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Sumario
Revista de Psicologa y Educacin
Journal of Psychology and Education
Volumen 10, Nmero 2, 2015
ISSN:1699-9517e-ISSN:1989-9874
Tema Monogrfico:
Dificultades de aprendizaje de las matemticas
Resumen
Se inicia esta presentacin haciendo referencia a las cifras de prevalencia y los costes econmicos sociales
que tiene el fracaso escolar en matemticas. Las aportaciones desde las ciencias cognitivas nos permiten
actualmente poder evaluar e intervenir tempranamente con nios y nias que presentan riesgo de dificultades
de aprendizaje de las matemticas. En este sentido se comentan las ideas bsicas desarrolladas en este
nmero monogrfico considerando los componentes cognitivos subyacentes al aprendizaje matemtico, y
las posibilidades de establecer remedios desde diferentes perspectivas tericas.
Palabras clave: ciencias cognitivas, dificultades de aprendizaje de las matemticas, fracaso escolar,
matemtica temprana.
Abstact
Special Issue about Mathematics Learning Difficulties: An introduction. This presentation begins
by referring prevalence data and that social economic costs have school failure in mathematics. The
contributions from cognitive science now allow us early assessment and intervention when the risk for
learning difficulties in mathematics is manifest. Them ate discussed the basic thoughts presented in this
issue, considering the underlying mathematical learning cognitive components, and the possibilities for
remedies from different theoretical perspectives.
Palabras clave: cognitive science, mathematics learning difficulties, school failure, early mathematics
del Early Numeracy Test-Revised (ENT-r). Esta prueba fue originalmente di-
seada por el equipo del Prof. Van Luit y ha sido adaptada informticamente y
baremada con una poblacin espaola de casi 1400 nios comprendidos entre
los 4 y 7 aos de edad. El resultado ha sido una herramienta que en se deno-
mina en castellano: Test de evaluacin matemtica temprana-informatizado
(TEMT-i) (Van Luit et al., 2015).
Resumen
Se hace una revisin exhaustiva del estado del arte de las dificultades de aprendizaje de las matemticas,
considerando inicialmente las diferentes terminologas utilizadas para referirnos a este tipo de problemtica.
Asimismo, se revisan las diferentes estadsticas sobre la prevalencia de este tipo de trastorno y se analizan
las causas ms importantes que explican la aparicin de las dificultades matemticas, desde el dficit del
sentido numrico, en el sistema de precisin-exactitud numrica, y del sistema de aproximacin numrica.
Palabras clave: dificultades de aprendizaje matemtico, prevalencia, sentido numrico, exactitud numrica.
Abstract
Son numerosos los estudios que temticas (Aunio, Heiskari, Van Luit,
muestran la importancia que unos bue- y Vuorio, 2015). Jordan, Kaplan, Ra-
nos resultados en el rendimiento mate- mineni y Locuniak (2009), encontra-
mtico tiene sobre la economa de un ron que el sentido numrico, el cono-
pas y el bienestar de sus ciudadanos. cimiento de las relaciones numricas,
En cualquier sociedad avanzada hay y la comprensin de conceptos num-
preocupacin tanto por el analfabetis- ricos en preescolar predicen ms tarde
mo como por la pobreza en el cono- el rendimiento en matemticas incluso
cimiento matemtico, aunque la poca controlando el cociente intelectual y la
competencia para la matemtica es situacin socio-econmica. Morgan,
ms comn que el iletrismo. El 22% Farkas, y Wu (2009), con una muestra
de los adultos en los Estados Unidos representativa encontraron que los es-
tienen problemas con los nmeros tudiantes que se quedaron por debajo
(por ejemplo, tienen dificultades para del percentil 10 al final de preescolar
calcular una propina del 10% sobre (a menudo considerado un indicador
el total de la factura) y las exigencias de problemas de aprendizaje en ma-
de tipo matemtico en las economas temticas) tuvieron un 70% de posibi-
modernas han ido aumentando de ma- lidades de permanecer por debajo del
nera constante. En el Reino Unido se percentil 10, cinco aos despus.
calcula que el coste de la baja prepa- Sin duda, hay muchas razones de
racin para las matemticas es de 763 por qu algunas personas son fun-
millones de libras cada ao (Hudson, cionalmente analfabetas numricas y
Precio, y Gross, 2009; Butterworth, presentan bajo rendimiento en mate-
Varma, y Laurillard, 2011). mticas cuando salen de la escuela. En
Por otra parte, el rendimiento en los ltimos aos, los investigadores
pruebas matemticas sencillas reali- han dedicado muchos esfuerzos a ex-
zadas en la infancia (por ejemplo, re- plicar las causas de estas dificultades
solver problemas simples, operar con (Butterworth, et al., 2011; Jordan, Ha-
fracciones, conocer el algebra o las nich, y Kaplan, 2003; Mazzocco, Fei-
medidas), predice la empleabilidad y genson, y Halberda, 2011a; Swanson,
el nivel salarial en la edad adulta, an Jerman, y Zheng, 2008) y a desarrollar
controlando otros factores (Rivera- intervenciones para mejorar los rendi-
Batiz, 1992). La aparicin de diferen- mientos (Aragn, Navarro, Aguilar, y
cias en habilidades matemticas en los Cerda, 2015; Clements, Sarama, Spit-
nios se aprecian ya desde la guarde- ler, Lange, y Wolfe, 2011).
ra, antes de que la educacin formal Por todo lo anterior, la investiga-
comience con la enseanza de las ma- cin sobre las dificultades de apren-
Desde que Kosc (1974) propuso consideran solo los problemas de ma-
una definicin y un mtodo para es- temticas y no los que lo tienen con el
timar la prevalencia del trastorno, las clculo.
diferentes estimaciones de la DD di- Estas variaciones en las tasas de
vergen considerablemente. Varios in- prevalencia se pueden explicarpor va-
vestigadores, sin embargo, coinciden rios factores: los nios son de edades
en el porcentaje avanzado por Kosc, diferentes, los idiomas y culturasde las
que era el 6.4%. Generalmente se pro- muestras tambin son diferentes, se
ponen unos criterios para la deteccin utilizan criterios diagnsticos diversos
de la discalculia que siguen los avan- para incluir o excluir a un nio, la elec-
zados por Kosc, a saber, para ser cla- cin de las pruebas de referencia para
sificado como discalclico el sujeto evaluar las destrezas son mltiples.
debe tener dificultades en el clculo Por otra parte, la discalculia se asocia
(criterio de inclusin) y no tener otras con frecuencia a dislexia por ejemplo,
dificultades en otros dominios (criterio desde una tasa del 17% (Gross-Tsur et
de exclusin). Pero operacionalizar es- al., 1996) al 43.3-65% (Barbaresi et
tos criterios es un asunto controverti- al., 2005) de los nios con discalculia
do; por ejemplo, Fischer (2007) utiliza tambin seran dislxicos, segn crite-
un criterio estadstico, de manera que rios diagnsticos usados; asimismo se
un estudiante se incluye en una mues- asocia con el trastorno por dficit de
tra potencial de discalclicos si su atencin/hiperactividad (se presenta
puntuacin es inferior en ms de 1,64 en el 26% de los nios con discalcu-
puntuacin de la desviacin estndar lia; Gross-Tsur et al., 1996, Miranda
de la poblacin de comparacin. La Casas, Meli-de Alba, Marco-Taver-
comparacin entre la puntuacin de ner, Rosell, y Mulas, 2006). Segn
las matemticas de un estudiante y su Barbaresi et al. (2005), la discalculia
puntuacin en lengua (francs en este afecta a ms nios que nias (en una
caso) permite verificar el criterio de proporcin de 2 a 1). Sin embargo
discrepancia: el estudiante es excluido hay estudios que defienden que tanto
si su puntuacin en francs no es signi- nios como nias obtienen puntuacio-
ficativamente superior a su puntuacin nes similares hasta el comienzo de la
en matemticas. Con este criterio, con- escolarizacin y que, por el contrario,
siderado poco estricto, el porcentaje en la adolescencia los varones obten-
de estudiantes con DD es claramente dran un mejor desempeo (Freeman,
inferior al 6% de Kosc; Fisher (2007) 2004; Levine, Vasilyeva, Lourenco,
obtiene un ndice de prevalencia del Newcombe, y Huttenlocher, 2005);
1.5%. Porcentaje que baja al 1% si se otros estudios (Lewis et al., 1994;
Figura 1. Modelo de relaciones entre conducta, cognicin y biologa (Butterworth et al., 2011, p. 1050)
Por otro lado, Butterworth (1999) der, desde muy joven y casi al instante,
propone una perspectiva del desarrollo cantidades.
que postula la existencia de un nico En la siguiente seccin, conside-
mdulo sobre el nmero, correspon- rndolos como precursores de domi-
dindose con un sentido casi innato de nio especfico, se presentan dos hip-
los nmeros que sirve para aprehen- tesis cognitivas sobre la discalculia
mejorando con el tiempo: los nios de el desarrollo y si en los nios con dis-
7-8 aos tienen representaciones nu- calculia la exactitud delas representa-
mricas que describen una funcin lo- ciones numricasmentalesdesus com-
gartmica, mientras que en los de 9-10 paerosde grupos de control se podra
aos y los adultos esa funcin se vuel- lograr. En este sentido, un estudio lon-
ve ms precisa yse convierte en una gitudinal parece muy adecuado ya que
funcin lineal (Booth y Siegler, 2006). permitira estudiarlas trayectorias de
Por otra parte, el desarrollo de esta l- desarrollo de representaciones num-
nea numrica mental se ha estudiado ricas mentales en nios con discalculia
en nioscondiscalculiapara comprobar y sus compaeros de control.
susrepresentaciones numricas.As, Por ltimo, de los resultados de
variosestudiosmuestran que los nios- la ley de Weber-Fechner (Feigenson
con discalculiatienen dificultadespa- et al., 2004) se desprenden dos efec-
racolocar los nmeros ensu lugar en tos principales: el efecto del tamao,
lneas numricas0a 100 y de 0a1000. segn el cual es ms fcil compa-
En varios estudios (Geary et al., 2008; rar cantidades pequeas que grandes
Landerl, Fussenegger, Moll, y Will- (por ejemplo,4 vs.8 es ms fcil que
burger, 2009) nios discalclicos de 32 vs 36); y el efecto distancia, segn
6 a 10 aos tienenrepresentacionesnu- el cual es ms fcil comparar cantida-
mricas en forma deuna funcin loga- des alejadas que cantidades cercanas
rtmica, y sus pares del grupo control (por ejemplo, 2 vs 9 es ms fcil que
tienen representacionesnumricasque 2 vs 4). Tres estudios han investigado
describenuna funcin lineal.Del mis- el efecto del tamao en los nios con
mo modo, segn un estudio de An- discalculia. Mejias et al., (2011) mues-
dersson y stergren (2012), los nios tran que los nios con discalculia de 9
con discalculia entre 10-12aos tienen a 10aos, al igual que sus compaeros
menos representaciones numricas li- en un grupo de control, estn influidos
neales que sus pares del grupo control. por el tamao de los conjuntos a es-
Las representacionesnumricasde los timar, aunque tienen un menor rendi-
nios con discalculia, menos precisas, miento que un grupo de nios control
podran corresponder conrepresenta- en tareas de comparacin de nmeros
ciones numricasinmadurassimilaresa con tareas presentadas no simblica-
las de nios ms pequeos. As pues, mente. Landerl et al., (2009) muestran
las representaciones numricas preci- que el efectotamaoes ms pronuncia-
sas son de adquisicin ms lenta enlos doentre los niosde 9 a 10 aos con
nios condiscalculia. Queda pordeter- discalculia que su grupo de control en
minar la magnitud de este retraso en una tarea de comparacin de nmeros
ricas mentales), sino ms bien como Luit et al., 2015, el Tedi-math para ni-
un trastorno que resulta en dos posi- os de 5 a 8 aos de Grgoire, Nol,
bles orgenes numricos de carcter y Van Nieuwenhoven, 2005; Test de
cognitivo. La evidencia de dos causas Competencia Matemtica Bsica-3, de
cognitivas diferentes de la discalculia Ginsburg y Baroody, del Ro, y Guerra
sugiere efectivamente la existencia, no 2007).
