition engine drawing flammable vapours into the air intake may overspeed and disintegrate; etc), — what volume of gas will be released if the fire is extinguished? The answer more often than not must be to isolate the fuel source and control the fire rather than to extinguish it. QUESTION A SMALL HOLE HAS APPEARED IN A 300MM PIPE WHICH HAS ‘A TWENTY METRE RUN BETWEEN CLOSED VALVES. IF THE LEAK CATCHES FIRE, WOULD YOU EXTINGUISH OR CONTROL? FLASHBACK POTENTIAL IGNITION SOURCESWere You Right? 2D L 4 8142/4) x (0.3) x 20 1.Alm? or 0.84 tonnes which would give a lot of vapour to be dispersed if you extinguish. The criteria for deciding to extinguish or control are given in the text. ‘The Riser Fire To illustrate the statement that the fire should be controlled rather than extinguished let us take the example of a fire on top of the ship’s masthead vent riser. Gas would normally only be released from the riser if a pressure relief valve were to lift or if arelief valve was opened. If during venting the release was ignited, the decision must be made as to whether to control or extinguish the fire. If the fire is extinguished, and venting continues, a gas cloud would form which, being normally heavier than air, may roll down on to and along the ship’s deck seeking @ source of ignition. If ignition occurs then the cloud will burn and flash back to the source. ‘Some ships are able to inject a smothering gas at the base of the riser which can snuff out the fire. This will not stop the emission of gas and if either the top of the riser is hot enough or if burning liquid is flowing down externally, immediate re-ignition can occur. The masthead should therefore be cooled by water sprays. If, however, the decision is made to control, rather than extinguish the fire, then the source of fuel should be cut off or diverted by suitable means and the fire allowed to burn itself out preventing the formation and potential hazards of a gas cloud. 8. CONTROL AND EXTINGUISHMENT TECHNIQUES CONTROL Isolation of Fuel As already stated, one of the first actions to be taken when a fire occurs is to activate the ESD system. Whilst this effectively stops the transfer of product, the nature and position of the fire may be such that it is being continuously fed by liquefied gas entrained in pipelines. To limit the supply of fuel or the effects of further pipe rupture, it may be necessary to close other valves in the vicinity of the fire. In order to do this it may be necessary to use water sprays to allow access to the valves. The technique is illustrated in the film. Note that the person controlling the operation, and who is going to operate the valve, is the man between the two hoses. He does not reach forward until he is certain that the two hoses are correctly positioned, the hose teams are concentrating on their job and not looking at the man, and the valve is adequately cooled. In reaching forward, care should be taken not to penetrate the protective water spray curtain. If the type of nozzle that produces a flat water-wall is being used, this should be closed slightly to help push the flame away from the firefighters, but the resultant hollow flame may produce a vortex which draws flame into the centre of the cone. This is acceptable, albeit disconcerting, provided the men stand firm. ISOLATE PRACTISE GETTING PROTECTED ACCESS TO THOSE VALVES IN AWKWARD PLACESPreventing the Expansion of Contained Boiling Liquids This phenomenon (see Section 5) is obviously something to be avoided and this is best done by cooling of the containment vessels by the immediate activation of fixed water spray systems supplemented where necessary by hand-held spray lines. Water sprays should be used rapidly or their effectiveness is diminished since above 200°C the water droplets tend to skate off on a layer of steam without cooling the metal Flame Bending Ifa pressure flame is impinging on other pipework, surrounding steelwork or pressure vessels, it may be slowly “‘bent away” using a spray jet. Care must be taken not to extinguish the flame unintentionally. If the spray jet is applied too close to the leak the water may be carried into the flame, which is extinguished. The technique is illustrated in the film. Ice formation may also extinguish a fire, if the pressure is limited, but be alert to this—the ice may subsequently blow off giving an unignited leak situation. Running Fires ‘The use of water sprays on a running fire which may have started beneath a pressure fire should flash off the liquid below. Thus the fire will be reduced to a pressure fire, eliminating the effects on pipework of the radiated heat from the running fire. ‘The Unignited Leak There is one important point that should be made and emphasised: From what has been said about not extinguishing a fire, never consider lighting an unignited leak. The hazards involved in so doing far outweigh any possible advantages. EXTINGUISHMENT Cooling In fires involving liquid, extinguishment is usually effected by cooling the liquid below its flash point. This is not possible in the case of liquefied gases. On the contrary, water increases the burning rate by the addition of heat thereby promoting evaporation of the spilled liquid. Smothering Smothering