de un perfil de los nios discalclicos, Por ltimo, esta revisin destaca
sino dos tipos de discalculia primaria: dos tipos de perfiles de discalculia pri-
una discalculia analgica y una discal- maria (deterioro cognitivo del sentido
culia simblica. de nmero o acceso deficitario en el
Responder a la pregunta de las cau- sentido numrico mediante cdigos
sas cognitivas de la discalculia tiene numricos rabes) que debe ser incor-
implicaciones no slo tericas, sino porado en el diagnstico, en busca de
tambin aplicadas. De hecho, com- la presencia o no de este tipo de dfi-
prender las dificultades cognitivas cit en la evaluacin de las habilidades
numricas de los nios discalclicos matemticas, que ninguna de las prue-
permite facilitar una diagnstico dife- bas anteriores hacen. En efecto, la eva-
rencial entre un nio discalclico y un luacin de las habilidades numricas
nio con retraso escolar en matemti- bsicas, en particular el procesamiento
cas, facilitando la puesta en marcha de de cdigos numricos analgicos (el
intervenciones para la reeducacin en sistema de precisin numrica y el sis-
ambas problemticas. De esta forma, tema de aproximacin numrica) y c-
evaluar la dificultad matemtica en los digos numricos rabes y orales, y sus
nios debe atender a varios aspectos. vnculos con representaciones numri-
En primer lugar, la anamnesis al cas mentales, es esencial para identifi-
inicio de la evaluacin debe conducir car la presencia de deterioro cognitivo
al profesional a definir el problema del numrico al considerar el diagnstico
nio, as como al impacto en la escuela de discalculia. Esta evaluacin ex-
y en su vida cotidiana. Si la discalculia haustiva podra incluir situaciones ta-
se describe como un trastorno primario les como comparar nmeros rabes,
en el desarrollo matemtico, la evalua- nmeros en forma oral, y tambin
cin de las capacidades matemticas comparar pequeas y grandes conjun-
generales apuntaran a objetivar las tos de puntos considerando todos los
dificultades matemticas escolares procesamientos de cdigos numricos.
usando herramientas estandarizadas Adems, las tareas de situar nme-
(por ejemplo, el Early Numeracy Test- ros orales, rabes y analgicos en una
R, para nios entre 4-7 aos, de Van recta numrica permitiran evaluar re-
Referencias
Agradecimiento. Trabajo parcialmente financiado con el proyecto I+D+i del Ministerio de Ciencia e In-
novacin, referencia EDU2011-22747.
Resumen
Most children only need some explicit instruction to learn mathematics. Nevertheless, a minority
experiences difficulties from the start of their school career: first with math prerequisites in kindergarten
and later with formal math from first grade in primary school. In this article, the content of early math
education in kindergarten will be described, as well as what schools can do to assist low-performing
kindergartners in learning math prerequisites during kindergarten. Furthermore, the connection between
weak math performance in kindergarten and dyscalculia will be described. The disabilityof course
cannot be prevented, but specific support in kindergarten can help children from failing immediately when
they start learning math in the beginning of first grade.
Abstract
La mayora de los nios necesitan muy poca instruccin explcita para aprender matemticas. Sin embargo,
una minora experimenta dificultades desde el inicio en la escuela: en primer lugar con los requisitos
previos de matemticas en la educacin infantil, y ms tarde con las matemticas formales de primer curso
en la escuela primaria. En este artculo, se describe el contenido de la educacin matemtica temprana en
educacin infantil, adems de lo que las escuelas pueden hacer para ayudar a los nios de bajo rendimiento
en el aprendizaje de los requisitos previos de matemticas durante esta etapa educativa. Se describe
tambin la relacin existente entre el rendimiento bajo de matemticas durante la educacin infantil y la
discalculia. Esta discapacidad no se puede evitar, pero el apoyo especfico en el inicio de la escolaridad
puede ayudar a los nios a evitar el fracaso acadmico cuando comienzan el aprendizaje matemtico en el
comienzo del primer ao de educacin primaria.
tance from each other, and the value tation, while older children (first and
of higher numbers closer to each other second grades) are better able to esti-
(Figure 1). mate numbers in value. They have in
This observation shows that kinder- the meantime gathered the knowledge
gartners have a logarithmic represen- that all numbers have a permanent pla-
Figure 1. Linear number representation of numbers up to 100 by children in first and second grade..
ce on the line and that the differences is verbal input (the processing of audi-
between the numbers are evenly divi- tory information, such as memorizing
ded. The difference between five and a short poem) and in the second type
six, after all, is just as great, as the di- there is visual input (the processing of
fference between 55 and 56. Children visual information, such as playing a
this age have developed a linear repre- game of memory). Both memory ty-
sentation of numbers (Figure 2). pes play an important role in learning
Research shows that the degree to arithmetic. Verbal working memory
which children are able to estimate is assumed to be especially important
numbers in the right place, and thus for numeracy in primary school, while
have a better linear representation of visual working memory would be of
numbers, appears to be a good predic- specific importance to early numeracy
tor of their mathematical skills (Booth (Kyttl, Aunio, Lehto, Van Luit, &
& Siegler, 2006). Hautamki, 2003). This phenomenon
is explained by the fact that children
Predictive Factors in Children and at a young age are visually set and not
the Environment until later in life are able to develop
mental models of the visual world
Number sense and the development around them. From that moment on,
of counting are processes related to verbal working memory will play a
other factors in the development of more important role.
learning in children. Recently, much In addition to cognitive factors, en-
attention has been paid to cognitive vironmental factors are also conside-
factors such as the operation of (wor- red to be of interest, for instance, the
king) memory. Children who have amount of formal information trans-
difficulty remembering information fer that children get at home. The in-
also more often have difficulty lear- teraction with parents, but also with
ning the number line. The complex brothers, sisters, and friends plays a
working memory skill updating (for role. At home young children on ave-
the storage of temporary data and re- rage are involved at least once a day in
viewing of this information as new activities in which numbers or quan-
data or information require this) turns tities play a role, such as counting
out to play an important role in the silverware and saying or singing rhy-
development of number sense and mes or verses with numbers. Research
thereby counting. Within working me- shows that on average in a middle-class
mory, a distinction has been made bet- family there is more interaction re-
ween two types: in the first type there garding numbers and quantity related
concepts than in families from lower final result; the way he or she does it
social classes. Moreover, it appears is in fact of less importance. Kinder-
that the extent to which children come gartners can generally not yet antici-
into contact with activities related to pate in advance, neither can they over-
counting and numbers in their home see during acting if everything goes
environment is an important predictor efficiently. When the result is accom-
for the mathematical performance of plished, the kindergartner does not
children during the first school years monitor that result; done is done and
(LeFevre et al., 2009). The nurturing finished is finished. It is clear that he
environment therefore appears to play or she does not have enough knowled-
an important role in optimal develop- ge to smoothly run the information
ment of genetic potential. processing from A to Z. Thirdly, kin-
dergartners perceive the world around
Mathematics in Kindergarten them. They form representations of it.
What they see, hear, smell or feel is
In kindergarten playing is the the most alive to them and this is what
method used to learn. A four- or five- they frequently engage in. This means
year-old learns especially through that events that they can imagine, such
discovering things by him- or herself. as playing a game, are the most appea-
The influence of adults is important. ling to them. They learn more from
Both the parents and the teacher are this than from abstract concepts. Kin-
the ones who accompany the child dergartners learn more when they take
in gaining new experiences. Three as- action themselves, when they discover
pects characterize the manner in which how something works or how things
kindergartners learn. Firstly, game ac- are done. They learn less when others
tivity dominates the classroom. Kin- verbally teach them all sorts of skills.
dergartners actually play for most of Therefore, education in kindergarten
the day and learn from it. For example, should contain many play activities.
they build things with materials and A kindergartner learns, in comparison
they do fantasy- and role-playing, with to older children, a lot by undertaking
or without all types of materials or all sorts of activities independently:
through a motion game. The game is by looking at the environment and ab-
still largely based on their own interest sorbing changes in it and by playing
and children enjoy doing it. Secondly, and talking with others (children and
kindergartners actions are increasin- adults).
gly purposeful. When the child does Before children enter the first year
something, it is increasingly about the of kindergarten, they have already had
many experiences with numbers and servation); being able to compare two
quantities. For instance, games (such small quantities and indicating the
as Castle Logix, toddler towers, Sor- difference in quantity (corresponden-
tino, and Photo Safari), conversations ce); classifying objects and pictures
and questions during dinner (e.g. how by essential characteristics (classifica-
many forks and knives should be on tion); ordering from big to small and
the table?), and all kinds of scenes from many to few (seriation); and also
in television programs like Sesame being able to count up to around 15.
Street. Gaining experiences in daily During the second year of kindergar-
practice is also called incidental lear- ten children are expected to be able
ning. Incidental learning leads to in- to count forwards, backwards, and
formal knowledge: knowledge that is continue counting from a given point.
established without purposeful educa- On top of that they are expected to be
tion. When children come in contact able to count synchronous, shortened,
with more or less targeted math edu- and resultative. The latter consists of
cation there is intentional learning, counting structured and unstructured
and therefore formal knowledge. This quantities, as well as counting covered
is the case when children in kindergar- quantities that were presented shortly
ten, especially in the second year of before.
kindergarten, are taught. Research shows a strong link
Six-year-olds need to possess between linguistic proficiency and
necessary conditional arithmetic mathematical proficiency (Schleppe-
knowledge, before they start first gra- grell, 2007). This is true for higher
de where the situation is much more ages, but also for the start of school
focused on intentional learning com- and kindergarten. Within the vocabu-
pared to kindergarten. They must, for lary of young children, a type of lan-
example, be aware of quantity con- guage can be distinguished which is of
cepts, like muchless, moreless crucial importance to learning mathe-
equal, equal, largesmall, as well matics. Consider concepts like many
as being able to apply this knowledge few, morelessequal, equal,
to the ordering of concrete materials bigsmall, but also positional words
or even to objects represented on pa- like in front, behind, between, next
per. The older kindergartners are for to. Understanding these concepts is a
instance expected to possess the fo- prerequisite to learning formal mathe-
llowing abilities: understanding that matics because positional words are
separating five blocks implies that important for gaining insight into the
there are still five blocks present (con- relationship between numbers. Which
ver, research shows that even at a meet one or more of the seven features
young age large differences in early described in Table 1.
numeracy exist between children and
that mastering these skills appears to From Problems at a Young Age to
be a good predictor of how children Dyscalculia
develop in mathematics throughout
their entire school career (Siegler, Incorrect number sense at the pre-
2009). Differentiation should therefo- paratory level and problems with ele-
re already begin with early numeracy. mentary arithmetic in first grade in-
Some kindergartners naturally have creasingly leads to more limitations in
a spontaneous interest for counting the abilities of children to adequately
and the meaning of numbers, and as solve mathematical tasks. Therefo-
a result have a need to be challenged re, these problems manifest in chil-
in this area. Meanwhile, a minority dren with dyscalculia at a young age
of kindergartners are unable to esta- in gaining early numeracy during the
blish relationships between quantities, first half of primary school. This ba-
structures, and numbers independently sic problem becomes observable when
and therefore need specific, structured kindergartners, for example, have
instruction. These differences are daily difficulty with fluently naming small
practice for teachers in kindergarten quantities (using structure), counting,
and for them it is a great challenge to and automatizing number symbols
shape math-related activities in such a (Van Luit, 2011).
way that all children sufficiently bene- One of the most striking characte-
fit from the content so that they start ristics Dowker (2005) identifies for
first grade with sufficient understan- dyscalculia is a weakness in recollec-
ding of early numeracy. ting numeric knowledge from memory
(e.g. in a young agesix to eight
Characteristics of Kindergartners yearsthey do not know that five is
with a Mathematical Disadvantage between four and six or that adding
four to three equals seven). This pro-
What do we know about kinder- blem can persist through older age.
gartners who are behind in learning Furthermore, they keep using (some-
early numeracy? In recent years there times into adulthood) number lines to
has been growing interest in this sub- solve simple math problems (12 + 6 =
ject and this research has brought up 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18; while they
a number of features. In summary, it keep track of additional units using
can be stated that these children often their fingers under the table). The-
Characteristic Explanation
Little to no spon- Children like to show how far they are able to count, or they repeatedly vocalize
taneous interest in how old they are and how many numbers they already know. Children have the
numbers tendency to spontaneously count quantities (fruit in a basket), even when there is
no request. Kindergartners with weak math performance show this behaviour to
a limited extent. They do not often initiate math related games or tasks.
Low proficiency in Specific language, such as more, less, in front, behind, and between is very im-
math language con- portant in learning mathematics. Children with a mathematical disadvantage of-
cepts ten do not master these concepts as well.
Limited (working) Children with a mathematical disadvantage find it harder to remember knowl-
memory edge and to refresh their memories in order to apply already acquired informa-
tion to newer and more relevant knowledge. For instance, non-numerical infor-
mation like colours, body parts, or the days of the week.
Trouble understand- For some children with a mathematical disadvantage, a die has an irregular struc-
ing the structure of ture that is not logically constructed. The value becomes higher when more dots
dice appear. The placing of these dots is not however always as expected. A clear
example is the transition from three diagonal dots to four dots forming a square.
The added third dot shifts to a corner and in another corner a new dot appears.
This is highly confusing to children with weak numeracy comprehension. They
benefit more from structures with a straightforward set up.
Limited benefit from It is known that children struggling with math from first grade and upwards ben-
instruction efit mostly from direct instructions in which the teacher takes a central role,
structures the exercises for the child and adequately hands solution strategies
to the child. For kindergartners with a mathematical disadvantage this type of
instruction also appears to be the most beneficial.
Mapping problems Linking different number representations appears to be hard for these children.
When children can count six blocks and are able to name the number symbol six,
it is not self-evident to them that the number symbol six represents the value of
six.
Unable to see the re- Because these children are experiencing problems with mapping quantities to
lation between num- symbols, they also struggle to see the relation between different numbers. The
bers position of numbers on a number line is not always a logical order to them be-
cause they do not link the order to the number values.
Factual and procedural knowledge are For parents and/or schools it is im-
therefore strongly related. portant that they count on behavioural
Dowker (2005) points out the fact specialists with additional knowledge
that more and more indications are and skills of diagnostics of dyscal-
being found that, apart from the pos- culia for diagnostic math research.
sibility of early signalling (Araujo, When a child has dyscalculia, the
2014), treating early mathematical school should make arrangements to
learning problems improves further give the student a greater opportu-
mathematical education (Gersten, nity to take courses that he or she is
et al., 2005; Van Luit & Schopman, capable of. This is becoming more
2000). She states that the prevention difficult given the barriers that the
of these problems during kindergarten government (initiated by the former
creates a major challenge in research Minister of Education in The Nether-
for the following decades. Siegler lands) recently raised by the proposal
(2009) demonstrates that early nume- (1) to make mathematics a required
racy in kindergartners is determinati- examination component in all forms
ve for later mathematical skills as this of secondary education, (2) the requi-
extends from primary education even red grades (at least two sixes and one
into secondary education. Morgan et five) to be achieved in the secondary
al. (2009) note that therefore it is very education exam for the course combi-
important to trace problems in early nation Dutch-English mathematics in
numeracy as early as possible to be order to succeed, and (3) in the near
able to provide the best possible sup- future to make mathematics compul-
port at that stage, and also when chil- sory in middle-level secondary educa-
dren later turn out to have dyscalculia. tion. Already it appears that based on
My own research shows that kinder- my own data, children who are leaving
gartners greatly benefit from early de- primary school at the end of grade six
tection. It is not just about determining for children with dyscalculia is 90% in
a score, but more importantly about low-level secondary education, 10%
identifying specific deficits. Therefo- in middle-level secondary education,
re, it is possible to help students speci- and 0% in high-level secondary edu-
fically in areas where they experience cation, compared to 55% in low-level
problems (Van Luit, 2009). For this secondary education, 25% in middle-
purpose effective programs have been level secondary education, and 20%
developed (Aunio, Hautamki, & Van in high-level secondary education for
Luit, 2005; Toll & Van Luit, 2014b; children without dyscalculia. Dyscal-
Van Luit & Schopman, 2000). culia is therefore a disorder that hea-
vily influences the school career and calculia cannot be prevented by in-
therefore the working career of a stu- tervention, but potentially weak math
dent. It is therefore definitely impor- students can learn a lot from it and the
tant to encourage all those involved in necessary help for students with dys-
education to stimulate early numeracy calculia should be started at a young
in kindergarten and especially stron- age for the highest chance of some po-
gly support the weak students. Dys- sitive results.
Referencias
Johannes E. H. (Hans) Van Luit. master in pedagogics and education (1980, Utrecht University) and his
PhD about Math difficulties in special education (1987, Radboud University Nijmegen). At this moment
he is a full professor in diagnostics and treatment of children with dyscalculia at Utrecht University. He is
among other tasks director of the undergraduate school for Pedagogics and Education, head of the Dys-
calculia Expertise center the Netherlands (Ambulatorium) and chair of the Foundation Quality institute
Dyscalculia. Hans van Luit is besides administrator in tens of organizations and committees, researcher
and teacher, also clinical psychologist and does clinical research for prevention of difficulties in math and
diagnostics of dyscalculia in children, adolescents and adults. Furthermore he gives post master and post
applied master and bachelor education for professionals in the field of diagnostics and treatment in people
with dyscalculia.
Correspondence. Prof. Dr. J.E.H. Van Luit. Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of
Utrecht. Postal address: PO Box 80125, 3508 TC Utrecht (the Netherlands). Email: j.e.h.vanluit@uu.nl
Universidad de Cdiz
Resumen
Abstract
In last decades, the processes of early mathematics skills acquisition has significantly changed. A higher
importance for mathematics acquisition in function of the age is a milestone for an adequate development
process of mathematical knowledge, and difficulties prevention. In the same way this acquisition is
considered as a tactic for other learning rather than mathematical. The importance of an effective
assessment of these abilities is well founded. It is necessary to establish the starting level in order to
develop appropriated educational intervention. One of the assessment tool is the Utrechtse Getalbegrip
Toets-Revised Early Numeracy Test-Revised (ENT-r) (Van Luit, & Van de Rijt, 2009). ENT-R provides
us the possibility to know the level of early mathematical competence (CMT) for children between 4 and 7
years old, and detect learning math difficulties. In this paper the standardization of ENT-R Spanish version
48 a 51 meses 91
52 a 55 meses 91
56 a 59 meses 85 7
60 a 63 meses 5 84 3
64 a 67 meses 101
68 a 71 meses 93 33
72 a 77 meses 20 71
78 a 83 meses 2 73 44
84 a 89 meses 34 98
90 a 95 meses 91
(Van Luit et al., 2015): Se trata de una para cada componente; la versin C se
versin actualizada del TEMTU, utili- construye con una mezcla de los tems
zado como referente para desarrollar ms representativo de las anteriores
la versin del ENT-r, aprovechando su versiones. De este modo, y dada la im-
estructura interna y su fundamento te- portancia de detenernos en el nmero
rico. La nueva herramienta incorpora de variables que pueden afectar a los
ciertas novedades. Se modifican y ac- resultados en evaluaciones de este tipo
tualizan la mayora de los tems de cada con poblacin infantil, nos permite
versin, pero adems incluye 5 tems poder realizar un contraste entre las
nuevos que evalan la Estimacin (Ta- puntuaciones con ambas pruebas para
bla 2). ENT-r consta de 45 tems con valorar dichos resultados. La versin
respuestas de ejecucin verbal, escrita espaola del ENT-r utiliz un formato
y de sealar (ver figura 1). La prueba informatizado. La fiabilidad calculada
tiene un tiempo promedio de adminis- para esta versin espaola, obtuvo un
tracin de 45 minutos. El ENT-r debe Alpha = .90.
ser administrado individualmente. El Test para el Diagnstico de las
ENT-r, en su estandarizacin holan- Competencias Bsicas Tempranas
desa obtuvo un valor de fiabilidad uti- (TEDI-MATH) (Van Nieuwenhoven,
lizando al Alpha de Cronbach de .87. Nol, y Grgoire, 2005): Adems del
La prueba dispone de tres versiones ENT-r, se utiliz una de las pruebas
paralelas (A, B y C). Las formas A y ms representativas evaluacin mate-
B contienen tems distintos cada uno mtica temprana, como es el TEDI-
Subtests Tipos
Subtests relacionales Comparacin
Clasificacin
Correspondencia
Seriacin
Subtests numricos Conteo verbal
Conteo estructurado
Conteo resultante
Figura 1.Ejemplo de un tem de la versin A del ENT-r. La instruccin dada al alumno es: Aqu ves los
dibujos de unos championes. Seala el champin que es ms alto que esta flor
Tabla 4. Correlaciones entre las diferentes subtests del Early Numeracy Test-Revised
(relacionales, numricos y total del test)
Referencias
Gonzalo Ruiz Cagigas. Licenciado en Ciencias y Doctor por el programa de Psicologa de la Universidad
de Cdiz. Desde hace aos ejerce la docencia en el Departamento de Ingeniera Informtica de la UCA y
fue uno de los que iniciaron el grupo de investigacin HUM634. Su trabajo investigador se ha centrado en
el desarrollo de software educativo para diferentes colectivos.