of liquefied gas fire conditions: difficult and may only be effective under certain, — in enclosed spaces such as ships’ compressor rooms where fire suppression may be achieved by CO, or Halons, — in mast risers, in high sided drip trays or within storage tank bunds. Medium and, in particular, high expansion foams applied in copious quantities may be successful in reducing, burning rates and controlling the fire by suppressing the radiation from the flame to the liquid below, thereby reducing the vaporisation rate. Foam, however, is unlikely to extinguish a liquefied gas fire QUESTION IF A SPRAY JET IS UNINTENTIONALLY APPLIED TOO CLOSE TO. THE BASE OF A PRESSURE FIRE IT MAY EXTINGUISH IT. HOW DO YOU THINK THIS IS ACHIEVED, SELECT A, B, C, D, OR E. A) BY STARVATION B) BY COOLING ©) BY SMOTHERING D)_BY FLAME INHIBITION 1B) BY NONE OF THE ABOVE IMMEDIATE ACTIVATION OF DECK WATER SPRAYS FLAME BENDINGWere You Right? Dis the most correct answer as the water spray is atomised into a fine fog and carried into the flame. The term cooling in firefighting usually refers to cooling a fuel below the temperature at which vapour is given off and this is not possible in liquefied gas fires. The fog will of course also cool hhot surfaces which could otherwise cause reignition. When a narrow jet is used, however, it probably achieves extinction by deflecting the gas away and starving the flame of fuel. Starvation By shutting off the fuel source the fire will consume the gas until it is extinguished After the valves have been closed the contents of the pipe will continue to feed the fire until the pipeline is free of pressure. Flame Inhibition Inhibiting a flame is the most effective way to extinguish a free burning liquefied as fire. Dry powder does not starve, smother or cool to any extent. What it does is to absorb the energy in the flame. A fuller explanation of this can be found in Appendix I. Dry powder also shields the fuel and the firefighter from the heat of the flame, The practical aspects of the use of dry powder are as follows: When dry powder settles a mixture of flammable vapour and air remains which will be reignited if any flame or hot surface exists. It should be remembered that dry powder has a minimum application rate for a given fire for efficient extinguishing of the fire, provided the correct technique is used. The technique with a pool fire is to sweep side to side and from the front to the back, For larger fires thought must be given to delaying the attack until a combined attack can be made using additional resources. 2. Care should be taken not to agitate the surface of a pool of liquid by direct application of a dry powder jet at close range. 3. The presence of objects such as steel supports may cause problems by shielding parts of the fire from the chemical and, because powders have a negligible cooling effect, may also leave ‘hot spots’ able to produce re-ignition after the initial extinguishment. For this latter reason special attention should be given to climinating hot spots by cooling with water sprays when using dry chemical powders, making sure that the source of spillage has been isolated. Experiments indicate that, in the shielded areas under and around ships’ cargo manifold piping, the application of fixed water sprays and dry powder together may provide sufficient turbulence for the powders to be carried into the shielded areas, 4. The specialist technique of extinguishing a pressure fire must be learned. If the powder is directed at a pressure fire from the front or side the powder will be pushed away without extinguishment. The powder must be directed into the base of the gas jet so that it will be entrained and extinguish the fire. To prevent a flash back, secondary fires and burning liquid below a pressure fire should be extinguished first, and the powder then swept up to the pressure fire in a continuous movement All these techniques are well illustrated in the film.9. EMERG! (CY PLANNING AND PROCEDURE: ‘Comprehensive contingency planning, thorough training, effective exercising and the use of well maintained equipment can very significantly contribute towards the suc- cessful management of an emergency situation and prevent escalation of that emergency. Although it is not the purpose of the documentation to enter into great detail on any of these aspects, the film and accompanying support material serve as very usefull reminders of the need to review and amend the procedures on board a gas carrier and in terminals wherever necessary. Protective Clothing Protective clothing should always be worn by personnel attending an incident involving liquefied gases. Speed of response is all important therefore protective clothing should not be stowed away in a holdall or box but left with the trousers turned down over pair of boots; the coat on a hook, the gloves and hat ready. The trousers must always be worn over the boots as it would be undesirable to have liquid gas running into the boots. If a person wearing protective clothing feels overheated he should leave the scene of the fire and have his suit opened up. Never cool with water until this is done— scalding may result. This problem may be alleviated if copious water protection is used from