University of Trieste
Abstract
Specific role of the domain-general and domain-specific precursors in the development of early
mathematics is still under debate. In addition, there is no general agreement about the detection of the
main components of domain-specific precursors. The aim of the present work is to get more insight in
the role played by a fundamental domain-general precursor, the working memory, in the development of
mathematical skills. Other goal for this paper is to propose a general framework for the classification of
domain-specific precursors of mathematical learning.
Palabras clave: Approximate number system, early mathematics, mathematical precursors, Object tracking
system, Working Memory.
Resumen
tant during preschool years, but their mathematical skills has been provided
involvement seems to decrease in the by longitudinal studies that demonstra-
following years as a consequence of ted that working memory performance
a greater influence of domain-specific in preschoolers predicts mathemati-
abilities (Passolunghi & Lanfranchi, cal achievement several years after
2012). Among these general cognitive kindergarten (Gathercole, Brown, &
abilities, several studies demonstrated Pickering, 2003; Mazzocco & Thomp-
that working memory is a main pre- son, 2005; Passolunghi & Lanfranchi,
dictor of mathematical competence 2012). Specifically, several studies
(De Smedt et al., 2009; Gathercole & showed a direct influence of working
Pickering, 2000; Gersten, Jordan, & memory on mathematical achieve-
Flojo, 2005; Jordan, Kaplan, Nabors ment in first and second graders (De
Olh, & Locuniak, 2006; Krajewski Smedt et al., 2009; Passolunghi et al.,
& Schneider, 2009b; Passolunghi & 2008, 2007).
Lanfranchi, 2012). The term working Various models of the structure and
memory(WM) refers to a temporary function of working memory exist, but
memory system that plays an impor- the present study considered the multi-
tant role in supporting learning during component model of working memory
the childhood years because its key proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in
feature is the capacity to both store 1974 and revised in succeeding years
and manipulate information (Bull & (Baddeley, 1986, 2000). This model
Scerif, 2001; Gathercole & Alloway, consists of three main parts. The two
2006; Miyake & Shah, 1999). Indeed, slave systems of working memory
different mathematical tasks, such as (i.e., the phonological loop and visual-
performing mental arithmetic and un- spatial sketchpad) are specialized for
derstanding mathematical word pro- processing language-based and vi-
blems, require the storage of informa- suo-spatial information, respectively.
tion while it is processed or integrated The central executive, which is not
with information retrieved from long- modality-specific, coordinates the two
term memory (Swanson, 2004; Trons- slave systems and is responsible for a
ky, 2005). Furthermore, WM skills are range of functions, such as the atten-
necessary even when very young chil- tional control of actions. The distinc-
dren need to mentally represent and tions between the central executive
manipulate quantitative information system and specific memory storage
(Alibali & DiRusso, 1999). systems (i.e., the phonological loop
Further evidence of the importan- and visuo-spatial sketchpad) in some
ce of working memory in childrens ways parallel the distinction between
working memory, involving storage, king memory were also found to be re-
processing, and effortful mental acti- lated to childrens early counting abili-
vity, and short-term memory, typically ty (Kyttl, Aunio, Lehto, Van Luit, &
involving situations in which the indi- Hautamki, 2003) and general mathe-
vidual passively holds small amounts matical competence (Jarvis & Gather-
of information (Swanson & Beebe- cole, 2003; Passolunghi & Mammare-
Frankenberger, 2004). lla, 2011). Indeed, the visuo-spatial
With regard to the contribution of sketchpad appears to support the re-
the three core components of working presentation of numbers in counting,
memory to the development of mathe- arithmetic calculations, and especially
matical skills, many studies showed a mental calculation (DAmico & Guar-
direct association between executive nera, 2005; Heathcote, 1994; McKen-
function and childrens early emergen- zie, Bull, & Gray, 2003; McLean &
ce and development of mathematical Hitch, 1999). This component is also
abilities across a wide age range (Bull, fundamental in the process of problem
Espy, & Wibe, 2008; Bull & Scerif, solving because it allows the individual
2001; Gathercole, Pickering, Knight, to build a visual mental representation
& Stegmann, 2004; Gathercole & Pic- of the problem (Holmes & Adams,
kering, 2000; McLean & Hitch, 1999). 2006). Moreover, visuo-spatial WM
For example, dual task studies suggest abilities assessed in preschool years
that central executive resources are predict complex arithmetic, number
implicated in childrens arithmetic sequencing and graphical representa-
performance (e.g. Imbo & Vandieren- tion of data in primary school (Bull et
donck, 2007) and longitudinal data al., 2008).
found that inhibitory control predict The results of studies that conside-
later math outcomes (Blair & Razza, red the role of the phonological loop
2007; Mazzocco & Kover, 2007). On in childrens mathematical processing
the other and, children who are poor in have been unclear. Dual task studies
mathematics have poor performance showed that 8-9 year old children (but
in central executive tasks, especially in not younger children) use a verbal ap-
tasks that require the inhibition of irre- proach supplemented by visual-spatial
levant information and updating (Espy resources during on-line arithmetic
et al., 2004; Passolunghi, Cornoldi, performance (McKenzie et al., 2003).
& De Liberto, 1999; Passolunghi & In the field of learning disabilities,
Siegel, 2001; St Clair-Thompson & some studies have found no diffe-
Gathercole, 2006). rences in phonological loop abilities
Spatial skills and visuo-spatial wor- between children with and without
In particular, there are two core at the left and bigger numerosities
cognitive systems responsible for placed on the right (Dehaene, Bossi-
non-verbally representing numbers. ni, & Giraux, 1993). Number-line re-
Indeed, large and small numerosi- presentations of numerical magnitude
ties seems to activate different sys- are logarithmic compressed (Dehaene,
tems (Feigenson, Dehaene, & Spelke, 2007; Siegler & Opfer, 2003) such that
2004). The Approximate Number Sys- the perceived distance between small
tem (ANS) is used for representing quantities is larger than the percei-
large, approximate numerical magni- ved distance between big quantities
tudes, and the second system (Object (Geary, Hoard, Byrd-Craven, Nugent,
Tracking System) is used for the pre- & Numtee, 2007). As a consequence
cise representation of small numbers. small quantities are overrepresented
Both can be observed in adults, infants on the mental number-line.
and other animal species (Feigenson et The approximate number repre-
al., 2004). sentations can be mentally combined
to perform comparison, addition and
The approximate number system substraction across sets. ANS can be
The ANS, is a cognitive system asessed using tasks which involve
that underlies the preverbal ability to viewing, comparing, adding, or sub-
perceive and discriminate approxima- tracting non-symbolic quantities, such
te large numerosities. This ability is as arrays of dots (C. Gilmore, Attridge,
robust across multiple modalities of & Inglis, 2011; Halberda & Feigen-
input (e.g. visual stimuli or sounds sti- son, 2008a; Piazza, Pinel, Le Bihan, &
muli), increases in precision over the Dehaene, 2007).
development and is ratio dependent The ANS seems to be active since
according to Webers law (Barth, Kan- the first few months of life. Indeed, it
wisher, & Spelke, 2003; Halberda & has been showed how 6-9 month old
Feigenson, 2008a; Lipton & Spelke, infants exhibit the capacity to create
2003). Within the ANS, numerosities abstract representation of numerosity
seem to be ordered spatially in a sort that support the ability to discrimina-
of mental number-line with increa- te numerosities, recognize the ordinal
sing acuity throughout development relationship between numerosities and
(Feigenson et al., 2004; C. Gallistel & form expectation of about the outco-
Gelman, 2000; Halberda & Feigenson, mes of simple arithmetic problems
2008b). On this mental number-line, (Lipton & Spelke, 2003; McCrink &
each numerosity has a specific posi- Wynn, 2004; Xu & Spelke, 2000). The
tion with smaller numerosities placed ANS systems remains active also in
older children and adults (Barth et al., tative properties of objects. Similarly
2003; Cordes, Gelman, Gallistel, & to the ANS, the OTS varies across in-
Whalen, 2001). dividuals (Halberda et al., 2008; Re-
ANS has been found to correlate vkin, Piazza, Izard, Cohen, & Dehae-
with mathematics achievement (Bon- ne, 2008) and is subject to maturation
ny & Lourenco, 2013; Halberda, Ma- (Oakes, Ross-Sheehy, & Luck, 2006;
zzocco, Feigenson, & Halberda, 2008; Rose, Feldman, & Jankowski, 2001).
Libertus, Feigenson, & Halberda, It is a non-numerical mechanism that
2011) and it is severely impaired in support the quickly, accurately and
children with developmental dyscal- effortlessly perception of the nume-
culia e.g. (Mazzocco, Feigenson, & rosity of small sets of objects, a phe-
Halberda, 2011). nomenon known as subitizing. This
It remains unclear when the noisy ability to discriminate between small
ANS representation integrate with quantities do not depend on numeri-
more formal math abilities. It has been cal ratio but on the absolute number
suggest that the acquisition of the of items presented (Feigenson, Carey,
meaning of symbolic numerals is done & Hauser, 2002; Feigenson & Carey,
by mapping symbolic numerals (num- 2003), and it is robust across moda-
ber words or Arabic digits) onto the lities (Wynn, 1996). Moreover, The
pre-existing approximate number re- OTS seems to be fundamental also to
presentation. As a consequence, ANS compute information about the con-
provides semantic representations tinuous quantitative properties of sti-
of numbers and the precision of the muli (Clearfield & Mix, 1999; Feigen-
ANS would play a crucial role in the son et al., 2002; Xu & Spelke, 2000).
early foundation of symbolic number For example, when 10-12 months old
knowledge (Dehaene, 1997; Dehae- infants are asked to choose between
ne et al. 2013; Holloway and Ansari, to quantities of crackers they choose
2009; Wynn,1992). the larger quantity with comparisons
of 1 versus 2 and 2 versus 3 (but fai-
The object tracking system led with comparisons of 3 versus 4, 2
The Object Tracking System (OTS) versus 4, and 3 versus 6). Differently,
is a cognitive system that allow precise when crackers were different sizes, to-
representation of distinct individuals. tal surface area or volume determined
This system involved in keep trac- the choice. Infants success in this tasks
king of small number of objects (up to only when 3 or fewer objects were
three-four items) and for representing hidden in either location (Feigenson et
information about continuous quanti- al., 2002).
(Kolkman, Kroesbergen, & Leseman, Rousselle & Nol, 2007) and beca-
2013). Indeed, the integration of the me gradually automatic with develo-
ANS and the OTS through verbal pment (Naccache & Dehaene, 2001;
counting, seems to pave the way to the Rusconi, Priftis, Rusconi, & Umilta,
understanding of exact number (Ca- 2006). Thus, children quickly learn to
rey, 2001; Le Corre & Carey, 2007; map symbolic numbers onto their pre-
Lipton & Spelke, 2003). existing number-line representation of
At 2-3 years old children learn numerical magnitude. This mapping
to count and thereby already acqui- that is initially logarithmic becomes
re precise number words. However, linear during development as people
this early counting list is numerically learn to compensate for the logarith-
meaningless and they do not yet use mic compression of the mental num-
number words to describe quantities ber line .
(Fuson, 1988; Krajewski & Schnei- In the development of mathema-
der, 2009a; Le Corre, Van de Walle, tical abilities, non-symbolic quantity
Brannon, & Carey, 2006; Wynn, skills, symbolic skills as well as de-
1990, 1992). The numerals in the list velopment of accurate number sense
function as placeholders that can be access are found to be important for
mapped onto core representations of learning more advanced math opera-
numbers to support the acquisition of tion such as addition or subtraction
the counting principles (Le Corre & (Booth & Siegler, 2006; Geary, Hoard,
Carey, 2007). Then, children gradua- Nugent, & Byrd-Craven, 2008; Kolk-
lly learn that 4 matches an array of man et al., 2013). However recent stu-
four objects and that the number 20 dies highlighted the fundamental role
is bigger than number 7. played by the number sense access for
Adults and young children access mathematical achievement and arith-
non-symbolic representations of num- metic strategy use during development
bers when solving problems presented (De Smedt & Gilmore, 2011; Rous-
in Arabic or verbal form (Gilmore, selle & Nol, 2007; Vanbinst, Ghes-
McCarthy, & Spelke, 2007). Howe- quire, & De Smedt, 2012) suggesting
ver, the automaticity of the connection that number sense access could be an
from symbols to quantities is not yet alternative core deficit in dyscalculia
established in early childhood (Gire- (Rousselle & Nol, 2007; Rubinsten
lli, Lucangeli, & Butterworth, 2000; & Henik, 2005).
Referencias
Le Corre, M., Van de Walle, G., Bran- and their association with math
non, E. M., & Carey, S. (2006). performance. Child Neuropsy-
Re-visiting the competence/ chology: A Journal on Normal
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quisition of the counting prin- Childhood and Adolescence,
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of the approximate number sys- Disability. Learning Disabili-
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Hiwet Mariam Costa. Doctoranda en Psicologa bajo la supervisin de la Dra Passolunghi en el Departa-
mento de Psicologa de la Universidad de Trieste (Italia). Su temtica de estudio es la memoria de trabajo
y la cognicin matemtica, sobre lo que ha publicado diferenets trabajos de investigacin. Estuvo como
associate reseach fellow en University of London durante parte del curso 2013.
Correspondence. Maria Chiara Passolunghi, University of Trieste. Department of Life Sciences. Psychol-
ogy Unit Gaetano Kanizsa; via Weiss, 21 (Building W) 34128 Trieste. Italy.. Email: passolu@units.it
Universidad de Cdiz
Resumen
La sociedad actual se encuentra sumergida en un proceso de transformacin constante en el que las nuevas
tecnologas cumplen un papel relevante. Asimismo, los mtodos educativos se encuentran involucrados en
un proceso de cambio en el que el empleo de nuevas tcnicas y herramientas se vuelve indispensable. En
consecuencia, el fin ltimo que persigue todo cambio es obtener un beneficio positivo para la comunidad, y
con el presente trabajo se pretende ofrecer nuevos instrumentos que sirvan de apoyo a la obtencin de metas
positivas en el mbito educativo. Actualmente, la situacin del alumnado espaol en materia educativa y
especficamente en matemticas no es alentadora. En este trabajo, se presentan Jugando con nmeros 1
y 2 como herramientas novedosas y ldicas, que contribuyen al perfeccionamiento de las habilidades
matemticas de los estudiantes en la transicin de Educacin Infantil a Primaria, una etapa crucial para el
desarrollo de stas destrezas. Jugando con nmeros 1 y 2 son programas informticos fundamentados
en los modelos cognitivos del aprendizaje numrico, que se ajustan a las necesidades y caractersticas de
los alumnos, y les aportan los beneficios derivados del uso del ordenador como herramienta mediadora
del aprendizaje. El objetivo principal de estos programas es contribuir al desarrollo del sentido numrico
para llegar a afrontar exitosamente no slo los requerimientos de la escuela, sino tambin para resolver
situaciones de la vida cotidiana.
Abstract
Nowadays society is involved in a continuous transformation process in which new technologies have an
important role. Educational methods are also involved in a process in which the use of new techniques and
tools becomes essential. Consequently, the final goal proposed by every educational change is obtaining an
advantage for the community, and this article aims to provide new tools that support finding constructive
goals in education. Currently, the international assessment for Spanish students and specifically in math
is uncertain and should be improved. Therefore, Playing with numbers 1 and 2 is presented as an
innovative and unconventional computer tools that contribute improving math skills for pre-school and
elementary education students, a critical period for the development of mathematic abilities. Playing with
numbers 1 and 2 are two pieces of software built on cognitive models of numerical learning and adapted
to educative needs and students characteristics. This software can provide them the benefits of computer
used as a learning mediating tool. The main objective of these programs is to contribute for development
of number sense to get successfully overcomes not only the requests of the school, but also to familiarize
users with number sense everyday life situations.
Beneficios del uso de las nuevas tec- en un beneficio para el docente, ya que
nologas en la enseanza-aprendiza- facilita la instruccin del alumno sin
je de las habilidades escolares necesidad de una supervisin continua
por parte del profesor (Butterworth
En la actualidad, el inters crecien- y Laurillard, 2010). Por otro lado, la
te por el uso de las nuevas tecnologas privacidad de los resultados que ofre-
y su aplicacin en la enseanza ha ce este tipo de enseanza, permite al
permitido que el acceso a los ordena- alumno evitar las consecuencias nega-
dores en la escuela sea un hecho gene- tivas derivadas de la difusin de sus
ralizado. Gracias a ello, el nmero de errores y al mismo tiempo incremen-
intervenciones educativas que los em- ta su tolerancia a la frustracin (But-
plean, como medio para llevar a cabos terworth et al., 2010; Schunk y Pajares,
distintos programas instruccionales, se 2005). Como consecuencia de ello, el
encuentra en alza. estudiante puede aumentar su inters
A rasgos generales, el uso de la y participacin favoreciendo, de este
Enseanza Asistida por Ordenador modo, la persistencia en la tarea, fo-
(EAO) supone para el estudiante una mentando la prctica, y reforzando los
posibilidad educativa abierta a la prc- procesos cognitivos implicados en la
tica continuada, y por tanto, sin res- tarea en cuestin (Ke, 2008; Vernada-
tricciones de espacio, tiempo y apoyo. kis, Giannousi, Derri, Michalopoulos,
Asimismo, persigue la mejora de sus y Kioumourtzoglou, 2012).
destrezas adaptndose a sus necesi- Butterworth et al. (2010), aludie-
dades, y favoreciendo el aprendizaje ron a los aspectos positivos derivados
de manera personalizada e individual de la intervencin basada en el uso de
(Judge, Puckett, y Cabuk, 2004). Esta ordenador como mediador del apren-
ltima ventaja, se traduce, igualmente, dizaje, clasificndolos en tres grandes
Figura 1. Ejemplo de actividades Aprendiendo a contar del programa Jugando con Nmeros 1
Figura 2. Ejemplo
Fig. 2 deEjemplo
actividades
de Cadena de nmeros
actividades Cadena de de
Jugando conNmeros
nmeros de 1.
Jugando con Nmeros 1.
Figura 3. Ejemplo
Fig.de3actividades
Ejemplo Calcular-Restar
de actividades del programa Jugando
Calcular-Restar con Nmeros 1.
del
programa Jugando con Nmeros 1.
Descripcin del software Jugando minio de las clasificaciones jerrqui-
con Nmeros 2.0 cas y la comprensin de las relaciones
parte-todo. Este grupo de actividades
El software est constituido por contiene tres niveles de dificultad que
una serie de actividades destinadas a vara en funcin del nmero de ele-
favorecer el desarrollo lgico-mate- mentos y de su distribucin espacial.
mtico del estudiante mediante el uso Cada nivel contiene tres tareas cada
de nuevas tecnologas. A continuacin uno, en las que el alumnado debe agru-
describimos cada uno de los bloques par elementos en base a una propiedad
de actividades que componen este pro- en comn: el color.
grama interactivo.
2 Combinaciones: Este bloque de
1 Clasificar: El objetivo de este blo- tareas entrena al estudiante en la reso-
que de actividades es profundizar en el lucin de problemas que contribuye a
concepto de agrupamiento de objetos, la adquisicin del esquema parte-todo.
con el fin que el estudiante sea capaz De este modo, asume que el todo es
de realizar a cabo clasificaciones en mayor que las partes y se asimila la
base a sus semejanzas y diferencias. propiedad aditiva de las cantidades.
Contribuye a la adquisicin del princi- Asimismo, conlleva la adquisicin del
pio de inclusin relacionado con el do- dominio del principio de inclusin, en-
tendiendo que los nmeros se compor- indicar qu fila de las tres presentadas
tan como conjuntos que estn conteni- tiene ms o menos nmeros de cubos,
dos los unos en los otros. Estas tareas o indicar que hilera contiene el mismo
presentan dos niveles de dificultad, el nmero de cubos que la fila modelo.
primer nivel consta de cuatro y el se- Este bloque contiene dos niveles de
gundo nivel de cinco tareas. En el pri- dificultad con doce tareas cada uno de
mer nivel se presentan dos grupos de ellos.
estrellas (partes), el alumno debe des-
plazar todos los elementos del primer 4 Repartir: Estas actividades ini-
grupo, para posteriormente deslizar cian al alumno en la distribucin de
todas las estrellas del segundo grupo. elementos en grupos iguales. El estu-
A continuacin, el alumno debe reali- diante debe repartir marcianos entre
zar la adicin que indicar el total de una serie de nios con la condicin de
elementos sumados y sealar en una que al final del reparto todos tengan el
divertida calculadora el resultado de la mismo nmero de marcianos. Existe
operacin. un nico nivel de dificultad que pre-
En el segundo nivel el enunciado senta 5 tareas a su vez. La complejidad
indica el todo y una parte, debiendo de las tareas es aleatoria, y aumenta
el alumno desplazar el grupo de ele- cuando el nmero de nios y marcia-
mentos correspondientes a la parte nos es mayor.
que constituye la incgnita. Una vez
realizada la operacin de resta, debe 5 Discriminar: Con este bloque de
sealar el resultado en la calculadora tareas se persigue que el alumno sea
(Fig. 4). capaz de asimilar correctamente el
valor cardinal del nmero. Adems,
3. Comparaciones: Este grupo de se pretende llegar a automatizar este
tareas ofrece la posibilidad de realizar concepto y lograr la inhibicin de in-
juicios de cantidad sin exigir precisin formacin irrelevante y distractora, a
numrica. De este modo, empleando la hora de dar una respuesta rpida en
etiquetas verbales o lingsticas como base al concepto de cardinalidad. Asi-
mayor o menor, el estudiante puede mismo, se trabajan aspectos relacio-
llevar a cabo adecuadamente la tarea y nados con la subitizacin. El alumno
solucionar exitosamente las cuestiones debe sealar cul de los dos nme-
planteadas. El objetivo de este bloque ros que se presentan en la pantalla es
de actividades conduce a diferenciar mayor, atendiendo al valor cardinal e
elementos entre s, y frente a un mo- ignorando el tamao fsico de su re-
delo. En esta actividad el alumno debe presentacin arbiga (Fig. 5). El tiem-
Figura 5. Ejemplo
Fig. 5de Ejemplo
actividades actividades Discriminar
de Discriminar del
del programa Jugando con nmeros 2
programa
Jugando con nmeros 2.