the outset, during the approach, and in close proximity to the fire, Clothing is of two types, cither insulated clothing made of fire-resistant cloth or an aluminised cloth designed to reflect radiated heat, the latter is probably the more appropriate for gas fires due to the high radiant’ heats involved. Both types are, however, effective, even more so if plenty of clothing is worn under them. A word of warning: some man-made materials such as nylons are hazardous in the vicinity of fire—they can melt onto the skin. (Wools and cottons are preferable). Breathing Apparatus To respond rapidly to an emergency situation, personnel must be thoroughly familiar with the fitting, wearing and use of compressed air breathing apparatus. (CABA). To rigidly define when, and when not, to use CABA is difficult depending as it does on the actual situation at the time, but generally breathing apparatus is not normally required for a liquefied gas fire but would be needed for an unignited leak and where the cargoes or the products of combustion may be toni Some cargoes may be toxic by skin absorption in which case CABA will be insufficient protection. The type of clothing described affords protection only from radiant heat and not from toxic or harmful vapours. The hazards of particular cargoes must be understood. Data information sheets for liquefied gas cargoes are available in the ICS publication “Tanker Safety Guide (Liquefied Gas)". Ammonia Ammonia is often considered to be non-flammable. This, however, is incorrect although ammonia has a high minimum ignition energy and high lower flammable limit making a flammable mixture in the open air unlikely. Being soluble Water, ammonia vapours can be controlled by water sprays. WHEN THERE IS A LARGE RELEASE OR FIRE ON DECK THE ACCOMMODATION MAY PROVIDE A PROTECTIVE “CITADEL” PROTECTIVE CLOTHING IT SHOULD BE POSSIBLE TO DON FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING IN UNDER THREE MINUTES THIS TAKES PRACTICE!APPENDIX 1 THE PROPERTIES OF LIQUEFIED GASES Combustion is a chemical process but many of the features of the way liquefied gases behave during spillage and fire, and the techniques and hazards of firefighting, are due to the physical properties of the gas and the physical changes which take place. Physical Properties In general terms a liquefied gas is the liquid state of a substance which at ambient temperature and at atmospheric pressure is a gas. For economic purposes, gases are liquefied for transportation. For example, a ship would have to be some 250 times larger to carry propane as a gas rather than as liquid at atmospheric pressure. 2. States of Matter Most substances can exist in either the solid, liquid or vapour state. In changing from solid to liquid (melting) or from liquid to vapour (vaporisation), heat must be supplied to the substance. In changing from vapour (0 liquid (condensation/liquetying) or from liquid to solid (solidification/freezing), the substance releases heat. The heat supplied to or released by the substance in changing state is called latent heat. Solidification occurs at a specific temperature for the substance. YVaporisation or condensation occurs at a temperature which increases if the pressure exerted on the substance is increased. The gas is therefore liquefied under pressure or refrigeration, or a combination of both. A list of liquefied gases together with their important criteria is given in Table 1 It is convenient here, against the background of the preceding paragraphs, to consider what happens when a liquefied gas is spilled. Firstly, consider the escape from its containment of a fully refrigerated liquid. The liquid is already at or near atmospheric pressure but, on escape, it is inevitably brought immediately into contact with objects such as structures, the ground or the sea which are at ambient temperature. The temperature difference between the cold liquid and the objects it contacts provides an immediate transfer of heat to the liquid, resulting in rapid evolution of vapour. As the temperature difference is reduced the rate of evaporation slows down but continues until the liquid is completely evaporated. In the case of a spill coming into contact with water, the water gives to the liquefied gas not only its heat as it cools, but also its latent heat as it turns to ice. This explains why a water jet directed into a drip tray fire would greatly increase the rate of burning. ‘There is enough energy in a given volume of water to evaporate about 3 times that volume of liquefied gas, This statement may be checked by means of a simple, albeit not precise calculation, applicable to propane contained in a drip tray: ‘Assuming that there is enough propane to absorb the heat from the water which is at 15°C. Specific heat of water S, 42k) ke Latent heat of solidification of water L, 333k kg! Latent heat of vaporisation of propane 303 kJ kg! Density of propane, say 600 kg m-? Density of fresh water 1,000 ke m-> Amount of heat given as one cubic metre of water cools from T, to T; S, (1, - T) = 4.2.x (15 ~ (-42)) x 10° 4.2.x 57x 10) = 2.39 x 10 KI (A) Latent heat of solidification of one cubic metre of water = 3.33 x 10° kJ (B) Available latent heat for vaporisation of propane A+B = 5.72x 10k) 72 x 10/303 1.84 x 10° ke, = 1,84 x 105/600 = 3m Mass of propane vaporised Volume = mass/density ‘The energy in 1 m’ of water therefore can evaporate 3.1 m’ of liquefied propane into gas.sunsodyg wa, Uoys “z ry aansodey a3], $007 oq) 20} sumesndw eons ayn an098 81 DeR°LEe su0N> € t axqeunney- un] oe w- | ror i) suyoD 20v01ND ewommy | Se sc 19 st | os = 660 ree — orl SAN ‘ouny euowury apne autidorg | ost oor so wee | we ere OH | _sudosdivoag | spRO seKGora Seno soawa = § or a wi cor cz Oi | sweqncoda | epno aunitna wor |e L uur a se ee us To | sRROHOND OA Ta Sap aa enon oz 05 et " n> | amore ont ape at % wi os "> 2voypema auopein sunning so a vet oo “Ho seen sumingt saan om om = vr tuo aime yiangre warkdoia ee 7 | on cur - ost "HD mando sano monk we we | ost ew = "HD oan oor susie a = at os suelo a me 05. 009 ons sa—et | wt en $5 iW’ cone a anings | Om 0 a seat wt so - oe HD using sowie suedosd | sor s6—1e so ew - rer "WD auedoig auedoud sonar | Sel as sure #9 a8 — 0 auto sue mew | * oT ses woes | sat 550 S11 0 1 sunny aunN wa wae ow a=W) ones ne. yen kas) ‘aseap ‘ermosqe ‘seg vat twor | vat ae tue ‘node 0g Serce | moog suse vtus) | “tart sgeuue | sng | simey | uoydsouny | ainsandinode, | "aduis raists SASVD GALIANOIT JO SALLAAAOUd +1 71GeLSpillage from a pressurised container is, initially, different in that the liquid before escape is at ambient temperature. At atmospheric pressure rapid vaporisation takes place. The necessary latent heat is taken primarily from the iquid itself which rapidly cools to its temperature of vaporisation at atmospheric pressure. This is called flash evaporation and, depending upon the change in temperature as the liquid escapes from its containment, a proportion of the liquid flashes off in this way. The considerable volume of vapour produced within the escaping liquid causes the liquid to fragment into small droplets and again, depending upon the change in pressure, as the liquid escapes, these droplets will be ejected with a considerable velocity. These droplets take heat from the surrounding air and vaporise. Water vapour in the air condenses to form a white visible cloud. Thereafter any liquid which remains will evaporate in the same way as for spilled fully refrigerated liquid until the spillage is wholly vaporised. Apart from the hazards introduced by the generation of vapour becoming flammable as it is diluted with the surrounding air, the rapid cooling imposed upon contacted objects will cause cold burns on human tissue. 3. Flammability and Explosion a) Combustion ‘Combustion is a chemical reaction, initiated by a source of ignition o by heating to its auto-ignition temperature, in which a flammable vapour combines with oxygen in suitable proportions to produce carbon dioxide, water vapour and heat. Under ideal conditions the reaction for propane can be written as follows: CH + 5) 30, + AHO + Heat propane oxygen combustion carbon water energy available for energy dioxide vapour further combustion Under certain circumstances when, for example, the oxygen supply to the source of fuel is restricted, carbon monoxide or carbon can also be produced. ‘The three requirements for combustion to take place are fuel, oxygen and ignition energy. A bunsen burner with the air-hole open gives a clear blue flame. The air and fuel have been mixed together before they get into the flame, this is called a premixed flame. (See Figure 1a), the air-hole closed the gas has to find air to mix with by ordinary diffusion of gases. The result is a lazy yellow flame. Excited molecules which fail to find oxygen to react with immediately, radiate their energy away. ‘As the rich gases can only burn as they mix with air by diffusion this is called a diffusion flame. (See Figure 1b), Airhole Airhole ps ‘closed Fig. 1bThe gases produced by combustion are heated by the combustion reaction. In open, unconfined spaces the consequent expansion of these gases is unrestricted and the combustion reaction may proceed smoothly without undue overpressures developing. If the free expansion of the bot gases is restricted in any way, pressures will rise and the speed of flame travel will increase, depending upon the degree of confinement encountered. Increased flame speed in turn gives rise to more rapid increase in pressure with the result that damaging overpressures may be produced and, even in the open, if there is some confinement from surrounding pipework, plant and buildings, escalation of the combustion will occur. In severely confined conditions, as within a building for example where the expanding gases cannot be adequately relieved, the internal pressure and its rate of increase may be such as to disrupt the containment. Here, the resultant explosion is not so much directly due to high combustion rates and flame speed as to the violent expulsion of the contained high pressure upon containment rupture. b) Range of Flammability The term range of flammability gives a measure of the proport lable vapour to air necessary for combustion to be possible. The flammable range is the range between the minimum and maximum concentrations of vapour (per cent by volume) in air which form a flammable mixture, Below the lower flammable limit (LFL) the mixture