Figura 6. Ejemplo
Fig. 6deEjemplo
actividades Recta
Recta numrica
de actividades programa Jugando
delnumrica con nmeros 2.
del programa
Jugando con nmeros 2.
Conclusiones aos, que resulta crucial para el de-
sarrollo de las habilidades matem-
El inters en trabajar el sentido nu- ticas tempranas. Tanto es as, que las
mrico radica en la importancia que diferencias entre los pequeos en las
este concepto tiene en los primeros habilidades que componen el sentido
Referencias
Gonzalo Ruiz Cagigas. Licenciado en Ciencias y Doctor por el programa de Psicologa de la Universidad
de Cdiz. Desde hace aos ejerce la docencia en el Departamento de Ingeniera Informtica de la UCA y
fue uno de los que iniciaron el grupo de investigacin HUM634. Su trabajo investigador se ha centrado en
el desarrollo de software educativo para diferentes colectivos.
Agradecimiento. Trabajo co-financiado con los proyectos EDU2011-22747 del plan nacional I+D+i y por
el P09-HUM4918 del PAIDI.
Resumen
Palabras clave: Copiar, Cubrir y Comparar, Flash cards, Dificultades de aprendizaje, Intervencin
matemtica.
Abstract
Mathematics difficulties evidence-based intervention. The present study describes the positive effect of
an evidence-based intervention mathematics program in a group of school children on basic arithmetic
operations content (addition and subtraction). The purposeof this researchwas to increasethe efficiencyand
decreasethe error ratein14 students fromthe 1stgrade of Primary Educationin risk for mathematics
learningdifficulties using the Cover, Copy, and Compare (CCC) and theDirect InstructionwithFlashCards
(FC)methods.The results showan increase correct responsesanda decrease in errorsconfirmingthe efficiency
of bothproceduresin school children.
Keywords: Copy, Cover and Compare, Flash cards, Learning disabilities,Mathematics intervention..
Figura 1. Modelo de hoja de actividades del procedimiento Copiar, Cubrir y Comparar (CCC)
dio, se pidi autorizacin a los fami- Cards. Para cada caso se exponen los
liares para la realizacin del proyecto ejercicios correctamente resueltos en
y se concret una reunin con la di- la primera sesin y en la ltima para
rectora del centro y los tutores de los cada uno de los participantes.
escolares implicados con el fin de ex-
Sumas Restas
ponerles los objetivos del presente es- Partici-
Sesin Sesin Sesin Sesin
tudio. Una vez recogidos y analizados pantes
inicial final inicial final
los datos del alumnado, la directora y 1 5 12 4 16
los tutores de los alumnos/as reciban 2 3 13 2 15
un informe por escrito donde se deta- 3 5 19 14 19
llaban los resultados obtenidos, acom- 4 1 12 4 14
paado por explicaciones verbales que 5 3 10 6 13
lograban aclarar las dudas pertinentes. 6 2 12 4 11
Todas las sesiones fueron indivi- 7 4 22 12 17
duales y, en consecuencia, se opt por 8 6 13 12 22
un diseo de caso nico con replica- 9 13 10 14 17
cin en 14 sujetos, utilizados como 10 2 17 5 16
su propio control, semejante al que se 11 1 16 3 18
utiliza en los estudios de Anlisis de 12 3 12 4 11
Conducta Aplicada, Este tipo de dise- 13 2 13 3 13
o permite tener un control exhausti- 14 8 12 4 11
vo de la variable independiente (Pro-
grama Copiar, Cubrir y Comparar e Tabla 1. Resultados obtenidos en los ejercicios
de restas y sumas correctamente resueltos por
Instruccin Directa con Flash Cards), cada uno de los participantes en la sesin inicial
as como posibilitar un registro por- y en la final, utilizando un procedimiento de
menorizado de la variable dependiente Copiar, Cubrir y Comparar (CCC).
(respuestas de los participantes en los La tabla 1 recoge los valores para
ejercicios de sumas y restas). los 10 casos en relacin a los ejerci-
cios de la resta y de la suma, mostran-
Resultados do que en todos los casos hubo una
A continuacin se presentan los mejora individual. A nivel de grupo la
resultados por cada alumno/a que ha mejora fue significativa utilizando el
participado en la intervencin, divi- estadstico no paramtrico de Fried-
dindolos en Sumas y Restas (segn el man (para las operaciones de restar:
hecho aritmtico trabajado) y en Pro- X2 = 13.07; p< .000; y para las opera-
cedimiento de Copiar, Cubrir y Com- ciones de sumar: X2 = 11.38; p< .001).
parar o Instruccin Directa con Flash En la Figura 1 se representan los
Figura 3. Porcentaje con el que cada valor contribuye al total de ejercicios de sumas
y restas realizados por los participantes en la sesin inicial y en la sesin final,
utilizando el procedimiento de Copiar, Cubrir y Comparar (CCC)
M Jos Navarro Cecilia. Licenciada en Psicopedagoga por la Universidad de Cdiz. Actualmente de-
sarrolla su tesis doctoral dentro del grupo de investigacin HUM634 sobre la temtica de intervencin
en alumnado en riesgo de tener dificultades de aprendizaje de las matemticas, en el rea de Psicologa
Evolutiva y de la Educacin.
Agradecimiento. Trabajo parcialmente financiado con el proyecto I+D+i del Ministerio de Ciencia e In-
novacin, referencia EDU2011-22747.
Correspondencia. Jos I. Navarro, Departamento de Psicologa. Universidad de Cdiz. 11510 Puerto Real
(Cdiz). Email: jose.navarro@uca.es
Universidad de Chile
Abstract
A robust understanding of rational numbers requires rich notions of ratio and proportionality. However,
previous research showed that children exhibit biases towards reasoning exclusively based on natural
numbers when asked to compare fractions, ignoring the involved ratios. It is unknown the extent to
which these biases depend on teaching methods. The present work thus assessed the emergence of biased
reasoning in a context that highly emphasizes reasoning about the ratios. Forty second-grade children
were taught to use fraction-like symbols to represent ratios, and then evaluated on a ratio comparison
task. The acquired intuitive knowledge about ratios, on average, allowed successful ratio comparison. A
clustering analysis revealed the presence of three groups of children using distinct patterns of reasoning.
These data uncover important individual differences among children in intuition-based mental calculation
about ratios, with implications for the teaching of ratios and fractions.
Keywords: numbers, mathematics education, fractions, teaching and learning.
Resumen
Un aprendizaje robusto de los nmeros racionales requiere nociones ricas sobre razn y proporcionalidad.
No obstante, la literatura muestra sesgos por parte de nios y nias hacia razonar exclusivamente basados
en nmeros naturales cuando deben comparar fracciones, ignorando las razones subyacentes. No es claro
hasta qu punto estos sesgos dependen de los mtodos de enseanza. Este trabajo evalu la emergencia
de sesgos en un contexto que favorece concentrarse sobre las razones. Cuarenta nios y nias de segundo
grado aprendieron a usar smbolos tipo fracciones para representar razones, respondiendo luego una tarea
de comparacin de razones. El conocimiento intuitivo adquirido sobre razones fue, en promedio, exitoso
para la tarea de comparacin. Un anlisis de agrupacin revel la presencia de tres grupos que usan
estrategias fundamentalmente distintas de pensamiento. Estos datos muestran importantes variaciones
individuales sobre intuiciones para la comparacin de razones, con implicancias para la enseanza de
razones y fracciones.
Palabras clave: nmeros racionales, educacin matemtica, fracciones, enseanza y aprendizaje.
those fraction pairs in which the lar- like symbols. These symbols (Figure
gest fraction is the one with the largest 1) represented messages stating the
denominator and/or denominator, and number of candies per day that the
incongruent those pairs where the lar- inhabitants of a fictional land recei-
gest fraction is the one with the sma- ve. This way, children were asked to
llest numerator and/or denominator compare ratios by judging which one
(e.g. Gmez et al., 2014; Obersteiner, of two of these messages was more
Van Dooren, Van Hoof, & Verscha- convenient (this way of presenting
ffel, 2013; Vamvakoussi et al., 2012). fractions has been already studied by
Examples of congruent and incon- Jimnez, 2012, with fourth grade chil-
gruent fraction pairs are presented in dren). Such question falls into the as-
Table 1. The NNB has been found in sociated sets format studied by Lamon
the vast majority of studies about frac- (1993), consisting in creating ratios
tion comparison and fraction knowled- by pairing objects from different sets
ge more generally, and even traces of it at a fixed rate (another examples are
may be seen in expert mathematicians the ratios that naturally arise between
response times to compare fractions sets of people and pizzas, or aliens and
(Obersteiner et al., 2013). It is so far spaceships). Lamon interviewed sixth-
an open question the extent to which grade children who had not received
the emergence of the NNB depends on formal instruction about ratios so far,
the pedagogical strategies or approach presenting them with problems about
used to teach fractions (Ni & Zhou, ratio and proportion in different for-
2005). mats. She found that problems presen-
The present work had a dual goal: ted in the associated sets format were
First, to assess second grade childrens most frequently solved by using some
ability to use their intuitive knowled- sort of qualitative proportional reaso-
ge about ratios to respond to a ratio ning.
comparison task akin to the fraction This work thus aims at exploring
comparison tasks documented in the the feasibility and utility of using
literature. Second, by constructing and childrens intuitions about ratios in
presenting both congruent and incon- order to avoid the NNB and achieve
gruent ratio pairs, this work evaluated successful comparison of ratios, as a
the emergence of a NNB in this novel possible way to improve the teaching
setting. To do so, a series of brief au- of fractions and rational numbers in
diovisual recordings were developed general.
and presented to second grade chil-
dren to teach them the use of fraction-
Figura 1. Example of a message used to represent ratios in the present study. In the context of the story,
receiving this message means that its recipient would be given two candies every five days.