is said to be “too lean” to burn and above the upper flammable limit (UFL) the mixture is said to be “too rich”? to burn. This concept is illustrated for propane in Figure 2. D 100% Propane vapour in air Rich (% by volume) Flammable range ec 9.5% in air) is r 2.1% A oan 0% Propane All the liquefied gases transported in gas carriers, with the exception of chlorine, are flammable but the values of the flammable range are variable and depend on the particular vapour. The flammable range of a particular vapour is broadened in the presence of oxygen in excess of that normally in air; the lower flammable limit is not much affected whereas the upper flammable limit is considerably raised. All flammable vapours exhibit this property and as a result oxygen should not normally be introduced into a space where flammable vapours exist. The oxygen cylinders associated with oxy-acetylene burners and oxygen resuscitators should only be introduced into hazardous areas under strictly controlled conditions. QUESTION IF AN INCENDIVE SPARK IS INTRODUCED INTO A SPACE CONTAINING 6% BY VOLUME OF PROPANE VAPOUR, THERE WILL BE AN IGNITION. ‘TRUE OR FALSE?Were you Right? ay ‘Truc, ifthe propane is mixed with air containing 219% oxygen. If the atmosphere contained only 10% oxygen, however, no ignition would occur. ©) Flash Point The flash point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which that liquid will evolve sufficient vapour to form a flammable mixture with air. High vapour pressure liquids such as liquefied gases have extremely low flash points. However, although liquefied gases are never carried at temperatures below their flash point, the vapour spaces above such cargoes are non-flammable since they are virtually, under most operational conditions, 100 per cent rich with cargo vapour and are thus far above the upper flammmable limi @) Auto-ignition Temperature ‘The auto-ignition temperature of a substance is the temperature to which its vapour in air must be heated for it to ignite spontaneously. The auto-ignition temperature is not related to the vapour pressure or to the flash point of the substance and, since most ignition sources in practice are external flames or sparks, itis the flash h is generally used for the flammability jon of escaping vapour by steam pipes emperature of vapours of liquefied gases are worthy of note. Ps classification of hazardous materials. Nevertheless, in terms of the igt or other hot surfaces, the auto-ignition 4. Flame Ini ion Inhibiting a flame is the most effective way to extinguish a free burning liquefied gas fire. In order that this may successfully be achieved it is first necessary to understand the relevant theory: Methane may be released from the hydrocarbon mixture and mixed with oxygen but the two do not react together until either a source of ignition is found or the gas is heated above its auto ignition temperature. (At ordinary temperatures the methane and oxygen molecules are quite stable and all chemical bonds on the carbon a are satisfied by having a hydrogen atom bonded to each one). THE FIRE RECTANGLE Fue! Molecular chain reaction of Air combustion H | Heat H—G—H WHICH MAY BE BROKEN BY | Starvation H cH, 0: A lame ‘Me Methane molecule the Oxygen molecule iame smothering Cooling Fig. 3a Fig, 3b ‘The addition of energy, however, either means that the molecules accelerate and collide with sufficient energy to cause the bonds (0 rearrange themselves, or, alternatively the molecule vibrates so much that bits fall off, leaving a radical (a molecule with an unattached chemical bond) which will then attack another molecule. If this further reaction produces more radicals, then a chain reaction follows, When hydrocarbon burns, many of these reactions produce more than one radical producing branched chain reactions which can proceed very rapidly. Thus:—° ° oO igure 4—Molecular Chain Reaction of Combustion Ina pool fire, radiant heat from the flame provides energy to vaporise the fuel and the chain reactions proceed through the vapour cloud wherever it is sufficiently mixed with air. Dry powders, Halons and water fog first shield the fuel and the firefighter from the heat of the flames and secondly absorbs the free radicals to break the chain reaction of combust 5. Vaporisation of Spilled Liquid When a gas is stored as a liquid, whether under pressure or refrigeration, vaporise when released to the atmosphere, taking heat from its surroundings in so doing. Depending upon the liquid spilled, the spill size and whether on land or water, the rate of vaporisation and the temperature and density of the ensuing vapour will vary. Almost certainly the cloud will be initially cold and will below lying and will drift downwind; its occurrence will, in general, be visible as a white ‘cloud” which is condensed atmospheric water vapour. Methane when warmer than — 100°C and ethylene are lighter than air but at transportation temperatures and immediately after a spill heavier than air. Ammonia, while lighter than air, will react in a very similar manner in the event of a spill.APPENDIX 2 GAS CARRIER AND TERMINAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT 1, THE GAS CARRIER ‘The requirements of safety equipment for liquefied gas carriers are contained in the relevant Codes and Conventions of the International Maritime Organisation and the appropriate rules of the various National Marine Administrations and Classification Societies. It is not the purpose of this document to list all the equipment to be found on board. Rather, to familiarise non-carrier personnel with the emergency and firefighting resources that are typically provided and which, in the event of a fire on board whilst alongside a terminal, may usefully contribute towards a successful combined attack on a fire involving cargo. Water Water isa prime contributor to liquefied gas firefighting, and is available in copious quantities. It isan excellent cooling agent for surfaces exposed to radiation or direct flame impingement and in spray form may be used effectively for flame bending, as a radiation screen or to deflect an unignited vapour cloud away from ignition sourees. In some circumstances, water can be used to extinguish a jet or column of burning gas In addition to conventional fire hoses fitted with dual purpose nozzles, gas carriers are provided with fixed water deluge systems for surfaces such as ships’ accommodation fronts, control rooms, compressor rooms, deck tanks, tank domes, manifold valves, etc. Such fixed water spray systems are designed to provide a layer of water over all the exposed surfaces to be protected and by this means the cooling water's sensible and latent heat is harnessed. Water sprays from fixed monitors or from handheld hose nozzles can provide adequate radiation protection for personnel in their approach to shut-off valves oF to pressure or vent fires. Dry Chemical Powder Dry chemical powders can be very rapidly effective in extinguishing small LNG or LPG fires. Gas carriers are fitted with comprehensive fixed dry powder installations capable of delivering considerable quantities of powder to any part of the cargo area by means of fixed monitors and/or handheld hoses. Many ships also have wheeled dry powder units in addition to conventional hand-held extinguishers, Foam Since foam will not extinguish a liquefied gas fire and is effective only when applied to a substantial depth it is only suitable in bunded areas and is not normally provided on gas carriers for cargo firefighting except for enclosed spaces. Inert Gas Gas carriers are frequently fitted with fixed inert gas or nitrogen generators for operational, as opposed to emergency, reasons. However, because of the comparatively low rate at which such gas can be delivered, itis not normally used for the inerting of an enclosed space in which a fire already exists. For this purpose high pressure bottled CO, or halogenated hydrocarbons (halons) is injected into the enclosed, space through the fixed multiple nozzle installation, the mechanical ventilation system to the space having first been shut-off. 2. THE TERMINAL Fire protection facilities installed at the terminal and on the jetty will depend on such factors as local and/or national regulations, location of the terminal, availability of local fire services, type and size of storage, type of ships and types of product handled. Many of the facilites here discussed are similar to those applicable to the gas carrier Water Fixed deluge systems, designed to provide a layer of water over all exposed surfaces, are customary for storage tanks and plant in potential fire areas and application rates can vary from two to ten or more litres per square metre per minute, Additionally, many terminals have fixed deluge systems fitted at the jetty head to protect the hard arms and associated cargo transfer equipment from incidents involving liquefied gases on board a gas carrier. Such systems are often able to provide protection to the ship from on incident at the terminal, Handheld hose lines and powered fire engines are also normally availableDry Chemical Powder Dry powder is also normally available from fixed, mobile or portable equipment. Required application rates for successful extinguishment are very dependent on wind speed and direction, Fou Medium and high expansion foam applied in generous quantities to the surface of a burning, confined, liquid 228 poo! will largely suppress the radiation from the fire to the liquid below, reduce vaporisation and thus the intensity of the fire. The rate of application should be sufficient to maintain a foam depth of one to two metres CO, and Halogenated Hydrocarbons (Halons) Although substantial quantitics of CO, may be required, it can act rapidly and effectively in dealing with enclosed space fires. CO, extinguishers therefore are of litle value on open jetties but they may be provided for the local extinguishment of electrical fires and the like. Similarly halons, although much lower concentrations are required to inhibit combustion compared to CO., are effectively only of value when used in enclosed spaces. In very limited wind conditions, however, they may be successful on small pool fires and halon extinguishers are therefore occasionally placed within the terminal and, on jetties in the vicinity of drip trays, ete, 3. GENERAL, Sections 1 and 2 of this Appendix deal with the major firefighting resources that are available on the gas carrier or at the terminal and are specific to the liquefied gas incident All installations, be they ship o shore terminal, will of course be provided with mobile and portable extinguishers and other facilities for dealing with non-cargo fires.APPENDIX 3 TYPICAL GAS CARRIER LAYOUT GAS CARRIER TYPES, AND TYPICAL LAYOUTS An introductory outline of the various types of gas carrier currently in service is considered relevant to this, documentation for the benefit of personnel from fire services, terminals, port and emergency services, etc. 1. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Fully Pressurised Carriers Cargo is carried at ambient temperature in uninsulated pressure vessels of spherical or cylindrical shape and independent of the hull structure except for their supporting cradles. Design working pressure is usually around 19 bar absolute, enabling propane to be carried at temperatures up to 45°C. Cargo capacity of these ships range from a few hundred cubic metres to 5,000 cubic metres. This was the earliest type of carrier built for dedicated liquefied gas service (late 1940s) and still remains the most numerous (about 300 ships out of a world fleet in 1983 of some 750 gas carriers of all types). The number of fully pressurised carriers in the world fleet is, however, declining as refrigerated carriage of LPG becomes more widespread both for regional distribution and for ocean transport. Refrigerated, Semi-Pressurised LPG Carriers This type also carries its cargoes in pressure vessel tanks independent of the hull structure but, by permitting the cargo to boil and by reliquefying the boil-off vapour, is able to maintain cargo pressures within the tank design limits which range, generally, from 4 to 7 bar. The tank steel is suitable for the minimum eargo temperature envisaged and the tanks ate insulated to minimise heat input from the surroundings. The first ships of this type (carly 1960s) were limited to minimum cargo temperatures which enabled LPG to be carried within the design pressure limitation of the cargo tanks. More recently built ships, however, are provided with tank materials and juefaction plants allowing fully refrigerated carriage of LPGs and the chemical gases (445°C to ~ 50°C). Some few specially constructed ships in this category extend this range down to the fully refrigerated carriage of ethylene (— 104°C). The combination of facilities for low temperature and a degree of pressurisation provides such ships with trading flexibility enabling them to load LPG from pressurised storage, cool the cargo during the voyage and deliver it to fully refrigerated storage at near atmospheric pressure. The lower design pressure of the cargo tanks permits a greater size range than for fully pressurised carriage and modern semi-pressurised ships may be up to 30,000 m* capacity Fully Refrigerated LPG Carriers ‘These ships carry LPG and the chemical liquefied gases only under fully refrigerated conditions at near atmospheric pressure. The cargo tanks generally are self-supporting, are independent of the ship's hull structure and are of prismatic shape, so utilising the available ship hull contours more completely than is achievable with spherical or cylindrical pressure vessel tanks. While tank design pressures up to 0.7 bar gauge are permitted they are usually around 0.25 to 0.35 bar gauge. Tank construction materials, insulation and liquefaction plant permit cargo temperatures down to ~ 58°C and the cargo systems may be equipped to carry ammonia or vinyl chloride monomer as well as the full range of LPG. Ship sizes range from 5,000 to over 100,000 m* LNG Carriers LNG is invariably carried fully refrigerated at around — 162°C in prismatic or spherical tanks of aluminium, nickel steel or stainless steel. Prismatic tanks may be of the self-supporting type, independent of the ship's structure and fabricated in aluminium or nickel steel but are also of the type where the cargo is contained by a membrane of stainless steel or Invar mounted on load bearing insulation which is supported by the inner hull structure of the ship. Alternatively, cargo may be contained in spherical tanks of aluminium or 9% nickel steel designed and constructed on pressure vessel principles and supported around their horizontal circumference. The tanks, however, are not classified as pressure vessels. Cargo containment for LNG is well insulated to control boil-off to a designed level. The boil-off vapours are not reliquefied as in refrigerated LPG carriers but are used as fuel for the ship’s steam propulsion plant.Dernier recir Type C tanks as utilised on semi-pressurised fully refrigerated gas carriers Fig. 5: Typical sections through liquefied gas carriers Self-supporting spherical Type B tank Water ballast [—Bulknead Hold Prismatic self-supporting Type A tank for a fully refrigerated LPG carrier A membrane type containment system as utilised on larger-sized LNG carriers down skietIn quest of greater economy, however, design proposals for future LNG carriers usually incorporate diesel propulsion, increased cargo tanks insulation and a plant for reliquefaction of boil-off. Consideration has also been given, alternatively, to the development of a dual:fuel main propulsion diesel for boil-off