Tabla 1. List of items of the ratio comparison task, classified by item type.
ber of days and another with the same a common component being answe-
number of candies). The average score red more correctly than items with all
was 79% in mapping and representa- numbers different (average scores of
tion (t(39) = 7.5, p < .0001), 45% in 70% and 60%, respectively); and no
ratio equivalence (t(39) = -.9, p = .35), interaction (OR = -.15, p = .72).
and 75% in ratio comparison (t(39) =
4.9, p < .0001). Children thus succee- Clustering analysis
ded in learning how to map and repre-
sent ratios and how to compare pairs Individual differences in childrens
of them when they share a common understanding were assessed by
component, but they failed to learn means of a clustering analysis, con-
equivalence of ratios. sidering their accuracy scores for the
four item types. This analysis revea-
Ratio comparison test led the existence of three groups of
children that explained 67.3% of the
Overall, children had a mean score total variance. Table 2 shows the sco-
of 65% correct answers (SD = 18%), res of each group for each item type.
significantly above the chance level Cluster A, the largest with 17 out of
of 50% (t(39) = 5.4, p < .0001). This the 40 children, had high scores for all
provides further evidence that, at least item types but for incongruent pairs
in average, children were able to inter- with all numbers different. This clus-
pret adequately the novel symbols. Se- ter also had the highest overall score.
parate scores for each of the four item The second most numerous cluster
types (Table 2) were then computed (Cluster B, N = 14) was composed by
and submitted to a logistic regression children who answered mostly guided
with congruency and the presence/ab- by the congruency or incongruency of
sence of a common component as fi- each item according to the NNB ac-
xed factors and children as a random count: Congruent items were mostly
factor. This analysis revealed a sig- correct, whereas incongruent items
nificant effect of congruency (OR = were mostly incorrect. Finally, the last
-1.0, p = .0005), with congruent items cluster (Cluster C, N = 19) presented
being answered more correctly than a relatively good overall score but an
incongruent items (average scores of unexpected pattern, with incongruent
76% and 54%, respectively); a trend ratio pairs being answered close to
towards significance for the presen- ceiling levels, congruent items with
ce/absence of common components all numbers different mostly incorrect,
(OR = .58, p =.06), with items sharing and surprisingly, not so good scores in
the easiest item type (ratio pairs with rized by performance above 50% on
the same number of days). incongruent items and below 50%
Figure 2 presents histograms of on congruent items with all numbers
correct responses per item type for different. Cluster A, instead, may be
the full sample and for each cluster. characterized by scores in two specific
This shows that Cluster B is charac- item types, as 15 out of the 17 children
terized by strong congruency effects: in this cluster had scores above 50% in
Twelve out of the 14 children in this both the second (same number of can-
cluster performed above 50% on con- dies) and third item (congruent with
gruent items and below 50% on incon- all numbers different) types. Again in
gruent items, and no other children in this case, no other children in the sam-
the sample fulfill these criteria. Simi- ple fulfilled these criteria.
larly, Cluster C is perfectly characte-
Tabla 2. List of items of the ratio comparison task, classified by item type.
Same number of Same number of All numbers dif- All numbers Total
Group days candies ferent different score
(congruent) (incongruent) (congruent) (incongruent)
Full sample 81 % 59 % 71 % 49 % 65 %
(N = 40)
Cluster A 82 % 80 % 84 % 63 % 77 %
(n = 17)
Cluster B 83 % 7% 95 % 5% 48 %
(n = 14)
Cluster C 74 % 100 % 7% 93 % 69 %
(n = 9)
Figura 1. Histograms showing the number of children per group having 0, 1, 2, or 3 correct answers
per item type. Panels are organized in columns, corresponding from left to right to: items with the same
number of days, items with the same number of candies, congruent items with all numbers different, and
incongruent items with all numbers different. The top row presents histograms for the full sample, and
the other rows present those of each of the three clusters. For instance, the top-left histogram shows that
for items with the same number of days, the distribution of childrens correct answers in the full sample
was: 2 children answered 0 items correctly, 3 children answered 1 item correctly, 11 children answered 2
items correctly, and 24 children answered all 3 items correctly.
A majority group (cluster A, 43% of for this groups reasoning might go be-
the sample) compared ratios successfu- yond ratio comparison per se, as they
lly across all item types, indicating seemingly deemed more convenient to
that intuitive reasoning via ratios may choose that candies are delivered soo-
be successful as a pedagogical tool for ner even if that means receiving fewer
introducing ratio and proportion. Still, candies. Such possibility suggests that
35% of children (cluster B) reasoned these children interpreted the ratio
mostly based on the natural numbers comparison task as an economical de-
composing the ratios (a strong form cision rather than anything ratio-based
of NNB, cf. Gmez et al., 2014), dis- (indeed, children facing such decisions
regarding the relations between num- seem to prefer shorter delays than hig-
bers of candies and days presented in her rewards, e.g. Green, Fry, & Myer-
each message and focusing only on son, 1994). It is not uncommon that
comparing the numbers across the two children use different interpretations
presented messages. These children, if or intuitions than those expected by
asked to justify their decisions, would educators and researchers (e.g., Van
probably give explanations where ra- Den Brink & Streefland, 1979), which
tios simply consist in two independent leads to one limitation of the present
numbers. Stafylidou and Vosniadou study: the absence of individual inter-
(2004) presented and considered this views or similar methods of inquiry
explanatory framework as the most allowing confirmation of how chil-
basic one, showing that it is still used dren were actually reasoning. Still,
by 30% of children in 5th grade. Fina- the cluster-based analysis provides an
lly, the behavior of children in the third important first step in that direction by
group (22% of the sample) also depar- grouping children according to their
ted from the predictions of the NNB. patterns of answers. Further research
If anything, they showed a reversed is also needed to discover whether
bias: scores for incongruent items childrens clusters of membership pre-
were higher than those for congruent dict how they will reason about frac-
items (in opposition to, e.g., Gmez et tions later, and to explore continuities
al., 2014; Van Eeekhoudt, 2013). This and discontinuities in the transition
pattern of answers suggests that they from intuitive ratio concepts to formal
might have focused exclusively on ones.
the number of days presented in each These results also have implications
message, choosing whenever possible for the teaching of ratios and fractions.
the message with the smallest number First, biased children (those in Cluster
of days associated. A possible account B) might benefit from highlighting the
Referencias
Aksu, M. (1997). Performance in dea- col, C., & Allan, D. (Eds.) Pro-
ling with fractions. The Journal ceedings of the Joint Meeting of
of Educational Research, 90(6), PME 38 and PME-NA 36, Vol.
375-380. 3, pp. 185-192. Vancouver, Ca-
Booth, J. L., & Newton, K. J. (2012). nada: PME.
Fractions: Could they really be Green, L., Fry, A. F., & Myerson, J.
the gatekeepers doorman? Con- (1994). Discounting of delayed
temporary Educational Psycho- rewards: A life-span comparison.
logy, 37(4), 247-253. Psychological Science, 5(1), 33-
Depaepe, F., Torbeyns, J., Vermeersch, 36.
N., Janssens, D., Janssen, R., Izsk, A., Orrill, C. H., Cohen, A. S.,
Kelchtermans, G., Verschaffel, & Brown, R. E. (2010). Measu-
L., & Van Dooren, W. (2015). ring middle grades teachers un-
Teachers content and pedago- derstanding of rational numbers
gical content knowledge on ra- with the Mixture Rasch Model.
tional numbers: A comparison The Elementary School Journal,
of prospective elementary and 110(3), 279-300.
lower secondary school teachers. Jimnez, A. (2012). Modelacin de
Teaching and Teacher Educa- procesos cognitivos con aplica-
tion, 47, 82-92. ciones en educacin matemti-
Gmez, D. M., Jimnez, A., Bobadi- ca. Tesis para optar al ttulo de
lla, R., Reyes, C., & Dartnell, Ingeniero Civil Matemtico,
P. (2014). Exploring fraction Universidad de Chile, Santia-
comparison in school children. go, Chile. Available online in
In Oesterle, S., Liljedahl, P., Ni- http://www.tesis.uchile.cl/hand-
David Maximiliano Gmez. PhD in Mathematical Modeling and PhD in Neuroscience, Research Associ-
ate and Manager of the Laboratory of Neuroscience and Cognition of the Center for Advanced Research
in Education of the University of Chile. His research focuses on the cognitive and neural foundations of
mathematical concepts and their learning. Some topics of interest: rational numbers, acquisition of math
expertise.
Pablo Dartnell. PhD in Mathematics, Associate Professor of the Department of Mathematical Engineer-
ing, the Center for Mathematical Modeling, and the Center for Advanced Research in Education of the
University of Chile. His research focuses on the teaching and learning of mathematics at all educational
levels. Some topics of interest: cognitive variables that affect mathematics learning, use of metaphors in
school mathematics.
Acknowledgement. The authors are grateful to the students, parents, teachers, and school personnel who
made this work possible. This research was funded by CONICYT Basal Funding for Centers of Excel-
lence, grant FB0003.
Resumen
Los errores frecuentes de estudiantes en tareas de resolucin de problemas pueden otorgar conocimiento
til para la mejor comprensin de su manera de pensar, as como tambin para, posteriormente, reforzar
su capacidad de resolucin de problemas y, consecuentemente, el proceso de enseanza-aprendizaje de
las matemticas en la escuela. Este estudio examin una muestra de 263 estudiantes chilenos destacados
de 3 niveles escolares distintos. Los estudiantes de cada nivel escolar produjeron una resolucin escrita
de un problema lgico-matemtico diferente sobre nmeros y lgebra. El anlisis de errores mostr la
aparicin involuntaria de argumentos falaces tpicos en la muestra de estudiantes. Adems, se descubrieron
algunos patrones de errores que parecen depender fuertemente del contenido matemtico considerado y
que muestran cierta independencia de las otras variables.
Palabras clave: lgebra, anlisis de errores, argumentos falaces, causas del error, nmeros, resolucin de
problemas.
Abstract
Frequent students error patterns in problem solving tasks may give useful knowledge to better understand
their way of thinking. This knowledge is also useful to strengthen students problem solving skills and,
consequently, to improve the teaching/learning process of school mathematics. This study examined a
population of 263 high-performing Chilean students from 3 different school levels. The students had to
produce a written solution of a different logical-mathematical problem concerning numbers and algebra.
Error analysis indicated that several typical fallacious arguments involuntarily arose on students sample,
as well as some error patterns that seemed to strongly depend on the particular mathematical content of the
task, showing some independence of the other variables involved.
Keywords: algebra, error analysis, error causes, fallacious arguments, numbers, problem solving.