consumption. LNG carriers presently in service range from cargo capacities of 25,000 m’ to 133,000 m’. However, present construction and future designs are invariably for cargo capacities at the top end of this range and beyond. Ethylene Carriers ‘The cargo is usually fully refrigerated at — 104°C; the cargo tanks are made from aluminium, nickel steel or stainless (austenitic) steel. Insulation and reliquefaction plant is fitted. The cargo tanks used are independent. Ifa secondary barrier is fitted this is not part of the hull. A full inner hull is provided with double bottom and wing ballast tanks fitted, The ships tend (0 be specialised, mostly from 1,000 to 12,000 m’ capacity and with one to four tanks. They are often equipped so that higher boiling point cargoes such as LPG can be carried ‘Typical sectional arrangements are shown in Figure 5. 2. LAYOUT ire 6 is a diagrammatic representation of a typical gas carrier. It is not intended to portray any particular ‘pe of ship and specific ships may have some or all of the items fitted which would be located in alternative positions. ‘The purpose of this Appendix is to identify to non-gas carrier personnel the type of situations which may be encountered on board, the nature of the hazard that each presents and the problems that may be encountered. Accommodation The accommodation and machinery spaces are areas where non-cargo associated fires may occur and hence have relevant extinguishment systems for this purpose. In the event of cargo be the area where the emergency command centre is established, May be the location of the cargo control room. Accommodation front is protected by a fixed water spray system Motor/Compressor Room Enclosed space which, in addition to cargo machinery, may contain oils/areases etc. Fitted with either CO, or Halon fixed extinguishing system which requires ventilation to be stopped and personnel to be evacuated prior to release. The sides of the structure are protected by a fixed water spray system. Ship/Shore Cargo Transfer Connection ‘Arca on deck where, in the alongside situation, the ship piping meets that of the terminal via hardarms or hoses. Possible areas of liquefied gas spillage and where limited pools contained in drip trays may occur. Considered as potentially hazardous arca and should contain no ignition sources. Protected by fixed water spray system. Mast Riser Possible source of flammable vapours from lifting relief valves or cargo ventilation. Sometimes fitted with inerting arrangement. Pipeline Systems and Valves Encountered along length of cargo deck some of which protected by fixed water spray system but others may require use of mobile water sprays ‘Tank Dome Contains cargo piping and instrumentation and may contain electric motors, pump seals, etc. Will contain cargo isolating valves. Protected by fixed water spray system. Interbarrier and/or Hold Spaces Depending on type of ship, may be continuously inerted and incapable of supporting life without external air supply. Also may contain insulation which gives off highly toxic fumes in the event of fire. Entry should be strictly controlled. In the event of major incident, with outer and inner hulls damaged, may also contain flammable vapours and/or liquid cargo.Joqssna 8 ywouds) Jo mosey 9 “Bay 40 yiBua} ajoum uns hey an 2 a]0uM una Key uonemys oi auinbesXeids nga hq Bu]o09 YOU |W'skoids sojem pax fa poised ued ards ste Ka perce 3) souen sys one ‘S3ATVAGNY WALSAS aNMTaAId Spomedid surewoo aoa xNvL fou uogeyrou sais 080 $90¥4S GTOH HO/GNY waluUVEUaLNE snvi opuva| la ee j ‘routes eyo pur pens | os “f “a SS | NoLINOW waamod AUG es zs uonenys 3 pea Be09 S sea we Buuayiows Jessa * gz ‘wou bm pay Atanbas ceunssoig heids so1en Aa persed ‘ 2 wasiuiswn NL aunssaud 2ovUOLS 930 a elt epssbuore oun eax ageseulrA ‘sherds eien ha parzeioNd NOUSaNNOD aUOHSiAINS & sheids sem ka perceoid esnon shexds sem suoneodojsuen fa poise0sdiuor4 ob1es Bussasedns jeuuossed ka posh 'W00uT0NOD BUYS NeuyooneDSSY uisiuoo ose fe ‘vonems uw poddois ogi voneluen Pots 26 weessidans ous “eoeds pobomoug noou vossauanoaiuoLoNDry Powder Installations Capable of delivering dry powder at high application rates either by fixed monitors or by handheld hose lines, may be remotely operated. Deck Storage Pressure Tanks Depending upon arrangement, may or may not be fitted. If fitted may contain liquefied gas cargoes or liquefied nitrogen, spillage from which could crack the ship’s steel deck and could cause cold (or “frost"’) burns. Requires cooling, particularly above internal liquid level, in the event of fire. Protected by fixed water spray system Deck Fire Water Main May be continuously pressurised. Capable of supplying handheld fire hoses along length of deck and should have isolating valves to minimise pressure loss should sections of pipe be disrupted International Ship/Shore Fire Connection ‘An internationally agreed size of flat bolting face to which an external supply of firefighting water can be connected into the ship's firemain via accessible firemain hydrant, flange or hose. Engine Room Contains major supply services such as electricity, firemain water pumps, water spray system pumps, etc. Emergency back-up supplies are also normally available externally.