Problema
Aritmtico y
Conteo lgebra
razonamiento
Curso Hombre Mujer Hombre Mujer Hombre Mujer
Sexto de Educacin Primaria 52 48 - - - -
Segundo ESO - - 42 31 - -
Primero de Bachillerato - - 51 42 51 42
sitan para escribir los nmeros del 1 anterior, sumado a la gran cantidad de
al 1000? casos posibles al optar por la extrate-
Problema de lgebra, para estudian- gia exploratoria. La solucin correc-
tes de Primero de Bachillerato: Cul ta es indicar un total de 301 unos.
es el menor valor que puede tomar la Una manera intuitiva para enfrentarlo
expresin x2 + 8x? En la expresin es aquella de realizar el conteo por
anterior, x puede ser entero positivo o grupos de nmeros: del 1 al 10, del
negativo. 11 al 100, del 101 al 1000, y desde el
Los tres problemas permiten en- recuento realizado inferir ciertos pa-
frentarlos tanto mediante estrategias trones de cuantificacin que pudieran
de resolucin exploratorias como ar- permitir realizar una suma total.
gumentos ms analticos. En el tercer problema, de lgebra,
As por ejemplo, para el primer est situado en un dominio cognitivo
problema, la solucin podra encon- superior, y surgen algunos elementos
trarse al percatarse que si cada jugador diferentes a los anteriores, siendo la
puede perder una sola vez (mecanismo principal dificultad el tener la clari-
de eliminacin), para eliminar a todos dad conceptual de la diferencia entre
menos uno (el ganador), debieran ha- los conceptos matemticos expresin
berse jugado 63 partidas. Tambin po- algebraica con ecuacin. Una op-
dra haberse seguido un razonamiento cin analtica para resolver el proble-
exploratorio, deduciendo la cantidad ma podra ser aquella de transformar
de jugadores sobrevivientes por la expresin en una equivalente, por
cada ronda y luego sumar la cantidad ejemplo, notando que x2 + 8x=x2 +
de partidas: ronda 1 (32), ronda 2 (16), 8x +16 - 16 =(x+4)2 -16. Luego, al
ronda 3 (8), ronda 4 (4), ronda 5 (2) ser esta ltima una expresin cuadr-
y ronda 6 (ltima ronda)(1), que tota- tica, la cual ser siempre positiva, el
liza 32+16+8+4+2+1=63 partidas. El menor admisible es para el caso x=-4,
razonamiento exploratorio, que podra obtenindose como resultado un valor
ser asociado a una extrategia de con- (0)2 -16=-16, que corresponde al valor
teo, suele ser acompaado de tablas o mnimo. Otra opcin para enfrentarlo
diagramas para organizar la informa- es asociar la expresin algebraica con
cin. Este problema era el ms senci- una parbola, y recordar o inferir al-
llo de los tres elegidos. gunas de sus propiedades grficas. Por
El segundo problema, de conteo, ejemplo, que el valor mnimo se en-
presentaba mayor dificultad, ya que cuentra al evaluar el promedio de las
no tena un referente de una situacin dos soluciones a la ecuacin cuadr-
concreta como lo tena el problema tica.
errores de tipo tcnico (38,8%), segui- tipo lgico son ms frecuentes propor-
dos de los errores de tipo lgico (30%), cionalmente en el grupo femenino. Sin
que corresponden a la categora F y G embargo, al analizar el conjunto de los
en la tabla de clasificacin. errores segn el criterio de clasifica-
Si se compara el tipo de error en cin indicado en la Tabla 3, se constata
funcin del gnero de los estudiantes, que no existen diferencias significati-
se observa de la Tabla 3, que los erro- vas en las proporciones y naturaleza
res de tipo tcnico son proporcional- de los errores en funcin del gnero de
mente ms frecuentes para el grupo los estudiantes (2(7, N=237)= 9.700,
masculino, mientras que los errores de p=.206).
Tabla 3. Distribucin de frecuencia y tipos de errores cometidos por los estudiantes al resolver los tres tipos
de problemas en funcin del gnero de stos
Gnero
Femenino Masculino
Tipo de Error n Porcentaje N Porcentaje Total Porcentaje
Datos mal utilizados 6 5.1% 7 5.9% 13 5.5%
Interpretacin Incorrecta
0 0% 2 1.7% 2 0.8%
del Lenguaje matemtico
Empleo incorrecto de re-
2 1.7% 5 4.2% 7 3.0%
sultados y/o definiciones
Errores al operar alge-
5 4.2% 6 5.0% 11 4.6%
braicamente
No verificacin de resul-
7 5.9% 4 3.4% 11 4.6%
tados
Errores lgicos 43 36.4% 28 23.5% 71 30.0%
Errores Tcnicos 39 33.1% 53 44.5% 92 38.8%
Dos o ms tipos de errores 16 13.6% 14 11.8% 30 12.7%
Total 118 100% 119 100% 237 100%
Por otro lado, si se agrupan los dominan son los de tipo lgico y tc-
errores cometidos por los estudiantes nico, aunque estos se presentan con
de acuerdo al tipo de problema (con- predominancia en sentido inverso.
teo, aritmtico, algebraico), se tiene lo Tambin se observa que en el caso del
siguiente: problema algebraico, si bien persis-
Se observa que en este caso, para te la predominancia del error lgico,
los problemas del eje nmeros (arit- emergen otros tipos de error, como el
mtico y conteo), los errores que pre- mal uso de datos y el empleo incorrec-
Tipo de Problema
Aritmtico Conteo Algebraico
Tipo de Error n Porcentaje n Porcentaje n Porcentaje
Datos mal utilizados 0 0% 7 5.4% 6 12.2%
Interpretacin Incor-
recta del Lenguaje 0 0% 0 0% 2 4.1%
matemtico
Empleo incorrecto de
resultados y/o defini- 0 0% 0 0% 7 14.3%
ciones
Errores al operar al-
gebraicamente 4 6.8% 3 2.3% 4 8.2%
Tipo de Problema
Aritmtico Conteo Algebraico
Tipo de Error n Porcentaje n Porcentaje n Porcentaje
Errores de tipo conceptual,
definiciones o lenguaje 0 0% 7 5.4% 15 30.6%
matemtico
Errores al operar alge-
braicamente o no verificar 14 23.7% 3 2.3% 5 10.2%
resultados
Errores lgicos 34 57.6% 20 15.5% 17 34.7%
Errores Tcnicos 8 13.6% 83 64.3% 1 2.0%
Dos o ms tipos de errores 3 5.1% 16 12.4% 11 22.4%
Tabla 5. Distribucin de frecuencia y tipos de errores cometidos por los estudiantes al resolver el problema
de conteo en funcin del nivel educativo
Tipo de Problema
Aritmtico Conteo Algebraico
Tipo de Error n Porcentaje n Porcentaje n Porcentaje
Errores de tipo conceptual,
definiciones o lenguaje 0 0% 7 5.4% 15 30.6%
matemtico
Errores al operar alge-
braicamente o no verificar 14 23.7% 3 2.3% 5 10.2%
resultados
Errores lgicos 34 57.6% 20 15.5% 17 34.7%
Errores Tcnicos 8 13.6% 83 64.3% 1 2.0%
Dos o ms tipos de errores 3 5.1% 16 12.4% 11 22.4%
ciar a ellas para construir otras nuevas. responder a la expectativa del docen-
Para ello, la situacin didctica te. Todo esto es muy importante, so-
planteada debe provocar conflicto en bre todo cuando se ha constatado que
la mente del alumno, de manera que le en general los profesores evitan en su
permita observar la inconsistencia de proceso de instruccin exponer al error
sus propios errores, y la bsqueda de a sus estudiantes. Como consecuencia,
las estrategias necesarias para su solu- en su proceso de enseanza aprendi-
cin adecuada, sustituyendo con ello, zaje, tienden a formular preguntas a
los conceptos falsos por la compren- las cuales los estudiantes raramente
sin conceptual adecuada (Ruano, So- podrn dar respuestas errneas (Rach,
cas, y Palarea, 2003). De esta forma, Ufer, y Heinze, 2013). Al observar las
el error puede ser visto como medio interacciones de aula en las clases de
motivacional y como punto de parti- matemtica en Chile, se observa que
da para exploraciones matemticas los profesores se focalizan en la pre-
involucradas en la resolucin de pro- sentacin mecnica de informacin y
blemas. Pero es necesario elegir ade- la resolucin mecnica de problemas
cuados errores como puntos de partida (Araya y Dartnell, 2009; Preiss, 2009;
para la reflexin y exploracin, pues 2011). Del mismo modo, los estudian-
cierto tipo de errores son ms motiva- tes chilenos si bien logran realizar
dores que otros (Borasi, 1987) . aplicaciones simples, como problemas
El enfoque subyacente por incorpo- de operatoria sencilla y rutinarios, los
rar en el proceso de Enseanza-Apren- jvenes chilenos presentan serias difi-
dizaje es mas que resaltar el error es cultades para resolver problemas que
modificar la concepcin del error como exigen razonamientos analticos y me-
un fenmeno anormal, como una falta, canismos de evaluacin, y tampoco
objeto de sanciones, a las cuales el es- son capaces de realizar aplicaciones a
tudiante buscar responder del modo las situaciones cotidianas, a partir de
que sea, incluso, al responder cual- la Matemtica (Eyzaguirre y Le Fou-
quier cosa o negndose a responder. ln, 2001; MINEDUC, 2009; 2010a;
Si por el contrario, el estudiante tiene 2010b)
la impresin de que sus respuestas, Limitaciones del estudio. Un mis-
an las errneas, son tomadas en con- mo error puede aparecer en diferentes
sideracin, ellas se vuelven un objeto procesos de resolucin, lo que dificul-
de trabajo, que redita de forma favo- ta una clasificacin definitiva y una
rable en su predisposicin a las tareas jerarqua del mismo. Las categoriza-
en matemtica, permitiendo un abor- ciones realizadas son empricas y por
daje centrado en el problema y no en lo tanto debemos tener en cuenta las
Referencias
Csar Flores Solar . Profesor Asistente del Departamento de Matemtica de la Universidad de Concepcin.
Investigador asociado al centro de investigacin avanzada en Educacin (CIAE).Doctor en Matemticas.
Los ltimos 5 aos los ha dedicado el trabajo en aula con profesores y alumnos del sistema escolar chileno
y a un anlisis cuidadoso de los problemas pedaggicos que aparecen la enseanza de la matemtica y el
lenguaje, centrndose en la acumulacin de reflexiones prcticas y evidencias empricas.
Carlos Prez Wilson. Doctor en Matemtica Aplicada. Es Profesor Asociado en la Facultad de Ciencias
Fsicas y Matemticas de la Universidad de Concepcin. Investigador asociado al centro de investigacin
avanzada en Educacin (CIAE). Ha escrito libros relacionados con el razonamiento matemtico y reso-
lucin de problemas, y sus actuales lneas de investigacin son el desarrollo de actividades de enriquec-
imiento matemtico para preescolar y primaria, y tambin el desarrollo de modelos complejos predictivos
y explicativos para el rendimiento en matemticas con variables cognitivas y socioeducativas.
Agradecimiento. Proyecto Basal FB0003, Proyecto PIA CONICYT- CIE 05, DIUC 211.164.002-1.0 Uni-
versidad de Concepcin.
Correspondencia. Gamal Cerda. Facultad de Educacin, Universidad de Concepcin, Chile. Email: gamal.
cerda@udec.cl
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